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Cncycloptfjta 3Bntanntta
OR, A
DICTIONARY
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ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE FIFTH EDITION.
ailtWtrateD tottt) neartg sir DunOceO OEngratiings.
VOL. v.
INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH :
Printed at the Encyclopedia Press,
FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, AND THOMSON BONAR, EDINBURGH
GALE, CURTIS, AND FENNER, LONDON ; AND THOMAS WILSON
AND SONS, YORK.
1815.
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Encyclopaedia Britannica,
BUR
URKE, Edmund, a writer, orator, and ftatefman,
was born in Dublin, on the ill January, in the
year 1730. His father was an attorney, firft at Lime¬
rick, and afterwards in Dublin. Young Burke re¬
ceived the firft rudiments of his education at Ballytore,
in the county of Kildare, under the tuition of Abra¬
ham Shackleton, a Quaker of confiderable celebrity.
Committed to the care of a mafter fo adiriirably qua¬
lified for the important bufinefs of inftru&ion, young
Burke applied to his ftudies with commendable afli-
duity, and became one of the numerous examples that
might be adduced, to demonftrate the falfehood of
that popular but dangerous maxim, that young men of
genius are always deJHtute of application.
In this feminary he laid the foundation of his know¬
ledge in the languages of antiquity ; whence he was
hereafter to borrow the elegance of his tafte, and the
models and imagery of his eloquence. From this
fource was alfo, moft probably, derived that love of
liberty, which germinating at certain periods in his
bofom, fo often pointed his oratory, inflamed his paf-
fions, and animated his fentiments 5 and which in his
beft days acquired him a reputation almoft unequalled
in our times.
At this refpeclable fchool feveral years of his life
were fpent; and the attachment of the mafter, and
the gratitude of the pupil, refleft honour on both.
I he former lived to fee his fcholar attain a confider¬
able degree of reputation j and he on his part was ac-
cuftomed to fpend a portion of his annual vifit to Ire¬
land at Ballytore.
From a provincial feminary Edmund was fent to the
univerfity of Dublin. Here, however, he does not
appear to have diftinguiftied himfelf either by applica¬
tion or talents. His character, as a ftudent, was merely
negative. He exhibited no fymptoms of early genius,
obtained no palms in the academic race, and departed
even without a degree. During this period, however,
he commenced author. His firft effays were of a poli¬
tical nature.
Mr Burke now addifted himfelf to other purfuits,
particularly logic and metaphyfics j and is faid to have
planned a refutation of the fyftems of Berkeley and
Hume. W hile thus employed in treafuring up the
means of attaining a fpecies of celebrity, which far diffe¬
rent avocations prevented him afterwards from afpiring
to, he wras not inattentive to the grand obie£l of obtain¬
ing a fuitable fettlement in life ; for his family W'as not
Voj.. V. Part I.
BUR
opulent, and he already panted after independence. He
accordingly became a candidate for a vacant chair at '■
the univerfity of Glafgow. The immediate reafon of
his failure is not dire&ly knowm j but on this he re¬
paired to the metropolis, and enrolled his name as a
ftudent of the Inner Temple.
It appears from his fpeeches, his waitings, and his
converfation, that he ftudied the grand outline of our
municipal jurifprudence with particular attention 5 but
it may be doubted whether he ever entered into the
minutiae. Indeed the verfatility of his talents, and
his avocations, were but little calculated for that dull
and plodding circuit which can alone lead to an inti¬
mate knowledge of our laws. Befides, if he had been
gifted with the neceffary application, both time and
opportunity w'ere wanting : for it is well known that
at this period of his life the “ res angujla domi”
did not permit the ftudent to dedicate his attention
folely to this, or indeed to any other fingle objedl.
The exhaufted ftate of his finances called frequently
for a fpeedy fupply, and inftead of perufing the pages
of Bra£ton, Fleta, Littleton, and Coke, he was ob¬
liged to wrrite effays, letters, and paragraphs, for the
periodical publications of the day. But if thefe pur¬
fuits diverted his attention from graver ftudies, they
' acquired him a facility of compofition, and a com¬
mand of ftyle and of language, which proved emi¬
nently ferviceable in the courfe of his future life.
His health, however, became at length impaired,
and a nervous fever enfued. This circumftance in¬
duced him to call in the aid of Dr Nugent, one of his
own countrymen, a medical man whofe manners were
more amiable than his praftice was extenfive. This
gentleman, who had travelled on the continent, and
was an author himfelf, readily difcovered the fource of
his malady, and, by removing him from books and
bufinefs to his own houfe, foon effedted a cure. That
event is faid to have been haftened, if not entirely
completed, by a phyfician of another kind j the ac-
compliftied daughter of his hoft. This lady was def-
tined to become his wife 5 a circumftance particularly
fortunate for him, as her difpofition was mild and
gentle, and ftie continued, through a long feries of
years, and many viciflitudes of fortune, to foothe and
tranquillize paflions always violent, and often tumul¬
tuous.
Our ftudent feems at length to have determined
once more to endeavour to diitinguilh himfelf as an au-
A thor,
Burke. \
—
BUR t 2
Burke, tlior, and he accordingly took advantage of the death
v of a celebrated peer to write a work alter the manner
of that nobleman-, in which, by exaggerating his
principles, he fhould be enabled to bring them into
contempt : but this effort proved unfuccefsful, for the
treatife in qupftion was for a long time configned to
oblivion, and would never have been heard of, had it
not been refufcitated by his future fame. Another
performance made ample amends : his “ EfTay on the
Sublime and Beautiful” attracted a high degree of re¬
putation, and acquired him confiderable celebnty as a
man of letters. In addition to the profits of the. pub¬
lication, he is faid on this occafion to have received a
prefent from his father of loci. But his circumstances
muft have been greatly embarraffed about this time, as
he was obliged to fell his books j and furely nothing
but the extremity of diftr'efs could have forced a man
of letters to fueh a meafurc.
The work we have juft mentioned, having an im¬
mediate relation to tafte, excited a dciire in Sir Jofliua
Reynolds, even then at the head of his pmfeffion, to
become acquainted with Mr Burke j and a. friendfh p
enfued which continued uninterrupted during the Lie
of the painter, and was unequivocally teftihed by a
handfome bequeft in his will. Dr Johnfon alio fought
and obtained an intimacy with him, and he now be-
c ime the conftant frequenter of two duos, compofed
of fome of the moft celebrated men of that day. One of
thel'e met at the l urk’s Head tavern in Gerrard-ftreet,
and confifted of the following members : Dr Johnion,
Mr (afterwards Sir Jolhua) Reynolds, pr Goldfrmth,
Mr Topham Beauclerc, Dr Nugent, Sir John Haw¬
kins, Mr Bennet Langton, Mr Chamidr, Mr GarricK,
and Mr Burke.
The other aftembled at the St James’s coftee-houie,
and befides many of the above, was computed of the
following members j Mr Cumberland, Dr Douglas bi-
{hop of Salifbury, Dr Bernard dean of Derry, Mr
Richard Burke, Mr William Burke, Mr Hickey, &c.
Dr Goldfmith, who was Mr Burke’s contemporary at
Dublin college, was a member of both, and wrote the
epitaphs of thofe who compofed the latter, ihat on
Mr Burke has often been praifed.
Here lies our good Edmund, whofe.genius was fuch,
We fcarcely can praife it or blame it too much j
Who, born for the univerfe, narrow’d his mind, .
And to party gave up what was meant for mankind.
Though fraught with all learning, yet draining his
throat
To perfuade Tommy Townthend to lend him a vote -,
Who, too deep for his hearers, ftill went on refining,
And thought of convincing while they thought of
dining -, .
Though equal to all things, for all things unfit,
Too nice for a ftatefman, too proud for a wit;
For a patriot too cool; for a drudge difobedient -,
And too fond of the right, to purfue the expedient.
In ftiort, ’twas his fate, unemploy’d or in place, fir,
To eat mutton cold, and cut blocks with a razor.
A literary work on a new plan, firft fuggefted in
l 7 co, and by fome attributed to the Dodfleys, and by
others to Mr Burke, became, for fome time, a confi¬
derable fource of emolument to him. This was called
] BUR
the “ Annual Regifter j” a publication that foon ob¬
tained confiderable celebrity, and of which he had the
fuperintendence for feveral years.
XHe was, at length, called off from .his literary la¬
bours by avocations of a far different kind. A gentle¬
man who afterwards derived the cognomen of “ lingle-
fpeech Hamilton,” from a celebrated, oration, having
been appointed fecretary to the lord-lieutenant of Ire¬
land, invited his friend Mr Burke to accompany him
thither -, this offer he readily complied with, and al¬
though he abled in no public Ration, and performed
no public fervice while he remained in that country,.he
w as rewarded with a penfion of 300I. per annum, which
he foon after difpofed of for a lum of money.
On his return to England he amufed himielf, as
ufual, with literary compofition. A feries of efiays,
written by him in a newfpapcr, which, at one time,
obtained great celebrity, attracted the notice^of the
late marquis of Rockingham j and Mr Fitzherbert, a
member of parliament, and father of the prefent Lord
St Helen’s, in ccnfequence of this circumftance, in¬
troduced him to that nobleman. From this moment
he was deftined to become a public man, and to ue-
dicate his ftudies, his eloquence, and his pen, to po¬
litics.
Lord Rockingham having proved more compliant
than the earl of Chatham, the former nobleman was
brought into power, and feated on the treafury bench.
On this occafion he feledled Mr Burke as his private
fecr'etary, an office of no power and very little.emo¬
lument, but which naturally leads to both. As it was
now neceffary he ftiould have a feat in parliament, al¬
though it cannot be fuppofed that he was legally quali¬
fied in refpeft to property, he applied to Lord Ver-
ney, who was patron of Wendover, a borough at that
time dependent on him, and principally occupied by
his tenants. . , . ,
Having thus obtained a feat m 1765, he prepared
to fit himfelf for his new fituation. He wras already
provided with all the neceffary talents, and was. only
deficient in the forms of bufinefs, and the facility of
expreffing his fentiments before a public audience.
The firft of thefe was maftered by fedulous attention
and as to the fecond, if we are to give credit to .thofe
who pretend to be intimately acquainted with this pe¬
riod of his life, he overcame all difficulties by a pre¬
vious initiation elfewhere. In ftiort he had acquired
celebrity at the “ Robinhood,” before he attempted
to fpeak in the Britifti fenate, and vanquiflied an elo¬
quent “ baker” ere he began to cope with the great
orators of the nation.
Holding a confidential place under the hocking ham
adminiftration, he of courfe fupported all its meafures.
A former miniftry, anxious to increafe its influence by
means of increafed impofts, had conceived the idea of
taxing America through the medium of a parliament
in which fhe was not reprefented. Having attempted
to carry this into effeft by means of the famous ftamp
a (ft, the Americans, alarmed at what they conceived
to be a flagrant violation of every principle of the
Englifti conftitution, made fuch a fpirited refiftance to
the meafure that it was abandoned, and the Rocking¬
ham party readily confented to the repeal. Under the
pretext, however, of vindicating the honour of the
crown, they unfortunately propofed and carried the de-
7 claratorv
Eurke.
BUR [
Burke, clafatory a&, by means of which, although the original
fcheme had been abandoned, the principle on which it
was built was alTerted anew, and a foundation laid for
all the miferies that afterwards enfued. But if this
Ihort-lived adminiftration deferved no great credit on this
occafion, it is entitled to confiderable praife on account
of other parts of its conduct j for it repealed the cy¬
der act, procured a declaration of the houfe of com¬
mons, condemning the feizure of papers, and a refolu-
tion againit general warrants. The firit of thefe af¬
forded great relief to fuch of the counties as cultivated
orchard grounds, and the two laft feemed to be called
for by the conduct of their predeceffors in refpeft to
Mr Wilkes.
On retiring from office they, however, did not car-
- ry much popularity along with them, as Lord Chatham
and his friends, who in fome meafure monopolized the
public favour, were entrufted with the management of
affairs for a fhort time ; and it is extremely probable
that they would have funk into negle£t, had not x\me-
rica been driven into refiftance.
It now fell to the lot of Lord North to enforce the
fchemc which the Grenville party had projected, and
wllhed to carry boldly into execution; which the Rock¬
ingham adminiftration had by an unaccountable blun¬
der at once annihilated and recognifed, and which they
afterwards manfully, and at length fuccefsfully op-
pofed.
This forms the moft brilliant epoch of Mr Burke’s
life. He was hoftile to the expulfton of Mr Wilkes j
an a£l which the houfe of commons afterwards refcind-
ed from its records. On the application of the diffen-
ters for relief, he took up their caufe, and expreffed
his refentment, in very animated terms, againft that
mifguided policy, which permits all thofe not within
the pale of eftablilhment to enjoy liberty lefs by right
than by connivance. But perhaps the nobleft part of
his conduct confiited in his fteady and uniform oppotl-
tion to the American war, and his marked and declared
hoftility to the abettors of it. His fpeech againft the
Bofton Port bill was one of the moft charming fpe-
cimens of oratory that had ever been exhibited in the.
Britith fenate 5 and on the 19th of April, 1774, oh a
motion for the repeal of the tea duty, he difcovered
fuch talents, that an old and refpectable member ex¬
claimed, u Good God ! what a man is this !—How
could he acquire fuch tranfcendant powers ?” And
when, in reply to another who had faid, “ That the
Americans were our children, and it was horrible to
revolt againft their parent !” the orator uttered the
following paffage, the whole houfe was eledlritied :
■—“ They are our children, it is true ; but when chil¬
dren alk for bread, we are not to give them a ftone.
When thofe children of ours wiftt to affimilate with
their parent, and to refpeft the beauteous countenance
of Britiih liberty, are we to turn to them the fhame-
ful parts of our conftitution ? Are we to give them
our weaknefs for their ftrergth ; our opprobrium for
their glory ; and the flough of flavery, which we are
not able to work off, to ferve them for their free¬
dom.”
The city of Briftol, the merchants of which had be¬
come rich by the commerce with America, were like¬
ly to fuffer by its interdiction. This confideration
done rendered many of them ’hoftile to the procced-
3 ] BUR
ings of the miniftry j but nobler and more exalted mo*
tives actuated the bofoms of others, particularly the
Quakers, Diffenters, and other fedtarifts, who were
moved by zeal againft oppreffion, and a love of liber¬
ty imprinted on their minds by a conftitution which
had remained until then inviolate. Gratified by the
exertions of Mr Burke in behalf of civil and religious
freedom, they put him in nomination for their city,
and fent into Yorklhire, to requeft his immediate per-
fonal attendance. After confulting with his patron
concerning an offer fo flattering and unexpected, ac¬
companied at the fame time writh affurances moft punc¬
tually fulfilled, that he Jhould be put to no expence
’whatever^ he immediately fet out for the wreft of Eng¬
land, and found that no lefs than three candidates had
ftarted before him. The firft was Lord Clare, after¬
wards Lord Nugent, one of the former reprefentatives,
wffiofe unpopularity was fuch, that he foon difcovered
the necetiity of refigning all his pretenfions ; twro,
therefore (Mr Cruger and Mr Brickdale), only re¬
mained in the field, and the former of thefe, like Mr
Burke himfelf, was averfe to a rupture with Ame¬
rica.
The new candidate did not appear on the huftings
until the afternoon of the fixth day’s poll, on wffiich
occafion he addreffed the eledors in a very able fpeech,
admirably calculated for the occafion* He began by
exprefting a modeft diffidence of his own abilities, and
a high opinion of the important truft they wrere affem-
bled to confer. He then boldly declared himfelf ho¬
ftile to a conteft with America, and after ted, that
England had been rendered flourilhing by liberty and
commerce, the firft of which Was dear to his heart,
while the latter had been a favourite objeft of his flu-
dies, both in its principles and details.
This harangue was W'ell received by the eleClors }
the conteft proved propitious to his wifties ; and when
the ftieriffs had notified, at the clofe of the poll, that
he was elected, he made the moft brilliant addrefs on
the occafion that had ever been heard within the walls
of a city celebrated rather for its opulence than its elo¬
quence,
Mr Burke immediately returned from his new eon-
ftituents to parliament, with increafed vigour, reputa¬
tion, and zeal. The earl of Chatham, having failed,
notwithftanding his reputation for wifdom, in an at¬
tempt to adjuft the troubles of the colonies by means
of a conciliatory bill introduced by him into the
houfe of peers for that purpofe, the obftinacy of the
miniftry now became apparent to every one. This cir-
cumftance, -which wnuid have appalled an inferior
man, did not, however, difeourage the member for
Briftol from a fimbar attempt in another place j and
accordingly, March 22. 1775, he brought forward
his thirteen celebrated propofitions, which were in¬
tended to clofe the fatal breach, and heal all the dif¬
ferences between the mother country and her colo¬
nies.
His plan, on this occafion, embraced not only an
immediate conciliation, by a repeal of the late coer¬
cive adds, but alfo the creation of an independent ju¬
dicature, and the regulation of the courts of admiral¬
ty. The whole, however, was quaflied by a large
majority on the fide of the minifter, who moved the
previous queftion.
A 2 Mr
BUR [4
Burke. Mr Burke had hitherto chiefly didinguiihed himfelf
—v ' in oppofition to the meafures of others j but in 1780,
he himfelf flood forth as the original author and pro-
pofer of a fcheme which foon engaged the attention of
the public, and adlually appeared big with the moft
profperous refults. When he found minifters obfti-
nately perlifting in a difaftrous war, and perceived that
the people began to bend beneath the weight of the
taxes for its fupport, it ftruck him as advantageous on
one hand, and political on the other, to diminilh the
public burdens and the number of adherents to the
court at the fame time. Accordingly, on the 11th of
February, he brought in a bill “ for the regulation of
his majefty’s civil eftablilhments, and of certain public
offices •, for the limitation of penfions, and the fuppref-
flon of fundry ufelefs, expenflve, and inconvenient
places, and for applying the monies fav'ed thereby, to
the public fervice.
This fcheme was manifeftly founded on the late re¬
forms that had taken place in France; for by an edift
of the king, regiftered in the parliament of Paris, it
appeared that he had fupprefled no lefs than 406 pla¬
ces in his houfehold by one regulation. The orator,
with great judgement, faftened upon this event, and
endeavoured to make ufe of it as an incitement to a
flmilar attempt here •, nay, he called in national rival-
fliip itfelf, by way of an inducement to confent to this
lacrifice on the part of the crown.
To this bill the minority did not at firft-give much
oppofition. Indeed the mover of it contrived to foften
thofe features that appeared harffi to them. Notwith-
flanding this, it did not prove fuccefsful during Lord
North’s adminiftration •, and when it was at length
carried, it w'as much modified and altered.
Parliament was diflblved in 1780, but Mr Burke
was not re-ele£fed for Briftol, and this is faid to have
made a deep impreffion on the mind of the orator •, but
this muff: have been obliterated by the important events
that fpeedily enfued ; for the minifter now tottered on
the treafury bench, being abandoned by many of his
ftauncheft fupporters, and but little confident in his
own fchemes, all of which had proved eminently un-
fuccefsful. The oppofition, having by this time.in-
creafed to a confiderable degree, unceafingly aflailed
him, until at length, March iS. 1782, Lord North
allured the houfe of commons, that his adminiftration
was at an end.
The day had now arrived when the miniftry and op¬
pofition ivere to change places, and the former to be
arrayed in the fpoils of the latter. Of this rich booty
Mr Burke, whofe fervices had been fo confpicuous in
hunting the enemy into the toils prepared for them,
had his portion : for he was made a privy counfellor,
and invefted with the lucrative appointment of pay-
xnafter-general of the forces, He was at length now
enabled to enforce his plan of political economy, ten¬
dered before in vain *, and the board of trade, the board
of works, the offices of third fecretary of ftate, trea-
furer of the chamber, cofferer of the houfehold, the
lords of police in Scotland, the mafter of the harriers,
the mafter of the flag hounds, the fix clerks of the
board of green cloth,1 and the paymafter of the pen¬
fions, were aboliflied.
At length the reins of government w.»e confided to
] BUR
the hands of the marquis of Landidowne, then earl Burke.
Shelburne ; and this event gave fuch offence to thofe ——v—-
who wifhed to place the duke of Portland at the head
of affairs, that Mr Fox, Lord John Cavendifh, and
Mr Burke, immediately refigned.
In the mean time, the critical ftate of the Englifh
Eaft India Company had long agitated the public
mind, and become occafionally a fubject of difcuflion
in parliament. The feizure, imprifonment, and con¬
finement of Lord Pigot, by a fa£Hon in the council of
Madras j the conduct of Mr Mailings, in refpedl to
feveral of the native powers $ the grand queftion of fo-
vereignty, relative to the territorial poffeflions of the
company in Afia : all thefe fubjefts had, at different
times, excited the attention of the nation.
No fooner did Mr Fox behold himfelf and his friends
in poffeflion of power, than he brought in a bill, to
remedy the various abufes in the government of Bri-
tilh India. Of this bill Mr Burke is well known to
have been the principal penman, and upon this occa-
fion he defended iv> principles and provifions with all
the zeal of a parent. In a fpeech of confiderable
length he exhibited an able retrofpeft of the fyftem,
both political and commercial, of the company. He
then proceeded to ftate the benefit likely to refult from
the plan under contemplation, which he confidered as
calculated to effeft “ the refcue of the greateft num¬
ber of the human race that ever were fo grievouily op-
preffed, from the greateft tyranny that ever was exer-
cifed.” In fhort, he contemplated it as a meafure that
would “ fecure the rice in his pot to every man in In¬
dia.” “ I carry my mind (adds he) to all the peo¬
ple, and all the names and defcriptions that, relieved
by this bill, will blefs th« labours of this parliament,
and the confidence vffiich the beft houfe of commons
has given to him who beft deferves it.”
This celebrated bill, notwithftanding much oppofi¬
tion both within and without, was carried triumphantly
through the houfe of commons : but in the houfe of
peers inexperienced a far different fate, and with it
fell the power and confequence of its authors, framers,
and fupporters.
In the courfe of the next year (February 28. 1785),
he made a celebrated fpeech relative to the nabob of
Arcot’s debts; and depided one of his creditors, who
had taken an adive ihare in the late eledions, “ as a
criminal who long fmce ought to have fattened the re¬
gion kites with his offal •, the old betrayer, infulter,
oppreffor, and fcourge, of a country (Tanjore), which
had for years been an objed of an unremitted, but un¬
happily an unequal, ftruggle, between the bounties of
Providence to renovate, and the wickednefs of man¬
kind to deftroy.”
But there appeared to Mr Burke to be a flill great¬
er delinquent, on whom he was determined to inflid
all the w’ounds of his eloquence, and facrifice, if poffi-
ble, the powerful offender himfelf at the flirine of na¬
tional vengeance. This was Mr Haftings 5 and foon
after his arrival in England, the orator gave notice of
his intentions. On the 17th of February, 1785, he
opened the accufation by a moft eloquent fpecch j in
which he depided the fuppofed crimes of the late go¬
vernor-general, in the moft glowing and animated co¬
lours. This trial, however, turned out in the event
EUR r 5
Burke, far different from his hopes and expectations ; while
—v 1 ' the length of it failed not to involve both himfelf and
party in reproach.
During the debate on the commercial treaty with
France (January 23. 1787), the member for Malton
exhibited an undiminifhed verfatility of talents, and
pointed his ridicule with no common fuccefs at Mr
Pitt, who, according to him, contemplated the fub-
je£t with a narrownefs peculiar to limited minds
“ He feems to confider it (adds he) as an affair of two
little compting-houfes, and not of two great nations.
He feems to confider it as a contention between the
lign of the fleur-de-lis and the fign of the old red-lion,
for which fliould obtain the belt cuftom.”
The next public event of importance in which we
find Mr Burke engaged, occurred in confequence of
his majefty’s indifpofition. On this occafion he took
an adfive part in the debates of the houfe of commons j
and is fuppofed to have penned a letter for one, and a
fpeech for another, branch of the royal family. When
Mr Pitt moved his declaratory refolutions relative to
the provifional exercife of the royal authority, he at¬
tacked him with much afperity of language, and was
particularly fevere on the manner in which the royal
affent was to be given to all future a£ts of parliament.
The men who held moft of the high places under the
government were treated as “ jobbers, old hacks of
the court, and the fupporters and betrayers of all par¬
ties } and it was a mock crown, a tinfel robe, and a
fceptre from the theatre, lackered over and unreal,”
which were about to be conferred on the prince of
Wales.
The oppofition, leffened indeed by a few occafional
defertions, had hitherto afted as a great public body,
fuppofed to be united in general principles, for the
common welfare and profperity of the ftate ; but the
French revolution thinned their ranks, difpelled their
confequence, and, by fowing jealoufy between the
chiefs, fpread conflernation and difmay among their
followers.
It .was on the 2d of March 1790, when Mr Fox
moved for leave to bring in a bill to repeal the corpo¬
ration and teft-afts, that this difunion became evident j
and foon after this Mr Burke declared,* “ that his ho¬
nourable friend and he were feparated in their politics
for ever.
J he miniftry nowr feemed anxious to provide for
their new affociate ; and he, on his part, certainly ap¬
peared deferving of fome remuneration at their hands,
for he had abandoned all his old friends, and not a
few of his old principles. In addition to this, his
“ Refieftions on the Revolution in France,” had af¬
forded fome degree of countenance, and even popula¬
rity, to the meafures of adminiftration j and, not con¬
tent with his own exertions, he had enliited his fon
on the lame fide, and even fent him to Coblentz. The
royal munificence at length gratified his warmetl willi¬
es; for by a warrant, dated September 24. 179?, and
made to commence January 5. 1793, he received a
penfion of 1200I. for his own life, and that of his wife,
on the civil lift ; while two other penfions of 2500I.
a-year for three lives, payable out of the four and a
half per cent, fund, dated October 24. 1795:, were
made to commence from July 24. 1793. Honours as
veil us wealth now feemed to await him, for he was
] BUR
about to be ennobled, when the untimely death of an Burke,
only child put an end to his dreams of ambition, and 1 ‘ /—■“
contributed not a little to haften his own, which oc¬
curred at his heufe at Beaconsfield, July 8. 1797.
Thus died, in the 68th year of his age, Edmund
Burke, one of the greateft orators, ftatefmen, and au¬
thors, of his age 5 one whofe name will long continue
to be celebrated *, and who, had he fallen during the
meridian of his fame and charafter, would have fcarce-
ly been confidered as fecond to any man, either of an¬
cient or modern times.
As a man of letters, he ranks high in point of ge¬
nius, learning, and compofition j and his works are
attended with this peculiarity, that they are the pro-
duftion of almoft the only orator of his day, who
could wield his pen with as much fluency as his tongue,
and ftrine equally in the fenate and the clofet. His
diflertation on the “ Sublime and Beautiful” acquired
him the applaufe of all, and fecured him the friend-
ftrip and affiftance of many men of tafte in the nation.
His political trafts betoken much reading, deep
thought, uncommon fagacity ; and even thofe who
may be difpofeft to objeft to his dodtrines, cannot but
admire his various talents, his happy allufions, and his
acute penetration. There is no fpecies of compofition,
which he has not attempted j no fubjecl on which he
has not oceafionally treated : his firft and his laft days
Avere equally dedicated to literature, and he difdained
not any fpecies of it, from the newfpaper column, that
fupplied needful bread to his early youth, to the more
elaborate performance that procured unneceffary opu¬
lence to his old age.
As an orator, notwithftanding fome glaring defedls,
he ftands almoft unrivalled. His gefticulation was at
times violent and repulfive, his manner harfti and over¬
bearing, his epithets coarfe and difgufting ; on many
occafions he made ufe of afiertions which were not bot¬
tomed in fact, and on one in particular, toward the
latter end of his life, had recourfe to ftage trick and
pantomime, inftead of fenfe and argument. But on
the other hand, no man was better calculated to aroufe
the dormant paflions, to call forth the glowing affec¬
tions of the human heart, and to “ harrow up” the
inmoft receffes of the foul. Venality and meannefs
flood appalled in his prefence; he who was dead to
the feelings of his own confidence, was ftill alive to
his animated reproaches j and corruption for a while
became alarmed at the terrors of his countenance. His
powers were never more confpicuous than on that me¬
morable day. on which he expofed the enormities of a
fubaltern agent of oriental defpotifm—on which he de¬
picted the tortures inflicted by his orders, the flagrant
injuftice committed by his authority, the pollution that
enfued in confequence of his fanftion—when he paint¬
ed agonizing nature vibrating in horrid fufpenfe be¬
tween life and deftruCtion—when he defcribed, in the
climax of crimes, “ death introduced into the very
fources of life,” the bofoms of his auditors became
convulfed with paflion, and thofe of more delicate or¬
gans and weaker frame aftually fwooned away. Nay,
after the florm of eloquence had fpent its force, and
the captivated ears no longer liftened to his voice, his
features ftill fpoke the purpofe of his heart, his hand
ftill feemed to threaten punifhment, and his brow to
meditate vengeance,.
“ The
BUR [
Burke “ The qualities of his heart (fays one of his biogra-
II phers) were not lefs amiable and eftimable than his ta-
Burlefque. jentg were aftonifhing :—benevolent, juft, temperate,
magnanimous. He loved his country, loved its con-
ftitution, becaufe he believed it the beft adapted for
its happinefs : at different times, from the fame prin¬
ciple, he lupported different members of it, viien he
thought the one or the other likely to be overbalanced.
During the prevalence of the Bute plans, dreading the
influence of the crown, he fupported the people j and
for the fame reafon, during the American war.
“ After the overthrow of the French monarchy, the
ariftocracy, and the diffcmmation in Great ajiitain of
the principles that had deftroyed thefe powers, appre¬
hending fimilar effeds, if not vigoroufly oppofed in
England, he ftrenuoufly fupported the monarchy and
ariftocracy. Thus difcriminately patriotic in public
life, in his private relations his condud was highly
meritorious. A fond and attentive hufband, an affec¬
tionate and judicioufty indulgent father, a fincere
friend, at once fervid and adive, a liberal and kind
mafter, an agreeable neighbour, a zealous and bounti¬
ful patron, he diffufed light and happinefs. His prin-
-ciples were as ftrid, and habits as virtuous, as his dii-
pofitions were kind.” (Annual Necrology').
BURK ITT, William, a celebrated commentator
on the New Teftament, was born at Hitcham in North-
amptonfhire, July 25. 1650, and educated at fk™'
broke-hall, Cambridge. He entered young upon the
miniftry, being ordained by Bifhop Reynolds : and toe
firit employment which he had was at Milden in buf-
folk, where he continued 21 years a conftant preach¬
er, firft as a curate, and afterwards as redor of that
church. In the year 169 2, he had a call to the vi¬
carage of Dedham in EiTex, where he continued to
the time of his death, which happened in tae latter
end of Odober 1703. He was a pious and charitable
man. He made great colledions for the French Pro-
teftants in the years 16S7, &c. and by his great care,
pains, and charges, procured a worthy mimfter to go
and fettle in Carolina. Among other charities, by his
laft will and teftament, he bequeathed the houfe where¬
in he lived, with the lands thereunto belonging, to be
a habitation for the ledurer that fhould be chofen from
time to time to read the ledure at Dedham. Beiides
his commentary upon the New1 ieftament, written m
the fame plain, pradical, and affedionate manner m
which he preached, he wrote a volume, entitled The
poor man’s help, and the rich man s guide.
BURLAW. See Br-Law.
BURLEIGH. See Cecil. .
BURLESQUE, a fpecies of compofition, which,
though a great engine of ridicule, is not confined to
that fubjed •, for it is clearly diftinguiihable into bur-
lefque that excites laughter merely, and burlefque that
excites derifion or ridicule. A grave fubjed, in which
there is no impropriety, may be brought down by a
certain colouring fo as to be rifible, as m Virgil tra-
veftie; the author firft laughs at every turn in order
to make his readers laugh. The Lutrin is a burlefque
poem of the other fort, laying hold of a low and tri¬
lling incident to expofe the luxury, indolence, and
contentious fpirit, of a fet of monks. Bmleau, the
author, turns the fubjed into ridicule, by drefling it m
the heroic Ryle, and affedmg to confider it as of the
6 ] B U E .
utmoft dignity and importance. Though ridicule is Burkirpifl
the poet’s aim, he always carries a grave face, and
never once betrays a fmile. I he oppofition between
the fubjed and the manner of handling it, is w hat pro¬
duces the ridicule } and therefore, in a compofition of
this kind, no image profeffedly ludicrous ought to
have quarter, becaufe iuch images deftroy the con-
traft. . ,
Though the burlefque that aims at ridicule produ¬
ces its effeds by elevating the ftyle far above the fub¬
jed ; yet the poet ought to confine himfelf to fuch
images as are lively, and readily apprehended. A
{trained elevation, foaring above the ordinary reach of
fancy, makes not a plealant impreffion. a he mind is
foon difgufted by being kept long on the ftietch.
chinery may be employed in a burlefque poem, fuch
as the Lutrin, Difpenfary, or Hudibras, with more
fuccefs and propriety than in any other fpecies of poe¬
try. For burlefque poems, though they affume ^tho
air of hiftory, give entertainment chiefly by their plea-
fant and ludicrous pidures : It is not the aim of iuch a
poem to raile fympathy j and for that reafon, a ftrid
imitation of nature is not neceffary. And hence, the
more extravagant the machinery in a ludicrous poem,
the more entertainment it affords.
BURLINGTON, a fea-port town in the eaft nd-
incr of Yorkfhire, fituated on the German ocean, a-
bsut 37 miles north-eaft of York. E. Long. o. 10. and
N. Lat. 54. 15. It gave the title of earl to a branch
of’the noble family of Boyle, but the earldom is now
extind. . r -kt r r ■
New- B UR LING TON, the capital of New-Jerley, in
North America 5 fituated in an ifland of Delaware ri¬
ver, about 20 miles north of Philadelphia. W. Long.
74. o. N. Lat. 40. 40. .
BURMAN, Francis, a Proteftant mmifter, and
learned profeffor of divinity at Utrecht, was born at
Leyden in 162S j and died on the 10th of November
1679, after having publiftied a courle of dinnity, and
feveral other works. .
He is not to be confounded with Francis Bur man,
his fon ; or with Peter Barman, a laborious commen¬
tator on Phaedrus, Lucan, Petronius, and other pro¬
fane authors, who died in 174T'
BURN, in Medicine and Surgery, an injury re¬
ceived in any part of the body by fire. See Sun- •
GERY.
BURNET, Gilbert, bifnop of Saliftmry in the
latter end of the 17th century, was born at Edin¬
burgh, in 1643, of an ancient family m the (hire ot
Aberdeen. His father being bred to the law, was,
at the reftoration of King Charles II. appointed one ot
the lords of feflion, with the title of Lora Cnmond,
in reward for his conftant attachment to the royal par¬
ty during the troubles of Great Britain. Our author,
the young eft fon of his father, was inftru&ed by nim
in the Latin tongue : at ten years of age he was fent
to continue his ftudies at Aberdeen, and was admitted
]yj. yit. before he was 14* His own inclination led
him to the ftudy of the civil and feudal law •, and he
ufed to fay, that it was from this ftudy he had recei¬
ved more juft notions concerning the foundations of
civil fociety and government, than thofe which iome
divines maintain. About the year after, he change
his mind, and began to apply to divinity, to the great
’ 0 fatisfadtion
Burnet.
Burnet.
BUR [ 7 1 BUR
fatwfa&ion of his father. He was admitted preacher
before he was i S \ and Sir Alexander Burnet, his cou-
fin-german, offered him a benefice} but he rerufed to
accept of it.
In 1663, about two years after the death of his fa¬
ther, he came into England) and after fix months
flay at Oxford and Cambridge, returned to Scotland j
which he loon left again to make a tour for fome
months, in !66_j, in Holland and France. At Am-
fterdam, by the help of a Jewith rabbi, he perfected
himielf in the Hebrew language •, and like-wife became
acquainted with the leading men of the different per-
fuafions tolerated in that country *, as Calvimits, Ar-
minians, Lutherans, Anabaptifts, Brownifts, Papiils,
and Unitarians ; among!! each of which he ufed fre¬
quently to declare, he met with men of fuch unfeign¬
ed piety and virtue, that he became fixed in a ftrong
principle of univerfal charity, and an invincible ab¬
horrence of all feverities on account of religious difi'en-
fions.
Upon bis return from his travels, he was admitted
minifler of Salton j in which flation he ferved five
years in the mol! exemplary manner. He drew up a
memorial, in which he took notice of the principal
errors in the con dud! of the Scots bilhops, which he
obferved not to be conformable to the primitive infti-
tution ; and fent a copy of it to feveral of them. This
expofed him to their reientments : but, to lliow he was
not adhiated with a fpirit of ambition, he led a retired
courfe of life for two years-, which fo endangered his
health, that he was obliged to abate bis exceflive ap¬
plication to Itudy. In 1669, he publilhed his “ Mo¬
del! and free conference between a conformii! and non-
Conformift.” He became acquainted with the duchefs
of Hamilton, who communicated to him all the papers
belonging to her father and her uncle 5 upon w hich he
drew up the “ Memoirs of the dukes of Hamilton.”
The duke of Lauderdale, hearing he was about this
work, invited him to London, and introduced him to
King Charles II. He returned to Scotland, and mar¬
ried the lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of the earl
of Caflilis •, a lady of great piety and knowledge,
highly eftcemed by the Prelbyterians, to whofe fenti-
menis Ihe was ftrongly inclined. As^there was fome
difparity in their ages, that it might remain pal! dis¬
pute that this match was wholly owing to inclination,
and not to avarice or ambition, the day before their
marriage our author delivered the lady a deed, where¬
by he renounced all pretenfions to her fortune, w hich w as
very confiderable, and mull otherwife have fallen into
his hands, Ihe herfelf having no intention to fecure it.
The fame year he publilhed his “ Vindication of the
authority, conllitution, and laws of the church and
Hate of Scotland 5” w hich at that jundlure w as looked
trpon as fo great a fervice, that he was again offered a
bilhopric, and a promife of the next vacant archbi-
Ihopric but did not accept of it, becaufe he could
not approve of the meafures of the court, the grand
view of w hich he faw to be the advancement of Po¬
pery.
Mr Burnet’s intimacy with the dukes of Hamilton
and Lauderdale occafioned him to be frequently fent
for by the king and the duke of York, who had con-
verfations w ith him in private. But Lauderdale con¬
ceiving a refentment again!! him on account of the
freedom with which he fpoke to him, reprefented at
lall to the king, that Dr Burnet was engaged in an
oppofition to his meafures. Upon his return to Lon¬
don, he perceived that thefe fuggeftions had entirely
thrown him out of the king’s favour, though the duke
of York treated him with greater civility than ever,
and diffuaded him from going to Scotland. Upon this,
he religned his profefforlhip at Glafgow, and ftaid at
London. About this time the living at Cripplegate
being vacant, the dean and chapter of St Paul’s (in
whofe gift it wras), hearing of his circumftances, and
the hardships he had undergone, fent him an offer of
the benefice ; but as he had been informed of their firlf
intention of conferring it on Dr Fowler, he gencroully
declined it. In 1675, t1ae recommendation of Lord
Hollis, whom he had known in France, ambaffador at
that court, he was, by Sir Herbottle Grimllone, mailer
of the rolls, appointed preacher of the chapel there,
notwithftanding the oppofition of the court. He was
foon after chofen a lecturer iff St Clement’s, and be¬
came one of the preachers that were moll followed in
town. In 1697, he publilhed his fiifiory of the Refor¬
mation, for which he had the thanks of both houfes of
parliament. The fill! part of it w-as publilhed in 1679,
and the fecond in 1681. Next year he publilhed an
abridgement of thefe two parts.
Mr Burnet about this time happened to be fent for
to a woman in ficknefs, who had been engaged in an
amour with the earl of Rochefter. The manner in
which he treated her during her illncfs, gave that lord
a great curiofity for being acquainted wdth him.
Whereupon, for a whole winter, he fpent one evening
in a week with Dr Burnet, who difeourfed with him
upon all thofe topics upon which fceptics and men of
loofe morals attack the Chrillian religion. The happy
effects of thefe conferences occafioned the publication
of his account of the life and death of that earl. In
1682, when the adminillration was changed in favour
of the duke of York, being much reforted to by per-
fens of all ranks and parties, in order to avoid returning
vifits, he built a laboratory, and went for above a year
through a courfe of chemical experiments. Not long
after, he refufed a living of 300!. a-year offered him
by the earl of Effex, on the terms of his not refiding
there, but in London. When the inquiry concerning
the popilh plot was on foot, he was frequently fent for
and confulted by King Charles with relation to the Hate
of the nation. His majelly offered him the bilhopric
of Chichefter, then vacant, if he w-ould engage in his
interefts 5 but he refufed to accept it on thefe terms.
He preached at the Rolls till 1684, when he was dif-
miffed by order of the court. About this time he pu¬
blilhed feveral pieces.
On King James’s acceffion to the throne, having ob¬
tained leave to go out of the kingdom, he firl! w-ent
to Paris, and lived in great retirement, till contracting
an acquaintance with Brigadier Stouppe, a Protellant
gentleman in the French fervice, he made a tour with
him into Italy. He met with an agreeable reception
at Rome. Pope Innocent XL bearing of our author’s
arrival, fent the captain of the Swifs guards to acquaint
him he would give him a private audience in bed, to
avoid the ceremony of killing his holinefs’s flipper.
But Dr Burnet excufed himfelf as well as he eould.
Some difp.utes which our author had here concerning
religion,,
Burnet.
Burnet.
BUR' [8
religion, beginning to be taken notice of, made, it
proper for him to quit the city, Avhich, upon an in¬
timation given him by Prince Borghefe, he according¬
ly did.
He purfued his travels through Switzerland and
Germany. In 1688, he came to Utrecht, with an in¬
tention to fettle in fome of the feven provinces, ihere
he received an invitation from the prince and princefs
of Orange (to whom their party in England had re¬
commended him) to come to the Hague, which he
accepted. He was foon made acquainted with the ic-
cret of their councils, and advifed the fitting out of a
fleet in Holland fufficient to fupport tfieir deligns and
encourage their friends. This, and the Account of his
Travels, in which he endeavoured to blend Popery and
tyranny together, and reprefent them as unfeparable,
with fome papers refledting on the proceedings of Eng¬
land, that came out in tingle (beets, and were dif-
perfed in feveral parts of England, moft 01 which IHr
Burnet owned himfelf the author of, alarmed King
James ; and were the occafion of his writing twice
againft him to the princefs of Orange,, and infilling,
by his ambaffadoi*, on his being forbid the court j
which, after much importunity was done, though he
continued to be trufted and employed as before, the
Hutch minilter confulting him daily, io put an end
to thefe frequent conferences with the minillei.s, a pio-
fecution for high treafon w as fet on foot againft. him
both in England and Scotland. But Burnet receiving
the news thereof before it arrived at the States, he
avoided the llorm, by petitioning for, and obtaining
without any difficulty, a bill of naturalization, in order
to his intended marriage with Mary Scott, a Dutch
lady of confiderable fortune, who, with the advan¬
tage of birth, had thole of a fine perfon and under-
ftanding. ^ .
After his marriage writh this lady, being legally un¬
der the proteftion of Holland, when Mr Burnet found
King James plainly fubverting the conftitution, he
omitted no method to fupport and promote the de ign
the prince of Orange had formed of delivering Great
Britain, and came over with him in quality of chap-
lain. He was foon advanced to the fee ©f Salifbury.
He declared for moderate meafures wfith regard to the
clergy who fcrupled to take the oaths, and many, were
difpleafed with him for declaring for the toleration of
nonconformifts. His paftoral letter concerning the
oaths of allegiance and fupremacy to King William and
Queen Mary, 1689, happening to touch upon the right
of conqueft, gave fuch offence to both houfes of parlia¬
ment, that it was ordered to be burnt by the hands of
the common executioner. In 1698 he loft his wife by
the fmallpox ; and, as he was almoft immediately af¬
ter appointed preceptor to the duke of.Gloucefter, m
whofe education he took great care, this employment,
and the tender age of his children, induced him the lame
year to fupply her lofs by a marriage with Mrs Berke-
ly, eldeft daughter of Sir Richard Blake, knight. In
1699 he publiihed his Expofition of the 39 articles j
which occafioned a reprefentation againft him in the
lower houfe of convocation in the year 1701 ; but he
was vindicated in the upper houfe. His fpeech m the
houfe of lords in 1704 againft the bill to prevent oc-
calional conformity was feverely attacked. He died m
j.715, and was interred in the church of St James,
] BUR
Clerkenwell, where he has a monument ere£led to him.
He formed a fcheme for augmenting the poor livings $
which he prefled forward with fuch iuccefs, that it end¬
ed in an aft of parliament palled in the fecond year of
Queen Anne, “ for the augmentation of the livings of
the poor clergy.”
Burnet, Thomas, a polite and learned writer in
the end of the 17th century, was born in Scotland, but
educated in Cambridge under the tuition of Mr John
Tillotfon, afterwards archbilhop of Canterbury. In
the beginning of 1685, he was made mafter of Sutton’s
hofpital in London, after which he entered into holy
orders- During the reign of King James, he made a
noble Hand in his poll as mafter of the Charter-houfe
againft the encroachments of that monarch, who would
have impofed one Andrew Popham, a Papift, as a pen-
fioner upon the foundation of that houfe. In 1680 he
publilhed his Telluris theoria facra, fo univerfally ad¬
mired for the purity of the ftyle and beauty of the fen-
timents, that King Charles gave encouragement to a
tranflation of it into Englilh. Ihis theory was, how¬
ever, attacked by feveral writers. In 1692 he pub-
liflied his Archceologia philofophica, dedicated to King
William, to whom he was clerk of the elofet.. He
died in 1715. Since his death hath been publilhed,
his book De Jlatu mortuorum el refurgentium, and his
treatife De fide el ojftciis Chrifhanorum.
Burnet, the Honourable James, Lord Monboddo, a
fenator of the college of juftice in Scotland, was born
about the year I7I4« He was the fon of Mr Burnet of
Monboddo in Kincardinelhire. After palling through
the ufual courfe of fchool education, he profecuted his
ftudies at the univerfities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, and
Leyden, with diftinguilhed reputation. He was ad¬
mitted an advocate in I737» an<^ on I2^ °f Fe"
bruary 1767, he was railed to the bench by the title
of Lord Monboddo, in the room of Lord Milton, ap¬
pointed a judge the 4th of June I742* and who. had
fucceeded Sir John Lauder of Fountamhall, admitted
Nov. 16895 being the third on the bench in fuccef-
lion fince the revolution.
He married Mifs Farquharfon, a very amiable wo¬
man, by whom he had a fon and two daughters.
His private life was fpent in the praftice of all the
focial virtues, and in the enjoyment of much domeftic
felicity. Although rigidly temperate in his habits of
life, he, however, delighted much in the convivial fo-
ciety of his friends, and among thefe he could number
almoft all the moft eminent of thofe who were diftin-
guilhed in Scotland for virtue, literature, or genuine
elegance of converfation and manners. One of thofe
who efteemed him the moft was the late Lord Garden-
ftone, a man who poffefl'ed no mean portion of the fame
overflowing benignity of difpofition, the fame unim¬
peachable integrity as a judge, the fame, partial fond-
nefs for literature and the fine arts. His fon, a very
promifing boy, in whofe education he took great de¬
light, was, indeed, fnatched away from his affeftions
by a premature death. But, when it was too late for
forrow and anxiety to avail, the aftliftcd father ftititd
the emotions of nature in his breaft, and wound up the
energies of his foul to the firmeft tone of ftoical forti¬
tude. He was, in like manner, bereaved of his excel¬
lent lady, the objeft of his deareft tendernefs 5 and he
endured the lofs with a fimilar firmnefs, fitted to do
honour
Burnet.
—V *
BUR r
Bunaet. honour either to philofophy or to religion. In addi-
- t 1 ‘ tion to his office as a judge in the court of feffion, an
offer vras made to him of a feat in the court of jufti-
ciary. But, though the emoluments of this would have
made a convenient addition to his income, he refufed
to accept it; left its bufinefs ftiould too much detach
him from the purfuit of his favourite ftudies. To thefe
ftudies he continued through the whole of a long life
to be greatly devoted. His admiration of the man¬
ners, literature, and philofophy of the ancients, was un¬
bounded. Thus ftrongly prepoffeffed, it is not to be
wondered at, that the comparifon which he made be¬
tween the ancients and moderns, was little favourable to
the latter. For among the former he fuppofed that he
law all that was elegant, manly, and virtuous, all that
was praifeworthy and excellent; while the degenerate
race of the moderns exhibited nothing but effeminacy
and corruption.
The vacation of the court of feffion afforded him
iufficient leifure to retire every year, in fpring and in
autumn, to the country *, and he ufed then to drefs in a
ftyle of fimplicity, as if he had been only a plain far¬
mer } and to live among the people upon his eftate,
with all the kind familiarity and attention of an aged
father among his grown-up children. Although his
•ftate, from the old leafes, afforded comparatively but
a moderate income, he would never raife the rents, or dif-
place an old tenant to make room for a new one who of¬
fered a higher rent. In imitation of the rural economy
ef feme of the ancients, whom he chiefly admired, he ac¬
counted population the true wealth of an eftate, and was
defirous of no improvement fo much as of increafing the
number of fouls upon his lands, fo as to make it greater,
in proportion to the extent, than that of thofe upon the
eftate of any neighbouring landholder. It was there he
had the pleafure of receiving Dr Samuel Johnfon, with
his friend James Bofwell, at the time when thefe two
gentlemen were upon their well-known tour through
the Highlands of Scotland. Johnfon admired nothing
in literature fo much as the difplay of a keen diferimi-
nation of human chara&er, a juft apprehenfion of the
principles of moral action, and that vigorous common
fenfe which is the moft happily applicable to the ordi¬
nary condudt of life. Monboddo delighted in the re¬
finements, the fubtleties, the abftradtions, the affecta¬
tions of literature 5 and in comparifon with thefe, def-
pifed the groffnefs of modern tafte and of common af¬
fairs. Johnfon thought learning and fcience to be lit¬
tle valuable, except fo far as they could be made fub-
fervient to the purpofes of living ufefully and happily
with the world, upon his own terms. Monboddo’s
favourite fcience taught him to look down with con¬
tempt upon all fublunary, and efpecially upon all mo¬
dern things} and to fit life to literature and philofo¬
phy, not literature and philofophy to life. James Bof-
W'ell, therefore, in carrying Johnfon to vifit Monbod¬
do, probably thought of pitting them one againft an¬
other, as two game cocks, and promifed himfelf much
fport from the colloquial conteft which he expected to
enfue between them. But Monboddo was too hofpi-
table and courteous to enter into keen contention with
a ftranger in his own houfe. There was much talk
between them, but no angry controverfy, no exafpe-
ration of that diflike for each other’s v'ell-known
peculiarities with which they had met. Johnfon, it is
You. V. Part I.
9 ] BUR
true, ftill continued to think Lord Monboddo what he Burnet,
called a prig in literature. u—y—
Lord Monboddo ufed frequently to vifit London, to
which he was allured by the opportunity that great,
metropolis affords of enjoying the converfation of a vaft
number of men of profound erudition. A journey to
the capital became a favourite amufement of his peri¬
ods of vacation from the bufinefs of the court to which
he belonged ^ and, for a time, he made this journey
once a year. A carriage, a vehicle that was not in
common ufe among the ancients, he confidered as an
engine of effeminacy and Doth, which it was dilgraee-
ful for a man to make ufe of in travelling. To be
dragged at the tail of a horfe, inftead of mounting up¬
on his back, feemed, in his eyes, to be a truly ludL
crons degradation of the genuine dignity of human na¬
ture. In all his journeys, therefore, between Edin¬
burgh and London, he was wont to ride on horfeback,
with a Angle fervant attending him. He continued
this practice, without finding it too fatiguing for Ins
ftrength, till he was upwards of eighty years of age.
Within thefe fewr years, on his return from a laft vifit,
which he made on purpofe to take leave, before his
death, of all his old friends in London, he became ex¬
ceedingly ill upon the road, and was unable to proceed;
and had he not been overtaken by a Scotch friend,
wffio prevailed upon him to travel the remainder of the
wray in a carriage, he might, perhaps, have adtually
perilhed by the way fide, or breathed his laft in feme
dirty inn. Since that time, he did not again attempt
an equeftrian journey to London.
In London, his vifits were exceedingly acceptable to
all his friends, whether of the literary or falhionable
world. He delighted to (hew himfelf at court ; and the
king is faid to have taken a pleafure in converfing with
the old man w ith a diftinguilhing notice that could net
but be very flattering to him.
A conftitution of body, naturally framed to wear
well and laft long, w-as ftrengthened to Lord Monbod¬
do by exercife, guarded by temperance, and by a te¬
nor of mind too firm to be deeply broken in upon by
thofe paffions wffiich confume the principles of life. In
the country he alvrays ufed much the exercifes of
walking in the open air, and of riding. The cold bath
was a means ®f preferving the health, to which he had
recourfe in all fealons, amidft every feverity of the
weather, under every inconvenience of indifpofition or
bufinefs, with a perfeverance invincible. He was ac-
cuftomed, alike in winter and in fummer, to rife at a
very early hour in the morning, and, without lofs of
time, to betake himfelf to ftudy or wholefome exercife.
It is faid, that he even found the ufe of what he called
the air bath, or the praftice of occafionally walking
about, for fome minutes, naked, in a room filled with
frelh and cool air, to be highly lalutary.
Lord Monboddo is well known to the world as a
man of letters. His firft publication was “ a Differta-
tion on the Origin and Progrefs of Language, ” in 2
vols. 8vo. 17735 which were followed by four more
vols. the laft publilhed not long before his death. In
this work, intended chiefly to vindicate the honours of
Grecian literature, he aferibes the origin of alphabetical
writing to the Egyptians 5 and ftrenuoufly maintains,
that the ouran-outang is a clafs of the human fpecies,
and that his W'ant of fpeech ismerelv accidental. He al-
B ‘ ih
£ U R [ ic
fo endeavours to eftablifti the reality of the exiftence of
mermaids, and other fidtitious animals. He was indu¬
ced to undertake another work, for the purpofe of de¬
fending the caufe of Grecian philofophy j and publifh-
ed, in five vols. 4to, a work entitled, Antient Meta-
phyfics,” which, like the other, is remarkable for a fur-
prifing mixture of erudition and genius, with the moft
abfurd whim and conceit.
As a judge, his decifions were found, upright, and
learned, and marked with acute diferimination j and
free from thofe paradoxes and partialities which appear
in his writings. He attended his judicial duty with
indefatigable diligence till within a few' days of his
death, which happened at his houfe in Edinburgh, May
26. 1 799? at the advanced age of 85.
His eldeft daughter married fome years before his
death. His fecond daughter, in perfonal loveljnefs one
of the hneft women of the age, was beheld in every
public place with general admiration, and was fought
in marriage by many fuitors. Her mmd was endowed
with all her father’s benevolence of temper, and with all
his tafte for elegant literature, without any portion of his
whim and caprice. It w as her chief delight to be the.
nurfe and the companion of his declining age. Her pre¬
fence contributed to draw around him, m his houie, and
at his table, all that was truly refpedtable among the
youth, of his country. She mingled in the world of
falhion, without (haring its follies ; and heard thofe flat¬
teries which are addreffed to youth and beauty, without
being betrayed to that light and felfifli vanity which is
often the only fentiment that fills the heart of the high-
praifed beauty. She delighted in reading, in literary
converfation, in poetry, and in the fine aits, without
contracting from this tafte, any of that pedantic felt-
conceit and affeCtation which ufually charaderize lite¬
rary ladies, and whofe prefence often frightens away the
domeftic virtues, the graces, the delicacies, and all the
more interefting charms of the fex. V\ hen Burns, the
well-known Scotifh poet, firft arrived from the plough
in Ayrfhire to publilh his poems in Edinburgh, there
was none by whom he wTas more zealoully patronized
than by Lord Monboddo and his lovely daughter. No
man’s feelings were ever more powerfully or exquifitely
alive than thofe of the ruftic bard, to the emotions of
gratitude, or to the admiration of the good and fair.
In a poem which he at that time wrote, as a panegy¬
rical addrefs to Edinburgh, he took oecafion to cele¬
brate the beauty and excellence of Mil's Burnet, m,
perhaps, the fineft ffanza of the whole :
“ Thy daughters bright thy w'alks adorn,
“ Gay as the gilded Cummer (ky,
“ Sw'eet as the dewy milk-white thorn,
“ Dear as the raptur’d thrill of joy !
« Fair Burnet (trikes th’ adoring eye
“ Heav’n’s beauties on my fancy dime,
« I fee the Sire of Love on high, .
“ And own his work, indeed, divine.”
She was the ornament of the elegant fociety of the
city in which (lie refided, her father’s pride, and the
comfort of his domeftic life _ in his declining years.
Every amiable and noble fentiment wms familiar to her
heart every female virtue was exemplified in her life.
Yet this woman, thus lovely, thus elegant, thus wife
and virtuous, was out off in the flower of her age, and
> ] BUR
left her father bereft of the lad tender tie which bound Eumc«
him to fociety and to life. She died about fix years
before him of a confumption j a difeafe that in Scot-, urr'‘n£
land proves too often fatal to the lovelieft and moil
promifing among the fair and the young. Neither his
philofophy, nor the neceffary torpor of the feelings of
extreme old age, were capable of preventing Lord Mon¬
boddo from being very deeply affedted by fo grievous a
lofs j and from that time he began to droop exceeding¬
ly in his health and fpirits. Edin. Mag.
Burnet. See Poterium and Sanguisorba, Bo¬
tany Index.
BURNHAM, a market-town of Norfolk in Eng¬
land, fituated in E. Long. Q. 50. N. Lat. 53. O.
BURNING, the adtion of fire on fome pabulum or
fuel, by which the minute parts thereof are put into a
violent motion, and fome of them afiuming the nature
of fire themfelves, fly off in orbem, while the reft are
diffipated in form of vapour or reduced to allies. See
Ignition.
Extraordinary Cafes of EVENING. "W e have in-
ftances of perfons burnt by fire kindled w ithin their
own bodies. A woman at Paris, who u(ed to drink
brandy to excefs, was one night reduced to aflits by a
fire from within, all but her head and the ends of Lex
fingers. Signora Corn. Zangari, or, as others call her.
Corn. Band!, an aged lady, of an unblemiftied life, near
Cefana in Romagna, underwent the fame fate in March
17; 1. She had retired in the evening to her chamber
fomewhat indifpofed j and in the morning was found
in the middle of the room reduced to aflits, all except
her face, legs, (kull, and three fingers. The (lockings
and (hoes (he had on were not burnt in the leatt. The
a flies were light •, and, on preffmg between the fingers,
vamihed, leaving behind a grols (linking moiiiure with
which the floor was fmeared j the walls and furniture
of the room being covered with a moift cineritious
foot, which had not only ftained the linen in the chtlis,
but had penetrated into the clofet, as well as into the
room overhead, the walls of which were moiftened with
the fame vifeous humour.—We have various other re¬
lations of perfons burnt to death in this unaccountable
manner.
Sig. Mondini, Bianchini, and Maffei, have written
treatifes exprefs to account for the caufe of io extraor¬
dinary an event: common fire it could not be, (ince this
w ould likewife have burnt the bed and the room j befides
that it would have required many hours, and a vaft
quantity of fuel, to reduce a human body to afhes ; and,
after all, a coniiderable part of the bones would have
remained entire, as they w-ere anciently found after the
fierceft funeral fires. Some attribme the effedl to a mine
of fulphur under the houfe-, others to a miracle ; while
others fufpeU that art of vi.lany had a hand in it. A
philofopher of Verona maintains, that inch a conflagra¬
tion might have arifen from the inflammable matters
wherewith the human body naturally abounds, big.
Bianchini accounts for the conflagration of the lady
above-mentioned, from her ufing a bath or lotion of
camphorated fpirit of wine when (lie found herfelf cut
of order. Maffei fuppofes it owing to lightning, but
to lightning generated in her own body, agreeable to
his do&rine, which is, That lightning does not pro¬
ceed from the clouds, but is always produced in the
place where it is feeu and its effects perceived. We
r • have
BUR [ i
Burning, have had a late attempt to eftablxfli the opinion, that
Imm. thefe deftroying internal fires are caufed in the entrails
of the body by inflamed effluvia of the blood j by juices
arid fermentation in the ftomach ; by the many com-
buflible matters which abound in living bodies for the
purpofes of life •, and, finally, by the fiery evaporations
which exhale from the fettlings of fpirit of wine, bran¬
dies, and other hot liquors, in the tunica villofa of the
ftomach and other adipofe or fat membranes 5 within
which thofe fpirits engender a kind of camphor, which
in the night time, in lleep, by a full refpiration, are
put in a ftronger motion, and are more apt to be fet on
fire. Others afcribe the caufe of fuch perfons being
fet on fire to lightning j and their burning fo entirely,
to the greater quantity of phofphorus and other com-
buftible matters they contained.—For our own part,
we can by no means pretend to explain the caufe of
fuch a phenomenon: but for the in terefts of humanity,
we with it could be derived from fomething external
to the human body; for if, to the calamities of human
life already known, wre fuperadd a fufpicion that we
may unexpectedly, and without the leaft warning, be
confumed by an internal fire, the thought is too dread¬
ful to be borne.
Burking, or Brenning^ in our old cuftoms, denotes
an infeCtious difeafe, got in the flews by converfing
with lewd women, and fuppofed to be the fame with
what we now call the venereal d[feofe.
In a manufcript of the vocation of John Bale to the
bilhopric of Oflbry, written by himfelf, he fpeaks of
Dr Hugh Weiton, who was dean of Windfor in 1556,
but deprived by Cardinal Pole for adultery, thus : “ At
this day is leacherous Weiton, who is more praCtifed in
the arts of breech-burning, than all the whores of the
ftews. He not long ago brent a beggar of St Botolph’s
parifti.” See Sxtws.
Burning, in antiquity, a way of difpofing of the
dead, much praCtifed by the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans, and itill retained by feveral nations in the Fait
and Weil Indies. The antiquity of this cuftom riles
as high as the Theban war, where we are told of
the great folemnity accompanying this ceremony at
the pyre of Menaeacus and Archcmorus,^ who were
cotemporary with Jair, the eighth judge of Ifrael.
Homer abounds with funeral obfequies of this na¬
ture. In the inward regions of Alia, the praCtice
was of very ancient date, and the continuance long :
for we are told, that, in the reign of Julian, the king
of Chionia burnt Ids fon’s body, and depofited the aflies
in a filver urn. Coeval almoft with the firit initances of
this kind in the call, was the praCtice in the weftern
parts of the world. The Herulians, the Getes, and
the Thracians, had all along obferved it j and its anti¬
quity was as great with the Celtse, Sarmatians, and
other neighbouring nations. The origin of this cuflom
1’eems to have been out of friendfliip to the deceafed :
their afhes were preferved as vre preferve a lock of hair,
a ring, or a feal, which had been the property of a de¬
ceafed friend.
Kings were burnt in cloth made of the aibeitos {tone,
that their aflxes might be preferved pure from any mix¬
ture with the fuel and other matters thrown on the fu¬
neral pile. The fame method is Hill obferved w ith the
princes of Tartary. Among the Greeks, the body was
placed on the top of a pile, on which were thrown di-
1 ] BUR
vers animals, and even Haves and captives, befides un¬
guents and perfumes. In the funeral of Patroclus w'e
find a number of fheep and oxen throwm in, then four
horfes, followed by two dogs, and laftly by 12 Trojan
prifoners. The like is mentioned by Virgil in the fune¬
rals of his Trojans j where, befides oxen, fwine, and
all manner of cattle, we find eight youths condemned to
the flames. The firft thing was the fat of the beafts,
w'herewith the body w’as covered, that it might con-
fume the fooner : it being reckoned great felicity to
be quickly reduced to allies. For the like reafon, where
numbers were to be burnt at the fame time, care was
taken to mix with the reft fome of humid conftitutions,
and therefore more ealily to be inflamed. Thus we are
affured by Plutarch and Macrobius, that for every ten
men it was cuftomary to put in one vroman. Soldiers
ufually had their arms burnt with them. The garments
worn by the living, were alfo thrown on the pile, with
other ornaments and prefents j a piece of extravagance
which the Athenians carried to fo great a height, that
fome of their lawgivers were forced to reftrain them,
by fevere penalties, from defrauding the living by their
liberality to the dead.—In fome caies, burning was ex-
prefsly forbidden among the Romans, and even looked
upon as the higheft impiety. Thus infants, who died
before the breeding of teeth, were intombed unburnt
in the ground, in a particular place fet apart for this
purpofe, called Juggrumlariurn. The like was pra&ifed
with regard to thofe who had been ftruck dead with
lightning, who were never to be burnt again; Some fay
that burning was denied to filicides.—The manner of
burning among the Romans was not unlike that of the
Greeks j the corpfe, being brought out without the
city, was carried directly to the place appointed for
burning it 5 which, if it joined to the fepulchre, v'as
called Ci£/?///ra; if feparate from it, ujlrina ; and there
laid on the rogus or ptjra, a pile of wood prepared on
which to burn it, built in fliape of an altar, but of dif¬
ferent height, according to the quality of the deceafed*
The wood ufed was commonly from fuch trees as con¬
tain molt pitch or rofin ^ and if any other were uled,
they fplit it, for the more eafy catching fire : round
the pile they fet cyprefs trees, probably to hinder the
noifome fmell of the corpfe. The body was not placed
on the bare pile, but on the couch or bed whereon it
lay. This done, the next of blood performed the ce¬
remony of lighting the pile j which they did with a
torch, turning their faces all the while the other way,
as if it were done with reluctance. During the cere¬
mony, decurfions and games were celebrated j after
which came the ojjiiegium, or gathering of the bones
and allies ; alfo walking and anointing them, and repo-
fiting them in urns.
Burning, among furgeons, denotes the application
of an adtual cautery, that is, a red-hot iron inftrument,
to the part affeifted ; otherwife denominated cauteriza¬
tion. The whole art of phylic among the Japan efe
lies in the choice of places proper to be burnt: which
are varied according to the dileafe. In the country of
the Mogul, the colic is cured by an iron ring applied
red hot about the patient’s navel. Certain it is, that
fome very extraordinary cures have been performed ac¬
cidentally by burning. The following cale is recorded
in the Memoirs of the academy of fciences by M. Hom-
berg. A woman of about 35 became fubjeeft to a head-
A a ack»i
Burning.
Burning.
BUR [12
sell, wtilcli at times was fo violent that It drove her out
of her fenfes, making her fometimes ftupid and fooliflv,
at other times raving and furious. The feat of the pain
was in the forehead, and over the eyes, which were in¬
flamed, and looked violently red and fparkling j and
the mofl violent fits of it w'ere attended with naufeas
and vomitings. In the times of the fits, {he could take
no food; but out of them, had a very good ftomach.
Mr Homberg had in vain attempted her cure for three
years wnth all kinds of medicines •, only opium fuc-
ceeded 5 and that but little, all its effect being only the
taking off the pain for a few hours. The rednefs of her
eyes was always the fign of an approaching fit. One
night, feeling a fit coming on, flic went to lie down
upon the bed j but firft walked up to the glafs with
the candle in her hand, to fee how her eyes looked :
in obferving this, the candle fet fire to her cap : and as
{he was alone, her head was terribly burnt before the
fire could be extinguilhed. Mr Homberg Avas fent for,
and ordered bleeding and proper dreflTmgs : but it was
perceived, that the expefted fit this night never came
on •, the pain of the burning wore off" by degrees 5 and
the patient found herfelf from that hour cured of the
headach, which had never returned in four years after,
which was the time when the account was communi¬
cated. Another cafe, not lefs remarkable than the
former, was communicated to Mr Homberg by a phy-
fician at Bruges. A woman, who for feveral years
had her legs and thighs fwelled in an extraordinary
manner, found fome relief from rubbing them before
the fire with brandy every morning and evening.
One evening the fire chanced to catch the brandy {he
had rubbed herfelf with, and {lightly burnt her. She
applied fome brandy to her burn } and in the night all
the water her legs and thighs were fwelled with was
entirely difcharged by urine, and the fwelling did not
again return.
BuRNiNG-Bu/h, See Bush.
BuRNING-G/afs, a convex glafs commonly fpherical,
which being expofed direflly to the fun, collefts all the
rays falling thereon into a'very fmall fpace called the
focus ; where wood or any other combuftible matter
being put, will be fet on fire. The term burning-glafs
is alfo ufed to denote thofe concave mirrors, whether
"compofed of glafs quickfilveied, or of metalline mat¬
ters, which bum by refleftion, condenfing the fun’s rays
into a focus limilar to the former.
The ufe of burning-glaffes appears to have been very
ancient. Diodorus Siculus, Lucian, Dion, Zonaras,
Galen, Anthemius, Euftathius, Tzetzes, and others,
jutteft, that by means of them Archimedes fet fire to
the Roman fleet at the fiege of Syracufe. Tzetzes is
fo particular in his account of this matter, that his de-
fcrintion fuggeited to Kircher the method by which
it was probably accomplifhed. That author fays, that
Archimedes fet fire to Marcellus’s navy, by means
of a burning glafs compofed of fmall iquare mirrors
moving every way upon hinges,5 which, when placed
in the fun’s rays, directed them upon the Roman fleet,
fo as to reduce it to allies at the diitance of a bow fliot.”
A very particular teftimony we have alio from Anthe¬
mius of Lydia, who takes pains to prove the poflibility
of fetting fire to a fleet, or any other combuftible bo¬
dy, at fueh a diitance,
" That the ancients were alfo acquainted with the ufe
! ] BUR
of catoptric or refracting burning-glalfes, appears from Burning,
a paffage in Ariftophanes’s comedy of The Clouds, which ' ' v
clearly treats of their effeas. The author introduces
Socrates as examining Strepfiades about the method
he had difcovered of getting clear of his debts. .He
replies, that “ he thought of making ufe of a burn¬
ing-glafs which he had hitherto ufed in kindling his
fire “ for (fays he) ftiould they bring a writ againft
me, I’ll immediately place my glafs in the fun at fome
little diftance from it, and fet it on fire.” Pliny and
Laaantius have alfo fpoken of glaffes that burn by
refraaion. The former calls them balls or globes. of
glafs or cnjjlaf which, expoled to the fun, tranfmit a
heat fufficient to fet fire to cloth, or corrode the dead
flefli of thofe patients w'ho Hand in need of cauftics $
and the latter, after Clemens Alexandrinus, takes no¬
tice that fire may be kindled by ititerpofing glaffes fill¬
ed with water between the fun and the objea, fo as to
tranfmit the rays to it.
It feems difficult to conceive how they ftiould know
fuch glaffes would burn without knowing they would
magnify, w'hich it is granted they did not, till tow aids
the clofe of the 13th century, when fpedacles were firft
thought on. For as to thofe paffages in Plautus w'hich
feem to intimate the knowledge of fpeftacles, M. de
la Hire obferves, they do not prove any fuch thing j
and he folves this, by obferving, that their burning-
glaffes being fpheres, either folid or full of water, their
foci would be one-fourth of their diameter diftant from
them. If then their diameter were fuppofed half a foot,
which is the moft we can allow, an object muft be at an
inch and an half diftance to perceive it magnified 5 thofe
at greater diftances do not appear greater, but only
more confufed through the glafs than out of it. It is
no wonder, therefore, the magnifying property of con¬
vex glaffes was unknown, and the burning one known.
It is more wonderful there ftiould be 300 years between
the invention of fpedtacles and telefcopes.
Among the antients, the burning mirrors of Archi¬
medes and Proclus are famous : the former we have
already taken notice of j by the other, the navy ot
Vitellius befieging Byzantium, according to Zonaras,
was burnt to allies.
Among the moderns, the moft remarkable burning
mirrors are thofe of Settala, of Villette, of Tfchirnhau-
fen, of Buffon, of Trudaine, and of Parker. _
Settala, canon of Padua, made a parabolic mirror,
which, according to Shottus, burnt pieces of wood
at the diftance of 15 or 16 paces. Vue following things
are noted of it in the JBa Eruditorum. 1. Green wood
takes fire inftantaneoufly, fo as a ftrong wind cannot
extinguifh it. 2. Water boils immediately ; and eggs
in it are prefently edible. 3. A mixture ot tin and
lead, three inches thick, drops prefently •, and iron and
fteel plate becomes red-hot prefently, and a little alter
burns into holes. 4. Things not capable of melting,
as ft ones, bricks, &c. become foon red-hot, like iron,
r Slate becomes firft white, then a black glafs. 6. lifts
are converted into a yellow glafs, and {hells into a
blackifli yellow one. 7. A pumice ftone, emitted from
a volcano, melts into white glafs •, and 8. A piece ot
crucible alfo vitrifies in eight minutes. 9. Bones are
foon turned into an opaque glafs, and earth into a black
one. The breadth of this mirror is near three Leipiic
ells its focus two ells from it; it is made of copper,
} and
b u n • r i
Burning, and Its fubftance is not above double tlie tbieknefs of
1 the back of a knife.
Villette, a French artift of Lyons, made a large
mirror, which was bought by Tavernier and pre-
fented to the king of Perfia •, a fecond, bought by the
king of Denmark •, a third, prefented by the French
king to the Royal Academy 5 a fourth has been in Eng¬
land, where it was publicly expofed. The elle£ts here¬
of, as found by Dr Harris and Dr Defaguliers, are,
that a lilver lixpence is melted in 7^-", a King George’s
halfpenny in 16", and runs with a hole in 34'b Tin
melts in 3", call iron in 16", date in 3" •, a foflil fhell
calcines in 7" 5 a piece of Pompey’s pillar at Alexan¬
dria vitrifies, the black part in 50", the white in
54" j copper ore in 8" j bone calcines in 4", vitrifies
in 33,;. An emerald melts into a fubftance like a tur-
quois ftone •, a diamond weighing four grains lofes feven-
eighths of its weight: the afbeftos vitrifies} as all other
bodies will do, if kept long enough in the focus j but
when once vitrified, the mirror can go no farther with
them. This mirror is 47 inches wide, and is ground
to a fphere of 76 inches radius; fo that its focus is
about 38 inches from the vertex. Its fubftance is a
compofition of tin, copper, and tin-glafs.
Every lens, whether convex, plano-convex, or con¬
vexo-convex, collects the fun’s rays, difperfed over its
convexity, into a point by refraftion ; and is there¬
fore a burning glafs. The moft confiderable of this
kind is that made by M. de Tfehirnhaufen : the dia¬
meters of his lenfes are three and four feet, the focus
at the diftance of 12 feet, and its diameter an inch and
a half. To make the focus the more vivid, it is col-
le£led a fecond time by a fecond lens parallel to the firft,
and placed in that point where the diameter of the
cone of rays formed by the firft lens is equal to the
diameter of the fecond : fo that it receives them all *,
and the focus, from an inch and a half, is contracted
into the fpaee of eight lines, and its force increafed
proportionably.
This glafs vitrifies tiles, dates, pumice-ftones, &c.
in a moment. It melts fulphur, pitch, and all rofins,
under water •, the allies of vegetables, v'oods, and other
matters, are tranfmuted into glafs •, and every thing
applied to its focus is either melted, turnedhnto a calx,
or into fmoke. Tfehirnhaufen obferves, that it fuc-
ceeds beft when the matter applied is laid on a hard
charcoal well burnt.
Sir Ifaac Newton prefented a burning-glafs to the
royal fociety, confifting of feven concave glafles, fo
placed as that all their foci join in one phyfical point.
Each glafs is about x 1 inches and a half in diameter:
fix of them are placed round the feventh, to which
they are all contiguous •, and they form a kind of feg-
ment of a fphere, vhofe fubtenfe is about 34 inches
and a half, and the central glafs lies about an inch far¬
ther in than the reft. The common focus is about 22
inches and a half diltant, and about an inch in diame¬
ter. This glafs vitrifies brick or tile in 1", and melts
gold in 30".
It would appear, however, that glafs quickfilvered
Is a more proper material for burning-glafles than
metals •, for the effects of that fpeculum wherewith Mr
Macquer melted the platina feem to have been fupe-
rior to thofe above mentioned, though the mirror it-
3 1 B u 11 . .
felf v'as much fmaller. The diameter of this glafs was Burning,
only i2 inches, and its focal diftance 28. Black flint, '
when expofed to the focus, being powdered to prevent
its crackling and flying about, and fecured in a large
piece of charcoal, bubbled up and ran into tranfparent
glafs in lefs than half a minute. Heflian crucibles, and
glafs-houfe potr, vitrified completely in three or four
feconds. Forged iron fmoked, boiled, and changed in¬
to a vitrefeent fcoria as foon as it was expofed to the
focus. The gypfum of Montmartre, when the flat
fides of the plates or leaves of which it is compofed
w'ere prefented to the glafs, did not ftrow the leaft dif-
pofition to melt; but, on prefenting a tranfverfe fec-
tion of it, or the edges of the plates, it melted in an
inftant, with a hiding noife, into a brownilh yellow
matter. Calcareous ftones did not completely melt :
but there was detached from them a circle more com¬
pact than the reft of the mafs, and of the fize of the
focus j the feparation of which feemed to be occafioned
by the ftirinking of the matter which had begun to en¬
ter into fufion. The white calx of antimony, common¬
ly called diaphoretic antimony, melted better than the
calcareous ftones, and changed into an opaque pretty
gloffy fubftance like white enamel. It was obferved,
that the whitenefs of the calcareous ftones and the an-
timonial calx w as of great difadvantage to their fufion,
by reafon of their reflecting great part of the fun’s rays j
fo that the fubjeeft could not undergo the full aflivity
of the heat thrown upon it by the burning-glafs. The
cafe was the fame with metallic bodies 5 which melted
fo much the more difficultly as they were more white
and polifhed j and this difterence wras fo remarkable,
that in the focus of this mirror, fo fufible a metal as
filver, when its furface w as polilhed, did not melt at
all.
Plate CXXXI. fig. t. repcefents M. Buffon’s burn¬
ing mirror, which he with great reafon fuppofes to be
of the fame nature with that of Archimedes. It con-
fifts of a number of fmall mirrors of glafs quickfilvered,
all of which are held together by an iron frame. Each
of thefe fmall mirrors is alfo moveable by a contrivance
on the back part of the frame, that fo their reflexions
may all coincide in one point. By this means they are
capable of being accommodated to various heights of
the fun, and to different diftances. The adjufting them
in this manner takes up a confiderable time j but after
they are fo adjufted, the focus will continue unaltered
for an hour or more.
Fig. 2. reprefents a contrivance of M. Buffon’s for
diminilhing the thieknefs of very large refraXing lenfes.
He obfervfcs, that in the large lenfes of this kind, and
which are moft convenient for many purpofes, the
thicknefs of the glafs in the middle is fo great as very
much to diminith their force. For this reafon he pro-
pofes to form a burning-glafs of concentric circular
pieces of glafs, each refting upon the other, as reprefent-
ed in the figure. His method is to divide the convex
arch of the lens into three equal parts. Thu?, fuppofe
the diameter to be 26 inches, and the thicknefs in the
middle to be three inches: By dividing the lens into
three concentric circles, and laying the one over the
other, the thicknefs of the middle piece needs be only
one inch \ at the fame time that the lens will have the
fame convexity, and almoft tlxc fame focal diftance,
its
BUR [14
Burning. as ;n tlie otlier cafe ; while the effects of it muft be
v_ much greater, on account of the greater thinnefs of
the glafs.
M. Trudaine, a French gentleman, conftru&ed a
burning lens on a new principle. It was compofed of
two circular fegments of glafs fpheres, each four feet in
diameter, applied with their concave Tides towards each
other. The cavity was filled with fpirit of wine, of
which it contained 40 pints. It was prefented by the
maker to the royal academy of fciences, but was, not
long after, broken by accident. The expence of con-
ftrudling it amounted to about toool. fterling. After
all, it does not appear that the effefts of this lens were
very great. Mr Magellan informs us, that it could on¬
ly coagulate the particles of platina in 20 minutes,
while Mr Parker’s lens entirely melted them in lefs
than two.
A large burning lens, indeed, for the purpofe of fu-
ling and vitrifying fuch fubftances as refill the fires of
•ordinary furnaces, and efpecially for the application of
heat in vacuo, and in other circumllances in which heat
cannot be applied by any other means, has long been a
defideratum among perfons concerned in philo’fophical
experiments : And it appears now to be in a great de*
gree accomplilhed by Mr Parker. His lens is three
feet in diameter, made of flint-glafs, and which, when
fixed in its frame, expofes a furface two feet eight
inches and a half in the clear.
In the Elevation reprefented on Plate CXXXII, A is
the lens of the diameter mentioned : thicknefs in the
centre, three inches and one-fourth : weight, 212
pounds : length of the focus, fix. feet eight inches ;
diameter of ditto, one inch. B, a fecond lens, whofe
diameter in the frame is 16 inches, and {hows in the
clear r 3 inches : thicknefs in the centre, one inch five-
eighths: weight 21 pounds: length of focus 29 inches:
diameter of ditto, three-eighths of an inch. When the
two above lenfes are compounded together, the length
of the focus is five feet three inches: diameter of ditto,
half an inch. C, a truncated cone, compofed of 21
ribs of wood: at the larger end is fixed the great lens A;
at the fmaller extremity the leffer lens B : near the
fmaller end is alfo fixed a rack D, paffing through the
pillar L, moveable by a pinion turning in the faid
pillar, by means of the handle E, and thus giving a
vertical motion to the machine. F, a bar of wood,
fixed between the two lower ribs of the cone at G ;
having, within a chafed mortice in which it moves, an
apparatus H, w ith the iron plate, I, fixed thereto; and
this part turning on a ball and focket, K, a method is
thereby obtained of placing the matter under experi¬
ment, fo as to’ be afted upon by the focal rays-in the
moll dire£l and powerful manner. LL, a flrong ma¬
hogany frame, moving on callors, MM. Immediately
under the table N are three fritlion wheels, by which
the machine moves horizontally. O, a llrong iron
bow, in which the lens and the done hang.
SeFlion.—a, The greai lens marked A in the eleva¬
tion. b, The frame which contains the lens, c, The
fmall lens marked B. d, The frame which contains
the fmall lens, e, The truncated cone, marked C.
f, The bar on which the apparatus marked F moves.
g, The iron plate marked I. h, The cone of rays
formed by the refradlion of the great lens a, and falling
on the lens c. i, The cone of rays formed by the
] BUR
refraction of the lens c. Ft ont-view.—k, The great Burnifif.
lens. 1, The frame containing it. m, The llrong iron
bow in which it hangs.
From a great number of experiments made with this
lens, in the prefence of many fcientific perfons, the
following are feleCled as fpecimens of its powers.
Subltances fufed, with their weight and
time of fufion.
ao w
16
- c
Gold, pure,
Silver, do.
Copper, do.
Platina, do.
Nickel],
Bar iron, a cube,
Call iron, a cube,
Steel, a cube,
Scoria of wrought iron,
Terra ponderofa, or barytes,
A topaz, or chryfolite,
An oriental emerald,
Cryltal pebble,
White agate,
Flint, oriental,
Rough cornelian,
Jafper,
Onyx,
Garnet,
White rhomboidal fpar,
Zeolites,
Rotten llone,
Common flate,
A.lbeltos, - -
Common lime-llone,
Pumice-Rone,
Lava, - -
Volcanic clay,
Cornilh moor-flone,
20
20
33
10
16
10
10
10
12
xo
3
2
7
10
ro
10
10
10
10
10
10
JO
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
3
4
20
3
3
12
3
12
2
7
45
25
6
30
3°
75
25
20
17
60
23
80
55
24
7
60
60
Burning Mountains. See /Etna, Hecla, Vesu¬
vius, and Volcano, with the plates accompanying
them.
BURNING Springs. Of thefe there are many in dif¬
ferent parts of the world 5 particularly one in Dau-
phiny near Grenoble ; another near Hermanfladt irt
Tranfylvania 5 a third at Chermay, a village near
Switzerland 5 a fourth in the canton of Friburg ; and
a fifth not far from the city of Cracow in Poland.
There alfo is, or was, a famous fpring of the fame
kind at Wigan in Lancalhire, which, upon the ap¬
proach of a lighted candle, would take fire and burn
like fpirit of wine for a whole day. But the moR re¬
markable one of this kind, or at leaR that of which we
have the moil particular defeription, wras difeovered in
1711 at Brofely in Shroplhire. The following account
of this remarkable fpring was given by the reverend Mr
Mafon, Woodwardian profelfor at Cambridge, dated
February x8. 1746. “ The w^ell for four or five feet
deep is fix or feven feet wide 5 within that is another
lefs hole of like depth dug in the clay, in the bottom
whereof is placed a cylindric earthen veffel, of about
four or five inches diameter at the mouth, having the
bottom taken off, and the fides well fixed in the clay
camme4
BTTRJNXrSG MIRROR
PLATE CXXJL
(?r // vA, //wt/f'j.
//*?w
//'//A r/r .
//?’/////
:y.
7 s'/a.
JVJnch&ald Scidfi f
' ' /-'Aj/// v w/t/Ay *y f/f/rA///<"
r//sr/j.
^ Ay.A ■
WArcfa'bdlrf Sculp?
BUR
[ 15 1
BUR
Burning, rammed clofe about it. Within the pot is a brown
liurniiTier. water> thick as puddle, continually forced up with a
v violent motion beyond that of boiling water, and a
rumbling hollow noife, riling or falling by fits five or
fix inches •, but there was no appearance of any vapour
riling, which perhaps might have been vilible, had not
the fun Ihone fo bright. Upon putting a candle,
down at the end of a ilick, at about a quarter of a yard
diftance, it took fire, darting and fiaihing after a very
violent manner for about half a yard high, much in the
manner of fpiriis in a lamp, but with great agitation.
It was faid, that a tca-kett'e had been made to boil in
about nine minutes time, and that it had been left burn¬
ing for 48 hours without any fenfible diminution. It
was extinguilhed by putting a wet mop upon it ; which
mult, ue kept there for a little time, otherwife it would
not go out. Upon the removal of the mop there arifes
a fulphureous imoke lading about a minute, and yet the
water is very cold to the touch.” In 1755, this well
totally difappeared by the finking of a coal-pit in its
neighbourhood.
The cauie of the inflammable property of fuch wa¬
ters is, with great probability, fuppofed to be their
mixture with petroleum, which is a very inflammable
fubftance, and has the property of burning on the fur-
face of water.
BURNING of Colours, among painters. There are
feveral colours that require burning j as,
Firft, Lamp-black, which is a colour of fo greafy a
nature, that, except it is burnt, it will require a long
time to dry. The method of burning, or rather dry¬
ing, lamp black, is as follows : Put it into a crucible
over a clear fire, letting it remain till it be red hot,
or fo near it that no manner of fmoke arifes from
it.
Secondly, Umber, which, if it be intended for co¬
lour for a horfe, or to be a (hadow for gold, then
burning fits it for both thefe purpofes. In order to
©urn umber, you muft put it into the naked fire, in
large lumps, and not take it out till it is thoroughly
red hot} if you have a mind to be more curious, put
it into a crucible, and keep it over the fire till it be
red hot.
Ivory alfo muft be burnt to make black, finis : Fill
two crucibles with (havings of ivory, then clap their
two mouths together, and bind them faft with an iron
wire, and lute the joints clofe with clay, fait, and
horfe-dung, ^vell beaten together •, then fet it over the
fire, covering it all over with coals : let it remain in
the fire till you are fure that the matter enclofed is
thoroughly red hot : then take it out of the fire ; but
do not open the crucibles till they are perfcftly cold 5
for were they opened while hot, the matter would turn
to afhes ; and lo it will be, if the joints are not luted
elofe.
BURNISHER, a round polifhed piece of fteel
ferving to mooth and give a luftre to metals.
Of thefe there are different kinds of different fi¬
gures, ftraight, crooked, &c. Half burniftiers are ufed
to (older fiiver, as well as to give a luftre.
Burniihers for go’d and fiiver are commonly made
®f a dog’s or wolf’s tooth, fet in the end of an iron or
wooden handle. Of late, agates and pebbles have been
introduced, which many prefer Lo the dog’s tooth.
The burniftiers uled by engravers in copper, ufually
ferve with one end to burnifti, and with the other to Burniftier
fcrape. II
BURNISHING, the art of fmoothing or poliftiing ^luns' ,
a metalline body, by a brilk rubbing of it with a bur-
niiher.
Book-binders burnifti the edges of their books, by
rubbing them with a dog’s tooth.
BURNLEY, a town of Lancaftiire in England,
fituated in W. Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 51. 38.
BURNS, Robert, v^as a native of Ayrlhire, one
of the weftern counties of Scotland. He was the fon
of humble parents •, and his father paffed through life
in the condition of a hired labourer, or of a fmall far¬
mer. Even in this fituation, however, it was not hard
for him to fend his children to the parifti fchool, to re¬
ceive the ordinary inftruttion in reading, writing, arith¬
metic, and the principles of religion. By this courfe of
education young Robert profited to a degree that might
have encouraged his friends to deftine him to one of
the liberal profeflions, had not his father’s poverty
made it neceffary to remove him from fchool, as foon
as he had grown up, to earn for himfelf the means of
fupport as a hired ploughboy or (hepherd.
The expence oi education in the parifti-fchools of
Scotland is (o fmall, that hardly any parents who are
able to labour want the means of giving to their chil¬
dren at leaft fuch education as young Burns received.
From the fpring labours of a ploughboy, from the
fummer employment of a (hepherd, the peafant-youth
often returns for a few months, eagerly to purfue his
education at the parifh-fchool.
It was fo with Burns ; he returned from labour to
learning, and from learning went again to labour, till
his mind began to open to the charms of tafte and
knowledge \ till lie began to feel a paflion for books,
and for the fubjcifts of books, which was to give a co¬
lour to the whole thread of his future life. On nature
he foon began to gaze with new difcernment and w ith
new enthufiafm : his mind’s eye opened to perceive af-
fefling beauty and fublimity, where, by the mere grofs
peafant, there was nought to be feen but water, earth,
and (ky—but animals, plants, and foil.
What might perhaps firft contribute to difpofe his
mind to poetical efforts, is one particular in the devo¬
tional piety of the Seotifti peafantry. It is (till com¬
mon for them to make their children get by heart the
Pfalms of David, in the verfion of homely rhymes
which is ufed in their churches. In the morning and
in the evening of every day, or at leaft on the evening"
of every Saturday and Sunday, thefe Pfalms are fung
in folemn family-devotion, a chapter of the Bible is
read, and extemporary prayer is fervently uttered. The
whole books of the ('acred Scriptures are thus conti¬
nually in the hands of almoft every peaiant. And it is
impoflible that there (hould not be occalionally feme
fouls among them, awakened to the divine emotions of
genius by that rich aflemblage which thofe books pre-
fent, of almoft all that is interefting in incidents, or pic-
turefque in imagery, or affeiftingly fublime or tender in
fentiments and charaRer. It is impoflible that thofe
rude rhymes, and the Ample artlefs mufie with which
they are accompanied, (hould not oecafionally excite
fome ear to a fond perception of the melody of verie.
That Burns had felt thefe impulfes, w ill appear unde¬
niably certain to whoever (hall carefully peruie his Cot.
tad
Bums.
BUR [i
tar's Saturday's Night; or ihall remark, with nice ob-
fervation, the various fragments of Scripture fentiment,
of Scripture imagery, of Scripture language, which are
fcattered throughout his works.
Still more interefting to the young peafantry are
thofe ancient ballads of love and war, of which a great
number are, in the fouth of Scotland, yet popularly
known, and often fung by the ruftic maid or matron at
her fpinning-wheel. They are liftened to with ravifhed
ears by old and young. rlheir rude melody •, that
mingled curioiity and awe which are naturally excited
by the very idea of their antiquity j the exquilitely
tender and natural complaints fometimes poured forth
in them j the gallant deeds of knightly heroifm, which
they fometimes celebrate 5 their wild tales of demons,
gholts, and fairies, in whofe exiflence fuperltition alone
has believed } the manners which they reprefent 5 the
obfolete, yet pidturefque and exprefluve, language in
which they are often clothed—give them wonderful
power to tranfport every imagination, and to agitate
every heart. To the foul of Burns they were like a
happy breeze touching the wires of an TEolian harp,
and calling forth the molt ravifhing melody.
Befide all this, the Gentle Shepherd, and the other
poems of Allan Ramfay, have long been highly popu¬
lar in Scotland. They fell early into the hands of
Burns $ and while the fond applaufe w hich they receiv¬
ed drew his emulation, they prefented to him likewife
treafures of phrafeology and models of verfification.
He got acquainted at the fame time wdth the poetry
of Robert Fergufon, written chiefly in the Scotifh
dialed, and exhibiting many fpecimens of uncommon
poetical excellence. The Seafons of Thomfon too,
the Grave of Blair, the far-famed Elegy of Gray,
the Paradife Loft of Milton, perhaps the Minftrel of
Beattie, were fo commonly read, even among thofe
with whom Burns wamld naturally affociate, that poe¬
tical curiofity, although even lefs ardent than his, could
in fuch circumftances have little difficulty in procuring
them. . .
With fuch means to give his imagination a poetical
bias, and to favour the culture of his tafte and genius,
Burns gradually became a poet. He w as not, however,
one of thofe forward children who, from a miftaken im-
pulfe, begin prematurely to wrrite and to rhyme,. and
hence never attain to excellence. Converfmg familiai iy
for a long while with the works of thofe poets who
wrere known to him ; contemplating the afped of na¬
ture in a diftrid which exhibits an uncommon aftern-
blage of the beautiful and the ruggedly grand, of the
cultivated and the wild } looking upon human life with
an eye quick and keen, to remark as well the ftronger
and leading, as the nicer and fubordinate, features ol
eharader j to difcriminate the generous, the honour¬
able, the manly in condud, from the ridiculous, the
bafe, and the mean—he was diftinguifhed among his
fellows for extraordinary intelligence, good fenfe, and
penetration, long before others, or perhaps even him-
felf fufpeded him to be capable of writing veries. His
mind was mature, and well ftored with fuch knowledge
as lay within his fearch : he had made himfelf mailer
of powers of language, fuperior to thofe of almoft any
former writer in the Scotifh dialed, before he conceiv¬
ed the idea of furpafling Ramfay.and Fergufon..
Hitherto he had converfed intimately only with pea-
6 ] BUR
fants on his own level j but having got admiflion into
the fraternity of free-mafons, he had the fortune, whe¬
ther good or bad, to attrad in the lodges the notice of
gentlemen better qualified than his more youthful com¬
panions to call forth the powers of his mind, .and to
fhow him that he was indeed a poet. A mafonic long,
a fatirical epigram, a rhyming epiftle to a friend, at¬
tempted with fuccefs, taught him to know his own
powers, and gave him confidence to try talks more ar¬
duous, and which Ihould command ftill higher burfts of
applaufe.
The annual celebration of the facrament of the Lord s
Supper, in the rural parillies of Scotland, has much m it
of thofe old popifti feftivals, in which fuperftition, traffic,
and amufement,ufed to be ftrangely intermingled. Burns
facv, and feized in it one of the happieft ol all fubjeds,
to afford fcope for the difplay of that ftrong and pier¬
cing fagaeity by which he could almoft intuitively di-
ftinguilh the reafonable from the abfurd, and the beco¬
ming from the ridiculous j of that pidurelque power of
fancy, which enabled him to reprefent feenes, and per-
fons, and groupes, and looks, attitudes, and geftures, in
a manner almoft as lively and impreflive, even in v ords,
as if all the artifices and energies of the pencil had been
employed j of that knowledge which he had neceffarily
acquired of the manners, paffions, and.prejudices of the
ruftics around him, of whatever w as ridiculous, no lefs
than of whatever was affedingly beautiful, in rural life.
A thoufand prejudices of Popifti, and perhaps too
«f ruder Pagan fuperftition, have from time immemo¬
rial been conne&ed in the minds of the Scotifti pea¬
fantry, with the annual recurrence of the Eve of the
Feftival of all the Saints, or Halloween. Thefe were
all intimately known to. Burns, and had made a power¬
ful impreflion upon his imagination and feelings. He
chofe them for the fubjed of a poem, and produced a
piece which is almoft to frenzy the delight of thole
who are beft acquainted with its fubjeft j and. which
will not fail to preferve the memory of the prejudices
and ufages which it deferibes,.when they (hall perhaps
have ceafed to give one merry evening m the year to
the cottage fire-fide. .. ,
The Ample joys, the honeft love, the fincere Inend-
ftiip, the ardent devotion of the cottage.-, whatever m
the more folemn part of the ruftic’s life is humble and
artlefs, without being mean or unfeemly—or tender and
dignified, without afpiring to ftilted grandeur, or to
unnatural bufldned pathos, had deeply impreffed the
imagination of the rifing poet -, had, m lome fort,
wrought itfelf into the very texture of the fibres of his
foul He tried to exprefs in verfe what he moft ten¬
derly felt, what he moft enthufiaftically imagined 5 and
produced the Cottar's Saturday's Night. . .
Thefe pieces, the true effufion of genius, informed
by reading and obfervation, and prompted by its own
native ardour, as well as by friendly applaufe., were
foon handed about amongft the moft difcermng of
Burns’s acquaintance -, and were by every new reader
uerufed and reperufed, with an eagernefs of delight
and approbation which would not iuffer their author
long to withhold them from the prefs. A fubfcription
was propofed > was earneftly promoted by lome gentle¬
men w ho were glad to intereft themfelves 111 behalf of
fuch fignal poetical merit j was loon crowded with
the names of a confiderable number of the inhabitants
Bum*.
BUR f 17 ] BUR
Bums, of Ayrflure, who in the proffered purchafe fought not
1 jcfs to gratify their own paflion for Scotifh poetry, than
to encourage the wonderful ploughman. At Kilmar¬
nock were the poems of Burns for the firft time print¬
ed. The whole edition was quickly diftributed over
the country.
It is hardly poffible to exprefs with what eager ad¬
miration and delight they were everywhere received.—
They eminently poffeffed all thofe qualities which the
moft invariably contribute to render any literary work
quickly and permanently popular. They were written
in a phrafeology, of which all the powers were univer-
fally felt; and which being at once antique, familiar,
and now rarely written, was hence fitted to ferve all
the dignified and pi&urefque ufes of poetry, without
making it unintelligible. The imagery, the fentiments,
were at once faithfully natural, and irrefiftibly impref-
five and interefting. Thofe topics of fatire and fcandal
in which the ruftic delights; that humorous imitation
•f chara&er, and that witty affociation of ideas familiar
and ftriking, yet not naturally allied to ono another,
which has force to (hake his fides with laughter •, thofe
fancies of fuperftition, at which he ftill wonders and
trembles ; thofe affe&ing fentiments and images of true
religion, which are at once dear and awful to his heart,
were all reprefented by Burns with all a poet’s magic
power. Old and young, high and low, grave and gay,
learned or ignorant, all were alike delighted, agitated,
tranfported.
In the mean time, fome few' copies of thefe fafeina-
ting poems found their way to Edinburgh ; and having
been read to Dr Blacklock, they obtained his warmeft
approbation. In the beginning of the winter 1786-7
Burns went to Edinburgh, where he was received by
Dr Blacklock with the moft flattering kindnefs, and
introduced to every man of generofity and tafte among
that good man’s friends. Multitudes now vied with
oach other in patronizing the ruftic poet. Thofe who
poffeffed at once true tafte and ardent philanthropy
were foon earneftly united in his praife : they who were
difpofed to favour any good thing belonging to Scot¬
land, purely becaufe it was Scotilh, gladly joined the
cry j thofe who had hearts and underftanding to be
charmed, without knowing why, when they faw their
native cuftoms, manners, and language, made the fub-
jeifts and the materials of poefy, could not fupprefs that
voice of feeling which ftruggled to declare itfelf for
Burns : for the diflipated, the licentious, the malignant
wits, and the freethinkers, he was fo unfortunate as to
have fatire, and obfeenity, and ridicule of things fa-
cred, fufficient to captivate their fancies 5 even for the
pious he had paffages in which the infpired language of
devotion might feem to come mended from his pen.
Thus did Burns, ere he had been many weeks in E-
dinburgh, find himfelf the object of univerfal curiofity,
favour, admiration, and fondnefs. He was fought after,
courted with attentions the moft refpedtful and aflidu-
ous, feafted, flattered, careffed, treated by all ranks as
the firft boaft of his country, whom it was fcarcely pof¬
fible to honour and reward to a degree equal to his
merits. In comparifon with the general favour which
now promifed to more than crown his moft fanguine
hopes, it could hardly be called praife at all which he
had obtained in Ayrfhire.
In this pofture of our poet’s affairs a new edition of
V«L. Vf Part I.
his poems was earneftly called for. He fold the copy- Burns,
right for tool, j but his friends at the fame time fug- "
gefted, and actively promoted, a fubfeription for an
edition, to be publiflied for the benefit of the author,
ere the bookfeller’s right thould commence. Thofe
gentlemen who had formerly entertained the public
of Edinburgh with the periodical publication of the
papers of the Mirror, having again combined their ta¬
lents in producing the Lounger, were at this time about
to conclude this laft feries of papers*, yet before the
Lounger relinquiflied his pen, he dedicated a number
to a commendatory criticifm of the poems of the Ayr-
fliire bard.
The fubfeription-papers were rapidly filled ; and it
was fuppofed that the poet might derive from the fub¬
feription and the fale of his copy-right a clear profit of
at leaft 700I.
The converfation of even the moft eminent authorfe
is often found to be fo unequal to the fame of their
writings, that he who reads with admiration can liften
with none but fentiments of the moft profound con¬
tempt. But the converfation of Burns was, in com¬
parifon with the formal and exterior eircumftances of
his education, perhaps even more wonderful than his
poetry. He affected no foft air or graceful motions
of politenefs, which might have ill accorded with the
ruftic plainnefs of his native manners. Confcious fu-
periority of mind taught him to affociate with the great,
the learned, and the gay, without being overawed in¬
to any fuch baftrfulnefs as might have made him con-
fufed in thought, or hefitating in elocution. He pof¬
feffed withal an extraordinary {hare of plain common
fenfe or mother-wit, which prevented him from ob¬
truding upon perfons, of whatever rank, with whom ho
was admitted to converfe, any of thofe effufions of va¬
nity, envy, or felf-conceit, in which authors are exceed¬
ingly apt to indulge, who have lived remote from tha
general pra&ice of life, and whofe minds have been
almoft exclufively confined to contemplate their own
ftudies and their own works. In converfation he dif-
played a fort of intuitive quicknefs and reftitude of
judgement upon every fubjedt that arofe. The fenfibi-
lity of his heart, and the vivacity of his fancy, gave a
rich colouring to whatever reafoning he was difpofed
to advance j and his language in converfation was not
at all lefs happy than in his writings. For thefe rea-
fons, thofe who had met and converfed with him once,
were pleafed to meet and to converfe with him again
and again.
For fome time he converfed only with the virtuous,
the learned, and the wife j and the purity of his morals
remained uncontaminated. But, alas ! he fell, as others
have fallen in fimilar circumftances. He fuffered him¬
felf to be furrounded by a race of miferable beings,
who were proud to tell that they had been in company
with Burns, and had feen Burns as loofe and as foolifti
as themfelves. He was not yet irrecoverably loft to tem¬
perance and moderation j but he was already almoft
too much captivated with their wanton rivals, to be
ever more won back to a faithful attachment to their
more fober charms. He now alfo began to contract
fomething of new arrogance in converfation. Accuf-
tomed to be among his favourite affociates what is vul¬
garly but expreflively called the cock of the company, he
could fcarcely refrain from indulging in fimilar free-
C do®,
BUR . t l!
Sums, dom and dictatorial decifion of talk, even in the pre-
fence of perfons who could lefs patiently endure his
prefumption.
The fubfcription edition of his poems, m the mean
time, appeared } and although not enlarged beyond
that which came from the Kilmarnock prefs by any
new pieces of eminent merit, did not fail to give entire
fatisfaction to the fubfcribers. He was now to clofe
accounts with his bookfeller and his printer, to retire
to the country with his profits in his pocket, and to fix
upon a plan for his future life. He talked loudly of
independence of fpirit, and fimplicity of manners, and
boafted his refolution to return to the plough 5 yet ftill
he lingered in Edinburgh, week after week, and month
after month, perhaps expefting that one or other of his
noble patrons might procure him fome permanent and
competent annual income, which thould fet him above
all neceflity of future exertions to earn for himfelf the
means of fubfiftence ; perhaps unconfcioufly reluftant
to quit the pleafures of that voluptuous town-life to
which he had for fome time too willingly accuftomed
himfelf. An accidental diflocation or fraaure of an
arm or a leg confining him for fome weeks to his apart¬
ment, left him during this time leifure for ferious re¬
flection ; and he determined to retire, from the.town
w'ithout longer delay. None of all his patrons.imer-
pofed to divert him from his purpofe of returning to
the plough, by the offer of any fmall penfion, or any
finecure place of moderate emolument,. fuch as might
have given him competence without withdrawing him
from his poetical itudies. It feemed to be forgotten
that a ploughman thus exalted into a man of letteis
was unfitted for his former toils, W'ithout being regu¬
larly qualified to enter the career of any new- profel-
flon ; and that it became incumbent upon thofe patrons
who had called him from the plough, not merely to
make him their companion in the hour of riot, not
Amply to fill his purfe with gold for a few tranfient ex-
pences, but to fecure him, as far as.was poffible, f10n\
being ever overwhelmed in diftrefs in confequence of
the favour which they had fhovn him, and of the ha¬
bits of life into which they had feduced him. Perhaps
indeed the fame delufion of fancy betrayed both Burns
and his patrons into the miflaken idea, that, after all
which had paffed, it was ftill poflible for him to return
in cheerful content to the homely joys and Ample toils
of undiflipated rural life. _ ^ .
In this temper of Burns’s mind, in this ftate of his
fortune, a farm and the excife were the objefts upon
which his choice ultimately fixed for future employ¬
ment and fupport. By the furgeon who attended him
during his illnefs, he was recommended with effeft to
the commiftioners of excife •, and Patrick Miller, Elq.
of Dalfwinton, deceived, like Burns himfelf and
Burns’s other friends, into an idea that the poet and ex-
cifeman might yet be refpeftable and happy as a far¬
mer, generoufly propofed to eftablifh him m a faim,
upon conditions of leafe udiich prudence and induftry
might eafily render exceedingly advantageous. Burns
eao-erlv accepted the offers of this benevolent pation.
Two of the poet’s friends from Ayrfhire were invited
to furvey that farm in Dumfriesfhire which Mr Millar
offered. A leafe wras granted to the poetical farmer at
that annual rent which his own friends declared that
the due cultivation of his farm might eafily enable him
] BUR
to pay. What yet remained of the profits of his pub- t Bnrns.
lication was laid out in the purchafe of farm flock j 'r*""
and Mr Miller might, for fome ftiort time, pleafe. him¬
felf wdth the perfuafion that he had approved himfelf
the liberal patron of genius 5 had acquired a good te¬
nant upon his eftate ; and had placed a deferring man
in the very iituation in which alone he himfelf defired
to be placed, in order to be happy to his withes.
Burns, with his Jane, whom he now married, took
up their reAdence upon his farm. Bhe neighbouring
farmers and gentlemen, pleafed to obtain for an inmate
among them the poet by whofe woiks they had been
delighted, kindly fought his company, and invited him
to their houfes. He found an inexpreffible charm in
fitting dowrn befide his wufe, at his own firefide j. in
W'andering over his own grounds j in once more putting
his hand to the fpade and the plough j in forming his
inclofures, and managing his cattle. lor fome months
he felt almoft all that felicity which fancy had taught
him to expedl in his new fituation. He had been for
a time idle *, but his mufcles were not yet unbraced
for rural toil. He now feemed to find a joy in beu.g
the hulband of the miftrefs of his afteftions, in feeing
himfelf the father of her children, fuch as might pro-
mife to attach him for ever to that model!, humble,
and domeftic life, in which alone he could hope to be
permanently happy. Even his engagements in the
fervice of the excite did not, at the very firft, threaten
neceffarily to debafe him by affociation with the mean,
the grofs, and the profligate, to contaminate the poet,
or to ruin the farmer.
But it could not be : it was not poflible for Burns-
now to affume that fobernefs of fancy and pafiions, that
fedatenefs of feeling, thofe habits of earneft attention to
grofs and vulgar cares, without which fuccefs in his new
fituation was not to be expefted. A thoufand difficul¬
ties were to be encountered and overcome, much mo¬
ney was to be expended, much weary toil , was to be
exercifed, before his farm could be brought into.a ftate
of cultivation, in which its produce might enrich the
occupier. This was not a profpedt encouraging to a
man who had never loved labour, and who was at.this
time certainly not at all difpofed to enter into agneu -
ture with the enthufiafm of a projector. -I he bufinefB
of the excife too, as he began to be more and more
employed in it, diftra£led his mind from the care ot his
farm, led him into grofs and vulgar.fociety, and expoied
him to many unavoidable temptations to drunken ex¬
cels, fuch as he had no longer fufficient fortitude to re¬
fill. Amidft the anxieties, diftra£lions, and ieduce-
ments which thus arofe to him, home became infenfibly
lefs and lefs pleafing •, even the endearments ot his
Jane’s affection began tolofe their hold on his heart j he
became every day lefs and lefs unwilling to forget in riot
thofe gathering borrows which he knew not to ffibdue.
Mr Millar and fome others of his friends would glad¬
ly have exerted an influence over his mind, which might
have preferved him in this fituation of his affairs, equal¬
ly from defpondency and from diffipation j but Burns s
temper fpurned all controul from his fupenors in for¬
tune. He refented, as an arrogant encroachment up¬
on his independence, that tenor of conduft by which
Mr Millar wifhed to turn him from diffolute convivia¬
lity to that fteady attention to the bufinefs of his,
farm, without which it was impoflible to thrive ir^it.
BUR [i
Burns. His croffes and difappointments drove him eytry day
—-v'"' more and more into diffipation j and his diflipation
tended to enhance whatever was difagreeable and per¬
plexing in the Hate of his affairs. He funk, by de¬
grees, into the boon companion of mere excifemen *,
and almoft every drunken fellow, who was willing to
fpend his money lavilhly in the alehoufe, could ealily
command the company of Burns. Ihe care of his
farm was thus neglected ; wafte and Ioffes wholly con-
fumed his little capital ; he refigned his leafe into the
hands of his landlord •, and retired, with his family, to
the town of Dumfries, determining to depend entirely
for the means of future fupport upon his income as an
excife-officer.
Yet during this unfortunate period of his life, which
paffed between his departure from Edinburgh to fettle
in Dumfries-fhire, and his leaving the country in order
to take up his rehdence in the town of Dumfries, the
energy and aiffivity of his intellectual pow'ers appeared
not to have been at all impaired. In a collection of
Scotilh fongs, which were publilhed (the words with
the mufic) by Mr Johnfon, engraver in Edinburgh, in
4 vols 8vo, Burns in many intlances, accommodated
new verfes to the old tunes with admirable felicity and
fkill. He a {lifted in the temporary inftitution of a
fmall fubfeription library, for the ufe of a number of
the well-difpofed peafants in his neighbourhood. He
readily aided, and by his knowledge of genuine Sco-
tith phrafeology and manners greatly enlightened, the
antiquarian refearches of the late ingenious Captain
Grofe. He ftill carried on an epiftolary correfpond-
ence, fometimes gay, iportive, humorous, but always
enlivened by bright llafhes of genius, with a number
of his old friends, and on a very wide diyerfity of to¬
pics. At times, as it fhould feem from his writings of
this period, he reflected, with inexprelTible heart-bit-
ternefs, on the high hopes from which he had fallen j
on the errors of moral conduft into which he had been
hurried by the ardour of his foul, and in forne meafure
by the very generofity of his nature •, on the difgrace
and wretchednefs into w’hich he faw himfelf rapidiy
linking •, on the forrovv with which his mifconduCl op-
preffed the heart of his Jane •, on the want and defti-
tute mifery in which it feemed probable that he muft
leave her and their infants •, nor amidft thefe agonizing
refle&ions did he fail to look, with an indignation half
Invidious, half contemptuous, on thofe wdio, with mo¬
ral habits not more excellent than his, with powers of
intelledl far inferior, yet balked in the funlhlne of for¬
tune, and were loaded wuth the wealth and honours of
the world, W'hile his follies could not obtain pardon,
nor his wants an honourable fupply. His wit became
from this time more gloomily farcaltic ; and his con-
verfation and writings began to affume fomething of a
tone of mifanthropical malignity, by which they had not
been before, in any eminent degree, diftinguilhed. But
with all thefe failings, he was ftill that exalted, mind
which had raifed itfelf above the depreftlon of its ori¬
ginal condition : wuth all the energy of the lion, paw'-
ing to fet free his hinder limbs from the yet encum¬
bering earth, he ftill appeared not lefs than archangel
ruined]
His morals were not mended by his removal from
the country. In Dumfries his diftipation became ftill
more deeply habitual j he was here more expo fed than
9 ] BUB.
in the country to be folicited to {hare the riot of the Buftis,
diffolute and the idle : fooliih young men flocked ea-
gerly about him, and from time to time preffed him to
drink with them, that they might enjoy his wicked
wit. The Caledonian Club, too, and the Dumfries-
fliire and Galloway Hunt, had occafional meetings in
Dumfries after Burns wont to refide there, and the
poet was of courfe invited to ihare their conviviality,
and hefitated not to accept the invitation.
In the intervals between his different fits of intem¬
perance, he fuffered ftill the keeneft anguifli of remorfe,
and horribly aftlidtive forefight. His Jane ftill beha¬
ved with a degree of maternal and conjugal tendernefs
and prudence, which made him feel more bitterly the
evil of his mifeondudt, although they could not reclaim
him. At laft crippled, emaciated, having the very
power of animation wafted by difeafe, quite broken¬
hearted by the fenfe of his errors, and of the hopelek
miferics in which he faw himfelf and his family depref-
fed ; with his foul ftill tremblingly alive to the fenfe of
ftrame, and to the love of virtue * yet even in the laft
feeblenefs, and amid the laft agonies of expiring life,
yielding readily to any temptation that offered th«
femblance of intemperate enjoyment, he died at Dum¬
fries, in the fummer of 179b, while he was yet three
or four years under the age of 40, furniftiing.a melan¬
choly proof of the danger of Juddenly elevating even
the greateft mind above its original level.
After his death it quickly appeared that his failings
had not effaced from the minds of his more refpe&ablo
acquaintance either the regard which had once been
won by his focial qualities, or the reverence due to hi*
intelle&ual talents. The circumftances of want in w hich
he left his family ■were noticed by the gentlemen of
Dumfries with earneft commiferation. His funeral w as
celebrated by the care of his friends with a decent fo-
lemnity, and with a numerous attendance of mourners,
fufficiently honourable to his memory. Several copie*
of verfes were inferted in different newfpapers upon the
occafion of his death. A contribution, by fubicrip-
tion, was propefed, for the purpofe of railing a fmall
fund, for the decent fupport of his widow, and the edu¬
cation of his infant children.
From the preceding detail of the particulars of this
poet’s life, the reader will naturally and juftly infer
him to have been an honeft, proud, warm-hearted
man 5 of high paflions and found underftanding, and a
vigorous and excurfive imagination. He was never
known to defeend to any aft of deliberate meannefs.
In Dumfries he retained many refpeftable friends,
even to the ladf. It may be doubted whether he has
not, by his writings, exercifed a greater power over
the minds of men, and, by confequence, on their con*
duft, upon their happinefs and mifery, and upon the
general fyftem of life, than has been exercifed by any
half dozen of the moft eminent ftatefmen of the prefent
age. The power of the ftatefman is but ftiadowy, fo far
as it afts upon externals alone : the power of the wri¬
ter of genius fubdues the heart and the underftanding,
and having thus made the very fpring of aftion its
own, through them moulds almoft all life and nature
at its pleafure. Burns has not failed to command one
remarkable fort of homage, fuch as is never paid but
to great original genius : a crowd of poetafters ftarted
up to imitate him, by writing verfes as he had done,
C 2 i*
BUR f2o] BUR
in the Scotifh dialed 5 but, 0 imitatores ! fervum pe-
cus / To perfons to whom the Scotifh dialeft, and the
cuftoms and manners of rural life in Scotland, have no
charm, too much may appear to have been faid about
.Burns •, by thofe who paflionately admire him, a great
deal more, perhaps, was expelled.
A complete edition of his works, in 4 vols 8vo, was
publifhed under the fuperintendence of Dr Currie of
Liverpool, who drew up .an elaborate and valuable ac¬
count of the life of the poet, which is prefixed. From
the profits of this edition his widow and family have
received a handfome fum. The following letter from
Burns to the late Dr Moore, gives fo interefting an
account of the tranfaclions of his early years, and af¬
fords fo good a fpecimen of vigour of thought and
force of expreflion in his profe compofition, that we
hope it will prove acceptable to our readers.
“ Maucldine, Auguft 2. 1787.—Sir, For fome
months paft I have been rambling up and down the
country, but I am now confined with fome lingering
complaints, originating, as I take it, in the Ilomach.
To divert my fpirits a little in this miferable fog of
ennui, I have taken a whim to give you a hiftory of
myfelf. My name has made fome little noife in this
country ; you have done me the honour to intereft
yourfelf very warmly in my behalf; and I think a
faithful account of what character of a man I am, and
how I came by that charafter, may perhaps amufe you
in an idle moment. I will give you an honeli narra¬
tive, though I know it will be often at my own ex¬
pence j for I aifure you, Sir, I have, like Solomon,
whofe character, excepting in the trifling affair of wif-
dom, I fometimes think I refemble, I have, I fay,
like him turned my eyes to behold madnefs and folly,
and like him, too, frequently fhaken hands with their
intoxicating friendfhip. * * * After you
have perufed thefe pages, fliould you think them tri-
-fling and impertinent, I only beg leave to tell you,
that the poor author w rote them under fome twitching
qualms of confcience, arifing from a fufpicion that he
was doing what he ought not to do j a predicament he
has more than once been in before.
“ I have not the moft diftant pretenfions to affume
that charafter which the pye-coated guardians of ef-
cutcheons call, a gentleman. When at Edinburgh
laft winter, I got acquainted in the heralds office, and
looking through that granary of honours, I there found
^Imoft every name of the kingdom ; but for me,
^ My ancient but ignoble blood
Has crept thro’ fcoundrels ever fince the flood.
©ules, purpure, argent, &c. quite difowned me.
“ My father wras ef the north of Scotland, the fon
*f a farmer, and was thrown by early misfortunes on
the world at large *, where, after many years wander¬
ings and fojournings, he picked up a pretty large quan¬
tity of obfervation and experience, to which I am in¬
debted for moft of my little pretenfions to wifdom.—
I have met with few who underftood men, their man¬
ners, and their ways, equal to him j but ftubborn
ungainly integrity, and headlong ungovernable irafei-
•jbility, are difqualifying circumftances •, confequently I
was. born a very poor man’s fon. For the firft fix or
feven years of my life, my father was a gardener to a
•jrorthy gentleman of a fmull eftate in the neighbour¬
hood of Ayr. Had he continued in that ftation, I Bures,
muft have marched off to be one of the little under-
lings about a farm-houfe •, but it was his deareft wiffi
and prayer to have it in his power to keep his children
under his own eye, till they could difeern between
good and evil ; fo with the affiftance of his generous
mafter, my father ventured on a fmall farm on his
eftate. At thefe years I was by no means a favourite
with any body. I was a good deal noted for a reten¬
tive memory, a ftubborn fturdy fomething in my dif-
pofitlon, and an enthufiaftic ideot piety. I fay ideot
piety, becaufe I wras then but a child. Though it coft
the fchoolmafter fome thrafhings, I made an excellent
Engliih fcholar 5 and by the time I was 1 o or 12
years of age, I was a critic in fubftantives, verbs, and
particles. In my infant and boyifti days too, I owed
much to an old woman who refided in the family, re¬
markable for her ignorance, credulity, and fuperfti-
tion. She had, I fuppofe, the largeft collettion in the
country, of tales and fongs concerning devils, ghofts,
fairies, brownies, witches, warlocks, fpunkies, kelpies,
elf-candles, dead-lights, wraiths, apparitions, cantraips,
giants, inchanted towers, dragons, and other trumpery.
This cultivated the latent feeds of poetry $ but had fo
ftrong an effect on my imagination, that to this hour,
in my nocturnal rambles, I fometimes keep a ftiarp
look-out in fufpicious places 5 and though nobody can
be more feeptical than I am in fuch matters, yet it of¬
ten takes an effort of philofophy to (hake off thefe idle
terrors. The earlieft compofition that I recoiled! tak¬
ing pleafure in, was the Vifion of Mirza, and a hymn
of Addifon’s, beginning, ‘ How are thy fervants bleft,
O Lord!’ I particularly remember one half-ftanza
which wras mufic to my boyifti ear—
For though on dreadful whirls we hung
High on the broken wave.—•
I met with thefe pieces in Mafon’s Engliffi Colledlion,
one of my fchool-books. The two firft books I ever
read in private, and which gave me more pleafure than
any two books I ever read fince, were, The Life of
Hannibal, and The Hiftory of Sir William Wallace.
Hannibal gave my young ideas fuch a turn, that I ufed
to ftrut in raptures up and down after the recruiting
drum and bag-pipe, and wifti myfelf tall enough to be
a foldierj while the ftory of Wallace poured a Scotifh
prejudice into my veins, which will boil along there,
till the flood-gates of life ffiut in eternal reft.
“ Polemical divinity about this time was putting the
country half mad, and I, ambitious of fhining in con-
verfation parties on Sundays between fermens, at fu¬
nerals, &c. ufed a few' years afterwards to puzzle Cal-
vinifm with fo much heat and indiferetion, that I raf¬
fed a hue and cry of herefy againft me, w hich has not
ceafed to this hour.
My vicinity to Ayr was of fome advantage to me.
My focial difpofition, when not checked by fome mo¬
difications of fpited pride, was, like our catechifm de¬
finition of infinitude, without bounds or limits. I
.formed feveral connexions with other younkers who
poffeffed fuperior advantages •, the youngling a&ors
who were bufy in the rehearfal of parts in which they
were fhortly to appear on the ftage of life, where,
alas ! I was deftined to drudge behind the feenes. It
is not commonly at this green age, that cur young
gentry
BUR [
Ism?, gentry Tiave a juft fenfe of the immenfe diflance be-
' tween them and their ragged play-fellows. It takes a
few dafhes into the world, to give the young great
man that proper, decent, unnoticing difregard for the
poor, infignificant, ilupid devils, the mechanics and
peafantry around him, who were perhaps born in the
fame village. My young fuperiors never infulted the
clouterly appearance of my plough-boy carcafe, the
two extremes of which were often expofed to all the
inclemencies of all the fcafons. I hey would give me
ftray volumes of books j among them, even then, I
could pick up fome obfervations, and one, whofe heart
I am fure not even the Munny Begum feenes have
tainted, helped me to a little French. Parting with
thefe my young friends and benefaftors, as they occa-
fionally went off for the Fall or Weft Indies, was of¬
ten to me a fore affliftion, but I was foon called to
more ferious evils. My father’s generous matter died j
the farm proved a ruinous burgain j and to clench the
misfortune, we fell into the hands of a fadlor, who fat
for the pifture I have drawn of one in my tale of T wa
Dogs. My father was advanced in life when he mar¬
ried ; I was the eldeft of feven children, and he, worn
out by early hardftiips, wras unfit for labour. My fa¬
ther’s fpirit wras foon irritated, but not eafily broken.
There wras a freedom in his leafe in two years more,
and to weather thefe two years, we retrenched omr
expen«es. We lived very poorly : I was a dexterous
ploughman for my age •, and the next oldeft to me was
a brother (Gilbert) who could drive the plough very
well, and help me to thrafh the corn. A novel-writer
might perhaps have viewed thefe feenes with fome fa-
tisfadlion, but fo did not I j my indignation yet boils
at the reeolleftion of the f 1 fa£lor’s infolent threat¬
ening letters, which ufed to let us all in tears.
“ This kind of life.—the cheerlefs gloom of a her¬
mit, with the unceafing moil of a galley-flave, brought
me to my 16th year; a little before rvhich period I
firft committed the fin of rhyme. You know our
country cuftom of coupling a man and woman toge¬
ther as partners in the labours of harveft. In my 15th
autumn, my partner was a bevdtehing creature, a year
younger than myfelf. My fcarcity of Englilh denies
me the power of doing her juftice in that language, but
you know the Scotilh idiom ; Ihe was a bonnie, fweet,
lonfie lafs. In Ihort, Ihe altogether, unwittingly to
herfelf, initiated me in that delicious paflion, which,
in fpite of acid difappointment, gin-horfe prudence, and
book-worm philofophy, I hold to be the firft -of human
joys, our deareft bleffmg here below ! How Ihe caught
the contagion I cannot tell ; you medical people talk
much of infedlion from breathing the fame air, the
touch, &c. but I never exprefsly faid I loved her.—
Indeed I did net know myfelf why I liked fo much to
loiter behind with her, when returning in the evening
from our labours ; why the tones of her voice made
my heart-ftrings thrill like an ALolian harp ; and par¬
ticularly why my pulfe beat fuch a furious ratan when
I looked and fingered over her little hand to pick out
the cruel nettle-ftings and thiftles. Among her ether
love-infpiring qualities, {he fung fweetly; and it was
her favourite reel to vdiich I attempted giving an em¬
bodied vehicle in rhyme. I was not fo prefumptuous
as to imagine that I could make verfes like printed
cues, compofed by men who had Greek and Latin ;
21 ] BUR
but my girl fuag a fong which was faid to be compo¬
fed by a fmall country laird’s fon, on one of his fa¬
ther’s maids, w ith whom he was in love, and I faw no
reafon why I might not rhyme as well as he; for ex¬
cepting that he could fmear Iheep, and caft peats, his
father living in the moorlands, he had no more fcholar-
craft than myfelf.
“ Thus w ith me began love and poetry ; which at
times have been my only, and, till within the laft 12
months, have been my hig'beft enjoyment. . My father
ftruggled on till he reached the freedom in his leafe,
when he entered on a larger farm, about ten miles
farther in the country. The nature of the bargain he
made was fuch as to throw' a little ready money into his
hands at the commencement of his leafe, otherw ife the
affair would have been imprafticable. For four years
we lived comfortably here ; but a difference commen¬
cing between him and his landlord as to terms, after
three years tofling and whirling in the vortex of litiga¬
tion, my father was juft faved from the horrors of a
jail, by a confumption, which, after tw'o years promifes,
kindly ftepped in, and carried him away, to ‘ w here the
wicked ceafe from troubling, and where the weary are
at ryft !’
/'• It is during the time that we lived on this farmr
F^at my little ftory is moft eventful. I was, at the
beginning of this period, perhaps the moft ungainly
awkw'ard boy in the parilh—no folitaire was lefs ac¬
quainted with the w’ays of the world. What I knew
of ancient ftory was gathered from Salmon’s and Guth¬
rie’s geographical grammars ; and the ideas I had form¬
ed of modern manners, of literature, and criticifm, I
got from the Spectator. Thefe, with Pope’s Works,
fome plays of Shakefpeare, Tull and Dicklon on Agri¬
culture, the Pantheon, Locke’s Effay on the Human
Underftanding, Stackhoufe’s Hiftory of the Bible, Juf-
tice’s Britilh Gardener’s Diredtory, Bayle’s Lectures,
Allan Ramfay’s Works, Taylor’s Scripture Doarine
of Original Sin, a Selea Colleaion of Englifti Songs,
and Hervey’s Meditations, had formed the whole of
my reading. The colleaion of fongs was my vcide me-
cum. I pored over them driving my cart, or w'alking
to labour, fong by fong, verfe by verfe ; carefully not¬
ing the true tender, or fublime, from affeaation and
fuftian. I am convinced I owe to this praaice much
of my critic-craft, fuch as it is. (Month. Mag. and
Currie's Life of Burns').
BURNTISLAND. See Bruntisland.
BURNT WOOD, a town of Effcx in England, ft-
tuated on a hill, in E. Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 51. 38.
BURR, the round knob of a horn next a deer’s head.
BURRE, Bouree, ov Boree, a kind of a dance com¬
pofed of three fteps joined together in two motions,
begun with a crotchet riling. Ihe firft couplet con¬
tains twice four meafures, the fecond twice eight. It
confifts of a balance and coupee.
BURR-pumf, or BI LG E-Pump, differs from the
common pump, in having a ftaff, fix, feven, or eight
feet long, with a bar of wood, whereto the leather is
nailed, and this ferves inftead of a box. . So two men,
Handing over the pump, thruft down this ftaff, to the
middle whereof is fattened a rope, for fix, eight, or
ten to hale by, thus pulling it up and down.
BURROCK, a fmall wier or dam, where weels
laid * a rivW' f°r U“ taUnS °f fuBROUGHS-s.
Sums
II
Burrock.
BUR
Plate
CXXXI.
Burroughs’s BURROUGHS’S MACHINE for grinding and po-.
lifliing glafs, invented by Mr Burroughs of South-
^ * wark j and for which he received from the fociety for
the encouragement of arts a premium of 70I.
This machine confifts of a cog-wheel A (fig. 3*)> 12
feet in diameter, carrying 73 cogs j which turn a trun¬
dle-head B, one foot four inches in diameter, and fur-
nilhed with eight rounds } and alfo a horizontal four-
wheel C, of 12 cogs ; and one foot eight inches in
diameter. The trundle-head B turns a fpur-wheel D
of 10 cogs, and two feet eight inches in diameter.
This fpur-wheel has two cranks, a b, in its draft ; one
<of which a gives motion to a wooden frame, c, about
34 inches long and 19 broad. On the under nde of
this frame are faftened by fcrews 12 pieces of polidred
metal, each five inches and a half long, and three
broad, covered with leather j and underneath thefe po-
lidrers a glafs-plate cemented in another frame is pla¬
ced on the bench </, and polidred with tripoli by the
motion given to the upper frame by the crank a. The
nuts of the fcrews which faden the polidrers to the up¬
per frame are not fcrewed clofe to the wood, in order
to give the frame room to play ) by which contrivance
the perpendicular rife of the crank is avoided, and the
motion of the polidrers is always parallel and equal. The
under frame may be moved by the hand in any direc¬
tion without flopping the machine ; by which means
the plate, when larger than the polidring frame can
cover in its motion, will be equally polilhed in every
part.
The other crank b gives motion to two other po-
lilhers marked n, 0, which have an alternate motion by
the bending of the crank j they move upon the fame
plate, and have an equal number of polifliers as that
already defcribed.
The fame crank alfo gives motion to a contrivance
reprefented at e for polilhing fpe&acle-glaffes. It con-
fifts of two fegments of the fame fphere; one concave
and the other convex. On the latter the glades are
Cemented j and poliflied by the former, which is mo¬
ved by the crank L The convex fegment may be
moved round by the hand without flopping the ma¬
chine, fo that all the glades on its fuperficies will be
equally poliflied.
The other fpur-wheel C, by means of a crank in its
(haft, gives motion to another frame g, employed in
grinding the glafs plates. The rod /q extended from
the crank f to the frame g, is faflened to the latter by
means of a pivot, m order to admit of a rotatory mo¬
tion, as well as that given it by the crank in a longi¬
tudinal dire&ion. This rotatory motion is effefted by
means of a rod of iron /, called a trigger, fliarp at the
extremity next the frame, where it touches the teeth of
a horizontal fpur-wheel, or circular piece of wood,
fixed on the grinding plate, while the other end is ex¬
tended three feet two inches to the centre of motion.
But this contrivance, in which the merit of the ma¬
chine principally confifls, will be much better conceived
-from a fmall delineation of it by itfelf (fig. 4.), where
F is the crank marked/in fig. 3. and turned by the
fpur-wheel C in the fame figure. G is the trigger, three
feet two inches long. I, a roll fixed on the trigger for
the rod to Aide on. H, the horizontal fpur-wheel, ele¬
ven inches in diameter, fixed on the grinding plate *,
the. teeth of which are touched by the trigger j but with
[ aa ] BUR
a very unequal force, as it will wholly depend upon the
grinding-plate’s being farther from, or nearer to, the
centre of motion of the trigger. By this Ample contri- Burl'ars.
vance, the grinding-plate has a very compound motion, . -~v—..J
never moving exaeily in the fame track, and therefore
muft grind the plates equally in every part. Several
attempts have been made by others for producing the
fame effedt: but without fuccefs } the grinding-plate
always follows the fame track, and confequcntly the
plates are ground equally.
BURROW, Sir James, mafter of the crown of¬
fice, wras eledted F. R. S. and f. A. S. 17>51 • the
death of Mr Weft in 1772, he was prevailed on to fill
the prefident’s chair at the royal fociety till the anni-
verfary eledtion, when he refigned it to Sir John
Pringle j and Auguft 10. 1773, when the_fociety pre-
fented an addrefs to his majefty, he received the ho¬
nour of knighthood. He publidied twm volumes of Re¬
ports in 17665 two others in 1771 an<^ I77^> anc^ a
volume of Decifions of the Court of King’s Bench up¬
on fettlement cafes from 173 2 to 1772 (t° Miich was
fubjoined An Eflay of Pundluation), in three parts,
4to, 1768, 1772, 1776. The Effay was alfo printed
feparately in 4to, 1773. He publilhed, without his
name.
A few' Anecdotes and Obfervations relating
to Oliver Cromwell and his family, ferving to redtify
feveral errors concerning him,” publiflred by Nicol.
Comn. Papadopoli, in his Ji'Jioria Gymnajii Patavim,
1763, 4to. He died in 1782.
BURROWS, holes in a warren, ferving as a covert
for rabbits, &c. A coney’s coming out of her burrow
is called hotting. To catch coneys, they fometimes lay
purfe-nets over the burrows, then put in a terrier clofe
muzzled, which making the creature bolt, die is caught
in the net.
BURSA, or Prusa, in Geography, the capital of
Bithynia in Ada Minor, fituated in a fine fruitful
plain, at the foot of Mount Olympus, about ICO
miles fouth of Conftantinople. E. Long. 29. 0»v
N. Lat. 40. 3c.
BURSA-Pq/loris, in Botany. See Thlaspi.
Bursa, Burfe, originally fignifies a purfe. In mid¬
dle-age waiters it is more particularly ufed for a little
college or hall in a univerfity, for the refidence of flu-
dents, called burjales or burfarii. In the French uni-
verfities it ftill denotes a foundation for the maintenanc*
of poor fcholars in their ftudies. The nomination to
burfes is in the hands -of the patrons and founders
thereof. The burfes of colleges are not benefices, but
mere places afligned to certain countries and perfons.
A burfe becomes vacant by the burfer’s being promo¬
ted to a cure.
BURSiE mucosas. See Anatomy Index.
BURSAR, or Burser, (Burfarius), is ufed in
middle-age writers for a treafurer or cadi-keeper. In
this fenfe we meet with burfars of colleges. Conven¬
tual burfars were ofiicers in monafteries, who were to
deliver up their account yearly on the day after Mi¬
chaelmas. The word is formed from the Latin burfa,
w'hence alfo the Englidi wmrd purfe; hence alfo the
officer, who in a college is called burfar, in a flap is
called purfer.
Bursars, or Burfors, (Burfarii), alfo denote thofe
to whom ftipends are paid out of a burfe or fund ap-
pointed for that jmrpofe. 8URSAUIA)
B U K [ 23 ] BUR
Burfaria BURS ARIA, the burfary, or exchequer of colle-
i! giate and conventual bodies •, or the place of receiving,
Burton, paying, and accounting by the burfarii or burfers.
BURSE, in matters of commerce, denotes a public
edifice in certain cities, for the meeting of merchants
to negotiate bills, and confer on other matters relating
to money and trade. In this fenfe, burfe amounts to
the fame with what we otherwife call an exchange.
The fir it place of this kind to which the name Burfe
was given, Guiechardin affures us was at Bruges j and
it took its denomination from a hotel adjoining to it,
built by a lord of the family de la Bourie, whofe arms,
■winch are three purfes, are iiill found on the crowning
over the portal of the houfe. CatePs account is fome-
what different, viz. that the merchants of Bruges
bought a houfe or apartment to meet in, at which was
the fign of the purfe. From this city the name was
afterwards transferred to the like places in others, as in
Antwerp, Amfterdam, Bergen in Norway, and Lon¬
don. This laft, anciently known by the name of the
common burfe of merchants, had the denomination fince
given it by Queen Elizabeth, of the royal exchange.
The moft conliderable burfe is that of Amfterdam,
which is a large building, 230 feet long and 130 broad,
round which runs a periftyle 20 feet wide, ihe co¬
lumns of the periftyle, which are 46, are numbered, for
the conveniency of finding people. It will hold 45°°
perfons.
In the times of the Romans there were public places
for the meeting of merchants in moft of the trading
cities in the empire } that built at Rome, in the 259th
year after its foundation, under the confulate of Appius
Claudius and Publius Servilius, was denominated the
college of merchants ; fome remains of it are ftill to be
feen, and are known by the modern Romans under
the name loggia. The Hans Towns, after the ex¬
ample of the Romans, gave the name of colleges to their
burfes.
BURSERA. See Botany Index.
BURSTEN, denotes a perfon who has a rupture.
See Rupture.
BURTHEN of a Ship. See Burden.
BURTON upon Trent, a town of Staffordftiire, in
England. It had formerly a large abbey ; and over the
river Trent it has now a famous bridge of free ftone,
about a quarter of a mile in length, fupported by 37
arches. It confifts chiefly of one long ftreet, which
runs from the place where the abbey flood to the bridge,
and has a good market for corn and provifions. Bur¬
ton ale is reckoned the beft of any brought to London.
W. Long. 1. 36. N. Lat. 52. 48.
Burton, a town of Lincolnlhire in England, feated
on a hill near the river Trent. It is but a fmall place,
and is fituated in W. Long. o. 30. N Lat. 53. 40.
Burton, a town of Weftmorelancf in England, feat¬
ed in a valley near a large hill called Farleton-knot-
hill. It is pretty well built, and lies on the great road
from Lancafter to Carlifle. W. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat.
54. 10.
Burton, Robert, known to the learned by the name
©f Democritus jun or, was younger brother to Wil¬
liam Burton who wrote “ The Antiquities of Lei-
cefterlhire,” and born of an ancient Emily at L indley,
in that county, upon the 8th of February 157b. He
wTas educated in grammatical learning in the free fchool Burfen.
of Sutton Colefield in Warwickfhire j in the year 1593 " ~
was fent to Brazen-nofc college in Oxford $ and in
1599 was elefted ftudent of Chrift-church. In 1616, he
had the vicarage of St Thomas, in the weft fuburb of
Oxford, conferred upon him by the dean and canons of
Chrift-church, to the parilhioners of which, it is faid,
that he always gave the facrament in wafers; and
this, with the redtory of Segrave in Leicefterftnre, gi¬
ven him fome time after by George Lord Berkeley, he
held to the day of his death, which happened in Ja¬
nuary 1639.
He was a man of general learning 5 a great philofo-
pher ’, an exadl mathematician 5 and (what makes the
peculiarity of his charader) a very curious calculator
of nativities. He was extremely ftudious, and of a me¬
lancholy turn j yet an agreeable companion, and very
humorous. The anatomy of melancholy, by Democritus
junior, as he calls himfelf, ftiows, that thefe different
qualities were mixed together in his compolition. Ihi*
book was printed firft in qto, afterwards in folio, in
1624, 1632, 1638, and 1652, to the great emolument
of the bookfelier, who, as Mr Wood tells us, got an
eftate by it. Some circumftanc.es attending his death
occaftoned ftrange fufpicions. He died in his chamber
at or very near the time which, it leems, he had lome
years before predided from the calculation of his nati¬
vity 5 and this exadnefs made it whifpered about, that
for the glory of aftrology, and rather than his calcula¬
tion Ihould fail, he became indeed vifelo defe.^ I his,,
however, was generally diferedited j he was buried with
due folenmity in the cathedral of Chrift-church, and
had a fair monument eroded to his memory. He left
behind him a very choice collodion of books. He be¬
queathed many to the Bodleian library j and icol. to
Chrift-church, the intereft of which was to be laid out
yearly in books for their library.
Burton, John, D. D. a learned divine, was born in
1696, at Wembworth, in Hevonlhire,, of which parilh
his father was redor. He was educated at Corpus
Chrifti college Oxford. In 1725, being then pro-
prodor and mailer of the fchools,. he fpoke a Latin
oration before the determining bachelor, which is
entitled “ Beli; or, An Inftance of a Magiftrate’s
erring through unfeafonable Lenity j” written and
publiihed with a view to encourage the ialutary ex-
ercife of academical difeipline 5 and afterwards treated
the fame fubjed ftill more fully in four Latin fermons
before the univerfity, and publiihed them with appen¬
dixes. He alfo introduced into the fchools, Locke,
and other eminent modern philofophers, as iuxtable
companions to Ariftotle : and printed a double ii ries
of philofophical queftions, for the ufe of the younger
Undents ; from which Mr Johnfon of Magdalene col¬
lege, Cambridge, took the hint of his larger work
of the fame kind, which has gone through feveral edi-
tions.
When the fettling of Georgia was in agitation, Dr
Bray, juftly revered for his inftitution of parochial li¬
braries, Dr Stephen Hales, Dr Berriman, and other
learned divines, intreated Mr Burton's pious ailiftance
in that undertaking. This he readily gave, by preach¬
ing before the fociety in 17 2, and publilhing his ier-
mon, with an appendix on theftate of that colony j and
-Burton
Burying-
place.
f See the
p-rticle
Vejlalt.
BUR r 24 ] B US
he afterwards publllhed an account of the dcfigns of the and towns; an ufage which we find equally among
affociates of the late Dr Bray, with an account of their Jews, Greeks, and Homans. Among the lad, bury-
^ithxn the walls was exprefsly prohibited by a law Bufby
About the fame time, on the death of Dr Edward of the 12 tables, lire ufual places of interment were /*"
Littleton, he was prefented by Eton college to the vi- in the fuburbs and fields, but efpecially by the way-
carage of Maple-Derham, in Oxfordfirire. Here a me- fides. We have inftances, however, of perfons buried
lancholy fccne, which too often appears in the manlion in the city j but it was a favour allov ed only to a few
of the clergy, prefented itfelf to his view} a widow, of lingular merit in the commonAvealth. Plutarch fays,
with three infant daughters, without a home, w ithout thofe wno had triumphed were indulged in it. Be this
a fortune : from his compaflion arofe love, the con- as it will, Val. Publicola^ and C. Fabricius, are faid to
fequence of which was marriage j for Mrs Littleton have had tombs in the forum : and Cicero adds 1 ubertus
was handfome, elegant, accomplifhed, ingenious, and had to the number. Lycurgus allowed his Lacedemonians
great fweetnefs of temper. In 1760, he exchanged his to bury their dead within the city and round their
vicarage of Maple-Derham for the reftory of Worplef- temples, that the youth, being enured to fuch fpe&a-
don in Surrey. In his advanced age, finding his eyes cles, might be the lels terrified with the apprehenfion of
begin to fail him, he collected and publilhed, in one death, iwo reafons are alleged why the ancients bu-
volume, all his fcattered pieces, under the title oiOpuf- ried out of cities : the firft, an opinion that the fight,
cula mifcellanea ,* and foon after died, February nth, touch, or even neighbourhood, of a eorpfe defiled a
jyy,. man, efpecially a prieft •, whence that rule m A. Gel-
Burton, in the fea-language, a fmall tackle con- lius, that xht Jiomen diahs might not on any account
filling of two fingle blocks, and may be made fall enter a place where there was a grave : the fecond, to
any where at pleafure, for hoilting fmall things in prevent the air from being corrupted by the Itench of
and out. putrified bodies, and the buildings from being endan-
BURY, is fometimes ufed to denote the hole or den gered by the frequency of funeral fires,
of fome animal under ground. In this fenfe we fay Burying in churches was not allowed for the firft
the bury of a mole, a tortoife, or the like. The grillo- 300 years after Chrillj and the fame was feverely pro-
talpa, or mole-cricket, digs itfelf a bury with its fore- hibited by the Chriftian emperors for many ages after¬
feet, wrhich are made broad and Itrong for that pur- wrards. The firll Hep towards it appears to have been
•pofe. Naturalills fpeak of a kind of urchins in the the practice of erecting churches over the graves of
illand of Maraguan, which have two entries to their fome martyrs in the country, and tranllating the re¬
buries, one towards the north, the other to the fouth, lies of others into churches in the city j the next was,
which they open and Ihut alternately as the wind hap- allow ing kings and emperors to be buried 1x1 the atrium
/pens to lie. or church-porch. In the 6th century, the people be-
Bury, in Geographyy a market town of Lancalhire, gan to be admitted into the church-yards •, and fome
about 80 miles fouth-eail of Lancalter. It is a barony princes, founders, and biihops, into the church. From
in the family of Albemarle. W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. that time the matter feems to have been left to the dii*
ra, 26. ^ cretion of the bilhop.
Bury St Edmond's, or St Edmond's Bury, the coun- BUSBEC, Auger GlSLEN, lord OF, a perfon il-
ty town of Suffolk, about 12 miles eaft of Newmarket, luftrious on account of his embaflies, was born at Com-
and 70 north-eaft of London. E. Long. o. 45. N. Lat. mines in the year 1522 5 and educated at the molt fa-
52. 20. mous univerfities, at Louvain, at Paris, at Venice, at
BURYING, the fame with interment or Burial. Bologna, and at Padua. He w as engaged in feveral
BUR TING Alive was the punilhment of a veftal who important employments and negotiations, and particu-
had violated her vow of virginity. The unhappy prieftefs larly was twice fent ambaffador by the king of the Ro-
■was let down into a deep pit, with bread, water,*\nailk, mans to the emperor Soliman. He collected mfcrip-
oil, a lamp burning, and a bed to lie on. But this tions } bought manuferipts j learched after rate plants ;
was only for Ihow, for the moment Ihe was let down, inquired into the nature of animals; and in his fecond
they began to call in the earth upon her till the pit was journey to Conftantinople, carried w ith him a painter,
filled up f. Some middle-age writers feem to make that he might be able to communicate to the curious
burying alive (defojjio) the punilhment ef a woman the figures, at leaft, of the plants and animals that were
thief. Lord Bacon gives inftances of the refurre&ion not w ell known in the weft. He wrote a Difcourfe of
of perfons who have been buried alive. The famous the State of the Ottoman Empire, and a Relation of
Duns Scotus is of the number j who, having been his two Journeys to Turkey, which are much efteemed.
feized with a cataleplis, was thought dead, and laid to He died in 1592. .
fteep among his fathers, but raifed again by his fervant BUSBY, Dr Richard, fon of a gentleman in
in whofe abfence he had been buried. Bartholin gives Weftminfter, was born at Lutton in Lincolnfture na
an account of a W'oman, who, on recovering from an 1606. He paffed through the claffes in Weftmiufter
apoplexy, could not be convinced but that ftie was fchool, as king’s fcholar $ and completed his ftudies at
dead, and folicited fo long and fo earneftly to be bu- Chrilt-church, Oxford. In 1640 he was appointed
ried/that they were forced to comply } and performed mafter of Weftminfter fchool ^ and by his Ikill and di-
the ceremonies, at leaft in appearance. The famous ligence in the difeharge of this important and laborious
emperor Charles V. after his abdication, took it into office, for the fpace, of 55 years, bred up the greateft
his head to have his burial celebrated in his lifetime, number of eminent men, in church and ftate, that ever
and affifted at it. See Charles V. _ at one time adorned any age or nation. He was ex-
BUR TING~Place, The ancients buried out of cities tremely fevere in his ft hoof 3 though he applauded wit
'Bufh.
BUS , [
in his fcholars, even when it refle&ed on himfelf. This
great man, after a long and healthy life, purchafed by
temperance, died in 1695, aged 89 ; and was buried
in Weilminller abbey, where there is a fine monument
ere&ed for him, with a Latin infcription. He com-
pofed feveral books for the ufe of his fchool.
BUSH, Paul, the firft bifhop of Briftol, became
a ftudcnt in the univerfity of Oxford about the year
I5I3> and in took the degree of bachelor of arts.
He afterwards became a brother of the order called
bonkoms; of which, after ftudying fome time among
the friars of St Auftin (now Wadham college), he was
elected provincial. In that llation he lived many years ;
till at length King Henry VIII. being informed of his
great knowledge in divinity and phyfie, made him his
chaplain, and in 1542 appointed him to the nevr epif-
copal fee of Briftol : but having in the reign of Ed¬
ward VI. taken a wife, he was, on the acceflion of
Mary, deprived of his dignity, and fpent the remainder
of his life in a private ftation at Briltol, where he died
in the year 1558, aged 68, and was buried on the
north fide of the choir of the cathedral. Wood fays,
that while he w^as a ftudent at Oxford, he was num¬
bered among the celebrated poets of that univerfity j
and Pits gives him the charafter of a faithful Catholic,
his want of chaftity notwithftanding. He wrote, 1.
An exhortation to Margaret Burgefs, wife to John
Burgefs, clothier of King’s wood, in the county of
Wilts. Bond, printed in the reign of Edward VI.
8vo. 2. Notes on the Pfalms. 3. Treatife in praife
of the crofs. 4. Anfwer to certain queries concerning
the abufe of the mafs. Records, N° 25. 5. Dia¬
logues between Chrift and the Virgil Mary. 6. Trea¬
tife of falves and curing remedies. 7. A little treatife
in Englifh, called The extirpation of ignorancyy &c.
m verfe, Lond. by Pinfon, 4to. 8. Carmina diverfa.
> Bush, a term ufed for feveral Ihrubs of the fame
kind growing clofe together : thus we fay, a furze-
bufh, bramble-bufh, &c.
Bush is fometimes ufed, in a more general fenfe,
for any affemblage of thick branches interwoven and
mixed together.
Bush alfo denotes a coronated frame of wood hung
out as a fign of taverns. It takes the denomination
from hence, that, anciently, figns where vdne w as fold
were bufhes chiefly of ivy, cyprefs, or the like phmt,
which keeps its verdure long. And hence the Eng-
lilh proverb, “ Good wine needs no bufh.'"
Burning-Bush, that bufti wherein the Lord appeared
to Mofes at tha: foot of Mount Horeb, as he was feed¬
ing his father-in-law’s flocks.
As to the perfon that appeared in the bulh, the text
fays, “ T hat the angel of the Lord appeared unto him
in a flame of fire, out of the middle of the bufh but
whether it was a created angel, fpeaking in the perfon
of God, or God himfelf, or (as the moft received opi¬
nion is) Chrift the fon of God, has been matter of
fome controverfy among the learned. Thofe who fup-
pofe it no more than an angel, feem to imply that it
would be a diminution of the majefty of God, to ap¬
pear upon every occafion, efpecially when he has fuch
a number of celeftial minifters, who may do the bufi-
nefs as well. But confidering that God is prefent
everywhere, the notification of his prelence by fome
outward fign in one determinate place (which is all
Vol. V. Part I.
25 ] BUS
we mean by his appearance), is in our conception lefs
laborious (if any thing laborious could be conceived of
God) than a delegation of angels upon every turn from
heaven, and feems in the main to illuftrate rather than
dcbafe the ghiy of his nature and exiftence. But how¬
ever this be, it is plain that the angel here fpoken of
was no created being, from the whole context, and
efpecially from his faying, “ I am the Lord God, the
Jehovah,” &c. fince this is not the language of angels
who are always known to exprefs themfelves in fuch
humble terms as thefe, “ I am fent from God j I am
thy fellow fervant,” &c. It is a vain pretext to fay,
that an angel, as God’s amballador, may fpeak in God’s
name and perfon j for what ambaflador of any prince
ever yet {hid, “ I am the king ?” Since therefore no
angel, without the guilt of blafphemy, could allume
thefe titles 5 and fince neither God the Father nor
the Holy Ghoft, are ever called by the name of angel,
1. e. “ meffenger, or perfon fent,” whereas God the
Son is called by the prophet Malachi (chap. iii. 1.),
“ The angel of the covenant j” it hence feems to fol¬
low', that this angel of the Lord was God the Son,
who might very properly be called an angel, becaufc
m the fulnefs of time he was fent into the world in our
fleflr, as a meffenger from God, and might therefore
make thefe his. temporary apparitions prefages and
forerunners, as it were, of his more folemn miffion.
The emblem of the burning-bufli is ufed as the leal of
the church of Scotland, with this motto : Vec tatnen con-
fumebatur$ i. e.Fhough burning, is never conlumed.”
BUSHEL, a meafure of capacity for things dry j
as grains, pulfe, dry fruits, &c. containing four pecks,
or eight gallons, or one eighth of a quarter.
Du Cange derives the wnrd from buJJ'ellus, bvfellut,
or bifellus, a diminutive of buz, or buza, ufed in the
corrupt Latin for the fame thing j others derive it
from bujfulus, an urn, wherein lots were caff 5 which
feems to be a corruption from buxulus. BuJJellus ap¬
pears to have been firft ufed for a liquid meafure of
wine, equal to eight gallons. OHo libree faciunt galo-
nem vini, et 0B0 gahnes vini faciunt buffellum London,
quee ejl oBava pars quartern. It was foon after tranf-
ferred to the dry meafure of corn of the fame quantity.
—Pondus oBs librorum frumenti facit buffellum, de
qutbus 0B0 confiftit quarterium.
By 12 Henry VII. c. 5. a buftiel is to contain
8 gallons of wheat j the gallon 8 pounds of wheat
troy weight; the pound 12 ounces troy-weight j the
ounce 20 fliillings j and the fterling 32 grains or corns
of wheat, growing in the midft of the ear. This ftan-
dard buftiel is kept in the Exchequer 5 when being
filled with common fpring water, and the water mea-
fured before the houfe of commons in 1696, in a re¬
gular parallelepiped, it was found to contain 2145,6
folid inches ; and the faid water being weighed, a-
mounted to 1131 ounces and 14 penny-wreights troy.
Befides the ftandard or legal bulhel, we have feveral
local buftiels, of different dimenfions in different places.
At Abington and Andover, a bufhel contains nine
gallons : at Appleby and Penrith, a buflrel of peafe,
rye, and wheat, contains 16 gallons: of barley, big,
malt, mixt malt, and oats, 20 gallons. A bufliel
contains, at Carlifle, 24 gallons ; at Chefter, a bufliel
of wheat, rye, &c. contains 32 gallons, and of oats
40 : at Dorchefter, a buftiel of malt and oats con-
D tains
Bufti,
Bufliel.
—y——/
BUS
Bufhel
II
Bulkin.
tains 10 gallons-, at Falmouth, tlie buftiel of ftricken
coals is 16 gallons, of other things 20, and ufually
21 gallons -, at Kingfton upon Thames, the bulhel
’contains 8i-, at Newbury 9 -, at Wycomb and Rea¬
ding, 8] -, at Stamford, 16 gallons. Houghton, Lol-
left. tom. i. n. 46. p. 42. . . n .
At Paris, the bulhel is divided into 2 half-buihels -,
the half-buftiel into 2 quarts-, the quart into ^half-
quarts; the half-quart into 2 litrons} and, the litron
into 2 half-litrons. By a fentence of the provoft of
the merchants of Paris, the bulhel is to be 8 inches
2* lines high, and 10 inches in diameter-, the quart
4 inches 9 lines high, and 6 inches 9 lines wide j the
half-quart 4 inches 3 lines high, and 5 inches diame¬
ter ; the litron 34 inches high, and 3 inches 10 lines
in diameter. Three bulhels make a minot, 6 a mine,
12 a fentier, and 144 a muid. In other parts of France
the buihel varies: i44 bnlhels of Amboife and lours
make the Paris feptier. Twenty bulhels of Avighon
make 3 Paris feptiers. Twenty bufliels of Blois make
1 Paris feptier. Two bufliels of Bourdeaux make 1
Paris feptier. Thirty-two buftiels of Rochel make 19
Paris feptiers. Oats are meafured in a double propor¬
tion to other grains -, fo that 24 bufliels of oats make
a feptier, and 248 a muid. The buftiel of oats is di¬
vided into 5 picotins, the picotin into 2 half-quarts, or
4 litrons. For fait 4 bufliels make one minot, and 6 a
feptier. For cords 8 bufliels make a minot, 16 a mine,
and 320 a muid. For lime, 3 buftiels make a minot,
and 48 minots a muid. Such were the meafures by
buihel before the revolution ; for the changes that have
flnce taken place, fee Measure and Weight.
BUSIRIS, in Ancient Geography, a city ot the bow¬
er Egypt, to the fouth of Leontopolis, on that, branch
of the Nile called Buflriticus : Built by Bufiris, noted
for his cruelty, and flain by Hercules, (Ovid, Virgil,
Diodorus Siculus). Strabo denies fuch a tyrant ever
exifted-, Ifocrates has written his panegyric In this
city there flood a grand temple of Ifis, which gave it
the appellation of the city of Ifis. It was deftroyed on
a revolt by Diocleflan. , . _ 7
BUS1RITICUS Fluvius, m Ancient^ Geography,
that branch of the Nile which empties itfelf at the
mouth called Oftium Pathmeticum, or Phatmticum,
(Ptolemy) *, alfo a part, according to an ancient map
at the Oftium Mindefium -, this river, or branch, di¬
viding itfelf at Diofpolis into two branches 5 called
Buftriticus, from the city of Bufiris, which flood on
its left or weft branch. It is the fecond branch oi the
Nile, reckoning from the eaft..
BUSIRITICUS Nomos, in Ancient Geography, a prefec¬
ture, or divifion of the Lower Egypt-, fo called from
the city Bufiris, (Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy).
BUSITIS, in Ancient Geography, a diftntt ot Ara¬
bia Deferta -, fo called from Bus, or Buz, Nahor s fe¬
cond fon -, the country of Elihu, the fourth interlocu¬
tor in Job -, called Bu%etes, by the Septuagint.
BUSKIN, a kind of flioe, fomewhat m manner of
a boot, and adapted to either foot, and worn by either
fex. This part of drefs, covering both the foot and
mid leg was tied underneath the knee \ it was very
rich and fine, and principally ufed on the ftage by ac¬
tors in tragedy. It was of a quadrangular icrrn } an
the foie was fo thick, as that, by means thereof men
of the ordinary ftature might be raifed to the pitch and
26 ] BUS
elevation of the heroes they perfonated. The colour Eujkm
was generally purple on the fta.ge; herein it was dii- Buft«ani>
tinguiftied from the fock worn in comedy, that being ^—
only a low common ftioe. T he bull;in looms to have
been worn not only by aaors but by gills, to raife
their height; travellers and hunters alfo made ule ot
it, to defend themfelves from the mire. In claflic au¬
thors, we frequently find, the bulkin ufed to figrnfy
tragedy itfelf, in regard it was a mark of tragedy on
the ftage. It was alfo to be under flood for a lofty
ft rain or high ftyle. _ . . rr r 4
BUSS, in maritime affairs, a fmall lea veilel, u.ed
by us and the Dutch in the herring-fifhery, common’y
from 48 to 60 tons burden, and fometimes more : a
bufs has two fmall Iheds or cabins, one at the prow and
the other at the ftern ; that at the prow ferves for a
kitchen. Every bufs has a mafter, an afliftant, a mate,
and feamen in proportion to the veffel’s fize; the
mafter commands in chief, and without his exprefs or¬
ders the nets cannot be call or taken ^up; the <ft-
fiftant has the command after him ; and the mate, next,
whofe bufinefs is to fee the feamen manage their rig¬
ging in a proper manner, to mind thofe who draw m
theft nets, and thofe who kill, gut, and cure the her¬
rings as they are taken out oi the.fea: the feamen
generally engage for a whole voyage in the lump. 1 ue
provifions which they take on board the buffes, confift
commonly in bifeuit, oat meal, and dryed or fait fifo V
the crew being content for the reft with what freth fiflr
they catch. See F isheries.
BUST, or Busto, in Sculpture, denotes the figure or
portrait of a perfon in relievo, ihowing only the head,
(boulders, and ftomach, the arms being lopped oft : or¬
dinarily placed on a pedeftal or coniole.
In fpeakinn of an antique, we fay the head is marble,
and the buft porphyry, or bronze, that is, the.ftomacU
and (boulders. Felibien obferves, that though in paint¬
ing, one may fay a figure appears m buffo, yet it is net
properly called a bujl, that word being confined to
things in relievo. . , , t 11 4
The buft is the fame with what tiie Latins called
Hcrma, from the Greek Hermes, Mercury, the image
of that god being frequently reprefented m this manner
amongft the Athenians.
Bust is alfo ufed, efpecially by the Italians, for the
trunk of a human body, from .the neck to the hips. .
BUST A Gallica, was a place in ancient R me, wherein
the bones of the Gauls, whofirft took the city, and were
flain by Camillus, were depofited. It differed irom
BuSTA Gallorum, a place on the Ap nnmes, thus
called by reafon of many thoufands of Gauls kuled
there by Fabius.
BUSTARD. See Otis, Ornithology Index.
BUSTUARIiE MoecH-E, according to feme, wo¬
men that were hired to accompany the funeral and la¬
ment the lofs of the deceafed; but others are of opi¬
nion, that they were rather the more common proiti-
tutes, that flood among the tombs, graves, and other
fuoh lonely places. _ . , ,
BUSTUARH, in Roman antiquity, gladiators who
fought about the buftum or funeral pile.of a perfon of
diftm&ion, that the blood which was fpilt might (erve
as a facrifice to the infernal gods, and render them
more propitious to the manes of the deceaied. .1 his
cuftom was introduced in the room of the more mlm-
BUT
[
Buftuarii rnan one ox facriflcing captives at the builum, or on
lj the tombs of warriors.
BUSTUM, in antiquity, denotes a pyramid or pile
u—y——* of wood, whereon were anciently placed the bodies of
the deceafed, in order to be burnt.
The Romans borrowed the cuftom of burning their
dead from the Greeks. The deceafed, crowned with
flowers, and drefied in his richeft habits, was laid on the
buffum. Some authors fay, it was only called bujlum,
after the burning, qua/i bene ujlum: before the burning
it was more properly called pyra; during it, rogus; and
afterwards, bujium. When the body was only burnt
there, and buried elfewhere, the place was not pro¬
perly called b /ftum, but ujlrina, or ujlnnum.
Bustum, in the Campus Martius, was a ftrufture
whereon the emperor Auguflus find, and after him the
bodies of his fucceifors, were burnt. It was built of
white (tone, furroundcd with an iron pallifade, and
planted withinfide with alder trees.
Bustum was alfo figuratively applied to denote any
tomb. Whence thofe phrafes, facere bitjium, violat e
bujium, &c.
BusTUM of an Altar, was the hearth or place where
the fire was kindled.
BUTCHER, a perfon who (laughters cattle for the
life of the table, or wrho cuts up and retails the fame.
Among the ancient Romans, there were three kinds
of efiablithed butchers, whofe office it was to fumifli
the city with the neceflary cattle, and to take care of
preparing and vending their fleih. The fuarii provided
hogs •, the pecuarii or boarii, other cattle, efpecially
oxen; and under thefe was a fubordinate elafs, whofe
office was to kill, called lanil, and carnrfices.
To exercife the office of butcher among the Jews
with dexterity, was of more reputation than to under-
ftand the liberal arts and fciences. They have a book
concerning {hamble-conllitution ; and in cafe of any
difficulty, they apply to fome learned rabbi for advice :
nor was any allowed to praffife this art, v'ithout a li-
cenfe in form -, which gave the man, upon evidence of
his abilities, a power to kill meat, and others to eat
what he killed ; provided he carefully read every week
for one year, and every month the next year, and
once a quarter during his life, the conflitution above-
mentioned.
We have fome very good laws for the better regula¬
tion and preventing the abufes committed by butchers.
A butcher that fells fwine’s fleffi meafled, or dead of
the murrain, for the firft offence (hall be amerced; for
the fecond, have the pillory •, for the third, be impri-
ffoned, and make fine; and for the fourth, abjure the
town. Butchers not felling meat at reafonable prices
ffiall forfeit double the value, leviable by warrant of two
juftices of the peace. No butcher ffiall kill any fleffi
in his fealding-houfe, or within the walls of London,
on pain to forfeit for every ox fo killed x 2d. and for
every other bead, 8d. to be divided betwixt the king
■and the profecutor.
BuTCHER-Bird. See Lanius, Ornithology In¬
dex.
BVTCItER-Broom. See Ruscus, Botany Index.
BUTCHER-IJland, in the Eaft Indies, a fmall ifland
'about two miles long and fcarce one broad. It has its
name from cattle being kept there for the ufe of Bom-
7 ] BUT
bay, from which it is about three miles diilant. It
has a fmall fort, but of very little confequence.
BUTE, an ifland lying to the weft of Scotland, be¬
ing feparated from Cowal, a diftridff of Argyleffiire, on¬
ly by a narrow' channel. In length it is about 18 miles \
the broadeft part from eaft to weft is about five. Part
of it is rocky and barren •, but from the middle fouth-
wards, the ground is cultivated, and produces peafe,
oats, and barley. Here is a quarry of red ftone, which
the natives have ufed in building a fort and chapel in
the neighbourhood of Rothfay, which is a very ancient
royal borough, head town of the (hire of Bute and A-
ran ; but very thinly peopled, and maintained chiefly
by the hening fifliery, with the profits of which all the
rents of this illand are chiefly paid. On the north fide
of Rothfay, are the ruins of an ancient fort, with its
drawbridge, chapel, and barracks. Here are likewife
the remains of fome Daniffi towers. The natives are
healthy and induftrious, fpeak the Evfe and the dia¬
led of the Lowlands indifferently, and profefs the Pro-
teftant religion. The ifland is divided into tw'o pariffies,
accommodated with four churches j and belongs chiefly
to the earl of Bute, who poffeffes an elegant feat 011
the eaft fide of the ifland. The name of this ifle has
by feveral authors, and in different periods, been very
differently written, as Bote, Both, Bothe, Boot, but
now generally Bute. Our ancient writers fuppofe that
it derived its name from a cell erefted therein by St
Brendan, an Iriffi abbot who flouriffied in the 6th cen¬
tury, becaufe in his language fuch a cell was called
Both. It is, however, probable, that this name v'as of
great antiquity, fince we find it denominated Botis by
the anonymous geographer of Ravenna. It was from
very early times part of the patrimony of the Stuarts :
large poifeflions in it were granted to Sir John Stuart,
fon of Robert II. by his beloved miftrefs Elizabeth
More 5 and it has continued in that line to the prefent
tirtie. . t
BUTESHIRE, comprehends the iflands of Bute,
Arran, the greater and leffer Cumbray, and Inch-mar-
noc. This (hire and that of Caithnefs fend a member
to parliament alternately. Hie earl of Bute is admi¬
ral of the county, by commiflion from bis majefty ; but
no wray dependent on the lord high admiral of Scot¬
land : fo that if any maritime cafe occurs w ithin this
jurifdi&ion, (even crimes of as high a nature as mur¬
der or piracy), his lordffiip, by virtue of his powers as
admiral, is fufficient judge, or he may delegate his au¬
thority to any deputies.
The following is a view of the population of this
county at twm different periods, taken from the Statif-
tical Hiftory of Scotland.
Butcher-
Iihmd
il .
Butefhire.
Parijhes.
y Rothfay,
\ Kingarth,
. { Kilbride,
Atran-lK.ilmorie.
Population
in USS*
Bute.
Population in
J79C-—179&.
4032
727
2545
3259
Total, 6716
10,563
6716
Incrcafe, 3817
D a BUTEO,
fiuteo,
Butler.
BUT [ 28 T BUT
IJUTEO, the trivial name of a fpecies of Falco.
See Ornithology Index.
BUTLER, Charles, a native of Wycomb in the
county of Bucks, and a mafter of arts in Magdalen
college, Oxford, publilhed a book with this title, “ The
principles of malic in linging and letting •, with the
twofold ufe thereof, ecclefialtical and civil.” Quarto,
London 1636. The author of this book was a perfon
of lingular learning and ingenuity, which he manifefted
in fundry other works enumerated by Wood in the
Athen. Oxon. Among the reft is an Englilh grammar,
publilhed in 1633, in which he propofes a fcheme of
regular orthography, and makes ufe of chara&ers, fome
borrowed from the Saxon, and others of his own in¬
vention, fo lingular, that Ave want types to exhibit
them : and of this imagined improvement he appears to
have been fo fond, that all his trafts are printed in like
manner with his grammar ; the confequence whereof
has been an almoft general difguft to all that he has
written. His Principles of Mulic is, however, a very
learned, curious, and entertaining book *, and, by the
help of the advertifement from the printer to the read¬
er, prefixed to it, explaining the powers of the feveral
characters made ufe of by him, may be read to great
advantage, and may be conlidered a judicious fupple-
naent to Morley’s introduction.
Butler, Samuel, a celebrated poet, was the fon
of a reputable Worcefterfhire farmer, and was born
in 1612. He palled fome time at Cambridge, but
was never matriculated in that univerfity. Return¬
ing to his native country, he lived fome years as clerk
to a juftice of peace 5 w here he found fufficient time to
apply himfelf to hirtory, poetry, and painting. Being
recommended to Elizabeth countefs of Kent, he enjoy¬
ed in her houfe, not only the ufe of all kinds of books,
but the converfation of the great Mr Selden, who oft¬
en employed Butler to wrrite letters, and tranflate for
him. He lived alfo fome time Avith Sir Samuel Luke,
a gentleman of an ancient family in Bedfordlhire, and
a famous commander under 01hrer Cromwell: and he
is fuppofed at this time to have Avrote, or at leaft to
have planned, his celebrated and under that
charafter to have ridiculed the knight. The poem it-
felf furnifhes this key 5 where, in the firft canto, Hu-
dibras fays,
“ ’Tis fung, there is a valiant mamaluke
u In foreign land yclep’d — —
« To Avhom Ave oft have been compar’d
“ For perfon, parts, addrefs, and beard.”
After the Reftoration, Mr Butler Avas made fecretary
to the earl of Carbury, lord prefident of Wales, who
appointed him fteward of Ludlow caftle, when the court
was revived there. No one was a more generous friend
to him than the earl of Dorfet and Middlefex, to
whom it was owing that the court tafted his Hudibras.
He had promifes of a good place from the earl of
Clarendon, but they Avere never accompliftied j though
the king was fo much pleafed Avith the^ poem, as oft¬
en to quote it pleafantly in converfation. It is in¬
deed faid, that Charles ordered him the fumof 3000I. :
but the fum being expreffed in figures, fomebody
through Avhofe hands the order paffed, by cutting off
a cypher reduced it to 300I. which, though it paffed
the offices without fees, proved not fufficient to pay
what he then OAved •, fo that Butler was not a {hilling Butler,
the better for the king’s bounty. He died in 1680 : Butlerage.^
and though he met with many difappointments, w as ^
never reduced to any thing like Avant, nor did he die
in debt. Mr Granger obferves, that Butler “ {lands
Avithout rival in burlefque poetry. His Hudibras (fays
he) is in its kind, almoft as great an effort of genius,
as the Paradife Loft itfelf. It abounds with uncom¬
mon learning, new rhimes, and original thoughts. Its
images are truly and naturally ridiculous. There are
many ftrokes of temporary fatire, and fome charaClers
and allufions which cannot be difcovered at this diftance
of time.”
Butler, Jofeph, late bilhop of Durham, a pre¬
late diftinguiftied by his piety and learning, Avas the
youngeft fon of Mr Thomas Butler, a reputable {hop-
keeper at Wantage in Berkftdre, where he was born
in the year 1692. His father, Avho Avas a Prefbyterian,
obferving that he had a ftrong inclination to learning,
after his being at a grammar-fchool, fent him to an a-
cademy in Gloucefterftiire, in order to qualify him for
a diffenting minifter ; and while there, he wrote fome
remarks on Dr Clarke’s firft fermon at Boyle’s leClure.
Aftenvards, refolving to conform to the eftabliftied
church, he ftudied at Oriel college, Avhere he contrad-
ed an intimate friendfhip Avith Mr EdAvard Talbot, fon
of the bilhop of Durham, and brother to the lord chan¬
cellor, who laid the foundation of his fubfequent ad¬
vancement. He Avas firft appointed preacher at the
Rolls, and re&or of Haughton and Stanhope, Uvo rich
benefices in the bifhopric of Durham. He quitted the
Rolls in 1726*, and publifhed in 8vo, a volume of fer-
mons, preached at that chapel. After this he con-
ftantly refided at Stanhope, in the regular difcharge of
all the duties of his office, till the year 1733, when he
Avas called to attend the lord chancellor Talbot as his
chaplain, Avho gave him a prebend in the church of
Rochefter. In the year 1736, he was appointed clerk
of the clofet to Queen Caroline, whom he attended
every day, by her majefty’s fpecial command, from
feven to nine in the evening. In 1738 he w as appointed
to the biffiopric of Briftol j and not long afterwards to
the deanery of St Paul’s, London. He noAv refigned his
living of Stanhope. In the year 1746, he was made
clerk of the clofet to the king; and in 1750, Avas
tranflated to Durham. This rich preferment he en¬
joyed but a fhort time ; for he died at Bath June 16.
17152. His corpfe Avas interred in the cathedral at
Briftol; where there is a monument, Avith an infcrip-
tion, ere£led to his memory. He died a bachelor.
His deep learning and comprehenfive mind appear fuf-
ficiently in his Avritings, particularly in that excellent
treatife entitled, The Ana/ogij of Religion, natural and
revealed, to the Conjlitution and Courfe of Nature, pub¬
lifhed in 8vo, 1736.
Butler, the name anciently given to an officer in
the court of France, being the fame as the grand echan-
fon, or great cupbearer of the prefent times.
Butler, in the common acceptation of the Avord,
is an officer in the houfes of princes and great men;
Avhofe principal bufinefs is to look after the wine, plate,
&c.
BUTLER AGE of wine, is a duty of 2s. for every
ton of Avine imported by merchant ftrangers ; being a
compofftion in lieu of the liberties and freedoms grant¬
ed
BUT [ 29 ] BUT
Butlerage ed to them by King John and Edward I. by a charter
*1 called charta mercatoria.
. Butlerage was originally the only cuflorn that was
payable upon the importation of wines, and was taken
and received by virtue of the regal prerogative, for the
proper ufe of the crown. But for many years paid,
there having been granted by parliament fublidies to
the kings of England, and the duty of butlerage not
repealed, but confirmed, they have been pleafed to
grant the fame way to fome noblemen, who by virtue
of fuch grant, are to enjoy the full benefit and advan¬
tage thereof, and may caufe the fame to be collefted
in the fame manner that the kings themfelves were for¬
merly wont to do.
BUTMENT. Butments of arches are the fame
with buttreffes. They anfwer to what the Romans call
fubh'cas, the French culees and butees.
Butments, or Abutments, of a bridge, denote the
two maflives at the end of a bridge, whereby the two
extreme arches are fuflained and joined with the there
on either fide.
BUTOMDS, the Flowering-rush, or Water-
gladiole. See Botany Index.
BUTRINTO, a port-town of Epirus, or Canina,
in Turkey in Europe, fituated oppofite to the ifland of
Corfu, at the entrance of the gulf of Venice. E.
Long. 20. 40. N. Lat. 39. 45.
BUTT is ufed for a veffel, or meafure of wine, con¬
taining two hogfheads, or 126 gallons j otherwife call¬
ed pipe. A butt of currants is from 1500 to 2200
pounds weight.
BUTTS, or Butt-ends, in the fea-language, are the
fore ends of all planks under water, as they rife, and
ure joined one end to another.—Butt-ends in great
fliips are moft carefully bolted ; for if any one of them
fhould fpring or give way, the leak would be very
dangerous and difficult to flop.
Butts, the place where archers meet with their
bows and arrows to fhoot at a mark, which is called
(hooting at the butts : (See Archery.)—Alfo butts
are the fhort pieces of land in arable ridges and fur¬
rows.
BUTTER, a fat undluous fubftance, prepared from
milk by beating or churning.
It was late ere the Greeks appear to have had any
notion of butter •, their poets make no mention of it,
and are yet frequently fpeaking of milk and cheefe.
The Romans ufed butter no otherwife than as a me¬
dicine, never as a food.
According to Beckman, the invention of butter be¬
longs neither to the Greeks nor the Romans. The
former, he thinks, derived their knowledge of butter
from the Scythians, the Thracians and Phrygians j and
the latter from the people of Germany.
The ancient Chriilians of Egypt burnt butter in
their lamps inflead of oil; and in the Roman churches,
it was anciently allowed, during Chriftmas time, to
burn butter inftead of oil, on account of the great con-
fumption of it otherwife.
Butter is the fat, oily, and inflammable part of the
milk. This kind of oil is naturally diftributed through
all the fubftance of the milk in very fmall particles,
which are interpofed betwixt the cafeous and ferous
parts, amongit which it is fufpended by a flight adhe-
fion, but without being dillblved. It is in the fame ftate Butter,
in which oil is in emulfions : hence the fame whitenefs ■Y“““
of milk and emullions *, and hence, by reft, the oily
parts feparate from both thefe liquors to the furface,
and form a cream. See Emulsion.
When butter is in the ftate of cream, its proper oily
parts are not yet fufficiently united together to form
a homogeneous mafs. They are ftill half feparated by
the interpofttion of a pretty large quantity of ferous
and cafeous particles. The butter is completely form¬
ed by pretling out thefe heterogeneous parts by means
of continued percuffion. It then becomes an uniform
foft mafs.
Frefli butter which has undergone no change, has
fcarce any fmell; its tafte is mild and agreeable $ it
melts with a weak heat, and none of its principles are
difengaged by the heat of boiling water. Thefe pro¬
perties prove, that the oily part of butter is of the na¬
ture of the fat, fixed, and mild oils obtained from many
vegetable fubftances by expreflion. See Oils.—The
half fluid confidence of butter, as of moft other con¬
crete oily matters, is thought to be owing to a con-
fiderable quantity of acid united with the oily part j
which acid is fo wrell combined, that it is not percep¬
tible while the butter is freffi and has undergone no
change •, but when it growrs old, and undergoes fome
kind of fermentation, then the acid is difengaged more
and more ; and this is the caufe that butter, like oils
of the fame kind, becomes rancid by age.
Butter is conftantly ufed in food, from its agreeable
tafte : but to be wholefome, it muft be very frefli and
free from rancidity, and alfo not fried or burnt •, other-
wife its acrid and even cauftic acid, being difengaged,
diforders digeftion, renders it difficult and painful, ex¬
cites acrid empyreumatic belchings, and introduces
much acrimony into the blood. Some perfons have
ftomachs fo delicate, that they are even affe£ted with
thefe inconveniences by frefti butter and milk. This
obfervation is alfo applicable to oil, fat, chocolate, and
in general to all oleaginous matteis.
For the making of butter, fee Agriculture Index.
The trade in butter is very confiderable. Some
compute 50,000 tons annually confumed in London.
It is chiefly made within 40 miles round the city.
Fifty thoufand firkins are faid to be fent yearly from
Cambridge and Suffolk alone : each firkin containing
561bs. Utoxeter in Staffordire is a market famous for
good butter, infomuch that the London merchants have
eftabliffied a fadlory there for that article. It is
bought by the pot, of a long cylindrical form, weigh¬
ing 141b.
Shower of BUTTER. Naturalifts fpeak of fhowers
and dews of a butyraceous fubftance. In 1695, there
fell in Ireland, during the winter and enfuing fpring,.
a thiek yellow dew, which had the medicinal properties
of butter.
Butter, among chemifts, a name given to feveral
preparations, on account of their confiftence refembling
that of butter •, as butter of antimony, &c. See Che¬
mistry Index.
BUTTER-Bur. See Tussilago, Botany 7W<?.y.
BuTTER-Milh, the milk which remains after the but¬
ter is produced by churning. Butter-milk is efteemedan
excellent food, in the fpring efpecially, and is particu¬
larly
Butter.
milk
il
Buttons.
^Award's
Hijl. of
Birds,
p. x J2. vol.
ii.
BUT
larly recommended in heftic fevers,
of butter-milk, by pouring into it a quantity of new-
milk hot.
BUTTER-Wort. See PlNGUiCULA, Botany Index.
BUTTERFLY, the Englilh name of a numerous
genus of infe£ts. See Papilio, Entomology Index.
BUTTERFLT-Shell. See VOLUTA, CoNCHOLOGY
Index.
Method of preferving BUTTERFLIES. See INSECTS.
Method of making PiBures of BUTTERFLIES. “ I ake
butterflies or field moths, either thofe catched abroad,
or fuch as are taken in caterpillars and nurfed in the
houfe till they be flies •, clip off their wings very clofe
to their bodies, and lay them on clean paper, in the
form of a butterfly when flying ; then have ready pre¬
pared gum arable that hath been fome time diilolved in
water, and is pretty thick •, if you put a drop of ox¬
gall into a fpoonful of this, it will be better for the
life j temper them well with your finger, and fpread a
little of it on a piece of thin white paper, big enough
to take both fides of your fly ; when it begins to be
clammy under your finger, the paper is in proper order
to take the feathers from the wings of the fly ; then
lay the gummed fide on the wings, and it will take
them up : then double your paper fo as to have all the
wings between the paper ; then lay it on a table, pref-
fing it clofe with your fingers ■, and you may rub it
gently with fome fmooth hard thing ; then open the
paper and take out the wings, which will come forth
tranfparent : the down of the upper and under fide of
the wings, flicking to the gummed paper, form a jufl
likenefs of both fides of the wings in their natural
fhapes and colours. The nicety of taking off flies de¬
pends on aiufl degree of moifture of the gummed paper :
for if it be too wet, all will be blotted and confuted ;
and if too dry, your paper will flick fo fail together,
that it will be torn in feparation. When you have
opened your gummed papers, and they are dry, you mull
draw the bodies from the natural ones, and paint them
in water colours : you mull take paper that will bear
ink very well for this ufe •, for finking paper will fe-
parate with the reft, and fpoil all.”
BUTTERIS, in the manege, an inftrument of fteel,
fitted to a wooden handle, wherewith they pare the
foot, or cut off the hoof, of a horfe.
BUTTOCK of a Ship, is that part of her which is
her breadth right aftern, from the tack upwards ; and
a fhip is faid to have a broad or a narrow buttock,
according as fhe is built broad or narrow at the tran-
fum.
BUTTON, an article in drefs, whofe form and ufe
are too well known to need defeription. They aje
made of various materials, as mohair, filk, horfe hair,
metal, &c.
Method of making common B UTTONS. Common but¬
tons are generally made of mohair j fome indeed are
made of filk, and others of thread ; but the latter are
of a very inferior fort. In order to make a button,
the mohair mull be previoully wound on a bobbin •,
and the mould fixed to a board by means of a bodkin
thruft through the hole in the middle of it. This be¬
ing done, the workman wraps the mohair round the
mould in three, four, or fix columns, according to the
button.
Jlorfe-hair BUTTONS. The moulds of thefe buttons
[ 30 ] BUT
Some make curds are covered with a kind of fluff compofcd of filk and Buttons,
hair j the warp being belladine filk, and the ftioot horfe ' v~***=
hair. This fluff is wove with two felvages, in the fame
manner and in the fame loom as ribbands. It is then
cut into fquare pieces proportional to the fize of the
button, wrapped round the moulds, and the felvages
Hitched together, which form the under part of the
button.
Cieanf.ng of BUTTONS. A button is not finilhed
when it comes from the maker’s hands ', the fuperriuoua
hair and hubs of filk mull be taken off, and the but¬
ton rendered gloffy and beautiful before it can be fold.
This is done in the following manner : A quantity of
buttons are put into a kind of iron fieve, called by
workmen a jingemg box. Then a little fpirit of wine
being poured into a kind of Ihallow iron difh, and fet
on fire, the workman moves and fhakes the fingeing.
box, containing the buttons, brilkly over the flame of
the fpirit, by which the fuperfluous hairs, hubs of filk,
&e. are burnt off, without damaging the buttons.
Great care, however, muft be taken that the buttons
in the fingeing box be kept continually in motion ■, for
if they are fuffered to reft over the flame, they will im¬
mediately burn. When all thefe loofe hairs, &c. are
burnt off by the flame of the fpirit, the buttons are tak¬
en out of the fingeing box, and put, with a proper
quantity of the crumbs of bread, into a leather bag,
about three feet long, and of a conical ihape; the mouth
or fmaller end of which being tied up, the workman
takes one of the ends in one hand and the other in the
other, and (hakes the hand brifkly with a particular
jerk. This operation cleanfes the buttons, renders them
very gloffy, and fit for fale.
Go/d-twi/l BUTTONS. The mould of thefe button*
is firft covered in the fame manner with that of common
buttons. This being done, the whole is covered with
a thin plate of gold or filver, and theft wrought over
of different forms, with purple and gimp. The former
is a kind of thread compofed of (ilk and gold wire
twilled together \ and the latter, capillary tubes of
gold or filver, about the tenth of an inch long. Thefe
are joined together by means of a fine needle, filled
with filk, thruft through their apertures, in the fame
manner as beads or bugles.
The manner of making Metal BUTTONS. The metal
with which the moulds are intended to be covered is
firft caft into fmall ingots, and then flatted into thin
plates or leaves, of the thicknefs intended, at the flat¬
ting mills * after which it is cut into fraall round pieces
proportionable to the fize of the mould they are intend¬
ed to cover, by means of proper punches on a block,
of wood covered with a thick plate of lead. Each piece
of metal thus cut out of the plate is reduced into the
form of a button, by beating it fucceflively in feveral
cavities, or concave moulds, of a fpherical form, with
a convex puncheon of iron, always beginning w ith the
(hallowed cavity of the mould, and proceeding to the
deeper, till the plate has acquired the intended form *
and the better to manage fo thin a plate, they form ten,
twelve, and fometimes even twenty-four, to the cavities,
or concave moulds, at once ; often nealing the metal
during the operation, to make it more dudlile. This
plate is generally called by workmen the cap oj the but¬
ton.
The form being thus given to the plates or caps,
they'
BUT [ 31 ] B U X
E&tton.
they ftrlke the intended impredion on the convex fide,
by means of a fimilar iron puncheon, in a kind of mould
engraven en creux, either by the hammer or the prefs
ufed in coining. The cavity or mould, wherein the
impreffion is to be made, is of a diameter and depth
fuitable to the fort of button intended to be llruck in
it ; each kind requiring a particular mould. Between
the puncheon and the plate is placed a thin piece of
lead, called by workmen a hob, which greatly contri¬
butes to the taking off all the ffrokes of the engrav¬
ing ; the lead, by reafon of its loftnefs, eafily giving
way to the parts that have relievo, and as eaiily infinu-
ating itfelf into the traces or indentures.
The plate thus prepared makes the cap or {hell of
jthe button. The lower part is formed of another plate,
in the fame manner, but much flatter, and without any
impreflion. To the lafl or under plate is foldered a
fmail eye made of wire, by which the button is to be
faffened.
The two plates being thus flnifhed, they are foldered
together with foft folder, and then turned in a lathe.
Generally indeed they ufe a wooden mould, inftead of
the under plate j and in order to fallen it, they pafs a
thread or gut acrofs, through the middle of the mould,
and fill the cavity between the mould and the cap with
cement, in order to render the button firm and folid 5
for the cement entering all the cavities formed by the
relievo of the other fide, fuftains it, prevents its flatten¬
ing, and preferves its bolfe or defign.
Buttox, in the manege. Button of the reins of a
bridle, is a ring of leather, with the reins paffed through
it, which runs all along the length of the reins. To
put a horfe under the button, is when a. horfe is flop¬
ped without a rider upon his back, the reins being laid
on his neck, and the button lowered fo far down that
the reins bring in the horfe’s head, and fix it to the true
pofture or carriage. It is not only the horfes which
are managed in the hand that muft be put under the
button ; for the fame method muft be taken with fuch
horfes as are bred between two pillars, before they are
backed.
BuTTON-lVood. See Cephalanthus, Botany In¬
dex.
Button's-Bay, the name of the north part of Hud-
fon’s bay, in North America, by which Sir Thomas
Button attempted to find out a north-weft paffage to
the Eaft Indies. It lies between 8o° and ioo° weft
longitude, and between 6o° and 66° north latitude.
BuTTON-Stone, in Natural Hi dory, a kind of figured
Hone, fo denominated from its refembling the button
of a garment. Dr Hook gives the figure of three forts
of button-ftones, which i’eem to have been nothing elfe
but the filling up of three feveral forts of {hells. They
are all of them very hard flints; and have this in com¬
mon, that they confift of two bodies, which feem to
have been the filling up of two holes or vents in the
{hell. Dr Plot deferibes a fpecies finely ftriated from
the top, after the manner of fome hair buttons. This
name is alfo given to a peculiar fpecies of flate found
in the marquifate of Bareith, in a mountain called
Fichtelberg; which is extremely different from the
common forts of Hate, in that it runs with great eafe
into glafs in five or fix hours time, without the addi¬
tion of any fait or other foreign fubftance, to promote
its vitrification, as other fton.es require. It contains in
itfelf all the principles of glafs, and really has mixed in Bnttos
its fubftance the things neceffary to be added to pro- H
mote the fufion of other ftony bodies. The Swedes , Eu*tQ^',
and Germans make buttons of the glafs produced from v
it, which is very black and fliining, and it has hence its
name button-Jlone. They make feveral other things al¬
fo of this glafs, as the handles of knives and the like,
and fend a large quantity of it unwrought in round
cakes, as it cools from the fufion, into Holland.
BUTTRESS, a kind of hutment built archwife, or
a mafs of ftone or brick, ferving to prop or fupport the
fidcs of a building, wall, &c. on the outfide, where it is
either very high, or has any confiderable load tofuftain
on the other fide, as a bank of earth, &c.—Buttreffes
are ufed againft the angles of fteeples and other build¬
ings of ftone, &c. on the outfide, and along the walls
of fuch buildings as have great and heavy roofs, which
would be fubje£t to thruft the walls out, unlefs very
thick, if no buttreffes were placed againft them. They
are alfo placed for a fupport and hutment againft the
feet of fome arches, that are turned acrofs great halls
in old palaces, abbeys, See.
BUXUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lower
Egypt, on the weft fide of the branch of the Nile,
called Thermuthiacus ; towards the mouth called OJlium
Sebennyticnm : in this town flood an oracle of Baton a,
(Strabo, Herodotus). Ptolemy places Butus in the
Nomos Phthenotes : it is alfo called Buto, -us, (Hero-*
dotus, Stephanus). It had temples of Apollo and
Diana, but the largeft wras that of Latona, where the
oracle flood.
BUTZAW, a town of Lowrer Saxony, in Germany 5
it {lands upon the river Varnow, on the road from
Schwerin to Roftock, lying in E. Long. 13. 12. N.
Lat. 54. 50.
BUVETTE, or Beuvette, in the French laws, an
eftabliftied place in every court, where the lawyers
and counfellors may retire, warm themfelves, and take
a glafs of wdne by way of refrelhment, at the king’s
charge. There is one for each court of parliament,
but thefe are only for perfons belonging to that body ^
there are others in palais, whither other perfons alfo
refort.
BUXENTUM, (Livy, Velleius, Ptolemy, Mela,
Pliny) ; Pyxus, (Strabo, Pliny) j a town of Lucania,
firft built by the people of Meffana, but afterwards de-
ferted, (Strabo). A Roman colony was fent thither,
(Livy, Velleius) : and when found ftill thin of inhabi¬
tants, a new colony w'as fent by a decree of the fenate.
Its name is from buxus, the box-tree, growing plenti¬
fully there. Strabo fays, the name Pyxus includes a
promontory, port, and river, under one. Now Pulicafkro,
in the Hither Principato of Naples. E. Long. 15. 40.
N. Lat. 40. 20.
BUXTON, a place in the Peak of Derbyftiire, ce¬
lebrated for its medicinal w'aters, and lying in W. Long,
o. 20. N. Lat. 53. 20.
It has been always believed by our antiquaries, that
the Romans were acquainted with thefe wells, and had
frequented them much, as there is a military way ftill
vifible, called the Bath-gate, from Burgh to this place.
This w as verified about 50 years ago, when Sir Thomas
Delves, of Cheftiire, in memory of a cure he received
here, caufed an arch to be erefted j in digging the
foundation for which, they came to the remains of a
folid.
B U X
Buxton, folid and magnificent ftruchire of Roman
fhip j an(i in other places of the neighbourhood, very
capacious leaden vefiels, and other utenfils of Roman
■workmanlhip, have been difcovered. Ihefe waters
have always been reckoned inferior to thofe in Somer-
fetfhire j but feem never to have been totally difufed.
They are mentioned by Leland, as well known 200
years ago •, but it is certain they were brought into
greater credit by Dr Jones in I572> an.^ ^ George
earl of Shrewlbury, who eretled a building over the
bath, then compofed of nine fprings. Ihis building
was afterwards pulled down, and a more commodious
one ere&ed at the expence of the carl of Devonlhire.
In doing this, however, the ancient regiiler of cures
drawn up by the bath-warden, or phyfician attending
the baths, and fubfcribed by the hands of the patients,
was loft.
The warm waters of Buxton are, the bath, connft-
ing of nine fprings, as already mentioned, St Ann’s
well, and St Peter’s or Bingham well. St Ann’s well
rifes at the diftance of fomewhat more than 3 2 yards
north-eaft from the bath. It is chiefly fupplied from
a fpring on the north fide, out of a rock of black lime-
ftone or baftard marble. It formerly rofe into a ftone
bafon, fliut up within an ancient Roman brick wall, a
yard fcjuare within, a yard high on three fides, and open
on the fourth. But, in 1709, Sir Thomas Delves, as
already mentioned, erefted an arch over it which ftill
continues. It is 12 feet long, and as many broad, fet
round with ftone fteps on the infide.. In the midft of
this dome the water now fprings up into a ftone bafon
two feet fquare. St Peter’s or Bingham well rifes about
20 yards fouth-eaft of St Ann’s. It is alfo called
Leigh's well, from a memorable cure received from it
by a gentleman of that name. It rifes out of a black
limeftone, in a very dry ground 5 and is not fo warm
as St Ann’s well.
From the great refort of company to the waters,
this place has grown into a large ftraggling town,
which is daily increafing. I he houfes are chiefly, or
rather folely, built for the reception of invalids j and
many of them are not only commodious, but elegant.
The duke of Devonlhire has lately ere&ed a moft mag¬
nificent building in the form of a crefcent, with piazzas,
under which the company walk in wet or cold weather.
It is divided into different hotels, {hops, &c. with a
public coffee-room, and a very elegant room for affem-
blies and concerts. .
The hot water refembles that of Briftol. It has a
fweet and pleafant tafte. It contains the calcareous
earth, together with a fmall quantity of fea-falt, and
an inconfiderable portion of a purging fait, but no
iron can be difcovered in it. This water taken in¬
wardly is efteemed good in the diabetes j in. bloody
urine ; in the bilious cholic *, in lofs of appetite, and
coldnefs of the ftomach ; in inward bleedings m atro¬
phy 5 in contraction of the veffels and limbs, efpeci-
ally from age *, in cramps and convulfions •, in the dry
afthma without a fever •, and alfo in barrenness. fn"
wardly and outwardly, it is faid to be good in jheu-
matic and fcorbutic complaints ; in the gout •, m in¬
flammation of the liver and kidneys, and in confump-
tions of the lungs *, alfo in old {trains j in hard callous
tumours*, in withered and contradted.limbs j m the
itch, fcabs, nodes, chalky fwellings, ring worms, and
X
[ 32 ] . 13 U X
workman- other fimilar complaints.—Befides the hot water, there
is alfo a cold chalybeate water, with a rough irony ~
tafte : It refembles the Tunbridge water in virtues.
For the methods of compofing artificial Buxton wa¬
ter, or of impregnating the original water with a great¬
er quantity of its own gas or with other gafes, fee Wa¬
ters, Medicinal.
Buxton, Jedcdiah, a prodigy with refpeCt to {kill
in numbers. His father, William Buxton, \vas fchool-
mafter of the fame parifli w here he was born in I7°4 ;
yet Jedediah’s education w'as fo much neglecled, that
he was never taught to write ^ and with relpeft to any
other knowledge but that of numbers, feemed alw'ays
as ignorant as a boy of ten years of age. Howr he
came firft to know the relative proportions of numbers,
and their progreflive denominations, he did not remem¬
ber ; but to this he applied the whole force of his mind,
and upon this his attention w as conftantly fixed, fo that
he frequently took no cognizance of external objeCls,
and when he did, it was only with refpeCl to their
numbers. If any {pace of time was mentioned, he would
foon after fay it was fo many minutes j and if any di¬
ftance of way, he would aflign the number of hair¬
breadths, without any queftion being alked, or any
calculation expeded by the company. When he once
underftood a queftion, he began to.work with amazing
facility, after his own method, without the ufe of a
pen, pencil, or chalk, or even underftanding the common
rules of arithmetic as taught in the fchools. He w'oukf
ftride over a piece of land or a field, and tell y°u the
contents of it almoft as exadf as if you had meafured it
the chain. In this manner ne meafured the whole
lordftiip of Elmton, of fome thoufand acres, belonging
to Sir John Rhodes, and brought him the contents, not
only in acres, roods, and perches, but even in fquare
inches. After this, for his own amufement, he reduced
them into fquare hair-breadths, computing 48 to each
fide of the inch. His memory was fo great, that while
refolving a queftion, he could leave off, and refume the
operation again where he left oft' the next morning, Oi
at a week, a month, or at feveral months, and proceed
regularly till it was completed. His memory would
doubtlefs have been equally retentive with refpea to
other objefts, if he had attended to other .objefts with
equal diligence j but his perpetual application to figures
prevented the fmalleft acquifition of any other know¬
ledge. He was fometimes afked, on his return from
church, whether he remembered the text, or any part
of the fermon j but it never appeared that he brought
away one fentence, his mind, upon a clofer examination,
being found to have been buiied, even during divine
fervice, in his favourite operation, either dividing fome
time, or fome fpace, into the fmalleft known parts, or
refolving fome queftion that had been given him as a
teft of his abilities. .
This extraordinary perfon living in laborious pover¬
ty, his life was uniform and obfeure. lime, with re-
fpeci to him, changed nothing but his age j nor did
the feafons vary his employment, except that in wdnter
he ufed a flail, and infummer a ling-hook. In the year
fie came to London, w'here he was introduced
to the royal fociety, who, in . order to prove, his abili¬
ties, alked him feveral queftions in arithmetic, and he
gave them fuch fatisfattion, that they difmiffed him
with a handfome gratuity. In this vifit to the metro,
polls,
Buxton,
[
Buying.
BUY
Buno* polls, tlie only objeft of his curiofity, 'except figures,
was his defire to fee the king and royal family ; but
, they being juft removed to Kenfington, Jedediah -was
difappointed. During his refidence in London, he was
taken to fee King Richard III. performed at Drury-
lane playhoufe j and it wras expefted, either that the
novelty and the fplendour of the (how would have fixed
him in aftonilhment, or kept his imagination in a con¬
tinual hurry j or that his paftions would, in fome de¬
gree, have been touched by the power of a&ion, if he
had not perfe&ly underftood the dialogue. But Jede-
diah’s mind was employed in the playhoufe juft as it
was employed in every other place. During the dance,
he fixed his attention upon the number of fteps j he
declared, after a fine piece of mufic, that the innume¬
rable founds produced by the inftruments had perplexed
him beyond meafure j and he attended even to Mr
Garrick, only to count the words that he uttered, in
which he faid he perfe&ly fucceeded. Jedediah re¬
turned to the place of his birth, where, if his enjoy¬
ments were few, his wifnes did not feem to be more.
He applied to his labour, by which he fubfifted, with
cheerfulnefs; he regretted nothing that he left behind
him in London and it continued to be his opinion,
that a (lice of rufty bacon afforded the moft delicious
repaft.
BUXTORF, John', a learned profeffor of Hebrew
Rt Bafil, who, in the I yth century, acquired the higheft
reputation, for his knowledge of the Hebrew and Chal¬
dee languages. He died of the plague at Bafil in 1629,
aged 65. His principal works are, 1. A fmall but ex-
33 I B Y N
goods purchafed are only to be delivered at a certain
time future.
Buting the Refufal, is giving money for the right
or liberty of purchafing a thing at a fixed price in a
certain time to come j chiefly ufed in dealing for (hares
in ftock. This, is fometimes alfo called by a cant name,
buying the bear.
Buying the Smallpox, is an appellation given to a
method of procuring that difeafe by an operation fimi
I Qr fn 1 r*r»r»n 1 of 1 • A-^4. I~ rl, XX1  1 •
cellent Hebrew grammar j the beft edition of which
is that of Leyden in 1701, revifed by Leufden. 2. A
treafure of the Hebrew grammar. 3. A Hebrew con¬
cordance, and feveral Hebrew lexicons. 4. Injlitutio
epijlolaris Hebraic a. 5. De abbreviaturis Hebrceorum,
fee.
Buxtorf, John, the fon of the former, and a learn¬
ed profeffor of the oriental languages at Bafil, diftin-
guifhed himfelf, like his father, by his knowledge of
the Hebrew language, and his rabbinical learning. He
died in Bafil in 1664, aged 65 years. His principal
works are, I. His tranflation of the More Nevochitn,
and the Co%ri. 2. A Chaldee and Syriac lexicon.
3. An anticritic againft Cappel. 4. A treatife on the
Hebrew points and accents againft the fame Cappel.
BUXUS, the Box-tree. See Botany Index.
BUYING, the a<5t of making a purchafe, or of ac¬
quiring the property of a thing for a certain price.
Buying ftands oppofed to felling, and differs from
borrowing or hiring, as in the former the property of
the thing is alienated for perpetuity, which in the lat¬
ter it is not. By the civil law, perfons are allowed to
buy hope, fpem precio emere, that is, to purchafe the
event or expeflation of any thing; e. gr. the fifli or
birds a perfon (hall catch, or the money he (hall win in
gaming.
I here are different fpecies of buying in ufe among
traders : as, buying on one’s own account, oppofed to
buying on commiffion ; buying for ready money, which
is when the purchafer pays in aftual fpecie on the
fpot} buying on credit, or for a time certain, is when
the payment is not to be prefently made, but in lieu
thereof, an obligation given by the buyer for payment
at a time future j buying on dcliverv, is when the
Vol.V. Parti.
lar to inoculation j frequent in South Wales, where it
has obtained time out of mind. It is performed either
by rubbing fome of the pus taken out of a puftule of
a variolous perfon on the (kin, or by making a pundture
in the (kin with a pin dipped in fueh pus.
BUYS, a town of Dauphiny in France, fituated on
the borders of Provence. E. Long. 5. 20. N. Lat.
44- 25*
BUZANCOIS, a fmall town of Berry in France,
fituated on the borders of Touraine, in E. Long. 1. 20.
N. Lat. 46. 38. ’ s y
BUZBACH, a town of Germany, in Wefteravia,
and the county of Holmes, on the confines of Hanau.
E. Long. 10. 51. N. Lat. 5c. 22.
BUZET, a fmall town of France, in Languedoc,
feated on the river Torne, in E. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat.
43- 47-
BUZZARD, the name of feveral fpecics of the
hawk kind. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
_ BYBLUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Phoe¬
nicia, fituated between Berytus and Botrys; it was the
royal refidence of Cinyras ; facred to Adonis. Pom-
pey delivered it from a tyrant, whom he caufed to be
beheaded. It flood at no great diftance from the fea.,
on an eminence (Strabo) : near it ran the Adonis into
the Mediterranean. Now in ruins.
BYCHOW, a fmall town of Lithuania in Poland,
fituated on the river Nieper, in E. Long. 30. 2. N. Lat.
53- 57-
BY-laws, are laws made obiter, or by the by j fuch
as orders and conftitutions of corporations for the go¬
verning of their members, of court-leets, and courts
baron, commoners, or inhabitants in vills, &c. made
by common affent, for the good of thofe that made
them, in particular cafes whereunto the public law
doth not extend 5 fo that they bind farther than the
common or ftatute law : guilds and fraternities of
trades by letters patent of incorporation, may likewife
make by-laws for the better regulation of trade among
themfelves or with others. In Scotland thefe laws are
called laws of birlaxu or burlaw ; which are made by
neighbours ele&ed by common confent in the birlaw-
courts, wherein knowledge is taken of complaints be¬
twixt neighbour and neighbour ; which men fo chofen
are judges and arbitrators, and ftyle&birlaw-men. And
birlaws, according to Skene, are leges rujlicorum, laws
made by hufbandmen, or townfhips, concerning neigh¬
bourhood among them. All by-laws are to be reafon-
able, and for the common benefit, not private advan¬
tage of particular perfons, and muft be agreeable to
the public laws in being.
BYNG, George, Lord Vifcount Torrington, was
the fon of John Byng, Efq. and was born in 1663.
At the age of 15, he went volunteer to fea with the
king’s w-arrant. His early engagement in this courfe
of life gave him little opportunity of acquiring learn-
E ing
B Y N
t 34 3
B Y S
;„!» or cultivating the polite arts; but by ins abilities
and aftivitv as a naval commander he furmfaed abun¬
dant matter for the pens of others. After being eve-
ral times advanced, he vas in 1702 raifcd to the com¬
mand of the Nafl'au, a third rate, and was at the tak¬
ing and burning the French fleet at Vigo 5 and the
next year he was made rear-admiral of the red* J.
1704, he ferved in the grand fleet fent to the Med -
terranean under Sir Cloudefly Shovel, as rear-adnura1
of the red and it was he who commanded the Squa¬
dron that attacked, cannonaded, and reduced Gibial-
tar. He was in the battle of Malaga, which followed
foon after *, and for his behaviour in that a<M°n Queen
Anne conferred on him the honour of knighthood.
In 1705, in about two months time, he took 12 ot
enemies largeft privateers, with the Thetis a French
man of war of 44 guns 5 and alfo feveral merchant
fhips, moft of them richly laden Ihe number of men
taken on board was 2070, and of guns 334. I; i»
he was made admiral and commander m chief of the
fleet *, and was fent with a fquadron into the Mediter¬
ranean for the protection of Italy, according to the
obligation England was under by treaty, agamft the
invafion of the Spaniards j who had the year before
furprifed Sardinia, and had this year landed an army
in Sicily. In this expedition he difpatehed Captain
Walton in the Canterbury with five more (hips m pur-
fuit of fix Spanifli men of war, with galleys fire-flups,
bomb-veflels, and ftoreftiips, who feparated from t ie
main fleet, and flood in for the Sicilian ftiore. ihe
captain’s laconic epiftle on this occafion is worthy ot
notice j which ftiowed that, fighting was his talent as
well as his admiral’s, and not writing.
ct Sir •
“ We have’taken and deftroyed all the Spanifli fhips
and veffels which were upon the eoaft, as per margin.
Canterbury, off Syracufe, 1 am, 6tc.
Auguft x6. 1718. G. Walton.
From the account referred to, it appeared that he had
taken four Spanifli men of war, with a bomb yeflel
and a ftbp laden with arms*, and burned four with a
fire-fhip and bomb-veffel. The king made the admi¬
ral a handfome prefent, and fent him plenipotentiary
powers to negotiate with the princes and ftates ot Italy
as there fhould be occafion. He procured the empe¬
ror’s troops free accefs into the fortreffes that ilill held
out in Sicily; failed afterwards to Malta, and brought
out the Sicilian galleys, and a fhip belonging to the
Turkey company. Soon after he received a gracious
letter from the emperor Charles VI. written with his
own hand, accompanied with a piaure of his imperial
maiefty, fet round with very large diamonds, as a mark
of the grateful fenfe he had of his fervices It was en¬
tirely owing to his advice and afliftance that the Ger¬
mans retook the city of Meflina in 1719, and deftroy¬
ed the fhips that lay in the bafon 5 which completed
the ruin of the naval power of Spain. The Spaniards
being much diftreffed, offered to quit Sicily , but the
admiral declared, that the troops fhould never be fuf-
fered to quit the ifland till the king of Spain had ac¬
ceded to the quadruple alliance. And to his conduft
it was entirely owing that Sicily was fubdued, and his
Catholic majefty forced to accept the terms prefenbed
him by the quadruple alliance. After performing fo
many fignal fervices, the king received him. with the
moil gracious expreflions of favour and fatisfa&ion j
made him rear-admiral of England and treafurcr of
the navy, one of his inofl honourable privy-council,
Baron Byng of Southill in the county of Bedford,
Vifcount Torrington in Devonfhire, and one of the
knights companions of the Bath upon the revival of
that order. In 1727, George II. on his acceflion to
the crown, placed him at the head of his naval affairs,
as firft lord commiflioner of the admiralty *, in which
high flation he died January 15. 1733; ^ 70*]1
year of his age, and w as buried at Southill in Bedford-
fhire. r
Byng, the honourable George, Efq. the unhappy Ion
of the former, was bred to fea, and rofe to the rank
of admiral of the blue. He gave many proofs of cou¬
rage j but was at laft fhot, upon a dubious fentence, for
negleft of duty, in 1757. See Britain.
byrlaw or Bun LAW Laws in Scotland. See
By-laws. . 1 a
BYKOM, John, an ingenious poet ot Mancheiter,
born in 1691. His firft poetical eflay appeared in the
Spectator, N° 603,. beginning, “ My time, O ye
Mufes, was happily fpent which, with two humo¬
rous letters on dreams, are to be found in the eighth
volume. He was admitted a member of the Royal
Society in 17245 and having originally entertained
thoughts of pradtifmg phyfic, to which the title doc¬
tor is incident, that was the appellation by which he
was alw ays known : but reducing huuielf to narrow
circumftances by a precipitate marriage, he lupported
himfelf by, teaching a new method of writing ihort-
hand of his own invention 5 until an eftate devolved
to him by the death of an elder brother. He was a
man of lively wit 5 of which, whenever a favourable
opportunity tempted him to indulge it, he gave many
humorous fpecimens. He died in 1763.5 and a collec¬
tion of his mifcellaneous poems w as printed at Man-
chefter, in 2 vols 8vo, 1773.
BYKBHUS. See Entomology Index.
BYSSUS. See Botany index.
Byssus, or Byjum, a fine thready matter produced
in India, Egypt, and about Elis in Achaia, or which
the richeft apparel was anciently made, efpecially that
worn by the priefts both Jewifti and Egyptian. Some
interpreters render the Greek Vws, which occurs
both in the Old and New Teftament, by jine linen.
But other verfions, as Calvin’s, and the Spanifli printed
at Venice in 1536, explain the word by>^ ; and yet
byffus muft have been different from, our hlk, as ap¬
pears from a multitude of ancient writers, and parti¬
cularly from Jul. Pollux. M. Simon, who renders the
word by fine linen, adds a note to explain it 5 viz.
that there was a fine kind, of linen very dear, which
the great lords alone wore in this country as w ell as in
Egypt.” This account agrees perfedlly well with that
given by Hefychius, as well as what is.obferved by
Bochart, that the byffus was a finer kind of linen,
which was frequently dyed of a purple colour. . Some
authors will have the byflus to be the fame with our
cotton: others take it for the linum ajbejtinum; and
others for the lock or bunch of lilky hair found adhe¬
ring to the pinna marina, by which it faftens itlel . o
the neighbouring bodies. Authors ufually diftingmih
Ernst
Eythis.
two forts of byflus 5 that of Elis;
and that of Judaea,
hich
B Y Z
EyiTus wKicli was tlie fineft. Of this latter were the prieftly
Byzantium. ornaments made. Bonfrerius notes, that there mull
have ]:)een two forts of byffus, one finer than ordinary,
by reafon there are two Hebrew words ufed in Seripture
to denote byffus 5 one of which is always ufed in fpeak-
ing of the habit of the priefts, and the other of that of
the Levitcs.
B TSSUS Ajbejlinus, a fpecies of aibeftus or incombufti-
ble flax, compofed of fine flexible fibres, parallel to one
another. It is found plentifully in Sweden, either
white, or of different lhades of green. At a copper
mine in Weftmannland it forms the greatell part of
the vein out of which the ore is dug •, and by the heat
of the furnace which melts the metal, is changed into
a pure fcmitranfparent flag or glafs.
BYZANTIUM, an ancient city of Thrace, fitu-
ated on the Bofphorus. It was founded, according to
Eufebius, about the 30th Olympiad, while TullusHof-
tilius reigned in Rome. But, according to Diodorus
Siculus, the foundations of this metropolis were laid in
the time of the Argonauts, by one Byias, who then
reigned in the neighbouring country, and from whom
the city was called Bijuantium. 1 his Byfas, accord¬
ing to Euftathius, arrived in Thrace a little before the
Argonauts came into thole feas, and fettled there with
a colony of Megarenfes. Velleius Paterculus aferibes
the founding of Byzantium to the Milclians, and Am-
mianus Marcellinus to the inhabitants of Attica. Some
ancient medals of Byzantium, which have reached our
times, bear the name and head of Byfas, with the prow
of a (hip on the reverfe. The year after the deftruc-
tion of Jerufalem by Titus, Byzantium was reduced
to the form of a Roman province. In the year 193
this city took part with Niger againfl: Severus. It
was ftrongly garrifoned by Niger, as being a place of
the utmoft importance. It was foon after invefted by
Severue ; and as he was univerfally hated on account
of his cruelty, the inhabitants defended themfelves with
the greateft refolution. They had been fupplied with
a great number of warlike machines, moft of them in¬
vented and built by Perifcus, a native of Nicaea, and
the greatell engineer of his age. For a longtime they
baffled all the attempts of the affailants, killed great
numbers of them, crufhed fuch as approached the walls
with large Hones} and when Hones began to fail, they
ufed the Hatues of their gods and heroes. At lall they
were obliged to fubmit, through famine, after having
been reduced to the neceflity of devouring one another.
The conqueror put all the magiflrates and foldiers to
the fword ; but fpared the engineer Perilous. Before
this fiege, Byzantium was the greatefl, moll populous,
and wealthieff city of Thrace. It was furrounded by
•walls of an extraordinary height and breadth : and de¬
fended by a great number of towers, leven of which
were built with fuch art, that the leaff noife heard in
one of them was immediately conveyed to all the red.
Severus, however, no fooner became mafler of it, than
he commanded it to be laid in aflies. Xhe inhabitants
were dripped of all their effe&s, publicly fold for Haves,
and the walls levelled with the ground. But by the
chronicle of Alexandria we are informed, that foon af¬
ter this terrible cataflrophe, Severus himfelf caufed a
great part of the city to be rebuilt, calling it Antonia
B Z O
from his fon Caracalla, who affumed the furname of Byzantium,
Antoninus. In 26 2, the tyrant Galienus wreaked his Bzovius. ^
fury on the inhabitants of Byzantium. He intended 1”'~ ^
to befiege it j but on his arrival defpaired of being able
to make himfelf mafler of fuch a flrong place. He was
adfnitted the next day, however, into the city ; and
without any regard to the terms he had agreed to,
caufed the foldiers and all the inhabitants to be put to
the fword. Trebellius Pollio fays, that not a Angle per-
fon was left alive. What the reafon was for luch ait
extraordinary maffacre, we are nowhere informed. In
the wars between the emperors Licinius and Maximin
the city of Byzantium was obliged to fubmit to the
latter, but was foon after recovered by Licinius. In
the year 323, it was taken from Licinius by Conflan-
tine the Great, who in 330 enlarged and beautified
it, with a defign to make it the fecond, if not the firfl,
city in the Roman empire. He began with extending
the walls of the ancient city from lea to fea ; and while
fome of the workmen were bulled in rearing them,
others were employed in raifmg within them a great
number of flately buildings, and among others a palace
no way inferior in magnificence and extent to that of
Rome. He built a capitol and amphitheatre, made a
circus maximus, feveral forums, porticoes, and public
baths. He divided the whole city into 14 regions, and
granted the inhabitants many privileges and immunities.
By this means Byzantium became one of the mofl flou-
rifhing and populous cities of the empire. Vafl num¬
bers of people flocked thither from Pontus, Thrace,
and Alia, Conflantine having, by a law, enabled this
year (330), decreed, that fuch as had lands in thofc
countries fliould not be at liberty to difpofe of them,
nor even leave them to their proper heirs at their death,
unlefs they had a houfe in this new city. But hovr-
ever defirous the emperor was that his city fliould be
filled with people, he did not care that it Ihould be in¬
habited by any but Chriftians. He therefore caufed
all the idols to be pulled down, and all their churches
confecrated to the true God. He built befides an in¬
credible number of churches, and caufed croffes to be
erefted in all the fquares and public places. Moll of
the buildings being finilhed, it was folemnly dedicated
to the Virgin Mary, according to Cedrenus, but, ac¬
cording to Eufebius, to the God of Martyrs. At the
fame time Byzantium was equalled to Rome. The
fame rights, immunities, and privileges were granted
to its inhabitants, as to thofe of the metropolis. He
eftablifhed a fenate and other magiflrates, with a power
and authority equal to thofe of old Rome. He took up
his refidencc in the new city ; and changed its name to
Constantinople.
BZOVIUS, Abraham, one of the moft celebrated
writers in the 17th century, with refpeiff to the afto-
nilhing number of pieces compofed by him. His chief
work is the continuation of Baronius’s Annals. He was
a native of Poland, and a Dominican friar. Upon his
coming to Rome, he was received with open arms by
the Pope, and had an apartment afligned him in the
Vatican. He merited that reception, for he has imi¬
tated Baronins to admiration, in his defign of making
all things confpire to the defpotie power and glory of
the papal fee. He died in 1630, aged 70.
[ 35 1
c.
C A A
[ 36 ]
C A A
c.
- !
C, ✓"'i THE third letter, and fecond confonant, of the
aa^’ 5 alphabet, is pronounced like k before the vowels
a, 0, and u ; and like s, before e, /, and y. C is formed,
according to Scaliger, from the * of the Greeks, by re¬
trenching the Item or upright line } though others de¬
rive it from the 3 of the Hebrews, which has in effect
the fame form 5 allowing only for this, that the He¬
brews reading backwards, and the Latins, &c. for¬
wards, each have turned the letter their own way.
However the C not being the fame as to found with
the Hebrew caf>/i, and it being certain the Romans did
not borrow their letters immediately from the He¬
brews or other orientals, but from the Greeks, the de¬
rivation from the Greek x, is the more probable. Add,
that F. Montfaucon, in his Palseographia, gives us fome
forms of the Greek *, which come very near to that of
our C: thus, for inilance, c: and Suidas calls the C the
Roman kappa. The fecond found of C refembles that
of the Greek £ ; and many inftances occur of ancient
infcriptions, in which £ has the fame form with our C.
All grammarians agree, that the Romans pronounced
their Q like our C, and their C like our K. F. Ma-
billon adds, that Charles the Great was the firft who
wrote his name with a C •, whereas all his predeceffors
of the fame name wrote it with a K j and the fame
difference is obferved in their coins.
As an abbreviature, C ftands for Caius, Carolus,
Ctefar, condemno, &c. and CC for confu/ibus.
As a numeral, C lignifies 100, CC 200, &c.
C, in Mafic, placed after the cleff, intimates that
the mulic is in common time, which is either quick or
How, as it is joined with allegro, or adagio 5 if alone,
it is ufually adagio. If the C be croffed or turned, the
firft requires the air to be played quick, and the laft
very quick.
CAABA, or Caabah, properly fignifies a fquare
Hone building : but is particularly applied by the Ma¬
hometans to the temple at Mecca, built, as they pre¬
tend, by Abraham and Ifhmael his fon.
Before the time of Mahomet, this temple was a
place of worlhip for the idolatrous Arabs, and. is faid
to1 have contained no lefs than ^60 different images,
equalling in number the days of the Arabian year.
Thev were all deftroyed by Mahomet, who fanflified
the Caaba, and appointed it to be the chief place of
worlhip for all true believers. The temple is in length
from north to fouth about 24 cubits; its breadth from
caff to weft is 23, and its height 27. The door,
which is on the eaft fide, ftands about four cubits from
the ground 5 the door being level with the bottom of
the door. In the corner next this door is the black /lone,
fo much celebrated among the Mahometans- On the
north fide of the Caaba, within a femieireular enclo-
fure <;o cubits long, lies the whiteJlone, faid to be the
fepulchre of Ilhmael, which receives the rain water
from the Caaba by a fpout formerly of wood, but now
©f gold. The black ftone, according to the Mahome¬
tans, was brought down from heaven by Gabriel at the
creation of the world, and was originally of a white co- Caaba-
lour ; but contracted the blacknefs that now appears —-v"—
on it from the guilt of thofe fins committed by the Ions
of men. It is let in lilver, and fixed in the fouth-eaft
corner of the Caaba, looking towards Bafra, about
feven fpans from the ground. This ftone, upon which
there is the figure of a human head, is held in the
higheft eftimation among the Arabs ; ail the pilgrims
kifling it with great devotion, and fome even calling
it the right hand of God. Its blacknefs, which is only
fuperficial, is probably owing to the kiffes and touches
of fo many people. After the Karmatians had taken.
Mecca, they carried away this precious ftone, and
could by no means be prevailed upon to reftore it y
but finding at laft that they were unable to prevent the
concourfe of pilgrims to Mecca, they lent it back of
their own accord, after having kept it 22 years.
The double roof of the Caaba is fupported within by
three octagonal pillars of aloes wood j between which,,
on a bar of iron, hang fome filver lamps. The outfid&
is covered with rich black damafk, adorned with an
embroidered band of gold, which is changed every
year, and was formerly fent.by the caliphs, afterwards
by the fultans of Egypt, and is now provided by the
Turkifh emperors. The Caaba, at fome diftance, is
almoft furrounded by a circular enclofure of pillars,-
joined towards the bottom by a low balluftrade, and
towards the top by bars of filver. Juft without this
inner enclofure, on the fouth, north, and weft fides of
the Caaba, are three buildings, which are the orato¬
ries or places where three of the orthodox fe£fs affem-
ble to perform their devotions-. Towards the fouth-
eaft ftands an edifice which covers the well Zemzem,
the treafury, and the cupola of A1 Abbas. Formerly
there was another cupola, that went under the name
of the hemicycle or cuf>ola of Judea ; but whether or
not any remains of that are now to be leen, is unknown 5
nor is it eafy to obtain information in this refpcdt, all
Chriftians being denied accefs to this holy place. At
a fmall diftance from the Caaba, on the eaft fide, is
the Jlation or place of Abraham; where is another ftone
much refpetted by the Mahometans ; and where they
pretend to fliow the footfteps of the patriarch, telling
us he flood on it when he built the Caaba. Here the
fourth feft of Arabs, viz. that of A1 Shafei, affemble
for religious purpofes.
The fquare colonnade, or great piazza, which at a
confiderable diftance enclofes thefe buildings, confifts,
according to A1 Jannabi, of 4^ pillars, and has no
lefs than 38 gates. Mr Sale compares this piazza to
that of the Royal Exchange at London, but allows it
to be much larger. It is covered with fmall domes or
cupolas, from the four corners of which rife as many
minarets or fteeples, with double galleries, and adorn¬
ed with gilded fpires and crefcents after the lurkifti
manner, as are alfo the cupolas which cover the piazza
and other buildings. Between the columns of both
enclofures hang a great number of lamps, which are
conilantly
Caaba
I! .
Caballana.
CAB
conftantly lighted at night. The firfl:
this fecund enclofure was laid by Omar the fecund ca¬
liph, whu built nu mure than a luw wall, te prevent
the cuurt uf the Caaba frum being encroached upon by
private buildings 5 but by the liberality of fucceeding
princes, the whole has been raifed to that Hate of mag¬
nificence in which it appears at prefent.
This temple enjoys the privilege of an afylum for
all forts of criminals: but it is moll; remarkable for
the pilgrimages made to it by the devout Muffulmans,
who pay fo great a veneration to it, that they believe
a Angle fight of its facred walls, without any particu¬
lar act of devotion, is as meritorious in the fight of
God, as the molt careful difcharge of one’s duty, for
the fpace of a whole year, in any other temple.
CAAMINI, in Botany, a name given by the Spa¬
niards and others to the finett fort of Paraguayan
tea. It is the leaf of a (hrub which grows on the
mountains of Maracaya, and is ufed in Chili and Pe®
ru as the tea is with us. The mountains where this
ihrub grows naturally are far from the inhabited parts
of Paraguay : but the people of the place know fo well
the value and ufe of it, that they conilantly furnifh
themfelves with great quantities of it from the fpots
They ufed to go out on thefe expeditions many thou-
fands together 5 leaving their country, In the mean time,
expofed to the infults of their enemies, and many of
themfelves perilhing by fatigue. To avoid thefe in¬
conveniences, they have of late planted thefe trees about
their habitations; but the leaves of thefe cultivated
onss have not the fine flavour of thofe that grow
wild. The king of Spain has permitted the Indians
of Paraguay to bring to the town of Saintfoy 12,000
arobes of the leaves of this tree every year, but they
are not able to procure fo much of the wild leaves an¬
nually : about half the quantity is the utmofl: they
bring of this: the other half is made up of the leaves
of the trees in their own plantations j and this fells at
a lower price, and is called pabos. The arobe is about
25 pound weight; the general price is four piaftres;
and the money is always divided equally among the
people of the colony.
CAANA, or Kaana, a town in Upper Ugypt^
feated on the eaftem bank. of the river Nile, from
whence they carry corn and pulfe for the fupply of
Mecca in Arabia. E. Long. 32^ 23. N. Lat. 24: 30.
Here are feveral monuments of antiquity yet remain¬
ing, adorned with hieroglyphics.
CAB, a Hebrew dry meafure, being the fixth part
of a feah or fatum, and the 1 8ih part of an ephah. A
cab contained 2^ pints of our corn-meafure : a quarter
cab was the meafure of dove’s dung, or more properly
a fort of chick-peafe called by this name, which was
fold at Samaria, during the fiege of that city, for five
fhekels.
CABAL, an apt name currently given to the infa¬
mous miniitry of Charles II. compofed of five perfons,
Clifford, Aihley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lau¬
derdale ; the fir ft letters of whofe names, in this or¬
der, furniflied the appellation by which they were di-
ftinguifhed.
CABALIST, in French commerce, a fa£lor or
perfon who is concerned in managing the trade of an¬
other.
CABALLARIA, in middle-age writers, lands held
Cabbala.
[ 37 ] c. A B
foundation of by the tenure of furnilhing a horfeman, with fuitable Caballaria
equipage in time of war, or when the lord had occa-
fion for him.
CABALLEROS, or Cavalleros, are Spanifli
wools, of which there is a pretty confiderable trade at
Bayonne in France.
CABALLINE, denotes fomething belonging to
horfes ; thus caballine aloes is fo called, from its being
chiefly ufed for purging horfes ; and common brim*-
Hone is called fulphur caballinum for a like reafon.
CABALLINUM, in Andent Geography, a town of
the AEdui in Gallia Celtica ; now Chalons fur Saonef
which fee.
CABALLINUS, in Ancient Geography, a very clear
fountain in Mount Helicon in Boeotia ; called Hip-
pocreneby the Greeks, becaufe opened by Pegafus on
ftriking the rock with his hoof, and hence called Pe-
gafuis.
CAB ALL 10, or Cabellto, in Ancient Geography,
a town of the Cavares in Gallia Narbonenfis, fituated
on the Druentia. One of the Latin colonies, in the
Notitiae called Civitas Cabelhcorurn. Now Cavaillon
in Provence.
CABBAGE, in So/fl/Ty. See BRASSiCA; and A-
GRICULTURE Index.
Cabbage- Tree, or True CABB AG E-Palm. See A
reca, Botany Index.
Cabbage*bark Tree. See Geoffrjea, Botany
Index.
CABBALA, according to the Hebrew ftyle, has
a very diftinct fignification from that wherein w'e un~
derfland it in our language. The Hebrew cabbala fig-
nifies tradition ; and the rabbins, who are called cab-
balijls, ftudy principally the combination of particular
words, letters, and numbers, and by this means pretend
to difeover what is to come, and to fee clearly into the
fenfe of many difficult paffages of Scripture. There
are no fure principles of this knowledge, but it depends
upon fome particular traditions of the ancients ; for
which reafon it is termed cabbala.
The cabbalifts have abundance of names which they
call facred; thefe they make ufe of in invoking of
fpirits, and imagine they receive great light from them.
They tell us, that the fecrets of the Cabbala were dif-
covered to Mofes on Mount Sinai ; and that thefe have
been delivered to them down froraffather to fon, with¬
out interruption, and without any ufe of letters; for
to write them down, is what they are by no means
permitted to do. This is likewife termed the oral law,
beeaufe it- palled from father to fon, in order to di-
ftinguiffi it from the written laws.
There is- another cabbala, called artificial, which
confifts in fearching for abftrufe and myfterious figni-
fications of a word in Scripture, from W'hence they bor¬
row certain explanations, by combining the letters
wffiich compofe it; this cabbala is divided into three
kinds, the gematric, the notaricon, and the temura or
themura. The firfl; whereof confifts in taking the
letters of a Hebrew word -for ciphers or arithmetical
numbers, and explaining every word by the arithmeti¬
cal value of the letters whereof it is compofed. The
fecond fort of cabbala, called notaricon, confifts in tak¬
ing every particular letter of a word for an entire
didtion ; and the third, called themura, i. e. change,
confifts in making different tranfpofitions or changes
o£
CAB
t 38 ]
CAB
Cabidos.
Cabbala of letter*, placing one for the other, or one before the
other.
Among the Chriftians, likcwifc, a certain fort of
.magic is, by miltake, called cabbala; which confitb
in uling improperly certain paflages of Scripture for
magic operations, or in forming magic characters or
figures with liars and talifmans.
Some vilionaries among the Jews believe, that Jefus
Chrift wrought his miracles by virtue of the myfteriea
of the cabbala.
CABBALISTS, the Jewilh doctors who profefs
the ftudy of the cabbala.
In the opinion of thefe men, there is not a word,
letter, or accent in the law, without fome myftery in
it. The Jews arc divided into two general feCts ; the
karaites, who refufe to receive either tradition or the
talmud, or any thing but the pure texts of Scripture •,
and the rabbiniils, or talmudifts, who, befidcs this,
receive the traditions of the ancients, and follow the
talmud.
The latter are again divided into two other feCls 5
pure rabbinifts, who explain the Scripture in its natu¬
ral fenfe, by grammar, hiltory, and tradition 5 and
cabbalilts, who, to difeover hidden myltical fenfes,
which they fuppofe God to have couched therein, make
ufe of the cabbala, and the myilical methods above
mentioned.
CABECA, or Cabess, a name given to the Snell
filks in the Ealt Indies, as thofe from 15 to 20 per
cent, inferior to them are called barina. The Indian
workmen endeavour to pafs them off one with the
other ; for which reafon, the mere experienced Euro¬
pean merchants take care to open the bales, and to
examine all the Ikaines one after another. The Dutch
diilinguiih two forts of cabecas •, namely, the moor ca-
beca, and the common cabeca. The former is fold at
Amfterdam for about 21-^ fchellinghen Flemilh, and
the other for about 18-J.
Cabeca de Vide, a fmall fea-port town of Alentejo,
in Portugal, with good walls, and a Itrong caftle.
W. Long. 6. 43. N. Lat. 39. o.
CABENDA, a fea port of Congo, in Africa, fitu-
ated in E. Long. 12. 2. S. Lat. 4. 5. _
CABES, or Gabes, a town of Africa in the king¬
dom of Tunis, feated on a river near the gulf of the
fame name. E. Long. 10. 35. N.JLat. 33. 40.
CABEZZO, a province of the kingdom of Angola,
in Africa; having Oacco on the north, Lubolo on the
fouth, the Coanzo on the north-eaft, and the Reinba
on the fouth-well. It is populous, and well Itored
with cattle, &c. and hath a mine of iron on a moun¬
tain, from thence called the iron mountain, which yields
great quantities of that metal; and this the Portuguefe
have taught the natives to manufadture. This pro¬
vince is watered by a river called Rio Longo, and other
fmall rivulets, lakes, &c. The trees here are vaftly
large } and they have one fort not unlike our apple trees,
the bark of v'hich being llalhed with a knife, yields
an odoriferous refm of the colour and confillency of
wax, and very medicinal in its nature, only a little too
hot for Europeans, unlefs qualified by fome cooling
drug.
CABIDOS, or Cavidos, a long meafure ufed at
Goa, and other places of the Eall Indies belonging to
4
Cabinet.
the Portuguefe, to meafure fluffs, linens, &c, and equal Cabkfo*
to 4ths of the Paris ell.
CABIN, a room or apartment in a fhip where any _
of the officers ufually refide. There are many of thefe
in a large ffiip; the principal of which is defigned for
the captain or commander. In {hips of the line this
chamber is furniffied with an open gallery in the {hip’s
Hern, as alio a little gallery on each quarter. The
apartments where the inferior officers or common fail-
ors deep and mefs are ufually called Births j which
fee.
The bed places built up for the failors at the {hip’s
fldc in merchantmen are alfo called cabins.
CABINDA, the chief port of the kingdom of An-
goy in Loango in Africa. It is fituated at the mouth of
a river of the fame name, about five leagues north of
Cape Palmerino, on the north fide of the mouth of the
river Zaire. The bay is very commodious for trade,
wooding, and watering.
CABINET, the moll retired place in the fineft
part of a building, fet apart for waiting, ftudying, or
preferving any thing that is precious.
A complete apartment confifts of a hall, anti¬
chamber, chamber, and cabinet, with a gallery on
one fide. Hence we fay, a cabinet of paintings, curio-
fities, &c.
Cabinet, alfo denotes a piece of joiners workman-
fhip, being a kind of prefs or chcft, with feveral doors
and drawers.
There are common cabinets of oak or of chefnut
varniihed, cabinets- of China and Japan, cabinets of
inlaid-work, and fome of ebony, or the like fcarce and
precious w'oods. Formerly the Dutch and German
cabinets were much effeemed in France 5 but are now
quite out of date, as w'ell as the cabinets of ebony
which came from Venice.
Cabinet is alfo ufed in fpeaking of the more feledt
and fecret councils of a prince or adminiftration. Thus
w e fay, the fecrets, the intrigues of the cabinet. To
avoid the inconveniences of a numerous council, the
policy of Italy and practice of France firft introduced
cabinet councils. King Charles I. is charged with
firft eftablifiiing this ufuage in England. Belides hia
privy council, that prince erected a kind of cabinet
council, or junto, under the denomination of a council
of flate ; compofed of Archbifliop Laud, the earl of
Strafford, and Lord Collington, with the fecretaries of
ftatc. Yet fome pretend to find the fubftance of a
cabinet council of much greater antiquity, and even
allowed by parliament, which anciently fettled a quorum
of perfons moll confided in, without whofe prefence
no arduous matter was to be determined ; giving them
pow’er to a cl without confulting the reft of the council.
As long fince as the 28th of Henry 111. a charter pal¬
led in affirmance of the ancient rights of the kingdom •,
which provided, that four great men, chofen by com¬
mon confent, who w'ere to be confervators of the king¬
dom, among other things, ftiould fee to the difpofing
of moneys given by parliament, and appropriated to
particular ufes ; and parliaments were to be fummoned
as they {hould advife. But even of thefe four, any two
made a quorum : and generally the chief juftice of
England and chancellor u'ere of the number of the con¬
fervators. Matth. Par. 28. Henry III. In the firft;
of
CAB [39
Cabinet of Henry VI. the parliament provides, that the quo-
II rum for the privy council be fix, or four at lea^t•, and
Cable. ^a|. *n aq weighty confiderations, the dukes of Bed-
' v ' ford and Glocefter, the king’s uncles, fliould be pre-
fent j which feems to be ere&ing a cabinet by law.
CABIRI, a term in the theology of the ancient
Pagans, fignifying great and powerful gods j being
a name given to the gods of Samothracia. ihey
were alfo worfhipped in other parts of Greece, as
Lemnos and Thebes, where the Cabiria were celebra¬
ted in honour of them ; thefe gods are faid to be m
number four, viz. Axieros, Axiocerfa, Axioccnus, and
Cafmilus. . . . .
CABIRIA, feftivals in honour of the Cabin, cele¬
brated in Thebes and Lemnos, but efpecially in Samo¬
thracia, an ifiand confecrated to the Cabin. All who
were initiated into the myfteries of thefe gods were
thought to be feeured thereby from ftorms at iya, and
all other dangers. The ceremony of initiation was
performed by placing the candidate, crowned with
olive branches, and girded about the loins with a pur¬
ple ribband, on a kind of throne, about which the
priefts and perfons before initiated danced.
CABLE, a thick, large, ftrong rope, commonly ot
hemp, which ferves to keep a (hip at anchor.
There is no merchant (hip, however weak, but has
at lead three cables •, namely, the chief cable, or cable
of the (lieet anchor, a common cable, and a imaller
°U Cable is alfo faid of ropes, which ferve to raife
heavy loads, by the help of cranes, pulleys, and other
engines. The name of cable is ufually given to luch
as are, at lead, three inches in circumference j thole
that are lefs are only called ropes, of different names,
according to their ufe. _
Every cable, of whatfoever thicknefs it be, is com-
pofed of three drands •, every drand of three ropes ;
and every rope of three twids : the twid is made of
more or lefs threads, according as the cable is to be
, thicker or thinner.
In the manufacture of cables, after the ropes are
made, they ufe dicks, which they pafs fird between
the ropes of which they make the drands, and after¬
wards between the drands of which they make the
cable, to the end that they may all twid the better,
and be more regularly wound together *, and alio, to
prevent them from entwining or entangling, they hang,
at the end of each drand and of each rope, a weight ot
lead or of done. . r j c •
The number of threads each cable is compofed of is
always proportioned to its length and thicknefs •, and
it is by this number of threads that its weight and va¬
lue are afeertained : thus, a cable of three inches cir¬
cumference, or one inch diameter, ought to conhd ot
48 ordinary threads, and to weigh 1 (A pounds I and
on this foundation is calculated the following table,
very ufeful for all people engaged m marine commerce,
who fit out merchantmen for their own account, or
freight them for the account of others.
J table of the number of threads and weight of cables of
different circumferences.
Cifcumf. Threads. Weight
5 inches. 4^ I92 pounds.
4 77 3oS
Circumf.
5 inches.
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
T4
1.5
16
17
18
*9
20
C A
Threads.
I 21
174
238
311
393
485
598
699
821
95*
1093
1244
1404
1574
1754
1943
B
Weight. Gable
484 pounds. Cai’ot.
696 U—y—
952
1244
1572
1940
2392
2796
3284
3808
4372
497 6
5616
6296
7016
7772
Sheet-Anchor CABLE, is the greated cable belonging-
to a diip.
Stream CABLE, a hawfer or rope, fomething fmaller
than the bowers, and ufed to moor the (hip in a river
or haven, (heltered from the wind and fea, &c.
Serve or Plate the CABLE, is to bind it about with
ropes, clouts, &c. to keep it from galling in the
hawfe.
To Splice a CABLE, is to make two pieces fad toge¬
ther, by working the feveral threads of the rope the
one into the other.
Patj more CABLE, is to let more out of the (hip.
Pap cheap the Cable, is to hand it out apace. \ ccr
more Cable, is to let more out, &c.
CABLE'S l.ength, a meafure of 120 fathoms, or of
the ufual length of the cable.
CABLED, in Heraldry, a term applied to a crols
formed of the two ends of a diip’s cable ; fometnnes
alfo to a crofs covered over with rounds of rope j more
properly called a crofs carded.
CABLED Flute, in Architecture, fuch dutes as aie
filled up with pieces in the form of a cable.
CABO DE I stria, the capital town of the province
of Idria, in the territory of Venice *, and the lee of a
bidiop. It is feated on a finall ifiand in the gulf of
Venice, and is joined to the main land by draw-bridges.
E. Long. 14. 22. N. Lat. 45. 49. . ,
CABOCHED, in Heraldry, is when the heads
of beads are borne without any part of the neck, full
faced. . r .
CABOLETTO, in commerce, a com of the re¬
public of Genoa, worth about 3d. of our money.
CABOT, Sebastian, the fird difeoverer of the con¬
tinent of America, was the (on of John Cabot, a Ve¬
netian. He was born at Bridol in 14775 and was
taught by his father, arithmetic, geometry and cofino-
granhy. Before he was 20 years of age he made fe¬
veral voyages. The fird of any confluence feems to
have been made with his father, who had a commiffion
from Henry VII. for the difeovery of a north-wed pai-
fage to India. They failed in the fpring of 149? i and
proceeding to the north-wed they diicovered land,
which for that reafon they called Pnmavifa ox New-
found!and. Another fmaller ifland they called 6/ John,
from its being difeovered on the fead of St John Lap-
tid 5 after which, they failed along the coad o. Ame¬
rica as far as Cape Florida, and then returned to Eng-
CAB [ 40 ] CAB
land with a good cargo, and three Indians aboard.
Stowe and Speed aferibe thefe difeoveries wholly to
Sebaltian, without mentioning his father. It is pro¬
bable that Sebaftian, after his father’s death, made fe-
veral voyages to thefe parts, as a map of his difeove¬
ries, drawn by himfelf, was hung up in the privy gar¬
den at Whitehall. However, hiftory gives but little
account of his life for near 20 years : when he went to
Spain, where he was made pilot-major, and intruded
with reviewing all projects for difeoveries, which were
then very numerous. His great capacity and approved
integrity induced many eminent merchants to treat with
him about a voyage by the new found ftraits of Ma¬
gellan to the Moluccas. He therefore failed in 1525,
firft to the Canaries ; then to the Cape de Verd iflands;
thence to St Auguftine and the ifland of Patos j when
fome of his people beginning to be mutinous, and re-
fufing to pafs through the ftraits, he laid afide the de-
lign of failing to the Moluccas •, left fome of the prin¬
cipal mutineers upon a defert ifland *, and, failing up
the rivers of Plate and Paraguay, dilcovered, and built
forts in, a large traft of fine country, that produced
gold, filver, and other rich commodities. He thence
defpatched meffengers to Spain for a fupply of provi-
fions, ammunition, goods for trade, and a recruit of men:
but his requell: not being readily complied with, after
Haying five years in America, he returned home *, _
where he met with a cold reception, the merchants be¬
ing difpleafed at his not having purfued his voyage to
the Moluccas, while his treatment of the mutineers had
given umbrage at court. Hence he returned to Eng¬
land 5 and being introduced to the duke of Somerfet,
then lord prote£tor, a new office was erected for him :
he was made governor of the myftery and company of
the merchant-adventurers for the difeovery of regions,
dominions, iflands, and places unknown •, a penfion was
granted him, by letters-patent, of 166I. 13s. ^d. per
annum ; and he was confulted in all affairs relative to
trade. In 1522, by his intereft, the court fitted out
fome ffiips for the difeovery of the northern parts of the
world. This produced the firil: voyage the Englifli
made to Ruffia, and the beginning of that commerce
which has ever fince been carried on between the two
nations. The Ruffia company was now founded by a
charter granted by Philip and Mary ; and of this com¬
pany Sebaftian was appointed governor for life. He is
faid to be the firft who took notice of the variation of
the needle, and who publiflied a map of the world.
The exaft time of his death is not known, but he lived
to be above 70 years of age.
CABRA, a town of the kingdom of Tombut in
Africa. It is a large town, but without walls ; and is
feated on the river Niger, about 1 2 miles from Tom¬
but. The houfes are built in the Ihape of bells ; and
the walls are made with ftakes or hurdles, plaftered
with clay, and covered with reeds after the manner of
thatch. This place is very much frequented by ne¬
groes who come here by water to trade. The town is
very unhealthy, which is probably owing to its low fi-
tuation. The colour of the inhabitants is black, and
their religion a fort of Mahometanifm. They have
plenty of corn, cattle, milk, and butter 5 but fait is
very fcarce. The judge who decides controverfies is
appointed by the king of Tombut. E. Long. o. 50.
iN. Lat. 14*
CABUL, or GaBOUL, a city of Alia, and capital
of the province of Cabulillan. It lies in E. Long. 68.
15. N. Lat. 33. 30. on the frontiers of Great Bukha*
ria, on the fouth fide of the mountains which divide the
territories of the Mogul from that part of Great Tar¬
tary. It is-one of the fineft places in that part of the
world j large, rich, and very populous. As it is con-
fidered as the key of the Great Mogul’s dominions on
that fide, great care is taken to keep its fortifications
in repair, and a numerous garrifen is maintained for its
fecurity. It lies on the road between Samarcand -and
Labor ; and is much frequented by the Tartars, Per-
fians, and Indians. The Ulbcc Tartars drive there a
great trade in Haves and horfes, of which it is faid that
no fewer are fold than 60,000 annually. The Perfians
bring black cattle and Iheep, which renders provifions
very cheap. They have alfo wine, and plenty of all
forts of eatables. The city Hands on a little river which
falls into the Indus, and thereby affords a fhort and
fpeedy paffage for all the rich commodities in the
country behind it, which when brought to Cabul, are
there exchanged for Haves and horfes, and then con¬
veyed by merchants of different countries to all parts
of the world. The inhabitants are moft of them Indian
pagans, though the officers of the Mogul and moft of
the garrifon are Mahometans.
CABULISTAN, a provinceof Afia, formerly be¬
longing to the Great Mogul j but ceded in 1739 to
Kouli Khan, who at that time governed Perfia. It is
bounded on the north by Bukharia, on the eaft by
Cafchmire, on the weft by Zabuliftan, and Candahar,
and on the fouth by Moultan. It is 250 miles in
length, 240 in breadth, and its chief town is Cabul,
This country in general is not very fruitful j but in the
vales they have good pafture lands. I he roads are
much infefted with banditti ; which obliges the na¬
tives to have guards for the fecurity of travellers.
The religion of the Cabuliftans is pagan j and their
extraordinary time of devotion is the full moon in Fe¬
bruary, and continues for twro days. At this time they
are clothed in red, make their offerings, dance to the
found of the trumpet, and make vifits to their friends
in mafquerade dreffes. They fay, their god Crufman
killed a giant who was his enemy, and that he appear¬
ed like a little child 5 in memory of which, they caufe
a child to (hoot at the figure of a giant. 1 hofe of the
fame tribe make bonfires, and feaft together in a jovial
manner. The moral part of their religion confifts in
charity ; for which reafon, they dig wells and build
houfes for the accommodation of travellers. They have
plenty of provifions, mines of iron, myrobolans, aroma¬
tic woods, and drugs of many kinds. I hey cany on
a great trade with the neighbouring countries 5 by
w’hich means they are very rich, and are fupplied with
plenty of all things.
CABURNS, on (hip board, are fmall lines made of
fpun yarn, to bind cables, feize tackles, or the like.
CACALIA. See Botany Index.
CACAO. See Theobroma, Botany Index.
CACOONS. See Flevillea, Botany Index.
CACERES, a town of Spain in the province of
Eftremadura, is fcated on the river Saler, and noted
for the exceeding fine wool which the flieep bear in the
neighbourhood. Between this town and Brocos, there
is a wood, where the allies defeated the rear-guard of
4
Cadiao.
vC A C [
Caceres tlie duke of Berwick, on the 7th of April 1706* E.
11 Long. 6. 47. N. Lat. 39. 13.
_i CACHALOT. See PhySeter, Cetology In¬
dex.
CACHAN, or CashaN, a confiderable town of Per-
fia, in Irac Agemi, where they carry on an extenlive
trade in filks, lilver and gold brocades, and fine earthen
ware. It is fituated in a vaft plain, 55 miles from If-
pahan. E. Long. 50. 2. N. Lat. 34. 10.
CACH AO, a province in the kingdom of Tonquin
in Alia, fituated in the heart of the kingdom, and fur-
rounded by the other feven. Its foil is fertile, and in
fome places mountainous, abounding with a variety of
trees, and particularly that of varnifh. Moll of thefe
provinces carry on fome branch of the filk manufacture,
but this moft of all. It takes its name from the capi¬
tal, which is alfo the metropolis of the whole kingdom,
though in other refpects hardly comparable to a Chi-
, nefe town of the third rank.
. Cachao, a city of the province of that name, in the
kingdom of Tonquin in Afia, fituated in E. Long.
I05- 31* Lat. 22. 10. at about 8n leagues dillance
from the fea. It is prodigioully crowded with people,
infomuch that the ftreets are hardly paffable, efpecially
on market days. Thefe vart crowds, however, come
moftly from the neighbouring villages ; upon which
account thefe villages have been allowed their halls in
particular parts of the city, where they bring and dif-
pofe ef their wares. The town itfelf, though the me¬
tropolis of the whole Tonquinefe kingdom, hath nei¬
ther walls nor fortifications. The principal ftreets are
wide and airy, but the reft of them narrow and ill
paved 5 and except the palace royal and arfenal, the
town has little elfe worth notice. The houfes are low
and mean, moftly built of wood and clay, and not above
one ftory high. The magazines and warehoufes belong¬
ing to foreigners are the only edifices built of brick : and
thefe, though plain, yet, by reafon of their height
and more elegant ftruaure, make a confiderable ftiow
among thofe rows of wooden huts. From the combuf-
tibility of its edifices, this city fuffers frequent and
dreadful conflagrations. Thefe fpread with fueh fur-
prifing velocity, that fome thoufands of houfes are of¬
ten laid in allies before the fire can be extinguiflied.
To prevent thefe fad confequences, every houfe hath
either in its yard or even in its centre, fome low build¬
ing of brick, in form of an oven, into which the inha¬
bitants on the firft alarm convey their moft valuable
goods. Befides this precaution, which every family
takes to fecure their goods, the government obliges
them to keep a ciftern, or fome other capacious veflel
always full of water, on the top of their houfe, to be
ready on all occafions of this nature : as likewife a loop-
pole and bucket, to throw water from the kennel upon
the houfes. If thefe two expedients fail of fupprefling
the flames, they immediately cut the ftraps which fafl>
en the thatch to the walls, and let it fall in and watte
itfelf on the ground. The king’s palace Hands in the
centre of the city ; and is furrounded with a flout wall,
within whole cinfture are feen a great number of apart¬
ments two ftories high, whofe fronts and portals have
jomething of the grand tafte. Thofe of the king and
his wives are embelliftied with variety of carvings and
gildings after the Indian manner, and all finely var-
mflied. In the outer court are a vaft number of ftimp-
Vol. V. Part I. 1
41 1 C A C
tuous ftables for the king’s horfes and elephants. The Carhao.
appearance of the inner courts can only be conjedtured } v
for the avenues are not only Ihut to all itrangers,
but even to the king’s fubjeds, except thofe of the
privy council, and the chief minifters of ftate ; yet we
are told, that there are ftuircafes by which people may
mount up to the top of the walls, which are about 18
or 20 feet high ; from whence they may have a di-
ftant view of the royal apartments, and of the fine par¬
terres and filh ponds that are between the cindure and
them. The front wall hath a large gate well orna¬
mented, which is never opened but when the king goes
in and out 5 but at fome dittanee from it on each fide
there are two pofterns, at which the courtiers and fer-
vants may go in and out. This cindure, which is of
a vaft circumference, is faced with brick within and
without, and the whole ftrudure is terminated by wide
fpacious gardens ; which, though ftored with great va¬
riety of proper ornaments, are deftitute of the gran¬
deur and elegance obferved in the palaces of European
princes. Beiides this palace, the ruins of one ftill more
magnificent are to be obferved, and are called Libatvia.
The circumference is faid to have been betwixt fix and
feven miles •, fome arches, porticoes, and other orna¬
ments are ftill remaining ; from which, and fome of
its courts paved with marble, it may be concluded to
have been as magnificent a ftrudure as any of the eaft-
ern parts can ftiow. The arfenal is likewife a large
and noble building, well ftored with ammunition and
artillery. The Englilh fadory is fituated on the north
fide of the city, fronting the river bong-koy. It is a
handfome low-built houfe, with a fpacious dining room
in the centre *, and on each fide are the apartments of
the merchants, fadors, and fervants. At each end of
the building are fmaller houfes for other ufes, as ftore-
houfes, kitchen, &c. which form tvro wings with the
fquare in the middle, and parallel with the river, near
the bank of which Hands a long flag-ftaff, on which
they commonly difplay the Englilh colours on Sun¬
days and all remarkable days. Adjoining to it, on the
fouth fide, is the Danifli fadory, which is neither fo
large nor fo handfome. On the fame fide of the river
runs a long dike, whofe timber and ftones are fo firmly
faftened together, that no part of it can be ftirred with¬
out moving the whole. This •work was raifed on thofe
banks to prevent the river, during the time of their
vaft rains, from overflowing the city ; and it has hi¬
therto anfwered its end *, for though the town Hands
high enough to be in no danger from land Hoods, it
might yet have been otherwife frequently damaged, if
not totally laid under water, by the overflowing of that
river. Some curious obfervations have been commu¬
nicated to the Royal Society concerning differences be¬
tween the tides of thofe feas and thofe of Europe, viz.
that on the Tonquinefe coaft ebbs and flows but once
in 24 hours ; that is, that the tide is rifing during the
fpace of 12 hours, and can be ealily perceived during
two of the moon’s quarters, but can hardly be obferv¬
ed during the other two. In the fpring tides, which
laft 14 days, the waters begin to rile at the rifing of
the moon j whereas in the low tides, which continue
the fame number of days, the tide begins not till that
planet has got below the horizon. Whilft it is pafling
through the fix northern figns, the tides are obferved
to vary greatly, to rife fometimes very high, and fome-
F times
C A C
r 42 ]
CAB
Cacftus.
Cachao times to be very low j but when it once got into the
fouthern part of the zodiac, they are then found to be
, more even and regular.
CACHECTIC, fomething partaking of the nature
of, or belonging to, a cachexy.
CACHEO,"a town of Negroland in Africa, feated
on the river St Domingo. It is fubjeft to the 1 ortu-
guefe, who have three forts there, and carry on a great
trade in wax and flaves. W. Long. 14. 55*
1 2. o.
CACHEXY, in Medicine, a vitious ftate of the
humours and whole habit. See Medicine Index.
CACHRYS. See Botany Index.
CACHUNDE, the name of a medicine, highly ce¬
lebrated among the Chinefe and Indians, and made of
feveral aromatic ingredients, the perfumes, medicinal
earth, and precious Hones: they make the whole into
a Riff paRe, and form out of it feveral figures accord¬
ing to their fancy, which are dried for ule} thete are
principally ufed in the EaR Indies, but are fometimes
brought over to Portugal. In China, the principal
perfons ufually carry a fmall piece in their mouths,
which is a continued cordial, and gives their breath a
very fweet fmell. It is a highly valuable medicine,
alfo, in all nervous complaints-, and is eReemed a
prolonger of life, and a provocative to venery, the two
great intentions of moR of the medicines in uie in the
Eaff. ..
CACOCHYLIA, or Cacochymia, a vitious Rate
©f the vital humours, efpecially of the mafs of blood }
arifing either from a diforder of the fecretions or ex¬
cretions, or from external contagion. The w-ord is
Greek, compounded of ill, and juice. _
CACOPHONIA, in Giammar and Rhetoric, the
meeting of two letters, or fyRabies, which yield an un¬
couth and difagreeable found. R he w ord is compound¬
ed of r.ot,y.i>i evil, and voice.
Cacophonia, in Medicine, denotes a vice or depra¬
vation of the voice or fpeech ; of which there are two
fpecies, aphonia and dyjphoma.
CACTUS. See Botany Index.
The ca£ti are plants of a fingular Rru&ure, but
efpecially the larger kinds of them ; which appear like
a large, flefliy, green melon, with deep ribs, fet all
over with flrong Riarp thorns, and, when the plants
are cut through the middle, their infide is a fuft, pale-
green, flefliy fubftance, very full of moiflure. The
fruit of all the fpecies is frequently eaten by the inha¬
bitants of the Weft Indies. The fruits are about three
quarters of an inch in length, of a taper form, drawing
to a point at the bottom toward the plant, but blunt
at the top where the empalement of the flower was fitu-
ated. The tafte is agreeably acid, which in a hot
country muft render the fruit more grateful.
The cochineal animals are fupported on a fpecies
called cactus cochenillfer.—Jhe flower of the caaus
grandiflora (one of the creeping cereufes) is laid to be
curved ftamina, furrounding the Ryle in the centre of Carte*
the flower, make a grand appearance, to which may be Cad^RCe
added the fine feent, which perfumes the air to a confi- y ,
derable diftance. It flowers in July.
CACUS, in fabulous hiftory, an Italian fliepherd
upon Mount Aventine. As Hercules w'as driving
home the herd of King Geryon whom he had flain, Ca-
cus robbed him of fome of his oxen, which he drew
backward into his den left they ftiould be difeovered.
Hercules at laft finding them out by their lowing, or
the robbery being difeovered to him, killed Cacus with
his club. He was Vulcan’s fon, of prodigious bulk,
and half man half fatyr. .
CAD AN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle 01 Z,ats,
feated on the northern bank of the river Egra, in E.
Long. 13. 34. N. Lat. 50. 20.
CADARI, or Kadari, a feft of Mahometans, who
affert free will j attribute the aftions of men to men
alone, not to any fecret power determining the will j
and deny all abfolute decrees, and predeftination. I he
author of this fed! w-as Mabeb ben Kaled al Ginom,
who fuffered martyrdom for it. The word comes from
the Arabic, np, cadara, “ power.” Ben Aun calk
the Cadarians the Magi or Manichees of the Muflel-
mans. , ri. •
CADE, a cag, calk or barrel. A cade of herrings
is a veffel containing the quantity of 500 red herrings,
or 1000 fprats. ,
Cade Lamb, a young lamb weaned, and brought
up by hand, in a houfe-, called, in the North, pet
lamb. . . ,
Cade Oil, in the Materia Medica, a name given to
an oil much in ufe in fome parts of France and Ger¬
many. The phyfieians call it oleum codec, or oleum tie
cada. This is fuppofed by fome U>_ be the piflelaeum
of the ancients, but improperly j it is made oi the truit
of the oxycedrus, which is called by the people of
thefe places cada. f
CADE Worm, in Zoology, the maggot or worm ot a
fly caWcd phryganea. It is ufed as a bait m angling.
See Phryganea, Entomology Index*
CADEA,orTHE League of the House of God,
is one of thofe that compote the republic of the G ri-
fons, and the moft powerful and extenfive oi them ait.
It contains the biftiopric of Coire, the great valley of
Engadine, and that of Bragail or Pregal. Of the 11
great or 21 fmall communities, there are but two that
fpeak the German language-, that of the reft is called
the Rhetic, and is a dialeft of the Italian. I he Pro-
teftant religion is moft prevalent in this league, which
has been allied to the Swifs cantons ever fince the year
1498. Coire is the capital town. .
C ADEN AC, a town of France, m Querci, on tne
confines of R»uergue, feated on the river Lot, m E.
Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 44. 36. . _ 1 r
CADENCE, or Repose, m Mufic, (from the La¬
tin cadere “ to fall or defeend”) *, the termination of an
in perfedlL..     7
the morning -, fo that the fame flower only continues
in perfeaion about fix hours. The calyx when expand¬
ed is about a foot in diameter, of a fplendid yellow
•within, and a dark brown without j the petals are ma¬
ny, and of a pure white j and the great number of re-
Cadence, in meaning, is * lann.g
low the key note at the clofeof every period. In jading,
whether profe or verfe, a certain tone illumed w n
is called the key-note; add 111 this tone the bulk of the
words are founded : but this note is generally lowered
towards the clofe of every fentence. Cadenc£>
C A t> t 43
CADEttctf in the manege, an equal ineafure or pro¬
portion, obferved by a horfe in all his motions; fo
that his times have an equal regard to one another,
the one does not embrace or take in more ground than
the other, and the horfe obferves his ground regular-
ly.
C ADENE, one of the forts of carpets which the
Europeans import from the Levant. They are the
worft fort of all, and are fold by the piece, from one
«r two piaftres per carpet.
CADENET, a town of France in Provence, and
in the vigurie of Apt. E. Long. 5. 30. N. Lat. 43.
4°.
CADES, dr Kadesh, in Ancient Geography, a
town in the wildernefs of Zitt, in Arabia Petr?ea •,
the firlt encampment of the Ifraelites, after their de¬
parture from Eziongeber •, and from which the wil¬
dernefs of Zinr was called Cades; the burial place
of Miriam, with the rock, and water of Meribah
in it. Another Caries, a town of the tribe of Ju¬
dah, Jolhua xv. 23. Cadejbarnca, called alfo Cades.
CADESBARNEA, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the wildernefs of Paran, on the confines of Canaan,
from which the fpies were fent out *, fometimes limply
tailed Cades, but diftincl from the Cades in the wilder¬
nefs of Zin.
CADET, the younger fon of a family, is a term
naturalized in our language from the French. At Pa¬
ris, among the citizens, the cadets haVe an equal patri¬
mony with the reft. At Caux, in Normandy, the
tuftom, as with us, is to leave all to the eldeft, except
a fmall portion to the cadets. In Spain, it is ufual for
one of the cadets in great families to take the mother’s
name.
Cadet is alfo a military term, denoting a young
gentleman who choofcs to carry arms in a marching
regiment as a private man. His views are, to acquire
fome knowledge in the art of war, and to obtain a
Comm: Hi on in the army. Cadet differs from volunteer,
As the former takes pay, whereas the latter ferves with-
eut pay.
CADI, or CaMII, a judge of civil affairs in the Tur¬
kish empire. It is generally taken for the judge of a
town *, judges of provinces being diftinguifhed by the
appellation of moil as.
We find numerous complaints of the avarice, Ini¬
quity, and extortion, of the Turkifh cadis •, all juftice
is here venal; the people bribe the cadis, the cadis bribe
the raoulsts, the moulas the cadilefchers, and the cadi-
lefehers the mufti. Each cadi has his ferjeants, vho¬
ar e to fummon perfons to appear and anfwer complaints.
If the party fmnmoned fails to appear at the hour ap-
pointed, fentence is paffed in favour of his adverfary.
It is ufually vain to appeal from the fentences of the
cadi, firtee he affair is never heard anew, but judge¬
ment is paffed on the cafe as ftated by the’ cadi. But
the cadis are often cafhicred and punifhed for crying in¬
justice with the baftinado and mulcts ; the law, how¬
ever, does not allow them to be put to death. Con*-
C A ft
cadis is the denomination of their higher order of
priefts or dodtors, anfwering to the rabbins among the
Jews.
Cacti
It
Cadiz*
See
ftantinople has had cadi’s ever fince the year I39°> when
Bajazet I. obliged John Paleologus, emperor of the
Greeks, to reorive cadis into the city to judge all con-
troverfies happening between the Greeks and the Lurks
fettled there. In fome countries of Africa, the cadis
tire alfo judges of religious matters. Among the Moors
CADI AC I, the Turkifti name of Chalcedon.
Chalcedon.
CADILESCHER, a capital officer of juftice among
the Turks, anfwering to a chief juftice among us.
It is faid, that this authority was originally confined
to the foldiery ; but that, at prefent, it extends it ft If
to the determination of all kinds of law-fuits j yet is
neverthelefs fubjedl to appeals.
There are but three cadilefchers in all the grand fig-
nior’s territoriesthe firft is that of Europe j the fe-
cond, of Natolia •, and the third refides at Grand Cairo.
This laft is the moft eonfiderable: they have their feats
in the divan next to the grand vizir.
CADILLAC, a town of France in Guienne, and
in Bazadois, near the river Garonne, with a hamh-
fome caftle, iituated in W. Long. o. 15. N. Lat.
44* 37*
CADIZ, a city and port town of Andalufia m
Spain, fituated on the illand of Leon, oppofite to Port
St Mary on the continent, about 60 miles fouth-weft
of Seville, and 4c north-weft of Gibraltar. W. Long.
6. 40. N. Lat. 36. 30.
It occupies the whole furface of the weftern extre¬
mity of the ifland, which is compofed of two large
circular parts, joined together by a very narrow bank
of fand, forming altogether the figure of a chain-Ihot.
At the fouth-eaft end, the ancient bridge of Suaco,
thrown over a deep channel or river, affords a commu¬
nication between the itland and the continent} a Itrong
line of works defends the city from all approaches along
the ifthmus *, and, to render them Hill more difficult*
all the gardefts and little villas on the beach were in
1762 cleared aWay, and a dreary fandy glacis left 111
their room, fo that now there is fcarce a tree on the
whole ifland.
Except the Caile Ancha, all the ftreets are narrow,
ill paved, artd infufferably ftinking. They are all
drawn ih ftraight lines, and moft of them interfeift each
other at right angles. The Rearms of rats that in the
nights run°about the ftreets are innumerable; whole
droves of them pafs and repafs continually, and thefe
their midnight revels are extremely troublefome to
filch as walk late. The houfes me lofty, with each a
veftibule, which being left open till night, ferves paiftrN
gers to retire to *, this cuftom, which prevails through¬
out Spain, renders thefe places exceedingly bffenfive.
In the middle of the houfe La court like a deep well,
under which is generally a eiftern, the bleeding pxace
of gnats and mofquitoes *, the ground floors are ware-
houfes, the firft ftories compting-houfe or kitchen, and
the principal apartment up two pair of ftans. The
roofs are flat, covered with an impenetrable cement,
and few ate without a tnirador or turret for the pur**
pofe of commanding a view of the fea. Round the
narapet-wall at top are placed rows of fquare pillars,
meant either for ornatoent according to. lome tradi¬
tional mode of decoration, or to fix awnings to, that
fuch as fit there for the benefit of the fea breeze 111 a7
be flieltered from the rays of the fun ; but the moll
common ufe made of them, is to faften ropes, for dry¬
ing linen upon. High above all thefe pinnacles,
which give Cadiz a moft Angular appearance, ftand*
F 2, tn*
CAB [44] CAB
Cadiz.
the tower of fignals. Here flags are hung out on the
firft fight of a fail, marking the fize of the fhip, the
nation it belongs to, and, if a Spaniili Indiaman, the
port of the Indies it comes from. The Ihips are ac¬
quainted with the proper fignals to be made, and
thefe are repeated by the 'watchmen of the tower : as
painted lifts are in every houfe, perfons concerned in
commerce foon learn the marks.
The city is divided into 24 quarters, under the in-
fpedlion of as many commiffioners of police j and its
population is reckoned at 140,000 inhabitants, of
which 1 2,000 are French, and at leaft as many more
Italians. The fquare of Saint Antonia is large, and
tolerably handfome, and there are a few fmaller open¬
ings of no great note. The public walk, or Alameda,
is pleafant in the evening : it is fenced off the coach
road by a marble rail. The fea air prevents the
trees from thriving, and deftroys all hopes of future
fliade.
From the Alameda, continuing your w'alk weft-
wards, you come to the Campofanto, a large efplanade,
the only airing-place for coaches j it turns round moft
part of the wrert and fouth fides of the ifland, but the
buildings are ftraggling and ugly •, the only edifice of
any flaow is the new orphan houfe j oppofite to it is
the fortrefs of St Sebaftian, built on a neck of land
running out into the fea. The round tower at the
extremity is fuppofed to have faved the city, in the
great earthquake of 1755, from being fwept away by
the fury of the weaves. The building proved fuflicient-
ly folid to withftand the ftrock, and break the immenfe
volume of water that threatened deftrudtien to the
whole ifland. In the narrow part of the ifthmus the
furge beat over with amazing impetuofity, and bore
down all before it •, among the reft, the grandfon of
the famous tragic poet Racine, wrho ftrove in vain to
efcape, by urging his horfe to the utmoft of his fpeed.
On St Sebaftian’s feaft, a kind of wake or fair is held
in the fort 5 an aftoniftiing number of people then
pafling and repafling, on a firing of wooden bridges
laid from rock to rock, makes a very lively moving
picture.
From hence to the wooden circus wrere they exhibit
the bull feafts, you keep turning to the left clofe above
the fea, which on all this fide dallies over large ledges
of rock : the ftiore feems here abfolutely inaccefiible.
On this Ihore Hands the cathedral, a work of great ex¬
pence, but carried on with fo little vigour, that it is
difficult to guefs at the term of years it will require to
bring it to perfection. The vaults are executed with
great folidity. The arches, that fpring from the clutter¬
ed pilafters to fupport the roof of the church, are very
bold } the minute fculpture bellowed upon them feems
fuperfluous, as all the effeCl will be loft from their
great height, and from the lhade that will be thrown
upon them by the filling up of the interftices. From
the fea, the prefent top of the church refembles the
carcafe of fome huge monfter call upon its fide, rearing
its gigantic blanched ribs high above the buildings of
the city. The outward cafings are to be of white
marble, the bars of the windows of bronze.
Next, croffing before the land gate and barracks, a
fuperb edifice for ftrength, convenience, and eleanli-
nefs, you come down to the ramparts that defend the
city on the fide of the bay. If the profpeCl to the
ocean is folemn, that towards the main land is ani- Cadiz
mated in the higheft degree ; the men of war ride in II
the eaftern bofom of the bay j lower down the mer^ Cadn.us.
chantmen are fpread far and near 5 and clofe to the
town an incredible number of barks, of various fliapeS
and fizes, cover the furface of the water, fome moored
and fome in motion, carrying goods to and fro. The
oppofite Ihore of Spain is lludded with white houfes,
and enlivened by the towns of St Mary’s, Port-real,
and others, behind which, eaftwrard, on a ridge of hills,
Hands Medina Sidonia, and further back rife the moun¬
tains of Granada. Weft ward, Rota clofes the hori¬
zon, near which was anciently the iflasd and city of
Tarteffus, now covered by the fea, but at lowr water
fome part of the ruins are Hill to be difcerned. In
a large baftion, jutting out into the bay, they have
built the cuftom-houfe, the firft ftory of which is
level with the walk upon the w7alls. When it was re-
folved to eredl a building f» neceffary to this great em¬
porium of trade, the marquis di Squillace gave orders
that no expence (hould be fpared, and the moft intelli¬
gent architects employed, in order to ereCl a monu¬
ment, which by its tafte and magnificence might excite
the admiration of pofterity : the refult of thefe pre¬
cautions proved a piece of vile architecture, compofed
of the worft of materials.
The itir here is prodigious during the laft months of
the ftay of the flota. The packers poffefs the art of
prefling goods to great perfeClion j but, as they pay
the freight according to the cubic palms of each bale,
they are apt to fqueeze dowm the cloths and linens fo
very clofe and hard, as fometimes to render them un¬
fit for ufe. The exportation of French luxuries in-
drefs is enormous $ Lyons furnifties moft of them ~y
England fends out bale goods ; Brittany and the north
linens. Every commercial nation has a conful refident
at Cadiz •, thofe of England and France are the only
ones not allowed to have any concern in trade.
In 1596, Cadiz was taken, pillaged, and burnt by
the Engliftr ; but in 1702 it was attempted in conjunc¬
tion w'ith the Dutch, without fuccefs.
CADIZADELITES, a feCl of Mahometans very
like the ancient Stoics. They ihun feafts and diver-
fions, and affeCl an extraordinary gravity in all their
actions j they are continually talking of God, and fome
of them make a jumble of Chriftianity and Mahome-
tanifm j they drink vine, even in the fall of the Ra¬
mazan *, they love and proteCl the Chriftians •, they be¬
lieve that Mahomet is the Holy Ghoft, praClife circum-
cifion, and juftify it by the example of Jefus Chrift.
CADMEAN letters, the ancient Greek or Ionic
characters, fuch as they were firft brought by Cadmus
from Phoenicia: whence Herodotus alfo calls them
Phoenician letters. According to fome writers, Cad¬
mus was not the inventor, nor even importer of the
Greek letters, but only the modeller and reformer
thereof 5 and it was hence they acquired the appellation
Cadnvan or Phoenician letters; whereas before that
time they had been called Pelafgian letters.
CADM1A. See Calamine.
CADMUS, in fabulous hiftory, king of Thebes*,
the fon of Agenor king of Phoenicia, and the brother
of Phoenix, Cilix, and Europa. He carried intc*
Greece the 16 fimple letters of the Greek alphabet4.
and there built Thebes, in Bceotia. The poets fay,.
CAD [ 45 ] CAE
Cad™us that he left his native country in fearch of his filler
II Europa, whom Jupiter had carried away in the form
Cadiiceas.^ o£ ^ . ancj inquiring of the Delphic oracle
for a fettlement, he was anfwered, that he Ihould fol¬
low the diretlion of a cow, and build a city where (he
lay down. Having arrived among the Phocenfes,' he
was met by a cow, who conduced him through Boeo-
tia to the place where Thebes was afterwards built :
but as he was about to facrifice his guide to Pallas, he
lent two of his company to the fountain Dirce for wa¬
ter ; when they being devoured by a ferpent or dragon,
he llew the monfter, and afterwards, by the advice of
Pallas, fowed his teeth, when there fprung up a num¬
ber of armed foldiers, who prepared to revenge the
death of the ferpent ; but on his calling a llone among
thefe upftart warriors, they turned their weapons againlt
each other with fuch animofity, that only five furvived
the combat, and thefe afliiled Cadmus in founding his
new city. Afterwards, to recompenfe his labours, the
gods gave him Harmonia, or Harmione, the daughter
of Mars and Venus *, and honoured his nuptials with
prefents and peculiar marks of favour. But at length
refigning Thebes to Pentheus, Cadmus and Harmione
went to govern the Ecclellenfes : when grown old,
they were transformed into ferpents ; or, as others fay,
fent to the Elyfian fields, in a chariot drawn by fer-
pents. See Thebes.
Cadmus of Miletus, a celebrated Greek hillorian,
was, according to Pliny, the firil of the Greeks who
wrote hiltory in profe. He flourilhed about c co be¬
fore Chrill.
C ADORE, or Pieve de Cadore, a town of Italy,
in the territory of Venice, and capital of a dillrift
called Cadorino ; famous for the birth of Titian the
painter. E. Long. 13. 45. N. Lat. 46. 25.
C A.DORINO, a province of Italy, in the territory
of Venice ; bounded on the call by Friuli Proper, on
the fouth and well by the Bellunefe, and by the bi-
Ihopric of Brixen on the north. It is a very moun¬
tainous country, but pretty populous. The only town
is Pieve de Cadore.
CADRITES, a fort of Mahometan friars, who
once a-week fpend a great part of the night in turn¬
ing round, holding each others hands, and repeating
incelfantly the nerd hai, which lignifies living, and is
one of the attributes of God •, during which one of
them plays on a flute. They never cut their hair, nor
cover their heads ; and always go bare-footed : they
have liberty to quit their convent when they pleafe,
and to marry.
CADSAND, an ifland on the coall of Dutch Flan¬
ders, fituated at the mouth of the Scheldt, whereby
the Dutch command the navigation of that river.
CADUCEUS, in antiquity, Mercury’s rod or
fceptre, being a wand entwifted by two ferpents, borne
by that deity as the enfign of his quality and office,
given him, according to the fable, by Apollo, for his
feven-ltringed harp. Wonderful properties are afcribed
to this rod by the poets ; as laying men alleep, railing
the dead, &c.
It was alfo ufed by the ancients as a fymbol of peace
and concord : the Romans fent the Carthaginians a
javelin and a caduceus, offering them their choice either
of war or peace. Among that people, thofe who de¬
nounced war were called feciales ; and thofa who went.
to demand peace, caduceatores, becaufe they bore a Caduceus
caduceus in their hand. II
The caduceus found on medals is a common fymbol,
fignifying good conduft, peace and profperity. The 'l
rod expreffes power, the two ferpents prudence, and
the tw'o wdngs diligence.
CADUCI, (from cado “ to fall”) j the name of a
clafs in Linnaeus’s calycina, confining of plants whofe
calyx is a Ample perianthium, fupporting a Angle
flowrer or fruflification, and falling off either before or
with the petals. It Hands oppofed to the claJJ'es perji-
Jlcntes in the fame method, and is exemplified in multard
and ranunculus.
CADURCI, Cadurcum, Cadurcus, and Cadurx, in
Ancient Geography, a town of the Cadurci, a people of
Aquitania j fituated between the rivers Oldus, running
from the north, and the Tarnis from the fouth, and
falling into the Garumna : Now Cahors, capital of the
territory of the Querci, in Guienne. A part of the
Cadurci, to the fouth next the Tarnis, were called
Eleutheri.
CAD US, in antiquity, a wane veffel of a certain
capacity, containing 80 amphorae or firkins j each of
which, according to the bell accounts, held nine gal¬
lons.
CADUSII, in Ancient Geography, a people of.Me-
dia Atropatene, fituated to the wreil in the mountains,
and reaching to the Cafpian fea j between wfliom and
the Medes perpetual war and enmity continued down
to the time of Cyrus.
CiECILIA, in Zoology, a genus of ferpents be¬
longing to the amphibia clafs. The caecilia has no
feales j it is fmooth, and moves by means of lateral
rugae or prickles. The upper lip is prominent, and
furnilhed with two tentacula. It has no tail. There
are but two fpecies of this ferpent, viz. 1. The tenta-
culata, has 135 rugae. It is about a foot long, and an
inch in circumference, preferving an uniform cylindri¬
cal lhape from the one end to the other. The teeth
are very fmall. It has fuch a refemblance to an eel,
that it may eafily be miltaken for one ; but as it has
neither fins nor gills, it cannot be claffed with the
filhes. It is a native of America, and its bite is not
poifonous. 2. The glutinofa, has 340 rugae or prickles
above, and 10 below, the anus. It is of a brownilh
colour, w ith a white line on the fide, and is a native of
the Indies.
CJECUM, or Coecum, the blind guf. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
C/ELIUM, in Ancient Geography, an inland town,
of Peucetia, a divilion of Apulia 5 a place four or five
miles above Barium or Bari, and which full retains'
that name.
CALLIUS MONS, (Itinerary) ; a town of Vindeli-
cia, on the right or weft fide of the Uargus.- Nowr
Kelmuntz, a linall town of Suabia, on the Iller.
CalLIUS mons at Rome. See Cqeeius.
Caxius, Aurelianus, ?an ancient phyfician, and
the only one of the fe£t of the Methodifts of whom we
have any remains. He was of Sicca, a town of Nu-
midia *, but in what age he lived, cannot be deter¬
mined : it is probable, however, that he lived before
Galen : fince, though he carefully mentions all the
phyficians before him, he takes no notice of Galen.
He had read over very diligently the ancient phvfi-
ciana
CAE
l 46 ]
CAE
Cue! ius
II
Caerroar-
thenfliire
cians of all fe&s j and we are indebted to him for the
knowledge of many dogmas which are not to be found
but in his books de celenbus et tardis pnjfiomhus. He
< wrote as he himfelf tells Us, fevcral other works } but
they are all periihed.
CAEN, a handfome and confiderable town of
France, capital of Lower Normandy, with a celebrated
univerfity, and an academy of literature. It contains
60 ftreets, and 1 2 parilhes. It has a caftle with four
towers, which were built by the Englifh. The town*
houfe is a large building with four great towers. 1 he
royal fquare is the handfomeft in all Normandy, and
has fine houfes on three fides of it •, and in the middie
is the ilatue of Louis XIV. in a Roman habit, ftand*
ing on a marble pedeftal, and furrounded with an iron
balluftrade. It is feated in a pleafant country on the
tiver Orne, about eight miles from the fea. William
the Conqueror was buried here, in the abbey of St
Stephen, which he founded. W. Long. e. 27. N.
Lat. 49. il. r -cu * *
C/ERE, in Ancient Geography, a town ot Etruria,
the royal refidence of Mezcntius. Its ancient name w as
Acgullcc. In Strabo’s time not the leaft vfeltige of it
remained, except the baths called caretana. From this
town the Roman cenfor’s tables were called ccentes ta*
huin'. In thefe were entered the names of fuch as for
fome mifdemeanor forfeited their right of fuffrage, or
were degraded from a higher to a lels honourable tribe.
For the people of Caere hofpitably receiving thole Ro¬
mans who, after the taking of Rome by the Gauls, fled
wiih their gods and the lacred fire of Vefta, were, on
the Romans recovering themfeives from this difaller,
honoured with the privilege of the city, but without a
right of voting.
CiERITES tabuije. See the preceding article.
CAERFILLY, a town of Glamorganlhire in South
Wales, feated between the rivers Taaff and Rufflney,
in a moorilh ground among the hills. It is thought
the walls, now in ruins, were built by the Romans j
there being often Roman coins dug up there. W. Long.
q. 12. N. Lat. 51. 25. ..
CAERLEON, a town of Monmouth tin re m Eng¬
land, and a place of great antiquity. It was a Roman
town as is evident from the many Roman antiquities
found here. It is cormnodiouily fituated on the nyer
Ulk, over which there is a large wooden bridge. Ibe
houfes are generally built of it one, and there are the
ruins of a caftle ftill to be feen. W. Long. 3.0. N.
Lat. 51. 40. r -rur 1
CAERMARTHEN-sHire, a county of Wales,
bounded on the north by the Severn fea or St George’s
channel, Cardiganihire on the fouth, the ihires of
Brecknock and Glamorgan on the call, and Pembroke-
Hiite on the Weft. Its greateft length is between 30
and 40 miles, and its breadth upwards of 20. i he
is wholefome, and the foil lefs rocky and mountainous
than moft other parts of Wales, and confequently is
proportionally more fertile both m corn and pafture.
It has alfo plenty of wood, and is well fupplied with
coal and limeftone. The moft ^ confiderable rivers are
the Towy, the Cothy, and the I ave•, of 'which, the hilt
abounds with excellent falmon. _ The principal towns
-are Caermarthen the capital, _ Kidwely, Lanimdovery,
X7C This county abounds with ancient forts, camps,
id tumuli or barrows. Near to Caermarthenr to-
2
wards the eaft, may be leen the ruins of Raftelk Kar-
rey, which was fituated on a fteep and inacceflible ,enjj 1
rock j and alfo feveral vaft caverns, fuppofed to have Caernarvon*
been copper mines of the Romans. Near this fpot is
a fountain which ebbs and flows twice in 24 hours like
Caermarthen, a town of WTales, and capital of
the county of that name. It is fituated on the river
Towey, over which it has a fine ftone bridge. It is of
great antiquity, being the Maridunuin of Ptolemy. It
is a populous, thriving, and polite place, mafty of the
neighbouring gentry refiding there in the winter. It
is a corporation and county of itfelf, tvith power to
make by-laws. Here were held the courts of chancery
and exchequer for South Wales, till the whole was unit¬
ed to England in the reign of Henry VIII. Here
W'as born the famous conjurer Merlin •, and near tne
town is a wood called Merlin's gt ove, where he is faid
to have often retired for contemplation.^ Many of his
pretended prophecies are ftill preferved in the country.
The town gives the title of marquis to his grace the
duke of Leeds. It fends one member to parliament,,
and the county another.
CAERNARVON-srire, a county of Wales, bounds
ed on the north and weft by the fea, on the louth by
Merioneth (hire, and on the eaft is divided from Den*
bighfhire by the river Conway. It is about 40 miles
in length, and 20 in breadth •, and fends one member to
parliament for the (hire, and another for the borough
of Caernarvon. The air is very piercing ’, owing partly
to the fnow, that lies feven or eight months of the yea?
upon fome of the mountains, which are to high that
they are called the Britifp Alps; and partly to the
great number of lakes, which are faid not to be fewer
than ro or 60. The foil in the valleys on the fide next
Ireland is pretty fertile, efpeeially in barley ; great
numbers of black cattle, ftieep, and goats, are fed on
the mountains : and the fea, lakes, and rivers, aoound
with variety of fifh. The higheft mountains m the
county are thofe called Snowdon hills, and Pen-mcen~
tnawr, which laft hangs over the fea. There is a road
cut out of the rock on the fide next the fea, guarded
by a wall running along the edge of it on that fidej
but the traveller is fomet imes in danger of being crulhed
by the fall of pieces of the rock from the precipice*
above. The river Conway, though its eourfe frein the
lake out of which it iffucs to its month is only 12 miles,
yet is fo deep, in confequence of the many brooks it re¬
ceives, that it is navigable by fhips of good burden for
eight miles. Pearls are found in large black mutc.es
taken in this river. The principal towns are.Bangor,
Caernarvon the capital, and Conway. In this county
is an ancient toad faid to have been made by Helena
the mother of Cohftantme the Great j and Maithew of
Weftminfter afferts, that the body of Conftantius the
father of the ferae Conftantine was found at Caernar¬
von in the year 1 283, and interred in the parifh church
there by order of Edw'ard I. .
Caernarvon, a town of Wales, and capital of the
county of that name. It was.built by Edward I.
the fite of the ancient Segontitim, after his conquelf of
the country in 1282, the fituation being well adapted
to overawe his new fubjeCts. It had natund requiiite?
for ftrength •, being bounded on one fide by the arm
of the fea called the Menaij By the eftuary of the
CAE [47] CAE
Caernarvon Sclont on anolher, exa£Uy -where it receives the tide
11 . . from the former ; on a third fide, and a part of the
—^alpin joratk. by a cheek of the Menai j and the remainder
has the appearance of having the inhalation completed
by art. Edward undertook this great work immedi-
alely after his conqueft of the country in 1282, and
completed the fortifications and caftle before I23|;
for his queen, on April 25th in that year, brought
forth within its walls Edward, firft prince of Wales of
t'ae Englilh line. It was built within the fpace of one
year, by the labour of the peafants, and at the coft of
the chief tans of the country, on whom the conqueror
impofed the hateful talk. The external Hate of the
walls and caftle, Mr Pennant informs us, are at prefent
exa&lv as they were in the time of Edward. The
walls are defended by numbers of round towers, and
have two principal gates : the eaft, facing the moun¬
tains ; the weft, upon the Menai. The entrance in¬
to the caftle is very auguft, beneath a great tower, on
the front of which appears the ftatue of the founder,
with a dagger in his hand, as if menacing his new-
acquired unwilling fubjecls. The gate had four port-
cullifes, and every requifite of ftrength. The towers
are very beautiful. The eagle tower is remarkably
fine, and has the addition of three {lender angular tur¬
rets i flu mg from the top. Edward II. was born in a
little dark room in this tower, not twelve feet long
nor eight in breadth : fo little did, in thofe days, a
royal confort confult either pomp or conveniency.
The gate through which the affeftionate Eleanor en¬
tered, to give the Welih a prince of their own, who
could not {peak a word of Englifti, is at the fartheft
end, at a vaft height above the outfide ground ; fo
could only be approached by a drawbridge. The
quay is a moft beautiful walk along the fide of the
Menai, and commands a moft agreeable view.
Caernarvon is deftitute of manufactures, but has a
brifk trade with London, Briftol, Liverpool, and Ire¬
land, for the feveral neceflaries of life. It is the re-
ftdence of numbers of genteel families, and contains
feveral very good houfes. Edward I. bellowed on this
town its firft royal charter, and made it a free bo¬
rough. Among other privileges, none of the burgeffes
could be convicted of any crime committed between
the rivers Conway and Dyfe, unlefs by a jury of their
own townfmen. It is governed by a mayor, who, by
patent, is created governor of the caftle. It has one
alderman, two bailiffs, a town clerk, and two ferjeants
at mace. The reprefentative of the place is elefted by
its burgeffes, and thofe of Conway, Pwllheli, Nefyn,
and Crickaelh. The right of voting is in every one,
refident or non-refident, admitted to their freedom.
The town gives title of earl and marquis to the duke
of Chandos, and has a good tide harbour.
CAERWIS, a market townof Flintfhire, in North
Wales, fituated in W. Long. 3. 25. N. Lat. 53- 20.
C/ESALP1NIA Bras 1 let to, or BrafiUmJ. See
Botany I»dex. Of this there are three fpecies, the
moft remarkable of which is the brafilienfis, commonly
called Braji/etto. It grows naturally in the warmeft
parts of America, from whence the wood is imported
for the dyers, wlao ufe it much. The demand has
been fo great, that none of the large trees are left in any
of the Britifti plantations 5 fo that Mr Catefby owns
himfelf ignorant of the dimenfions to which they grow.
The largeft remaining are not above two inches in Cxfalpinia
thicknefs, and eight or nine feet in height. The
branches are {lender and fulloffmall prickles 5 the leaves . ' ‘ 1
are pinnated •, the lobes growing oppofite to one ano¬
ther, broad at their ends, with one notch. The flowers
are white, papilionaceous, with many ftamina and yel¬
low apices, growing in a pyramidal fpike, at the-end of
a long {lender ftalk : the pods enclofe feveral fmall
round feeds. The colour produced from this wood is
greatly improved by folution of tin in aqua regia *. * See Co*
The feeond fort is a native of the fame countries with
the firft, but is of a larger faze. It fends out many
weak irregular branches, armed with ftiort, ftrong, up¬
right thorns. The leaves branch out in the fame man--
ner as the firft j but the lobes, or fmall leaves, are
oval and entire. The flowers are produced in long
fpikes like thofe of the former, but are variegated with
red. Thefe plants may be propagated from feeds,
w hich fhould be Town in fmall pots filled with light rich
earth early in the fpring, and plunged in a bed of tan¬
ner’s bark. Being tender, they require to be alw ays-
kept in the ftove, and to be treated in the fame man¬
ner as other exotics of that kind.
CyESALPINUS, of Arezzo, profeffor at Pifa, and
afterwards phylician to Pope Clement VIII. one of the
capital writers in botany. See Botany Index.
C/ESAR, Julius, the illuftrious Roman general
and hiftorian, was of the family of the Julii, who pre¬
tended they were defeended from. Venus by /Eneas.
The defeendants of Afcanius, fon of /Eneas and Creufa,
and furnamed Julius-, lived in Alba till that city was
ruined by Tullus Hoftilius king of Rome, who carried
them to Rome, where they llouriflied. We do not find
that they produced more than two branches. The firft
bore the name of Tullus, the other that ,of Ccefar. The
moft ancient of the Ccefars were thofe who were in pu¬
blic employments in the mh year of the firft Punic-
war. After that time we find there was always {ome-
of that family who enjoyed public offices in the com¬
monwealth, till the time of Caius Julius Gaffar, thefub-
jeft of this article. He was born at Rome the 1 2th of
the month Quintilis, year of the city 653, and loft his
father An. 669. By his valour and eloquence he foon
acquired the higheft reputation in the field and in the
fenate. Beloved and refpeCted by his fellow-citizens,
he enjoyed fucceffively every magifterial and military
honour the public could beftow confident with its
own free conftitution. But at length having fubdued
Pompey the great rival of his growing power, his
boundlefs ambition effaced the glory of his former ac¬
tions : for, purfuing his favourite maxim, “ that he
had rather be the firft man in a village than the fecond
in Rome,” he procured himfelf to be chofen perpetual
dtflalor ; and, not content with this imconititutional
power, his fadftion had refolved to raife him to the im¬
perial dignity •, when the friends of the civil liberties
of the republic raffily aflaffinated him in the fenate-
houfe, where they ffiould only have feized him and
brought him to a legal trial for ufurpation. By this
impolitic meafure they defeated their own purpofe, in¬
volving the city in confternation and terror, which pro¬
duced general anarchy, and paved the way to the re-vo¬
lution they wanted to prevent-, the monarchical govern¬
ment being abfolutely founded on the murder of Julius
Csefar. He fell in the 56th year of his age, 43 years
loeforo
Cffifar.
Melanges
Fhilofo-
phiqnes of
M. Ophel-
lot.
d A
before tbe Cbriftian era.
a hiftory of his principal voyages, battles, and .victo¬
ries. The London edition in 1712, in folio, is pre¬
ferred.
The detail of Caefar’s tranfaftions (fo far as is con-
fiftent with the limits of this work) being given under
the article Rome, we fhall here only add a portrait of
* From the as (jrawn by a philofopher *.
“ If, after the lapfe of 18 centuries, the truth may
be publilhed without offence, a philofopher might, in
the following terms, cenfure Caefar without calum¬
niating him, and applaud him without exciting his
blulhes.
44 Caefar had one predominant paflion : it was the
love of glory j and he palfed 40 years of his. life in
feeking opportunities to fofter and encourage it. . His
foul, entirely abforbed in ambition, did not open itfelf
to other impulfes. He cultivated letters •, but he did
not love them with enthufiafm, becaufe he had not lei-
fure to become the firft orator of Rome. He corrupted
the one half of the Roman ladies, but his heart had no
concern in the fiery ardours of his fenfes. In the arms
of Cleopatra, he thought of Pompey; and this Angu¬
lar man, who difdained to have a partner in the empire
of the world, would have bluffed to have been for one
inftant the Have of a woman.
“ We muft not imagine, that Caefar was born a war¬
rior, as Sophocles and Milton were born poets. lor,
if nature had made him a citizen of Sybaris, he would
have been the moft voluptuous of men. If in our days
he had been born in Pennfylvania, he would have been
the moft inoffenfiveof Quakers, and would not have dif-
turbed the tranquillity of the new world.
“ The moderation with which he conduced himfelf
after his victories, has been highly extolled’, but in this
he Ihowed his penetration, not the goodnefs of his
heart. Is it not obvious, that the difplay of certain
virtues is neceifary to put in motion the political ma¬
chine ? It was requiiite that he fhould have the appear¬
ance of clemency, if he inclined that Rome fhould for¬
give him his viaories. But what greatnefs of mind is
there in a generofity which follows on the uiurpation
of the fupreme power ?
44 Nature, while it marked Caefar wdth a fublime cha-
raaer, gave him alfo that fpirit of perfeverance which
renders it ufeful. He had no fooner begun to reflea,
than he admired Sylla 5 hated him, and yet wifhed to
imitate him. At the age of 15, he formed the pro-
jea of being diaator. It was thus that the prefident
Montefquieu conceived, in his early youth, the idea of
the Spirit of Laws.
44 Phyfical qualities, as well as moral caufes, contri¬
buted to give ftrength to his charaa.er. Nature, which
had made him for command, had given him an air. of
dignity. He had acquired that foft and mfinuating
eloquence, which is perfeaiy fuited to feduce vulgar
minds, and has a powerful influence on the moft culti¬
vated. His love of pleafure was a merit with the fair
fex : and women, wdio even in a republic can draw to
them the fuffrages and attention of men,^ have the
higheft importance in degenerate times. rI he ladies
of his age wrere charmed with the profpeCt of having
a dictator whom they might fubdue by their attrac-
44 In vain did the genius of Cato watch for fome
1
E [ 4* 1 CAE
His commentaries contain time to fufUin the liberty of his country. It was un
equal to contend with that of Caefar. Of what avail
were the eloquence, the philofophy, and the virtue of
this republican, when oppofcd by a man who had the
addrefs to debauch the wife of every citizen whofe iu-
tereft he meant to engage } who, poflefting an enthu¬
fiafm for glory, wept, becaufe, at the age of 30, ha
had not conquered the w orld like Alexander; and who,
with the haughty temper of a defpot, was more dcfi-
rous to be the firft man in a village than the fecond in
Rome.
44 Caefar had the good fortune to exift in times of
trouble and civil commotions, when the minds of men
are put into a ferment 5 when opportunities of great
aftions are frequent j when talents are every thing, and
thofe who can only boaft of their virtues are nothing.
If he had lived an hundred years fooner, he would havtv-
been no more than an obfcure villain •, and, inftead of
giving laws to the world, would not have been able to
produce any confufion in it.
44 I will here be bold enough to advance an idea,
which may appear paradoxical to thofe who weakly
judge of men from what they achieve, and not from
the principle which leads them to aft. Nature formed
in the fame mould Caefar, Mahomet, Cromwell, and
Kouli Khan. They all of them united to genius that
profound policy which renders it fo powerful. Ihey
all of them had an evident fuperiority over thofe with
whom they were furrounded} they were confcious of
this fuperioritv, and they made others confcious of it.
They were all of them born fubjeas, and.became for¬
tunate ufurpers. Had Caefar been placed.in Perfi.a, he
would have made the conqueft of India } in Arabia, he
would have been the founder of a new religion) in Lon¬
don, he would hare ftabbed his fovereign, or have pro¬
cured his aflaffination under the fanaion of the laws.
He reigned w ith glory over men whom he. had reduced
to be flaves •, and, under one afpea, he is to be confi-
dered as a hero; under another, as a monfter. But it
would be unfortunate, indeed, for fociety, if the pof-
feffion of fuperior talents gave individuals a right to
trouble its repofe. Ufurpers accordingly ha\e flatter¬
ers, but no friends ; ftrangers refpea them } their fub-
jeas complain and fubmit} it is in their owm families
that humanity finds her avengers. Ctefar was alTaffi-
nated by his fon, Mahomet was poifoned by his wife,
Kouli Khan was maffacred by his nephew, and Crom¬
well only died in his bed becaule his mn Richard was
a philofopher.
44 Cmfar, the tyrant of his country j Caeiar,. who
deftroyed the agents of his crimes, if they failed in ad¬
drefs ; Caefar, in fine, the huiband of every wife, and
the wife of every hufband, has been accounted a great
man by the mob of writers. But it is only the philo¬
fopher who knows how to mark the barrier between
celebrity and greatnefs. The talents of this Angular
man, and the good fortune which conftantly attended
him till the moment of his afiaftination, have concealed
the enormity of his aftions.”
CiESAR, in Roman antiquity, a title borne by all
the emperors, from Julius Ciefar to the deftim.uon. of
the empire. It was alfo ufed as a title of difti.nftion
for the intended or prefumptive heir of the empire, as
kini? of the Romans is now' ufcd for that of the German
empire. ThJs
Caclar.-
CAE [ 49 1 C A F
(Mar This title took its rife from the furname of the firft
fl emperor, C. Julius Csefar, which, by a decree of the
Cxfarodu- penate> a]^ fucceeding emperors were to bear. Un-
„ ■ der his fucceffor, the appellation of Auguflus being
appropriated to the emperors, in compliment to that
prince, the title C^far was given to the fecond per-
fon in the empire, though Hill it continued to be given
to the firil *, and hence the difference betwixt Caefar
ufed fimply, and Csefar with the addition of Imperator
Auguftus.
The dignity of Csefar remained to the fecond of
the empire, till Alexius Comnenus having elected
Nicephorus Meliffenus Csefar by contraft j and it be¬
ing neceffary to confer fome higher dignity on his
©wn brother Ifaacius, he created him Sebaftocrator
with the precedency over Meliffenus ; ordering, that
in all acclamations, &c. Ifaacius Sebaftocrator ftiould
be named the fecond, and Meliffenus Csefar the
third.
CiESAR, Sir Julius, a learned civilian, was defend¬
ed by the female line from the duke de Cefarini in
Italy •, and was born near Tottenham in Middlefex, in
the year 1557. He was educated at Oxford, and
afterwards itudied in the univerfity of Paris, where,, in
the year 1581, he was created do£tor of the civil
law, and twu years after wTas admitted to the fame
degree at Oxford, and alfo became dodtor of the ca¬
non law. He was advanced to many honourable em¬
ployments, and for the laft 20 years of his life was
mafter of the rolls. He was remarkable for his exten-
ftve bounty and charity to all perfons of worth, fo that
he feemed to be the almoner-general of the nation.
He died in 1639, in the 79th year of his age. It is
very remarkable that the manufcripts of this lawyer
were offered (by the executors of fome of his defcen-
dants^ to a cheefemonger for wafte paper; but being
timely infpefted by Mr Samuel Paterfon, this gentle¬
man difcovered their worth, and had the fatisfadtion to
find his judgement confirmed by the profeflion, to whom
they were fold in lots for upwards of 500I. in the year
1757*
CAESAR Augufla, or Ccefarca Augufla, in Ancient
Geography, a Roman colony fituated on the river Iberus
in the Hither Spain, before called Salduha, in the ter¬
ritories of the Edetani. Now commonly thought to be
Saragofa.
CiESAREA, the name of feveral ancient cities,
particularly one on the coaft of Phoenicia. It was very
'conveniently fituated for trade; but had a very danger¬
ous harbour, fo that no ftiips could be fafe in it when
the wind was at fouth-weft. Herod the Great, king
of Judea, remedied this inconveniency at an immenfe
expenfe and labour, making it one of the moft con¬
venient havens on that coaft. He alfo beautified it
with many buildings, and beftowed 12 years on the
finilhing and adorning it.
CiESAREAN operation. See MIDWIFERY.
CAESARIANS, Ceefarienfes, in Roman antiquity,
were officers or minifters of the Roman emperors : They
kept the account of the revenues of the emperors; and
took poffeffion, in their name, of fuch things as devol¬
ved or were confifeated to them.
CyES ARODUNUM, inf Ancient Geography, a town
of the Turones in Celtic Gaul \ now Tours, the capi¬
tal of Touraine. See Tours.
Vol. V. Part I.
C/ESAROMAGUS, in Ancient Geography, a town Cxfaronaa-
of the Trinobantes in Britain j by fome fuppofed to 8j|s
be Chelmsford, .H' rAki-T3 Brentford, and by others Catfd#
C/ESENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gallia •
Cifpadana, fituated on the rivers Ifapis and Rubicon \
now Cecena, which fee.
C/ESIA sylva, in Ancient Geography, a wood in;
Germany, part of the great Sylva Hereynia, fituated
partly in the duchy of Cleves, and partly in Weftphalia,
between Wefel and Kesfield.
C/ESONES, a denomination given to thofe cut out.
of their mothers wombs. Pliny ranks this as an au-
fpicious kind of birth} the elder Scipio Africanus, and
the firft of the family of Caefais, were brought into the
world in this way.
CaESTUS, in antiquity, a large gauntlet made of
raw hide, which the wreftlers made ufe of when they
fought at the public games.—This was a kind of lea¬
thern ftrap, ftrengthened with lead or plates of iron,
which encompaffed the hand, the wrift, and a part oi
the arm, as well to defend thefe parts as to enforce
their blows.
Cjestus, or Cceflum, was alfo a kind of girdle, made
of wool, which the huff and untied for his fpoufe the
firft day of marriage, before they went to bed.
This relates to Venus’s girdle, which Juno borrowed
of her to entice Jupiter to love her. See Cestus.
CaESURA, in the ancient poetry, is when, in the
fcanning of a verfe, a word is divided fo, as one part *
feems cut off, and goes to a different foot from the
reft : as,
Menti\ri no\li, nun\quam men\dacia\profunt.
where the fyRabies ri, U, quam, and men, are csefuras.
Caesura, in the modern poetry, denotes a reft or
paufe tewards the middle of an Alexandrian verfe, by
which the voice and pronunciation are aided, and the
verfe, as it were, divided into two hemiftichs. See
Pause.
CaETERIS paribus, a Latin term in frequent ufe
among mathematical and phyfical writers. 1 he words
literally fignify, the ref (or other things) being alike or
equal. Thus we fay the heavier the bullet, cceteris
paribus, the greater the range j i. e. by how much.the
bullet is heavier, if the length and diameter of the piece
and ftrength of the powder be the fame, by fo much
will the utmoft range or diftance of a piece of ordnance
be the greater. Ihus alfo, in a phyfical w'ay, we fay,
the velocity and quantity circulating in a given time
through any foction of an artery, wrll, cceteris paribus,
be according to its diameter, and nearnefs to or di¬
ftance from the heart.
CaETOBRIX, in Ancient Geography, a town of Lu-
fitania, near the mouth of the I agus, on the eaft fide j
now extinft. It had its name from its fiftiery ; and
there are ftill extant filh ponds on the ftiore, done with
plafter of Paris, which illuftrate the name of the ruined
city.
CAFFA, in commerce, painted cotton cloths ma¬
nufactured in the Eaft Indies, and fold ai Bengal.
CaFFA, or Kofa, a city and port town of Crim
Tartary, fituated on the fouth-eaft part of that penm-
fula. E. Long. 37. o. N. Lat. 44. 55.
It is the moft confiderable town in tne country, and
G gives
C A G
t 5o ]
Caflfli
II
Cages.
gives name to the ftraits of Caffa, which run from
the Euxine or Black fea, to the Palus Maeotis, or fea
( of Afoph. .» * /1 ** '
CAFFILA, a company of merchants or travellers,
who join together in order to go with more fecurity
through the dominions of the Great Mogul, and
through other countries on the continent of the Fall
Indies.
The caflila differs from a caravan, at lead in Per-
iia ; for the caffila properly belongs to fome fovereign,
or to fome powerful company in Europe 5 whereas a
’caravan is a company of particular merchants, each
trading upon his own account. The Englifh and
Dutch have each of them their caffila at Gambrow.
There are alfo fuch caffilas, which crofs fome parts of
the defects of Africa, particularly that called the fea of
fand, which lies between the kingdom of Morocco
and thofe of Tombut and Giago. This is a journey
of 400 leagues ; and takes up two months in going,
and as many in coming back 3 the caffila travelling
only by night, on account of the exceffive heat of that
country. The chief merchandife they bring back con-
fills in gold dull, which they call atibar^ and the Eu¬
ropeans tibir.
CAFFILA, on the coad of Guzerat or Cambaya, f.--
nifies a fmall fleet of merchant fhips.
C AFFRAHIA, the country of the taffies or Hot¬
tentots, in the molt foutherly parts of Africa, lying in
the form of a crefcCnt about the inland country of Mo-
nomotapa, between 350 fouth latitude and the tropic
of Capricorn : and bounded on the eaft, fouth, and
welt, by the Indian and Atlantic oceans. See Hot¬
tentots.
Molt of the fea coaffis of this country are fubjeft to
the Dutch, who have built a fort near the mbit fouthern
promontory called the Cape of Good Hope.
CAG, or Keg, a barrel or veffel that contains fome
four or five gallons.
CAG ANUS, or Cacanus, an appellation ancient¬
ly given by the Huns to their kings. The word ap¬
pears alfo to have been formerly applied to the prin¬
ces of Mufcovy, now called czar. From the fame
alfo, probably, the Tartar title cham or can, had its
origin.
CAGE, an enclofure made of wire, wicker, or the
like, interwoven lattice-wife, for the confinement of
birds or wild bealts. The word is French, cage, formed
from the Italian gaqgia, of the Latin cavea which fig-
nifies the fame : a cavcis theatralibus in quibus include-
bantur ferce.
Bealls were ufually brought to Rome Ihut up in
oaken or beechen cages artfully formed, and covered or
lhaded with boughs, that the creatures, deceived with
the appearance of a wood, might fancy fhemfelves in
their foreft. The fiercer forts were pent in iron cages,
left wooden prifons might be broke through. In fome
prifons there are iron cages for the clofer confinement
of criminals. The French laws diftinguilh t\fo forts
of birds cages ; viz. high or finging cages, and low or
dumb cages-, thofe who expofe birds to fale are obliged
to put the hens in the latter, and the cocks in the for¬
mer, that perfons may not be impofed on by buying a
hen for a cock.
Cages (cavece), denote alfo places in the ancient
amphhheatres, wherein wild bcafts were kept, ready to
Gag
The cavece were a fort of iron
be let out for fport.
cages different from dens, which were under ground . II .
and dark 3 whereas the cavece being airy and light,, ^aglian-
the beafts rulhed out of them with more alacrity and
fiercenefs than if thfey had been pent under ground.
Cage, in carpentry, fignifies an outer work of tim¬
ber, inclofing another within it. In this fenfe we lay,
the cage of a wind-mill. The cage of a ftaircale de¬
notes the wooden fides or walls which enclofe it.
CAGEAN, or Cagayan, a province of the ifland
of Luzon, or Manilla, in the Eaft Indies. It is the
largeft in the ifland, bcihg 80 leagues in length and
40 in breadth. The principal city is called ISew Se¬
govia, and 15 leagues eaftward from this city lies Cape
Bajador. Doubling that cape, and coafting along 23
leagues from north to fouth, the province of Cage an
ends, and that of Illoeos begins. The peaceable Ca-
geans who pay tribute are about 9OCO3 but there are
a great many not fubdued. The whole province is
fruitful: the men apply themfeIves to agriculture, and
are of a martial difpofition ; and the women apply to
feveral works in cotton. The mountains afford food
for a vaft number of bees 3 in cohfequence of Svhich
t ax is fo plenty, that all the poor burn it inftead of
oil. They make their candles after the following
manner : they leave a fmall hole at each end of a hol¬
low flick for the wick to run through, and then, ftep-
ping the bottom, fill it with wax at the top 3 when
cold, they break the mould and take out the candle.
On the mountains there is abundance of brafil, ebony,
and other valuable woods. In the woods are ftore of
wild beafts, as boars 3 but not fo good as thofe of Eu¬
rope. There are alfo abundance of deer, which they
kill for their fkihs and libirns to fell to the Chinefc.
CAG LI, an ancient epifcopal town of Italy, in the
duchy of Urbino, fituated at the foot of the Apennine
mountains.. E. Long. 14. I 2. N. Lat. 43. 30.
CAGLIARI, Paolo, called Paulo Veronefe, an
excellent painter, was born at Verona in the year
1532. Gabriel Cagliari his father was a fculptor, and
Antonio Badile his uncle was his matter in painting.
He was not only efteemed the beft of all the Lombard
painters, but for his extenfive talents in the art was
peculiarly ftyled 11 pit'tor felice, “ the happy painter 3”
and there is fcarcely a church in Venice where fome
of his performances are not to be feen. De Pile lays,
that “ his pifture of the marriage at Cana, in the
church of St George, is to be diftinguiffied from his
other works, as being not only the triumph of Paul
Veronefe, but almoft the triumph of painting itfelf.”
When the fenate fent Grimani, procurator of St
Mark, to be their ambaffador at Rome, Paul attended
him, but did not ftay long, having left fome pieces at
Venice unfiniffied. Philip II. king of Spain, fent for
him to paint the Efcurial, and made him great offers j
but Paul excufed himfelf from leaving his own coun¬
try, where his reputation was fo w ell eftablifhed, that
moft of the princes of Europe ordered their feveral am-
baffadors to procure fomething of his hand at any rate.
He was indeed highly efteemed by all the principal
men in his time 3 ana fo much admired by the great
matters, as well his contemporaries, as thole who fuc-
ceeded him, that Titian himfelf ufed to fay, he w as
the ornament of his profeflion. And Guido Reni be¬
ing- allied which of the mailers his predeceffors he
0 would
C A J
Cagtian
.11
Gajetan.
Would clioofe to be? 'wcr© it in bis povi'ei, nfter xia-
phael and CorregiOj named JPaul Veronefe y wlioin he
t always called his Paoljno. He died of a fever at \ e-
nice in 1588, and had a tomb and a ftatue of brafs
erected to hitf memory in the church of St Seballian.
He left great wealth to his two fons Gabriel and
Charles, who lived happily together, and joined in fi-
nilhing feveral of their father’s imperfect pieces with
good fuccefs.
Cagliari, an ancient, large, and rich town, capital
of the i{land of Sardinia in the Mediterranean. It is
feated on the declivity of a hill j is an imiverfity* an
archbithopric, and the refidence of the viceroy. It has
an excellent harbour, and a good trade y but is a place
of no great ftrength. It was taken, with the whole
iiland, by the Engliih in 1708, who transferred it to
the emperor Charles k' I. j but it was retaken by the
Spaniards in 1717, and about two years afterwards
ceded to the duke of Savoy m lieu 01 Sicily, and hence
he has the title of ki/ig of Sardinia. E. Long. 9. 14.
N. Lat. 39. 12. . f
CA.GUI, in Zoology, a fynonyme of two fpecies of
monkeys, vit. the jacchus and oedipus. See Simia,
Mammalia Index.
CAHORS, a confiderable town of France, in Quer-
ci in Guienne, with a bifhop’s fee and a univerfity. It
is feated on a peninfula made by the river Lot, and
built partly on a craggy rock. ^ The principal ftreet is
very narrow ; and terminates in the market place, in
which is the town-houfe. The cathedral is a Gothic
ftrufture, and has a large fquare fteeple. The fortifi¬
cations are regular, and the town is furrounded with
thick walls. E. Long. 1. 6. N. Lat. 44. 26.
CAHYS, a dry meafure for corn, ufed in feme
parts of Spain, particularly at Seville and Cadiz. It
is near a bufhel of our meafure.
CAJANABURG, the capital of the province of
Catania or Eaft Bothnia in Sweden, fituated on the
north-eaft part of the lake Cajania, in E. Long. 27* 0*
N. Lat. 63. 50.
CAIAPci AS, high prieft of the Jews after Simon,
condemned Chriit to death : and was put out of nis
place by the emperor Vitcllius, for which difgrace he
made away with himfelf.
CAJAZZO, a town of the province of Lavoro m
the kingdom of Naples, fituated in E. Long. 15. c.
N. Lat. 41. 15.
CAICOS, the name of feme American iRands to
the north of St Domingo, lying from W. Long. 112.
10. to 113. 16. N. Lat. 21. 40.
CA.TEPUT, an oil brought from the Eaft Indies,
Tefembling that of cardamoms. See Melaleuca.
CAIETA, in Ancient Geography, a port and town
»f Latium, fo called from Eneas’s nurfe j now Gaeta,
which fee.
CAJETAN, Cardinal, was born at Cajeta in the
kingdom of Naples in the year 1469. His proper
name was Thomas de Vro; but he adopted that of Ca-
jetan from the place of his nativity. He defended the
authority of the pope, which fuftered greatly at the
council of Nice, in a work entitled Of the power of the
Pope; and for this work he obtained the bifhopric of
Cajeta. He was afterwards raifed to the arebiepifeo-
pal fee of Palermo, and in 1517 w as made a cardinal
fey Pope Leo X. The year after, he was fent as le-
[ 51 1 CAT
gate into Germany, to quiet the commotions raifed a-
gainft indulgences by Martin Luther) but Luther,
under protection of Frederic elector of Saxony, fet him
at defiance 5 for though he obeyed the cardinal’s fum-
Cajetati.
u
Caille.
mons, in repairing to Augiburg, yet he rendered all
his proceedings inetfedtual. Cajetan was employed in
feveral other negotiations ahd tranfactions, being as
ready at bufinefs as at letters. He died in 1584* -^■e
wrote Commentaries upon Ariftotle’s philofophy, and
upon Thomas Aquinas’s theology 5 and made a literal
tranflation of the Old and New 1 eftaments.
CAIFONG, a large, populous, and rich town of
Afia, in China, Rated in the middle of a large and
well cultivated plain. It Hands in a bottom j and
when befieged by the rebels in 1642, they ordered the
dykes of the river Hoang-ho to be cut, which drowned
the city, and deftroyed 300,000 of its inhabitants. E.
Long. 113. 27. N. Lat. 35. O.
CAILLE, Nicholas Louis de ea, an eminent
mathematician and aflronotner, was born at a finall
town in the diocefe of Rheims in I7I3* -^s father
bad ferved in the army, which he quitted, and in his re¬
tirement ftudied mathematics j and amuled himfeli with
mechanic excrcifes, wherein he proved the happy au¬
thor of feveral inventions of confiderable ufe to the
public. Nicholas, almoft in bis infancy, took a fancy
to mechanics, which proved of fignal fervice to him in
his maturer years. He was fent young to fchool at
Mantes-fur-Seine, where be difeovered early tokens of
genius. In I 729, be went to Paris ; where he ftudied
the claflics, philolophy, and mathematics. Afterwards
he went to ftudy divinity at the college de Navarre,
propoftng to embrace an ecclefiaftical life. At the end
of three years he was ordained a deacon, and officiated
as fuch in the church of the college de Mazarin feve¬
ral years j but he never entered into prieits orders, ap¬
prehending that his aftronomical ftudies, to which he
became moft aftiduoufly devoted, might too much in¬
terfere with his religious duties. In 1 739*
conjoined with M. dc J hury, fon to M. Cafilni, in
verifying the meridian of the royal obfervatory through
the whole extent of the kingdom of France. In the
month of November the fame year, whilft he was en¬
gaged day and night in the operations which this
grand undertaking required, and at a great diftance
from Paris, he was, without any folieitation, elcded
into the vacant mathematical chair which the celebra¬
ted M. Varignon had fo worthily filled. Here he be-
gan to teach about the end of 174-! ? an °bfeiva-
tory was ordered to be erefted for Ris ufe in the col¬
lege, and furniftied with a fuitable apparatus, of the
beft inftruments. In May tyfl, M. de la Caille was
admitted into the Royal Academy of Sciences as an
adjoint member for aftronomy. Befides the many ex¬
cellent papers of his difperfed up and down in their
Memoirs, he publiftied Elements of Geometry, Mecha¬
nics, Optics, and Aftronomy. Moreover, he carefully
computed all the eclipfes of the fun and moon that had
happened fince the Chriftian era, which.were printed
in a book publifiied by two Benedidfines, entitled
/’ Yr/ de Ver fer les Dates, &c. Paris, 1750, in. qto. Be¬
fides thefe he compiled a volume of aftronomical ephe-
merides for the years 174 5 to I755 ? another for the
years 1755 to 176^ a third for the years 1765 to
177c: an excellent work entitled AJironomue Funda-
1 Q 2 menta
c A 1 [5
Caille. tfienta novi/Jimis foils et Jlellarum obfervatlonihus Jlabili-
» ta : and the moft corredl folar tables that ever appear¬
ed. Having gone through a feven years feries of aftro-
nomical obfervations in his own obfervatory, he form¬
ed a projeft of going to obferve the fouthern ftars at
the Cape of Good Hope. This was highly approved
by the academy, and by the prime minifter Comte de
Argenfon, and very readily agreed to by the ftates of
Holland. Upon this he drew up a plan of the method
he propofed to purfue in his fouthern obfervations j
fetting forth, that, belides fettling the places of the
fixed liars, he propofed to determine the parallax of
the moon, Mars and Venus. But whereas this re¬
quired correfpondent obfervations to be made in the
northern parts of the world, he fent to thofe of his cor-
refpondents who were expert in pradlical altronomy pre¬
vious notice, in print, what obfervations he defigned to
make at fuch and fuch times for the faid purpoie. At
length, on the 2ill of November 1750, he failed for
the Cape, and arrived there on the 19th of April I751*
He forthwith got his inllruments on Ihore; and with the
allillanceof fome Dutch artificers, fet about building an
allronomical obfervatory, in which his apparatus of in-
llruments was properly difpofed of as foon as it was in a
fit condition to receive them.
The Iky at the Cape is generally pure and ferene,
unlefs when a fouth-eall wind blows : But this is often
the cafe, and when it is, it is attended with fome
ftrange and terrible effedts. The liars look bigger,
and feem to caper; the moon has an undulating tre¬
mor 5 and the planets have a fort of beard like comets.
Two hundred and twenty-eight nights did our allro-
nomer furvey the face of the fouthern heavens : during
which fpace, which is almoll incredible, he obferved
more than 10,000 liars; and whereas the ancients fil¬
led the heavens with monllers and old wives tales, the
abbe de la Caille chofe rather to adorn them with the
inllruments and machines which modern philofophy
* Sec the has made ufe of for the conquell of nature*. With
P amiphere iefs fuccefs did he attend to the parallax of the
an ft. rale moon. Mars, Venus, and the lun. Having thus exe-
Jlellferum. cuted the purpofe of his voyage, and no prefent oppor¬
tunity offering for his return, he thought of employing
the vacant time in another arduous attempt; no lefs
than that of taking the meafure of the earth, as he had
already done that of the heavens. This, indeed, had,
through the munificence of the French king, been
done before by different fets of learned men both in
Europe and America ; fome determining the quantity
of a degree under the equator, and others under the
arflic circles : but it had not as yet been decided whe¬
ther in the fouthern parallels of latitude the fame di-
rnenfions obtained as in the northern. His labours
w ere rewarded with the fatisfaflion he wilhed for ; ha-
,ving determined a dillance of 410,814 feet from a
place called Klip Fontyn to the Cape, by means of a
bafe of 38,802 feet, three times a£lually meafured :
whence he difeovered a new fecret of nature, namely,
that the radii of the parallels in fouth latitude are not
the fame as thofe of the correfponding parallels in north
latitude. About the 23d degree of fouth latitude he
found a degree on the meridian to contain 342,222
Paris feet. He returned to Paris the 27 th of Septem¬
ber 1754 j having in his almoft four years abfence ex-
2 ] ' c A !
pended no more than 9144 livres on himfelf and his Cailie,
companion ; and at his coming into port, he refufed a Caimacan.
bribe of 100,000 livres, offered by one rvho thirlled '"' v
lefs after glory than gain, to be {barer in his immunity
from cuftomhoufe fearches.
After receiving the congratulatory vifits of his more
intimate friends and the ailronomers, he firft of all
thought fit to draw up a reply to fome ftriflures which
Profeffor Euler had publifhed relative to the meridian,
and then he fettled the refults of the comparifon of his
own with the obfervations of other aftronomers for the
parallaxes. That of the fun he fixed at 9-p'; of the
moon at 56' 56"; of Mars in his oppofition, 36"; of
Venus, 38,/. He alfo fettled the laws whereby aftro-
nomical refraftions are varied by the different denfity
or rarity of the air, by heat or cold, and drynefs or
moifture. And, lailly, He {bowed an eafy, and by
common navigators practicable, method of finding the
longitude at fea by means of the moon, which he il-
luftrated by examples feledled from his own obferva¬
tions during his voyages. His fame being now efta-
bliOied upon fo firm a bafis, the moft celebrated acade¬
mies of Europe claimed him as their own : and he was
unanimoully elefted a member of the royal fociety at
London ; of the inftitute of Bologna ; of the imperial
academy at Peterlburgh ; and of the royal academies
at Berlin, Stockholm, and Gottingen. In the year
1760, M. de la Caille was attacked with a fevere fit
of the gout ; which, however, did not interrupt the
courfe of his ftudies; for he then planned out a new •
and immenfe work; no lefs than the hiftory of aftro-
nomy through all ages, with a comparifon of the an¬
cient and modern obfervations, and the conftru&ion
and ufe of the inftruments employed in making them.
In order to purfue the talk he had impofed upon him¬
felf in a fuitable retirement, he obtained a grant of a-
partments in the royal palace of Vincennes ; and whilft
his aftronomical apparatus was erefted there, he be¬
gan printing his Catalogue of the Southern Stars, and
the third volume of his Ephemerides. The ftate of
his health was, towards the end of the year 1763,
greatly reduced. His blood grew inffamed; he had
pains of the head, obftruftions of the kidneys, lofs of
appetite, w ith a fulnefs of the whole habit. His mind
remained unaftefted, and he refolutely perfifted in his
ftudies as ufual. In the month of March, medicines
w'ere adminiftered to him, which rather aggravated than
alleviated his fymptoms; and he was now fenfible, that
the fame diftemper which in Africa, ten years before,
yielded to a few fimple remedies, did in his native coun¬
try bid defiance to the belt phyficians. This induced
him to fettle his affairs : his manuferipts he committed
to the care and diferetion of his elteemed friend M.
Maraldi. It was at laft determined that a vein Ihould
be opened ; but this brought on an obftinate lethargy,
of which he died, aged 49.
CAIMACAN,or K.AlMACAM,inthe Turkilh affairs,
a dignity in the Ottoman empire, anfwering to lieute¬
nant, or rather deputy, amongft us.
There are ufually two caimacans; one refiding at
Conftantinople, as governor thereof; the other at¬
tends the grand vizir in quality of his lieutenant,
fecretary of ftate, and firft minifter of his council, and
gives audience to ambaffadors. Sometimes there is a
6 . third
C A I
[ 53 ]
C A I
Cairns.
Caimacan third caircfacan, who attends the fuitan *, whom he ac¬
quaints with any public difturbances, and receives his
orders concerning them.
CAIMAN or Cayman Islands, certain Ameri¬
can illands, lying fouth of Cuba and noith-rieft of Ja¬
maica, between 8i° and 86° of weft longitude, and in
21° of north latitude. They are moft remarkable on
account of the ffthery of tortoife, which the people of
Jamaica catch here and carry home alive, keeping
them in pens for food, and killing them as they want
them. , -n j i •
CAIN, eldeft fon of Adam and Eve, killed his
brother Abel j for which he was condemned by God
to baniftiment and a vagabond ftate of life. Cain
retired to the land of Nod, on the eaft of Eden j
and built a city, to which he gave the name of his fon
Enoch.
CAINITES, a fed of heretics in the 2d century,
fo called on account of their great refpeft for Cain.
They pretended that the virtue which produced Abel
was of an order inferior to that which had produced
Cain, and that this was the reafon why Cain had the
victory over Abel and killed him ^ for they admitted
a great number of genii, which they called virtues^ of
different ranks and orders. They made profeflion of
honouring thofe who carry in Scripture the moft vifible
marks of reprobation j as the inhabitants of Sodom,
Efau, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram. They had, in
particular, a very great veneration for the traitor Ju¬
das, under pretence that the death of Jefus Chrift had
laved mankind. They had a forged gofpel of Judas,
to which they paid great refpedt.
CAIRNS, or Carnes, the vulgar name of thofe
heaps of ftones which arc to be feen in many places of
Britain, particularly Scotland and Wales.— Ihey are
compofed of ftones of all dimenfions thrown together
in a conical form, a flat ftone crowning tne apex j (fee
Plate CXXXV.).
Various caufes have been afligned by the learned for
thefe heaps of ftones. They have fuppofed them to
have been, in times of inauguration, the places where
the chieftain ele£t flood to fhow himfelf to beft advan¬
tage to the people ) or the place from whence judge¬
ment was pronounced •, or to have been eredled on the
road-fide in honour of Mercury •, or to have been form¬
ed in memory of fome folemn cornpa<5t, particularly
where accompanied by ftanding pillars of ftones \. or
for the celebration of certain religious ceremonies.
Such might have been the reafons, in fome initances,
where the evidences of ftone chefts and urns are want¬
ing : but thefe are fo generally found that they feem
to determine the moft ufual purpofeof the piles in que-
ftion to have been for fepulchral monuments. Even
this deftination might render them fuitable to other
purpofes ; particularly religious, to which by their na¬
ture they might be fuppofed to give additional folem-
nity.—According to 'Poland, fires were kindled on
the tops of flat ftones, at certain times of the year,
particularly on the eves of the ift of May and the ift
of November, for the purpofe of facrificing j at which
time all the people having extinguifhed their domeftic
hearths, rekindled them from the facred fires, of the
cairns. In general, therefore, thefe accumulations ap¬
pear to have been defigned for the fepulchral protection
»f heroes and greRt men. The ftone chefts, the repo-
fitory of the urns and allies, are lodged in the earth
beneath : fometimes only one, fometimes more, are u
found thus depofited *, and Mr Pennant mentions an
inftance of 17 being difeovered under the fame pile.
Cairns are of different fizes, fome of them very large.
Mr Pennant deferibes one in the ifland of Arran, 114
feet over, and of a vaft height. They may juftly be
fuppofed to have been proportioned in fize to the rank
of the perfon, or to his popularity : the people of a
whole diftrift affembled to {how their refpeCt to the
deceafed ; and, by an aClive honouring of his memory,
foon accumulated heaps equal to thofe that aftonith us
at this time. But thefe honours were not merely thofe
of the day j as long as the memory of the deceafed en¬
dured, not a paflenger went by without adding a ftone
to the heap : they fuppofed it would be an honour to
the dead, and acceptable to his manes.
^uanquam fe/Hnas, non ejl tnora longa : licebit
Lnje&o ter pit her a, curras*
To this moment there is a proverbial expreflion among
the Highlanders allufive to the old praftice ; a fuppli-
ant will tell his patron, Curri mi clock er do charne,
“ I will add a ftone to your cairn f1 meaning, When
you are no more, I will do all poffible honour to your
memory. _ .
Cairns are to be found in all parts of our iflands, in
Cornwall, Wales, and all parts of North Britain j they
were in ufe among the northern nations j Dahlberg,
in his 323d plate, has given the figure of one. In
Wales they are called carneddau ; but the proverb ta¬
ken from them there, is not of the complimental kind.
Karn ar dy ben, or, “ A cairn on your head,” is a to¬
ken of imprecation.
CAIRO, or Grand Cairo, the capital of Egypt,
fituated in a plain at the foot of a mountain, in E.
Long. 32. o. N. Lat. 30. o. It was founded by Jaw-
har, a Magrebian general, in the year of the Hegira
338. He had laid the foundation of it under the ho-
rofeope of Mars j and for that reafon gave his new city
the name of jil Kakira, or the Victor ions, an epi
thet applied by the Arab aftronomers to that planet.
In 362 it became the refidence of the caliphs or E-
gypt, and of confequence the capital of that, country,
and has ever fince continued to be fo. It is divided
into the New and Old cities. Old Cairo is on the
eaftern fide of the river Nile, and is now almoft unin¬
habited. The new, which is properly Cairo, is feated
in a fandy plain about two miles and a half from the
old city. It {lands on the weftern fide of. the. Nile,
from which it is not three quarters of a mile diftant.
It is extended along the mountain on which the caftle
is built, for the fake of which it was removed hither,
in order, as fome pretend, tp be under its protection.
However, the change is much for the worfe, as well
with regard to air as water, and the pdeafantnefs of.the
profpeft. Bulack may be called the port of Cairo 3
for it Hands on the bank of the Nile, about a mile and
a half from it, and all the corn and other commodities
are landed there before they are brought to the citv.
Some travellers have made Cairo of a moft enormous
magnitude, by taking in the old city, Bulack, and tne
new *, the real circumference of it, however, is not a-
bove ten miles, but it is extremely populous, i'he firft
thing that ftrikes a traveUer is the narrownds oi the
0 ftreets.
Cairns,
Cairo.
G A 1 L S4- ] C A I
fireets, and the appearance of the houfes. Thefe are
fo daubed with mud on the outfide, that you would
think they were built with nothing elfe. Befides, as
the ftreets are unpaved, and always full of people, the
walking in them is very inconvenient, Specially to
Grangers. To remedy this, there are a great number
of afl.es, which always ftand ready to be hired for a
trifle, that is, a penny a mile. The owners drive
them along, and give notice to the crowd to make way.
And here it may be obferved, that the Chriftians in
this, as well as other parts of the Turkifli dominions,
are not permitted to ride upon horles. The number
of the inhabitants can only be guefled at *, but we may
conclude it to be very great, becaufe in fome years
the plague will carry off 200,000, without their be¬
ing much mifled. The houies are from one to two or
three flories high, and flat at the top 5 where they
take the air, and often lleep all night. The better
fort of thefe have a court on the inflde like a college.
The common run of houfes have very little room, and
even among great people it is ufual for 20 or 30 to
lie in a final! hall. Some houfes will hold 300 per-
fons of both lexes, among whom are 20 or 30 flaves;
and thofe of ordinary rank have generally three or
four.
There is a canal, called Hi ,7/x, which runs along the
city from one end to the other, with houfes on each
fide, which makes a large ftraight ftreet. Befides this,
there are feveral lakes, which are called birk* in the
language of the country. The principal of thefe,
which is near the caflle, is 500 paces in diameter.
The moft elegant houfes in the city are built on its
banks 5 but-what is extraordinary, eight months in the
year it contains water, and the other four it appears
with a charming Verdure. When there is water i'uffi-
cicnt, it is always full of gilded boats, barges, and
barks, in which people of condition take their pleafure
towards night, at which time there are curious fire¬
works, and variety of mufic.
New Cairo is furrounded with walls built with (lone,
on which are handfome battlements, and at the diitance
of every hundred paces there are very fine towers,
which have room for a great number of people. The
walls were never very high, and are in many places
gone to ruin. The baflia lives in the caftle, which
was built by Saladine 700 years ago. It Hands in the
middle of the famous mountain Moketan, which ter¬
minates in this place, after it had accompanied the
Nile from Ethiopia hither. This caftle is the only
place of defence in Egypt •, and yet the Turks take
no notice of its falling, infomuch that in procefs of
time it will become a heap of rubbifh. The principal
part in it is a magnificent hall, environed with 1 2 co¬
lumns of granite, <5f a prodigious height and thieknefs,
which fuftain an open dome, under which Saladine
diftributed juftice to his fubjefts. Round this dome
there is an infcriptioii in relievo, which determines the
date and by whom it was built. From this place the
whole city of Cairo may be feen, and above 30 miles
along the Nile, with the fruitful plains that lie near it,
as well as the mofqucs, pyramids, villages, and gar¬
dens, with which thefe fields are covered. Thefe gra¬
nite pillars were the work of antiquity, for they were
got out of the ruins of Alexandria. There are like-
wife in the mofques and in the principal houfes ho left
than 40,000 more, btfides great magazines, where all
kinds are to be had at very low rates. A janizary
happened to find five in his garden, as large as thofe
in the caftle j but could not find any machine of
ftrength fufficient to move them, and therefore had
them fawed in pieces to make millftohes. It is belie*
ved that there have been 30 or 40,000 of thefe pillars
brought from Alexandria, where there are yet many
more to be had. The gates of Cairo are three, which
are very fine and magnificent.
There are about 300 public mofques in this city,
fome of which have fix minarets. The mofqu.e of A*
flier hath feveral buildings adjoining, which were once
a famous univerfity, and 14,000 fcholars and Undents
were maintained on the foundation ; but it has now not
above 1400, and thofe are only taught to read and
write. All the mofques are built upon the fame plan,
and differ only in magnitude. The entrance is through
the principal gate into a large fquare, open on the
top, but well paved. Round this are covered galleries,
fupported by pillars 5 under which they fay their pray¬
ers, in the flnade. On one fide of the fquare there are
particular places with bafons of water for the conve-
niency of performing the ablutions enjoined by the Ko¬
ran. The moft remarkable part of the mofque, beftdes
the minaret, is the dome. This is often bold, well
proportioned, and of an aftoniftiing magnitude. The
infide ftoncs are carved like lace, flowers, and melons*
They are built fo firm, and with fuch art, that they
will laft 600 or 700 years. About the outward
circumference there are large Arabic inferiptions in
relievo, which may be read by thofe who ftand below,
though they are fometimes of a wonderful height.
The khanes or caravanferas are numerous and large,
with a court in the middle, like their houfes. Some
are feveral ftories high, and are always full of people
and merchandife* The Nubians, the Abyflinians, and
other African nations, which come to Cairo, have one
to themfelves, where they always meet with lodging.
Here they are fecure from infults, and their effefts are
all fafe* Befides thefe there is a bazar, or market,
where all forts of goods are to be fold. This is in a
long broad ftreet 5 and yet the crowd is fo great, you
can hardly pafs along. At the end of this ftreet is an¬
other fhort one, but pretty broad, with fhops full of
the belt fort of goods and precious merchandife. At
the end of this fhort ftreet there is a great khane,
where all forts of white flaves are to be fold. Farther
than this is another khane, where a great number of
blacks, of both fexes, are expofed to fale. Not far
from the beft market place is a mofque, and anhofpital
for mad people. They alfo receive and maintain fick peo¬
ple in this hofpital, but they are poorly looked after.
Old Cairo has fearce any thing remarkable but the
granaries of Joleph ; which are nothing but a high
wall, lately built, which includes a fijuare fpot of
ground where they depofit wheat, barley, and other
grain, which is a tribute to the baflia, paid by the
owners of land. This has no other covering but the
heavens, and therefore the birds are always lure to
have their fliare. There is likewife a tolerably hand¬
fome church, which is made ufe of by the Copts, who
are Chriftians and the original inhabitants of Egypt.
Jofeph’s
2
G A I f 5
Cairo Jofepli’s well is in the caftle, and was made by King
jl Mohammed about 700 years ago. It is called Jofeph's
^‘alffon' . well, beeaufe they attribute every thing extraordinary
v to that remarkable perfon. It is cut in a rock, and is
280 feet in depth. The water is drawn up to the top
by means of oxen, placed on platforms, at proper
dillances, which turn about the machines that raife
it. The defeeht is fo Hoping, that, though there
are no heps, the oxen can delcend and afeend with
eafe.
The river Nile, to which not only Cairo, but all
Egypt is fo much indebted, is now known to have its
rile in Abyffmia. The increafe of the Nile generally
begins in May, and in June they commonly proclaim
about the city how much it is rifen. Over again!!
old Cairo the baiha lias a houfe, wherein the water
enters to a column, which has lines at the dillance of
every inch, and marks at every two feet as far as 30.
When the water rifes to 22 feet, it is thought to be
of a fufficient height 5 when it rifes much higher, it
does a great deal of mifchief. There is much pomp
and ceremony ufed in letting the water into the canal
above mentioned. See Egypt.
The inhabitants of Cairo are a mixture of Moors,
Turks, Jews, Greeks, and Copts or Coptis. The
only difference between the habit of the Moors and
Copts is their turbans 5 thofe of the Moors being
white, and of the Copts white ftriped with blue.
The common people generally wear a long black loofe
frock, fewed together all down before. The Jews
wear a frock of the fame falhion, made of cloth ; and
their caps are like a high-crowned hat, without brims,
covered with the fame cloth, but not fo taper. The
Jewilh women’s are not very unlike the men’s, but
more light and long. The Greeks are habited like
the Turks, only their turbans differ.
Provifions of all kinds are exceedingly plenty ; for
do eggs may be bought for a parah or penny, and
bread is fix times as cheap as with us. They have
almoft all forts of tlefh and ihh *, and in particular have
tame buffaloes, which are very uMul. They bring
goats into the ftreets in great numbers, to iell their
milk. Their gardens are well flocked with fruit trees
of various kinds, as well as roots, herbs, melons, and
cucumbers. The moll common rlefh meat is mutton.
The goats are very beautiful, and have ears two feet
in length •, but their flelh is in no great eitetm. See
farther the article Egypt.
CAIROAN, or CAIRWAN, a city of Africa, in the
kingdom of Tunis, feated in a fandy barren foil,
about five miles from the gulf of Capres. It has
neither fpring, well, nor river j for which reafon they
are obliged to preferve rain w ater in tanks and cifterns.
It was built by the Aglabites j.and is the ancient Cy-
* See Bar- rene *1 but hath now loll its fplendour. There is Hill,
bary. however, a very fuperb mofque, and the tombs of the
kings of Tunis are y©t to be feen. E. Long. 9. 12.
N. Lat. 35. 40.
CAISSON, in the military art, a wooden cheft,
into which feveral bombs are put, and fometimes
filled only with gun-powder : this is buried under feme
work whereof the enemy intend to poffefs themfelves,
and, when they are mailers of it, is fired, in order to
blow them up.
Caisson is alfo ufed for a wooden frame or
1
C A I
chelt ufed in laying the foundations of the piers of a
bridge.
Cnilfon,
Caithneff.
CAITHNESS, otherwife called the /hire of IVice,
is the moil northern county of all Scotlandbounded on
the call by the ocean, and by Strathnaver and Suther¬
land on the fouth and fouth-weil: from thefe it is divid¬
ed by the mountain of Orde, and a continued ridge of
hills as far as Knockfin, then by the whole courfe of
the river Hallovdale. On the north it is walked by the
Pentland or Piftland frith, which flow;s between this
county and the Orkneys. It extends 35 miles from
north to fouth, and about 20 from ealt to well. The
coall is rocky, and remarkable for a number of bays
and promontories. Of thefe, the principal are Sand-
fide-head to the well, pointing to the opening of Pent-
land frith 5 Orcas, now Holborn-head, and Eunnet-
head, both pointing northward to the frith. Dunnet-
head is a peninfula about a mile broad, and leven in
compafs *, affording feveral lakes, good patlure, excel¬
lent mill-ltones, and a lead mine. Scribiiter bay, on
the north-well is a good harbour, where Ihips may
ride fecurely. Rice-bay, on the call fide, extends three
miles in breadth •, but it is of dangerous accels, on ac¬
count of fome funk rocks at the entrance. At the bot¬
tom of this bay appear the ruins of two llrong caftlts^
the feat of the earl of Caithnefs, called Cqjile Sinclair,
and Gernego, joined to each other by a draw -bridge.
Duncan’s bay, otherwife called Dunjby-head, is the
north-call point of Caithnefs, and the extremell pro*-
montory in Britain. At this place, the breadth of the
frith does not exceed 1 2 miles, and in the neighbour¬
hood is the ordinary ferry to the Orkneys. Here is-
likewife Clythenefs pointing ealt, and Nolhead pointing
north-ealt. The fea in this place is very impetuous, be¬
ing in continual agitation from violent counter tides,,
currents, and vortices. T he only ifland belonging to this
county is that of Stroma, in the Pentland Irith, at the
dillance of two miles from the main land, extending
about a mile in length, and producing good corn. The
navigation is here rendered very difficult by conflidling
tides and currents, which at both ends of the illand
produce a great agitation in the fea. At the iouth
end, the waves dance fo impetuouily, that the failors
term them the merry men of May, from the name of a
gentlebnan’s leat on the oppofite Ihore of Caithnels,.
which ferved them as a land mark, in the dangerous
paffage between the illand and the continent. I he pro¬
perty of this illand was once difputed between the earls
of Orkney and Caithnefs j but adjudged to the latter,
in eonfequence of an experiment, by which it appeared,
that venomous creatures will live in Stroma, whereas
they die immediately if tranfported to the Orkneys.
The county of Caithnefs, though chiefly mountainous,
flattens towards the fea coalt, where the ground is
arable, and produces good harvelts of oats anti barley,
fufficient for the natives, and yielding a furplus fin-
exportation. Caithnqfs is well watered with imall ri¬
vers, brooks, lakes, and fountains, and affords a few
woods of birch, but is in general bare of trees j and even
thofe the inhabitants plant are Hunted in their growth.
Lead is found at Dunnet, copper at Old Urk, and
iron ore at feveral places j but thefe advantages arc not
improved. The air of Caithnefs is temperate, though in
the latitude of 58°, where the longeft day in fummer is
computed at 18 hours j and when the fun fets, he makes
fo
Tarifhes.
Bower
Canifby
Dunnet
Halkirk
Latheron
Olrick '■
Reay
Thurfo
Wattin
Wick
■G A I f 56 ]
Caithnefs. fQ fmall an arch of a circle below the horizon, that the dead in the water,
people enjoy-a twilight until he rifes again. The fuel
uled by the inhabitants of Caithnefs confifts of peat and
turf, which the ground yields in great plenty. The
forefts of Morravins and Berridale afford abundance of
red deer and roe-bucks 5 the county is w'cll ftored
with hares, .rabbits, grow'fe, heathcocks, plover, and
all forts of game, comprehending a bird called /now-
fleet, about the fize of a fparrow, exceedingly fat and
delicious, that comes hither in large flights about the
middle of February, and takes its departure in April.
The hills are covered with Iheep and black cattle ; fo
numerous, that a fat cow has been fold at market for
4s. fterling. The rocks along the coafts are frequented
by eagles, hawks, and all manner of fea fowl, whole
eggs and young are taken in vaft quantities by the na¬
tives. The rivers and lakes abound with trout, fal-
mon, and eels j and the fea affords a very advantage¬
ous fifhery. Divers obelilks and ancient monuments ap¬
pear in this diftrift, and feveral Romifli chapels are Hill
ftanding. Caithnefs is well peopled with a race of
hardy inhabitants, who employ themfelves chiefly in
fifhing, and breeding fheep and black cattle : they are
even remarkably induftrious} for between Wick and
Dunbeath, one continued traft of rugged rocks, ex¬
tending 12 miles, they have formed feveral little har¬
bours for their filhing boats, and cut artificial Heps
from the beach to the top of the rocks, where they
have ere&ed houfes, in which they cure and dry the
filh for market.
According to Mr Pennant, this county is fuppofed
to fend out in feme years about 20,000 head of black
cattle, but in bad feafons the farmer kills and falts great
numbers for fale. Great numbers of fwine are alfo
reared here. Thefe are Ihort, high backed, long briftled,
iharp, flender, and long nofed ; have long ereft ears,
and moft favage looks. Here are neither barns nor
granaries*, the corn is threflied out, and preferved in
the chaff in byks which are flacks, m the fliape of
bee hives, thatched quite round, where it wall keep good
for two years. Vaft numbers of falmon are taken at
Caftle-hill, Dunnet, Wick, and Thurfo. A miracu¬
lous draught at this laft place is ftill talked of, not lefs
than 2500 being taken at one tide within the memory
-of man; and Mr Smollet informs us, that, in the neigh¬
bourhood, above 3^^ good falmon have been taken at
one draught of the net. In the month of November,
great numbers of feals are taken in the caverns that
open into the fea, and run fome hundreds of yards un¬
der ground. The entrance of thefe caverns is narrow,
but the infide lofty and fpacious. The feal hunters en¬
ter thefe in fmall boats with torches, which they light
as foon as they land, and then with loud (bouts alarm
the animals, which they kill with clubs as they attempt
to pafs. This is a hazardous employment j for fhould
the wind blow hard from fea, thefe adventurers are
inevitably loft. Sometimes a large fpecies of feals, 1 2
feet long, have been killed on this coaft ; and it is faid
the fame kind are found on the rock Hifkir, one of the
Weftern iflands. During the fpring, great quantities
of lump fifh refort to this coaft, and are the prey of the
feals, as appears from the number of fkins of thofe
fifhes which at that feafon float aftiore. At certain
times alfo the feals feem to be vilited by a great morta¬
lity \ for, at thofe times, multitudes of them are feen
Cams.
G A I
Much limeftone is found in this Caithn«&,
county, which when burnt is made into a comped t
w'ith turf and fea plants.
The difeovery of coal has long been an objeft of
great importance in this part of Scotland. In the
years 1801 and 1802 fome attempts were made for
this purpofe at the expence of government. But al¬
though the bufinefs was conducted by perfons well
(killed in fuch matters, and long perfevered in, it has
entirely failed, which leaves little hope of future fuccefs.
The following is the population of the county of
Caithnefs according to the parifhes, taken at two dif¬
ferent periods, namely in 1755 and in 1798, and ex¬
tracted from the Statiftical Hiftory of Scotland.
Population
in 1755-
1287
1481
1235
3C75
3675
875
2262
2963
1424
3938
Total 22,215
Population iit
iypc—179S;
I592
1950
1399
318°
4006
1001
2298
3M6
1230
5000
24,802
22,215
2>587
CAIUS, Kaye, or Keye, Dr John, the founder
of Caius college in Cambridge, was born at Norwich
in 1510. He was admitted very young a ftudent in
Gonville hall in the above-mentioned univerfity; and
at the age of 21 tranflated from Greek into Latin fome
pieces of divinity, and into Englifti Erafmus’s para-
phrafeon Jude, &c. From thefe his juvenile labours, it
feems probable that he firft intended to profecute the
ftudy of divinity. Be that as it may, he travelled to
Italy, and at Padua, ftudied phyfic under the celebrated
Montanus. In that univerfity he continued fome time,
where we are told he read Greek kaures with great
applaufe. In 1543, he travelled through part of Italy,
Germany, and France j and returning to England com¬
menced doaor of phyfic at Cambridge. He praailed
firft at Shrew (bury, and afterwards at Norwich 5 but
removing to London, in 1547? was admitted fellow
of the college of phyficians, to which he was feveral
years prefident. In 1557, being then.phy(ician to
Queen Mary, and in great favour, he obtained a licenfe
to advance Gonville-hall, W'bere be bad been educated,
into a college ; which he endowed w ith feveral confi-
derable eftates, adding an entire new fquare at the ex¬
pence of 1834I. Of this college he accepted the ma-
fterlhip, which he kept till within a Ihort time of his
death. He was phyfician to Edward VI. Queen Mary,
and Queen Elizabeth. Towards the latter end of his
life he retired to his own college at Cambridge 5 where,
having refigned the mafterftiip to Dr Legge of Nor¬
wich. he fpent the remainder of his life as a fellow
commoner. He died in July I 573> age(^ ^3 ’ ar>d was
bulled in the chapel of his own college. Dr Caius was
CAL [ 5? l CAL
Cams a learned, a£Hve, benevolent man. In 1557, he ereft-
I! ed a monument in St Paul’s to the memory of the fa-
a a u, mous Linacre. In 1563, he obtained a grant for the
college of phylicians to take the bodies of two male-
faftors annually for diffe&ion $ and he was the inven¬
tor of the infignia which diltinguilh the prefident from
the reft of the fellows. He wrote, 1. Annals of the
college from 1555 to 1572. 2. Tranflation of feveral
of Galen’s works. Printed at different times abroad.
3. Hippocrates de Medicamentis ; firft difeovered and
publiftied by our author : alfo De r a done viflus, Lov.
1556, 8vo. 4. De MedendiMethodo. Balil, 1554, Lond.
1556, 8vo. 5. Account of the fweating ftcknefs in
England. Lond. 1556, 1721. It is entitled De ephe-
tnera Britannica. 6. Hiftory of the univerlity of Cam¬
bridge. Lond. 1568, 8vo, 1574, 4to, in Latin. 7. De
thermis Britannicis. Doubtful whether ever printed.
8. Of fome rare plants and animals. Lond. 1570.
9. De canibus Britannicis, 1570, 1729. 10. Depro-
nunciadone Greece et Ladnce Lingua:. Lond. 1574. 11.
De dbns propriis. Lond. 1570. Beftdes many other
works which never were printed.
CAKE, a finer fort of bread, denominated from its
flat round figure.
We meet with different compofitions under the name
oicaies; as feed-cakes, made of flour, butter, cream, fu-
gar, coriander, and caraway feeds, mace, and other
fpices and perfumes, baked in the oven j ptum-cahe,
made much after the fame manner, only with fewer
feeds, and the addition of currants : pan-cakes, made
of a mixture of flour, eggs, &c. fried ; cheefe-cakes,
made of cream, eggs, and flour, with or without cheefe-
curd, butter, almonds, &c. j oat-cakes, made of fine
oaten flour, mixed with yeft and fometimes without,
rolled thin, and laid on an iron or ftone to bake over
a flow fire •, fugar-cakes, made of fine fugar beaten and
iearced with the fineft flour, adding butter, rofe-water,
and fpices ; rofe-cakes, fplacenta rofacea'), are leaves of
rofes dried and preffed into a mafs, fold in the (hops for
epithems.
The Hebrews had feveral forts of cakes, which they
offered in the temple. They were made of the meal
either of wheat or barley; they w ere kneaded fome¬
times with oil and fometimes with honey. Sometimes
they only rubbed them over with oil when they were
baked, or fried them with oil in a frying pan upon the
fire. In the ceremony of Aaron’s confecration, they
iacrificed a calf and two rams, and offered unleavened
bread, and cakes unleavened, tempered with, oil, and
wafers unleavened, anointed with oil j the whole made
of fine wheaten flour. Ex. xxix. 1, 2.
CAKET, a town of Alia, in Perfia, in the province
of Curdiftan near Mount Caucafus. Its trade confifts
chiefly in filks. E. Long. 46. 15. N. Lat. 43. 32.
CALABASH, in Commerce, a light kind of veffel
formed of the fhell of a gourd, emptied and di*ied, ferv-
ing to put divers kinds of goods in, as pitch, rofin,
and the like. The word is Spanifh, Calabacca, which
fignifies the fame. The Indians alfo, both of the North
and South fea, put the pearls they have fiftied in cala-
balhes, and the negroes on the coaft of Africa do the
lame by their gold duft. The fmaller calabaihes are
alfo frequently ufed by thefe people as a meafure, by
which they fell thefe precious commodities to the Eu¬
ropeans. The fame veffels likewife ferve for putting
Vol. V. Part I.
liquors in j and do the office of cups, as well as bottles, CaELafii,
for foldiers, pilgrims, &c. Calabria.
Calabash-Tree. See Crescentia, Botany Index. J v
AfricanCALABASH-Tree. SeeAdansonia, Botany
Index.
CALABRIA, a country of Italy, in the kingdom
of Naples, divided into Calabria Ultra and Calabria.
Citra, commonly called Ulterior and Citerior, or Far¬
ther and Hither Calabria. Calabria Citerior is one of
the 12 provinces of the kingdom of Naples; and bound¬
ed on the fouth by Calabria Ultra, on the north by
Bafilicata, and on the w eft and eaft by the fea : Co -
fenfa is the capital. Calabria Ultra is walked by the-
Mediterranean fea on the eaft, fouth, and weft, and
bounded by Calabria Citra on the north. Reggio is
the capital town.
This country has been almoft entirely defolated by
the earthquakes of 1783. The reiterated Ihocks ex¬
tended from Cape Spartivento to Amantea above the
gulf of St Eufemia, and alfo aftefted that part of Sicily
which lies oppofite to the fouthern extremity of Italy.
Thofe of the 5th and 7th of February, and of the 28th
of March, were the molt violent, and completed the
deftruftion of every building throughout the above-
mentioned fpace. Not one ftone was left upon another
fouth of the narrow ifthmus of Squillace : and what is
more difaftrous, a very large proportion of the inhabi¬
tants was killed by the falling of their houfes, near
40,000 lives being loft. Some perfons w'ere dug out
alive after remaining a furpriling length of time buried
among the rubbilh. Meflina became a mafs of ruins ‘7
its beautiful palazzata was thrown in upon the town,
and its quay cracked into ditches full of water,
Reggio was almoft deftroyed ; Tropea greatly damaged;
and every other place in the province levelled to the
ground.
Before and during the concuflion the clouds gather¬
ed, and then hung immoveable and heavy over the
earth. At Palmi the atmofphere wore fo fiery an
afpeft, that many people thought part of the town w as
burning. It wras afterwards remembered that an un-
ufual heat had affefted the Ikins of feveral perfons juft
before the fliock ; the rivers affumed a muddy alh-
coloured tinge, and a fulphureous fmell was almoft ge¬
neral. A frigate palling betw een Calabria and Lipari
felt fo fevere a ftiock, that the fteerfman was thrown
from the helm, and the cannons were raifed upon their
carriages, while, all around, the fea exhaled a ftrong
fmell of brimftone.
Stupendous alterations w^ere occafioned in the face
of the country ; rivers choked up by the falling in of
the hills, w ere converted into lakes, which if not fpeedily
drained by fome future convulfion, or opened by human
labour, will fill the air with peftilential vapours, and
deftroy the remnants of population. Whole acres of
ground, with houfes and trees upon them, were broken
off from the plains, and walhed many furlongs down
the deep hollows which the courfe of the rivers had
worn ; there, to the aftonilhment and terror of behold¬
ers, they found a new foundation to fix upon, either
in an upright or an inclining pofition. In ftiort, every
fpecies of phenomenon, incident to thefe deftrmftive
commotions of the earth, was to be feen in its utmoft-
extent and variety in this defolated country. Their
Sicilian majefties, with the utmoft expedition, de-
H fpatcheff
Calabria
II
Calais.
CAL [
fpatclied veffels loaded with every thing that could be
thought of on the occafion for the relief and accommo-
t dation of the diftreffed Calabrians ; a general officer
went from Naples with engineers and troops to direct
the operations of the perfons employed in clearing
away and rebuilding the houfes, and to defend the
property of the fufferers. The king ordered this offi¬
cer to take all the money the royal treafures could fup-
ply or borrow 5 for, rather than it ffiould be wanting
on this prefling call, he was determined to part with
his plate, nay the very furniture of his palace. A
meffenger fent off from a town near Reggio, on the
8th of February, travelled four days without {heltei,
and without being able to procure a morfel of bread j
he fupported nature with a piece of cheefe which he
had brought in his pocket, and the vegetables he was
lucky enough to find near the road. To add to all
their other fufferings, the Calabrians found themfelves
and the miferable wreck of their fortunes expoled to
the depredations of robbers and pirates. Villains
landed from boats and plundered feveral places, and
thieves went even from Naples in fearch of booty . In
order to ftrike a greater terror, they dreffed themtelyes
like Algerines j but were difeovered and driven off. 10
this accumulated diftrefs fucceeded a moft inclement
feafon, which obilrufted every effort made to alleviate
it: and almoft daily earthquakes kept the inhabitants
in continual dread, not of being deftroyed by the fall
of houfes, for none were left, but of being 1 wallowed
up by the fplitting of the earth, or buried m the waves
by fome fudden inundation. _ .
For further particulars concerning this dreadful ca-
taftrophe, and the phenomena attending it, fee Earth¬
quake. ~ .
CALADE, in the manege, the defeent or Hoping
declivity of a riling manege ground, being a fmall emi¬
nence upon which we ride down a horfe leveral times,
putting him to a fliort gallop, with his fore hams in
the air, to learn him to ply ©r bend his haunches, and
form his flop upon the aides of the calves of the
legs, the ftay of the bridle, and the cavefon fealona-
bly given. ,
CALAGORINA, or Calaguris, diftmgmffied
by the furname Naftca, in /indent Geography, a city
of the Vafconcs in the Hither Spain : now Cala-
horra. f .
CALAHORRA, an epifcopal town of Spam, m
Old Caftile, feated on a fertile foil, on the fide of a hill
which extends to the banks of the river Ebro. W. Long.
2. 7. N. Eat. 42. 12. .
CALAIS, a ftrong town of France, in Lower 11-
cardy, now called the department of the Straits of Ca¬
lais, which has a citadel and a fortified harbour It
is built in the form of a triangle, one fide of which
is towards the fea. The citadel is as large as the
town, and has but one entrance. It is a trading
place, with handfome ftreets, and feyeral churches and
monafteries •, the number of inhabitants is reckoned
to be 4000. .
Calais was taken by Edward III. in 1347. Hi¬
ther he marched his viaorious army from Creffy, and
hwefted the town on the 8th of September. But find¬
ing that it could not be taken by force without the
deftruaion of great multitudes of his men, he turned
the liege into a blockade } and having made ftrong m-
58 ] CAL
trenehments to fecure his army from the enemy, huts |
to protea them from the inclemency of the weather,
and ftationed a fleet before the harbour to prevent the
introduaion of provifions, he refolved to wait with
patience till the place fell into his hands by famine*
The befieged, difeovering his intention, turned feven-
teen hundred women, children, and old people, out
of the town, to fave their provifions •, and _ Edward
had the goodnefs, after entertaining them with a din¬
ner, and giving them two-pence a piece, to fuller them
to pafs. The garrifon and inhabitants of Calais hav¬
ing at length confumed all their provifions, and evert
eaten all the horfes, dogs, cats, and vermine in the
place, the governor John de Vienne appeared upon
the walls, and offered to capitulate. Edward greatly
incenfed at their obftinate refiftance, which had de¬
tained him eleven months under their w'alls, at an 5 m-
menfe expence both of men and money, fent Sir Wal¬
ter Manny, an illuftrious knight, to acquaint the go¬
vernor that he would grant them no terms •, but that
they muft furrender at diferetion. At length, how¬
ever, at the fpirited remonftrances of the governor,
and the perfuafions of Sir Walter Mauny, Edward
confented to grant their lives to all the garrifon and
inhabitants, except fix of the principal burgeffes, who
ffiould deliver to him the keys of the city, with pcs
about their necks. When thefe terms were made
known to the people of Calais, they were plunged in¬
to the deepeft dittrefs j and after all the miferies they
had fuffered, they could not think without horror of
giving up fix of their fellow-citizens to certain death.
In this extremity, when the whole people were drown¬
ed in tears, and uncertain what to do, Euftace de St
Pierre, one of the richeft merchants in the place, ftep-
ped forth, and voluntarily oftered himfeli to be one
of thefe fix devoted victims. His noble example was
foon imitated by other five of the moft wealthy citi¬
zens. Thefe true patriots, barefooted and bareheaded,
with ropes about their necks, were attended to the
gates by the w hole inhabitants, with tears, bit dings,
and prayers for their fafety. When they were brought
into Edward’s prefence, they laid the keys of the
city at his feet, and falling on their knees implored
his mercy in fuch moving (trains, that all the noble
fpeftators melted into tears. The king’s refentment
was fo ftrong for the many toils and Ioffes he had fuf-
fered in this tedious fiege, that he was in fome dange^
of forgetting his ufual humanity j when the queen,
falling upon her knees before him, earneftly begged
and obtained their lives. Phis great and good princefs
conducted thefe virtuous citizens, whofe lives {he had
faved, to her owrn apartment, entertained them honour¬
ably/and difmiffed them with prefents. Edward took
poffeflion of Calais Auguft 4. ; and in order to fecure
a conqueft of fo great importance, and which had coft
him fo dear, he found it neceffary to turn out all the
ancient inhabitants, who had difeovered fo ftrong ati
attachment to their native prince, and to people it
with Engliffi. _ .
Calais remained in fubjedtion to England till the
reign of Queen Mary, when it was retaken by the
duke of Guife. This general began the enterprife by
ordering the privateers of Normandy and Bretagne to
cruife in the Channel, more efpecially in the very ftraits
of Calais: he then detached the duke of Nevers with
Calais.
CAL [59
CataUi a conficlcrable army towards tile country of Luxem-
‘“'"’'V'-’’*' burg •, a motion which drew the attention of the Spa¬
niards that way : vdien all things were ready, he pro¬
cured an application from the people of Boulogne,
for a body of troops to fecure them againft the incur-
fions of the Spaniards $ he lent a ftrong detachment at
their requeft, which was followed by another, under
colour of fupporting them*, then repaired thither in
perfon, fecure that his officers would follow his in-
itrudlions : and thus, on the firft day of the new
year, 15^7, Calais was invefted. He immediately at¬
tacked Fort St Agatha, which the garrifon quitted,
and retired into the fort of Nicolai, which, together
with the liilhank, the befiegers attacked at the fame
time, granted good terms to the officer who command¬
ed in the former, but obliged the garrifon of the latter
to furrender prifoners of war. By thefe means he
opened a communication with the fea : and having
received from on board the ffiips an immenfe quantity
Of hurdles, his infantry, by the help of them, palfed
tire moraffes that lie round the town. He then made
a falfe attack at the water-gate, which drew the at¬
tention of the garrifon, who fatigued themfelves exceed-
ingly in making intrenchments behind the breach 3 but
when they had finiffied their work, he began to fire
Upon the caille, where the wralls were very old, and
had been negledled on account of the breadth »f the
ditch, which was alfo very deep when the tide was in 3
but a great breach being made, the duke caufed it
to be attacked in the night, and during tlm ebb, the
foldiers paffing almoll up to the {boulders. The place
was eafily carried, though the governor made three
vigorous attacks before the break of day, in order to
diflodge them 3 but the French, though they loll a
confiderable number of men, kept their polls. I he
governor then faw that it w'as impradlicable to de¬
fend the place any longer, and therefore made the
beft terms for himfelf that he could obtain, which,
however, were not very good : and thus in eight days
the duke of Guife recovered a fortrefs which coll the
victorious Edward III. a whole year’s fiege, and which
had been now 210 years in the poffeffion of the Eng-
liffi, without fo much as a fingle attempt to retake it.
There are very different accounts given of this matter.
Some Englilh hillorians fay, that King Philip pene¬
trated the delign ef the French upon this fortrefs,
gave notice of it in England, and offered to take the
defence of it upon himfelf 3 but that this, out of jea-
loufy, was refufed, it being believed to be only an ar¬
tifice to get a place of fuch confequence into his own
hands. The truth of the matter feems to be this :
The Rrength of Calais confifted in its fituation and
outworks, which required a very numerous garrifon 3
but this being attended with a very large expence, the
beft part of the troops had been fent to join Philip’s
hrmy, fo that the governor had not above 500 men,
land there were no more than 250 <?f the townfmen
able to bear arms. As to ammunition, artillery, and
provxfions, the French found there abundance : but
with fo llender a garrifon, it was impoffible to make
a better defence 3 and therefore when the Lord Went¬
worth, who was governor, and whom the French call
Lord Dumfort, was tried by his peers for the lofs
*ff this place, he was acquitted. The. duke obliged
all the Eoglilh inhabitants to quit Calais 3 and bellow-
1
GAL
ed the government of it upon Des Tenues, who was
foon after made a marftial of France.
The fortifications of Calais are good 3 but its great-
eft ftrength is its fituation among the marlhes, which
may be overflowed at the approach of an enemy. The
harbour is not fo good as formerly, nor will it admit
veffels of any great burden. In times of peace, there
are packet boats going backward and forward twice a
week from Dover to Calais, which is 21 miles diftant.
E. Long. 2. 6. N. Lat. 5c. 58.
Calais and Zetes, in fabulous hiftory, fons of Bore¬
as and Orythia, to whom the poets attributed wings ;
they went on the voyage to Colchis with the Argonauts 5
delivered Phineus from the harpies 3 and were flain by
Hercules.
CALAMANCO, a fort of woollen Huff manufac¬
tured in England and Brabant. It has a fine glofs 3 and
is checkered in the warp, whence the checks appeal
only on the right fide, Some calamancoes are quite
plain, others have broad ftripes adorned with flowers,
fome with plain broad ftripes, Ibme With narrow ftripes,
and others watered.
CALAMARUE, in Botany, an order of plants in
the Fragment a ? * thodi naturalis of Linnaeus 3 in which
he has the following genera, viz. bobartia, feirpus, cy-
perus, eriophorum, earex, fchosnus, flagellaria, juncus.
See Botany.
CAL AM AT A, a confiderable town of Turkey in
Europe, in the Morea, and province of Belvedera. It.
was taken by the Venetians in 1685 3 but the Turks
retook it afterwards with all the Morea. It Hands on
the river Spinarza, eight miles from the fea. E. Long.
22. 15. N. Lat. 37. 8.
CALAMINE, Calamy, Lapis Calaminaris, or Cad-
mia FoJJilis, a fort of ftone or mineral containing zinc,
iron, and fometimes other fubftances. It is confidera-
bly heavy 3 moderately hard and brittle, or of a con¬
fidence betwixt ftone and earth : the colour fometimes
whitiffi or gray 3 fometimes yellowilh, or of a deep yel¬
low 3 fometimes red 3 fometimes brown or blackilh. It is
plentiful in feveral places of Europe, as Hungary, Tran-
fylvania, Poland, Spain, Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony,
Goflar, France, and England, particularly in Derby-
ffiire, Gloucefterlhire, Nottinghamlhre, and Somcrfet-
ffiire, as alfo in Wales. The calamine of England, how¬
ever, is by the beft judges allowed to be fuperior in qua¬
lity to that of moft other countries. It feldom lies very
deep, being chiefly found in clayey grounds near the fur-
face. In fome places it is mixed v. ith lead ores. It is a
true ore of zinc, and is ufed as an ingredient in making of
brafs.—Newman relates various experiments with this
mineral, the only refult of which was to Ihow that it con¬
tained iron as well as zinc. The moft remarkable are the
following : A faturated folution of calamine in the marine
acid, concentrated by evaporating part of the liquor, ex¬
hibits in the cold an appearance of fine cryftals, which on
the application of warmth diffolve and difappear. A lit¬
tle of this concentrated folution tinges a large quantity of
water of a bright yellow colour 3 and at the fame time
depofites by degrees a fine, fpongy, browniffi precipitate.
Blue diffolved in this folution, and afterwards infpiffated,
forms an extremely llippery tenacious mafs, which does
not become dry, and, were it not too expenfive, might
be of ufe for entangling flies, caterpillars, &c. Sulphur
boiled in this folution, feems to acquire fome degree of
H 2 tranfparency.
Calais
Calamine.
C A. L t
Calamine tranfparency.—This mineral is an article in the materia
medica ; but, before it comes to the thops is ufually roaf-
, ted or calcined, in order to feparate fome arfenical or ful-
phureous matter which in its crude If ate it is fuppofed to
contain, and to render it more eafily reducible into a
fine powder. In this Hate it is employed in collyria a-
gainif defluxions of thin acrid humours upon the eyes, for
drying up moift running ulcers, and healing excoriations.
It is the bails of an officinal epulotic Cerate. .
There is another fubifance from which this femi-
metal is alfo obtained. This is c^W^cadmiafornacum
or cadmia of the furnaces, to diftinguifh it from the
other. This is a matter fublimed when ores contain¬
ing zinc, like thofe of Rammelfberg, are fmelted.
This cadmia confifts of the flowers of the femi-metal
fublimed during the fufion, and adhering to the inner
furfaces of the walls of furnaces, where they fuffer a
femi-fufion, and therefore acquire fome folidity. So
great a quantity of thefe is colle£ted, that they form
very thick incruifations, which muff be frequently ta¬
ken off.
CALAMINT. See Melissa and Mentha, Bo¬
tany Index.
CALAMUS. See Botany Indc*. There is but
one fpecies, the rotang. The Item is without branches,
has a crown at top, and is everywhere befet with ftraight
fpines. This is the true Indian cane, which is not
vifible on the outfide ; but the bark being taken off
difcovers the fmooth flick, which has no marks of fpine
on the bark, and is exaftly like thofe which the
Dutch fell to us *, keeping this matter very fecret, left
travellers going by fliould take as many canes out of
the woods as they pleafe. Sumatra is faid to be the
place where moft of thefe flicks grow'. Such are to
be chofen as arc of proper growth between tv'o joints
fuitable to the fafhionable length of canes as they are
then worn *, but fuch arc fcarce. The calamus rotang
is one of feveral plants from which the drug called dra¬
gons blood is obtained.
Calamus, in the ancient poets, denotes a Ample
kind of pipe or fiftula, the mufical inftrument of the
fhepherds and herdsmen ^ utually made either of an
oaten ftalk or a reed.
Calamus Aromaticus, or Sweet feented Flag, in the
materia medica, a fpecies of flag called acorus by Lin-
nceus. See Acorus, Botany Index.
Calamus Scriptorius, in antiquity, a reed or ruffi to
write with. The ancients made ufe of ftyles to write
on tables covered with wax *, and of reed or ruffi, to
write on parchment, or Egyptian paper.
CALAMY, Edmund, an eminent Preffiyterian di¬
vine, born at London in the year 1600, and educated
at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, where his attachment
to the Arminian party excluded him from a fellow ffiip.
Dr Felton billion of Ely, however, made him his chap¬
lain •, and, in 1639, he was chofen minifter of St Mary
Aldermary, in the city of London. Upon the opening
of the long parliament, he diftinguilhed himfelf.in.de-
fence of the preffiyterian caufe ; and had a. principal
hand in writing the famous Smechjmnus, which, him-
felf fays, gave the firft deadly blow to Epifcopacy. The
authors of this trail were five, the initials of whofe
names formed the name under which it was publilhed-,
viz. Stephen Marihal, Edmund Calamy, Thomas
Yeung, Mathew Newcomen, and William Sparftow.
60 ] CAL
He wras after that an aftive member in the affembly of Calamy.
divines, w as a ftrenuous oppofer of feilaries, and ufed —y~*“
his utmoft endeavours to prevent thofe violences com¬
mitted after the king v^as brought from the ille of
Wight. In Cromwell’s time, he lived privately, but
was affiduous in promoting the king’s return 3 for
which he was afterw ards offered a bilhopric, but re-
fufed it. He was ejcited for nonconformity in 1662 j
and died of grief at the fight of the great fire of Lon¬
don.
Calamy, Edmund, grandfon to the preceding, (by
his eldeft fon, Mr Edmund Calamy, who was ejeiled
from the living of Moxton in Effex on St Bartholo¬
mew’s day 1662) was born in London, April 5. 1671.
After having learned the languages, and gone through
a courfe of natural philofophy and logic at a private
academy in England, he ftudied philofophy and civil
law at the univerfity of Utrecht, and attended the lec¬
tures of the learned Grtevius. Whilft he refided here,
an offer of -a profeffor’s chair in the univerfity of Edin¬
burgh wus made him by Mr Carftairs, principal of that
univerfity, lent over on purpofe to find a perfon pro¬
perly qualified for fuch an office. This he declined 3
and returned to England in 1691, bringing with him
letters from Graevius to Dr Pococke canon of Chrift-
church and regius profcilor of Hebrew', and to Dr
Bernard, Savilian profeffor of aftronomy, who obtained
leave for him to profecute his ftudies in the Bodleian
library. Having refolved to make divinity his princi¬
pal ftudy, he entered into an examination of the contro-
verfy between the conformifts and nonconformifts 3
which determined him to join the latter 3 and coming
to London in 1692, he was unanimoufly chofen affift-
ant to Mr Matthew Sylvefter at Blackfriars : and in
1694, he was ordained at Mr Annefly’s meeti.ng-
houfe in Little St Helena, and foon after was invited
to become affiftant to Mr Daniel Williams in Hand-
Alley. In 1702, he was chofen to be one of the lec¬
turers in Salters-hall 3 and in 1703, fucceeded Mr
Vincent Alfop as pallor of a great congregation in
Weftminfter. tie drew'up the table of contents to Mr
Baxter’s hiftory of his life and times, which was fent
to the prefs in 1696 3 made fome remarks on the work
itfelf, and added to it an index 3 and, refle&ing on the
ufefulnefs of the book, he faw the expediency of con¬
tinuing it, for Mr Baxter’s hiftory came no lower than
the year 1684. Accordingly he compofed an abridge¬
ment of it, with an account of many other minifters
who were ejefted after the reftoration of Charles II. 3
their apology, containing the grounds of their non¬
conformity and practice as to flated and oecafionai
communion with the church of England 3 and a con¬
tinuation of their hiftory till the year 1691. This work
was publiffied in 1702. Fie afterwards publifhed a
moderate defence of nonconformity, in three trails, in
anfwer to fome trails of Dr Hoadly. In 1709, Mr
Calamy made a tour to Scotland ; and had the degree
of doilor of divinity conferred on him by the univerfi-
ties of Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Glaigow'. In I713>
he publifhed a fecond edition of his Abridgement of
Mr Baxter’s hiftory of his life and times 3. in which,
among other additions, there is a continuation of the
hiftory through King William’s reign, and. Queen
Anne’s, down to the paffing of the occafional bill 3 and
in the clofe is fubjoinedthe reformed liturgy, which was
drawn
Galas.
CAL [6
Calamy drawn up and prefented to the bifhops in 1661, “ that
the world may judge (he fays in his preface) how fair¬
ly the ejefted minifters have been often reprefented as
irreconcilable enemies to all liturgies.” In 1718, he
wrote a vindication of his grandfather, and feveral
other perfons, againft certain reflexions caft upon
them by Mr Archdeacon Eehard in his Hiftory of
England ; and in 1728 appeared his Continuation
of the account of the minifters, leXurers, matters,
and fellows of colleges, and fchoolmafters, who were
ejeXed, after the reftoration in 1660, by or before
the a£t of uniformity. He died June 3. I732> great¬
ly regretted not only by the dilTenters, but alfo by
the moderate members of the eftabliftied church, both
clergy and laity, with many of whom he lived in
great intimacy. Befldes the pieces already mention¬
ed, he publilhed a great many fermons on feveral fub-
jeXs and occafions. He was twice married, and had
13 children.
CALANDRE, a name given by the French wri¬
ters to an infeX that does vaft mifchief in granaries.
It is properly of the fcarab or beetle clafs; it has two
antennre or horns formed of a great number of round
joints, and covered with a foft and ftrort down 5 from
the anterior part of the head there is thruft out a
trunk, which is fo formed at the end, that the crea¬
ture eaftly makes way with it through the coat or fkin
that covers the grain, and gets at the meal or farina
on which it feeds 5 the iniide of the grains is alfo the
place where the female depofttes her eggs, that the
young progeny may be born with provinon about them.
When the female has pierced a grain of corn for this
purpofe, the depofttes in it one egg, or at the utmoft
two, but (he moft frequently lays them ftngle : thefe
eggs hatch into fmall worms, which are ufually found
with their bodies rolled up in a fpiral form, and after
eating till they arrive at their full growth, they are
changed into chryfales, and from thefe in about a
fortnight comes out the perfeX calandre. I he fe¬
male lays a eonfiderable number of eggs •, and the in-
creafe of thefe creatures would be very great, but na¬
ture has fo ordered it, that while in the egg ftate, and
even while in that of the worm, they are fubjeX to be
eaten by mites : thefe little vermine are always very
plentiful in granaries, and they deftroy the far greater
number of thefe larger animals.
GALAS, John; the name of a moft unfortunate
Proteftant merchant at Thouloufe, inhumanly butcher¬
ed under forms of law cruelly proftituted to fhelter the
fanguinary diXates of ignorant Popith zeal. He had
lived 40 years at Thouloufe. His wife was an Englilh
woman of French extraXion; and they had five fons ;
one of whom, Lewis, had turned Catholic through
the perfuafions of a Catholic maid who had lived 30
years in the family. In OXober I7br, the family
eonfifted of Galas, his wife, Mark Anthony their fon,
Peter their fecond fon, and this maid. Anthony w as
educated for the bar ; but being of a melancholy turn
of mind, was continually dwelling on paflages from
authors on the fubjeX of filicide, and one night in
that month hanged himfelf on a bar laid acrofs tw:o
folding doors in their {hop. The crow d colleXcd by
the confufion of the family on fo {hocking a dilcovery,
* >ok it into their heads that he had been ftrangled by
the family to prevent Ills'changing his religion, and
1 ] CAL
that this was a common praXice among Proteftants.
The officers of juftice adopted the popular tale, and
were fupplied by the mob with what they accepted as
evidences of the faX. The fraternity of White Peni¬
tents got the body, buried it with great ceremony,
and performed a folemn fervice for him as a martyr :
the Francifcans did the fame ; and after thefe formali¬
ties no one doubted the guilt of the devoted heretical
family. They were all condemned to the torture, to
bring them to confeffion : they appealed to the parlia¬
ment *, who, as weak and as wicked as the fubordinate
magiilrates, fentenced the father to the torture, ordi¬
nary and extraordinary, to be broken alive upon the
wheel, and then to be burnt to alhes. A diabolical
decree ! which, to the ftiame of humanity, was aXu-
ally carried into execution. Peter Calas, the other
fon, w7as baniffied for life ; and the reft were acquitted.
The diftraXed widow found fome friends, and among
the reft M. Voltaire, who laid her cafe before the
council of ftate at Verfailles, and the parliament of
Thouloufe was ordered to tranfmit the proceedings.
Thefe the king and council unanimoufty agreed to an¬
nul ; the capitoul or chief magiftrate of Thouloufe was
degraded and fined ; old Calas was declared to have
been innocent ; and every imputation of guilt was re¬
moved from the family, who alfo received from the
king and clergy confiderable gratuities.
CALASH, or Calesh, a fmall light kind of cha¬
riot or chair, with very low wheels, ufed chiefly for
taking the air in parks and gardens. Ihe calafli is for
the moft part richly decorated, and open on all lides
for the conveniency of the air and profpeX, or at moft
enclofed with light mantlets of wax-cloth.to be.opened
and flint at pleafure. In the Philofophical Iranfac-
tions wre have a defcription of a new fort of calafli go¬
ing on two wheels, not hung on traces, yet ealier than
the common coaches, over which it has this further
advantage, that whereas a common coach wall over¬
turn if one wheel go on a furface a foot and a half
higher than the other, this will admit of a difference
of 3-'- feet without danger of overturning. Add, that
it wrould turn over and over ; that is, alter the {pokes
being fo turned as that they are parallel to the hori¬
zon, and one wheel flat over the head of him that
rides in it, and the other flat under him, it will turn
once more, by which the wheels are placed in Jiatu
quo, without any diforder to the horfe or rider.
CALASIO, Marius, a Francifcan, and profeffor
of the Hebrew language at Rome, of whom there is
very little to be faid, but that he publilhed there, in
the year 1621, a Concordance of the Bible, vliich
confifted of four great volumes in folio. This work
has been highly approved and commended both by
Proteftants and Papifts, and is indeed a moft admi¬
rable work. For befides the Hebrew words in the
Bible, which are in the body of the book, with the'
Latin verfion over againft them ; there are, in the
margin, the differences between the Septuagint verfion
and the Vulgate; fo that at one view may be feen
wherein the three Bibles agree, and wherein they dif¬
fer. Moreover, at the beginning of every article there
is a kind of diXionary, which gives the fignification
of each Hebrew word ; affords an opportunity of com¬
paring it with other oriental languages, viz. wnth ther
Syriac, Arabic, and Chaldee; and is extremely ufeful
' fo£-
Calas
11
Calafio.
CAL r 62 ] CAL
Calafio |br determining more exaftly the true meaning of the
. Hebrew words.
. CALASIRIS, in antiquity, a linen tunic fringed
at the bottom, and worn by the Egyptians under a
white wroollen garment; but this laft they were ob¬
liged to pull oft' when they entered the temples, being
only allowed to appear there in linen garments.
CALATAJUD, a large and handfome town of
Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon ; fituated at the
confluence of the rivers Xalon and Xiloca, at the end
of a very fertile valley, with a good caftle on a rock.
W. Long. 2. 0. N. Lat. 41. 22.
CALATHUS, in antiquity, a kind of hand balkct
made of light wood or nifties } ufed by the women
fometimes to gather flowers, but chiefly after the ex¬
ample of Minerva to put their work in. The figure
of the calathus, as reprefented on ancient monuments,
is narrow at the bottom, and widening upwards like
that of a top. Pliny compares it to that of a bly.
The calathus or work balket of Minerva is no lefs ce¬
lebrated among the poets than her diftalf.
Calathhs was alfo the name of a cup for wine
ufed in facrifices.
CALATOR, in antiquity, a crier, or officer ap¬
pointed to pubiifti fome thing aloud, or call the peo¬
ple together. The wrord is formed from fcute*, vocoi
/ ca//. Such minifters the pontifrees had, whom they
ufed to fend before them when they went to facrifice
on ferice or holidays, to advertife the people to leave
off work. The magiftrates alfo ufed calatores, to call
the people to the comitia, both curiata and centurintOi
The officers in the army alfo had ca/atores ; as had like-
wife many private families, to invite their guefls to
entertainments.
CALATRAVA, a city of New Caftile, in Spain,
fituated on the river Guadiana, 45 miles fouth of To¬
ledo. W. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 39. o.
Knights of GalATRAVA, a military order in Spain,
inflituted by Sancho III. king of Cafiile, upon the
following occafion : When that prince took the ftrong
fort of Calatrav& from the Moors of Andalufia, he gave
it to the Templars, who, Wanting courage to defend
it, returned it him again. Then Don Reymond of
the order of the Ciftercians, accompanied with feveral
perfons of quality, made an offer to defend the place,
which the king thereupon delivered up to them, and
inilituted that order. It increafed fo much under the
reign of Alphonfus, that the knights defired they
might have a grand mafter, which was granted. Fer¬
dinand and Ifabella afterwards, with the confent ox
Pope Innocent VIII. re-united the grand mafterfhip of
Calatrava to the Spanifh crov.n ; fo that the kings of
Spain are now become perpetual adminiftrators there¬
of.
The knights of Calatrava bear a crofs gules, fleur-
delifed with green, &c. Their rule and habit was
originally that of the Ciftertkns.
CALAURIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of
Greece in the Saronic bay, over againft: the port of
Troezen, at the diftance of 40 fladia. Hither Demo-
fthenes went twice into baniftunent *, and here he died.
Neptune was faid to have accepted this ifland from
Apollo, in exchange for Delos. The city flood on a
high ridge nearly in the middle of the ifland, command-
ing an extenfive view of the gulf and its coafts. There Calfiiiia
was his holy temple. The prieftefs was a virgin, who ’
was difmiffed when marriageable. Seven of the cities -e^ltun;
near the ifland held a congrefs at it, and facrificed
jointly to the deity. Athens, Aigina, and Epidaurus,
were of this number, with Nauplias, for which place
Argos contributed. The Macedonians, when they had
reduced Greece, were afraid to violate the fandtuary,
by forcing from it the fugitives, his fuppliants. An¬
tipater commanded his general to bring away the ora¬
tors, who had offended him, alive j but Demofthenes
could not be prevailed on to furrender. His monu¬
ment remained in the fecond century, within the en-
clofure of the temple. The city of Calauria has been
long abandoned. Traces of buildings and of ancient
Walls appear nearly level with the ground 5 and foms
ftones, in their places, each with a feat and back
forming a little circle, once perhaps a bath. The tem¬
ple, which was of the Doric order, and not large, a^"
may be inferred from the fragments, is reduced to an
inconfiderable heap of ruins* T he ifland is now called
i'oro. It flretches along before the coal! of the Mo-
rea in a lower ridge, and is feparated from it by a canal
only four iladia, or half a mile wide. This, which is
called Poro or the Ferry, in flill weather may be paffed
on foot, as the water is not deep. It has given its
name to the ifland ; and alfo to the town, which con-
fifts of about 200 houfes, mean and low, with flat
roofs j riling on the flope of a bare difagreeable rock.
CALCADA, or 5/ Domingo Calcalda, a town of
Spain, fituated in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat. 42. 36.
CALCAR, a very ffrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Weffphalia, and duchy of Cleves. It belongs
to the king of Pruflia, and is leated near the Rhine,
in E. Long. 5. 51. N. Lat. 41. 45.
Calcar, in giafs-making, the name of a fmall oven
or reverberatory furnace, in which the firft calcination
of fand and lalt of potaihes is made for the turning
them into what is called yiv/. This furnace is made in
the falhion of an oven, ten feet long, feven broad in
the wideft part, and two feet deep. On one fide of it
is a trench fix inches fquare, the upper part of which
is level with the calcar, and feparated only from it at
the mouth by bricks nine inches wide. Into this trench
they put fea-coal, the flame of which is carried into
every part of the furnace, and is reverberated from the
roof upon the frit, over the furnace of which the fmoke
flies very black, and goes out at the mouth of the
calcar j the coals burn on iron grates, and the alhes
fall through.
Calcar, John de, a celebrated painter, was the
difciple of Titian, and perfected himfelf by ftudying
Raphael. Among other pieces he drew a Nativity, re-
prefenting the angels around the infant Chrift ; and fo
ordered the difpofition of his piefture, that the light
all proceeds from the Child. He died at Naples, in
1546, in the flower of his age. It was he who de-
figned the anatomical figures of Vefal, and the por¬
traits of the painters of Vefari.
CALCiVREOUS, fomething that partakes of the
nature and qualities of calx, or lime. We fay, a
calcareous earth, calcareous flone. See Chemistry
Index.
CALCEARIUM, in antiquity, a donative or lar»
gefs
CAL [ 63 ] CAL
Cake mum gefs bellowed on Roman foldiers for buying fhoes. In
11, monaiteries, calcearium denoted the daily fervice of
, Calm.us.^ c]ean;ng t}ie fiioes of the religious.
^ CALCEOLARIA. See Botany Index.
CALCHAS, in fabulous hillory, a famous diviner,
followed the Greek army to Troy. He foretold that
the liege would laft ten years} and that the fleet, which
was detained in the port of Aulis by contrary winds,
would not fail till Agamemnon’s daughter had been
facrificed to Diana. After the taking of Troy, he re¬
tired to Colophon } where, it is faid, he died of grief,
becaufe he could not divine what another of his profef-
fion, called Mopfus, had difcovered.
CALCINATION, in Chemijlry, the reducing of
fubitances to a calx, or powder, by fire. Limeilone
is faid to be calcined or burned by being deprived of
its carbonic acid, and thus brought to the cauflic Hate.
But when a metallic fubftance is calcined by being ex-
pofed to ftrong heat, it aiTumes the form of powder or
calx, by combining with oxygen. See Chemistry
Index.
CALCINATO, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Mantua, remarkable for a victory gained over the Im-
perialifts by the French in 1706. E. Long. 9. 55. N.
Lat. 45. 25.
CALCULARY of a Pear, a congeries of little
ftrong knots difperfed through the whole parenchyma
of the fruit. The caiculary is moft obferved in rough-
tafted or choke pears. The knots lie more continuous
and compact together towards the pear where they fur-
round the acetary. About the ftaik they Hand more
diftant \ but towards the cork, or ftool of the flower,
they ftill grow clofer, and there at laft gather into the
firmnefs of a plum ftone. The calculary is no vital or
eflential part of the fruit ; the feveral knots whereof it
confifts being only fo many concretions or precipita¬
tions out of the lap, as we fee in urines, wines, and
other liquors.
CALCULATION, the a£I of computing feveral
fums, by adding, fubtracling, multiplying, or dividing.
See Arithmetic.
Calculation is more particularly ufed to fignify
the computations in aftronomy and geometry, for ma¬
king tables of logarithms, ephemerides, finding the
time of eclipfes, &c. See Astronomy, Geometry,
and Logarithms.
CALCULUS, primarily denotes a little ftone or
pebble, anciently ufed in making computations, taking
of fuffrages, playing at tables, and the like. In after
times, pieces of ivory, and counters ftruck of iilver,
gold, and other matters, were ufed in lieu thereof, but
ftill retaining the ancient names. Computifts were by
the lawyers called ca!culonesy when they were either
flaves, or newly freed men •, thofe of a better condition
were named calcu/atores or numerarh : ordinarily there
was one of thefe in each family of diftinction. The
Roman judges anciently gave their opinions by calculi,
which were white for abfolution, and black for con¬
demnation. Hence calculus albus, in ancient writers,
denotes a favourable vote, either in a perfon to be ab-
folved and acquitted of a charge, or elefted to fome
dignity or poll 5 as calculus niger did the contrary. This
ufage is faid to have been borrowed from the Thracians,
who marked their happy or profperous days by volute%
and their unhappy by blach, pebbles, put each night C
into an urn.
Befides the diverfity of colour, there were fome cal¬
culi alio which had figures or charadlers engraven on
them, as thofe which were in ufe in taking the fuftra-
ges both in the fenate and at affemblies of the people.
Thefe calculi were made of thin wood, poliftied and
covered over with wax. Their form is ftill feen in
fome medals of the Caftian family ; and the manner of
cafting them into the urns, in the medals of the Liei-
nian family. The letters marked upon thefe calculi
were U. 11. for uti rogasy and A. for antique; the firit
of which exprefled an approbation of the law, the lat¬
ter a rejection of it. Afterwards the judges who fat
in capital caufes ufed calculi marked with the letter A.
for abfoho; C. for condernno; and N. L. for non liquett
fignifying that a more full information was required.
Calculus is alio ufed in ancient geometric writers
for a kind of weight equal to two grains of cicer.
Some make it equivalent to the filiqua, which is equal
to three grains of barley. Two calculi made the ce-
ratium.
Calculus, in Mathematics, is a certain method of
performing inveftigations and refolutions, particularly
in mechanical phiiofophy. Thus there is the Diffei -
ential calculus, the Exponential, the Integral, the Li¬
teral, and the Antecedental.
Calculus Dijferentiahs, is a method of differencing
quantities, or of finding an infinitely fmall quantity,
which being taken infinite times, fliall be equal to a
given quantity j or, it is the arithmetic of the infinite¬
ly fmall differences of variable quantities.
The foundation of this calculus is an infinitely
fmall quantity, or an infinitelimal, which is a portion
of a quantity incomparable to that quantity, or that
is lefs than any aflignable one, and therefore account¬
ed as nothing j the error accruing by omitting it being
lefs than any affignable one. Hence two quantities,,
only differing by an infinitefimal, are reputed equal.
Thus, in aftronomy, the diameter of the earth is an
infinitefimal, in relpeft of the diftance of the fixed
liars j and the fame holds in abftracl quantities. The
term, infinitefimal, therefore, is merely refpective, and
involves a relation to another quantity j and does not
denote any real ens or being. Now infinitcfimals are
called differentials, or differential quantities, when they
are confidered as the difterences of two quantities. Sir
Ifaac Newton calls them moments; confidering them
as the momentary increments of quantities, v. g. of a
line generated by the flux of a point, or of a furface
by the flux of a line. The differential calculus, there¬
fore, and the doftrine of fluxions, are the fame thing
under different names *, the former given by M. Leib¬
nitz, and the latter by Sir Ifaac Newton : each of
whom lays claim to the difeovery. There is, indeed a
diffetence in the manner of exprefling the quantities
refulting; from the different views wherein the two au-
thors confider the mfinitefimals : the one as moments,
the other as differences. Leibnitz, and moft foreigners,
exprefs the differentials of quantities by the fame let¬
ters as variable ones, only prefixing the letter d-. thus
the differential of x is called d x ; and that of y, dy ;
now is a pofitive quantity, if x continually increafe-,
negative, if it decreafe. The Englilh, with Sir Ifaac
Newton,.
Calculus.
CAL
Newton, inflead ol dx write x (with
for dy, ?/, &c. which foreigners obje£t againft, on ac¬
count of that confufion of points, which they imagine
arifes when differentials are again differenced •, betides,
that the printers are more apt to overlook a point than
a letter. Stable quantities being always expreffed by
the firft letters of the alphabet d a =zo, d b—o, dcz=.o ;
wherefore d (x-j-y—d) —dx-\-dy, and d (,r -y + a)
—dx + dy. So that the differencing of quantities is
eafily performed by the addition or fubtraftion of their
compounds.
To difference quantities that multiply each other *,
the rule is, firft, multiply the differential of one fadlor
into the other fattor, the fum of the. two factors is the
differential fought: thus, the quantities being #,y, the
differential will be x dy-\-y d x, i. e. d (x y) —xdy-\-y
dx. Secondly, If there be three quantities mutually
multiplying each other, the fa£tum of the two muft
then be multiplied into the differential of the third j
thus fuppofe v x y, let v x~t, then v x y~t y ; confe-
quently d (v x y) =tdy+y dt : but dt=zv dx+x d v.
Thefe values, therefore, being fubftituted in the ante¬
cedent differential, t dy-\-y d t, the refult is, d (y x y~)
—v x dy^~v y dx-j-# y dv. Hence it is eafy to appre¬
hend how to proceed, where the quantities are more
than three. If one variable quantity increafe, while
the other y decreafes, it is evident y d x—xdy will be
the differential of x y. .
To difference quantities that mutually divide each
other; the rule is, firft, multiply the differential of the
divifor into the dividend ^ and on the contrary, the
differential of the dividend into the divifor ; fubtraft
the laft produft from the firft, and divide the remain¬
der by the fquare of the divifor, the quotient is the
differential of the quantities mutually dividing each
other. See Fluxions. . . .
Calculus Exponentiahs, is a method of differencing
exponential quantities, or of finding and fumming
up the differentials or moments of exponential quan¬
tities ; or at leaft bringing them to geometrical con-
ftruflions. y
By exponential quantity, is here underftood a power,
vhofe exponent is variable j v. g. xx. a\ x*. where the
exponent x does not denote the fame in all the points
of a curve, but m fome ftands for 2, in others for
in others for 5, &c.
To difference an exponential quantity 5 there is.no¬
thing required but to reduce the exponential quantities
to logarithmic ones } which done, the differencing is
managed as in logarithmic quantities. Thus, fuppofe
the differential of the exponential quantity x* required,
let
[ 64 ] CAL
a dot over it), quantities •, i. e. from a differential quantity given, to
Calculus.
Then will y l x—l z
lxdy-\
y d x d %
25 lx dy-\-
, y d x
zd %
That is, xy lx dx—d •z.
Calculus Integralu, or Summatoriut, is a method.of
integrating, or fumming up moments
or differential
find the quantity from whofe differencing the given
differential refults.
The integral calculus, therefore, is the inverfe of
the differential one : whence the Englifh, who ufually
call the differential method fluxions, give this calculus,
which afeends from the fluxions, to the flowing or va¬
riable quantities : or as foreigners exprefs it, from the
differences to the fums, by the name of the invetflc me¬
thod of fluxions.
Hence, the integration is known to be juftly per¬
formed, if the quantity found, according to the rules
of the differential calculus, being differenced, produce
that propofed to be fummed.
Suppofe/the fign of the fum, or integral quantity,
then fy dx will denote the fum, or integral of the dif¬
ferential y d x.
To Integraie, or fum up a differential quantity : it is
demonftrated, firft, thatf dX—X: fecondly,/(</x-j-fl'y)
—x-\-y: thirdly,(x dy-\-y dx)—x y: fourthly,/(w
n—in j n
—V x)rrx m : fifthly, J {n : ni) x—d x—x :
fixthly,/(y dx—xdy) : y* = x : y. Of thefe, the fourth
and fifth cafes are the moft frequent, wherein the. dif¬
ferential quantity is integrated, by adding a variable
unity to the exponent, and dividing the turn by the
new exponent multiplied into the differential of the
root*, v. g. the fourth cafe, by m—(i-j-i) dx, i. e.
by m d x.
If the differential quantity to be integrated doth not
come under any of thefe formulas, it muft either bo
reduced to an integral finite, or an infinite feries, each
of whofe terms may be fummed.
It may be here obferved, that? as In the analyfis of
finites, any quantity may be railed to any degree of
power ; but vice verfa, the root cannot be extra&ed
out of any number required *, fo in the analyfis of
infinites, any variable or flowing quantity may be dif¬
ferenced ; but vice verfa, any differential cannot be in¬
tegrated. And as, in the analyfis of finites, we are not
yet arrived at a method of extracting the roots of all
equations, fo neither has the integral calculus arrived
at its perfection: and as in the former we are obliged
to have recourfe to approximation, fo in the latter we
have recourfe to infinite feries, where we cannot attain
to a perfeCt integration.
Calculus Literahs, or Literal Calculus, is the
fame with fpecious arithmetic, or algebra, .fo called
from its ufing the letters of the alphabet j in contra-
diftinCtion to numeral arithmetic, which ufes figures.
In the literal calculus given quantities are exprefted by
the firft letters, a,b, c, d; and.quantities fought by the
laft -zy x, &c. Equal quantities are denoted by the
fame letters. . i j r
Calculus, Antecedental, a geometrical method oi
reafoning invented by Mr Grlenie, which, without any
confideration of motion or velocity, is applicable to all
the purpofes of fluxions. In this method, fays Mr
Glenie, “ every expreflion is truly and ftriCUy geometri¬
cal, is founded on principles frequently made ufe of by
the ancient geometers, principles admitted into the very
firft elements of geometry, and repeatedly ufed by
Euclid himfelf. As it is a branch of general geometri¬
cal proportion, or univerfal comparifon, and is derived
from an examination of the antecedents of ratios, hav¬
ing
CAL r
Calculus, ing given confequents and a given ft an da rd of cbmpari-
fon in various degrees of augmentation and diminution
they undergo by compofition and decompoiition, I
have called it the antecedental calculus. As it is
purely geometrical, and perfe&ly fcientific, I have,
iiince it firft occufred to me in 1779, always made ufe
of it inftead of the fluxionary and differential calculi,
which are merely arithmetical. Its principles are to*
tally unconnedted with the ideas of motion and time,
which, ftrictly fpeaking, are foreign to pure geometry
and abftrafl fbience, though, in mixed mathematics and
natural philofophy, they are equally applicable to every
inveftigation, involving the confideration of either with
the two numerical methods juft mentioned. And as
many fuch inveftigations require compofitions and de-
compofitions of ratios, extending greatly beyond the
triplicate and fubtriplicate, this calculus in all of them
furnilhes every expreflion in a ftridfly geometrical form.
The ftandards of comparifon in it may be any magni¬
tudes whatever, and are of courfe indefinite and innu¬
merable •, and the confequents of the ratios, compound¬
ed or decompounded, may be either equal or unequal,
homogeneous or heterogeneous. In the fluxionary and
differential methods, on the other hand, 1, or unit, is
not only the ftandard of comparifon, but alfo the con-
fequent of every ratio compounded or decompound¬
ed.” See Phil. Tranf. Edin. vol. iv.
Some mathematicians, however, are of opinion that
the advantage to be derived from the employment of
this calculus is not fo great as the author feems to pro-
mife from it.
Calculus Minervce, among the ancient lawyers, de¬
noted the decifion of a caufe, wherein the judges were
oqually divided. The expreflion is taken from the hi-
ftory of Oreftes, reprefented by Atfchylus and Euripi¬
des } at whofe trial, before the Areopagites, for the
murder of his mother, the votes being equally divided
for and againft him, Minerva interpofed, and gave the
calling vote or calculus in his behalf.
M. Cramer, profeffor at Marpurg, has a difcourfe
exprefs, De Calculo Minervte ; wherein he maintains,
that all the effefl an entire equality of voices can have,
is to leave the caufe in /fatu quo.
Calculus liburtinus, a fort of figured ftone, form¬
ed in great plenty about the cataracts of the Anio, and
other rivers in Italy j of a white colour, and in lhape
oblong, round, or echinated. They are a fpecies of
the Jlirue lapidece, or JlalaEiites^ and generated like
them; and fo like fugar plums, that it is a common
jell at Rome to deceive the unexperienced by ferving
them up as defferts.
Calculus, in Medicine, the difeafe of the ftone in
the bladder or kidneys. The term is Latin, and fig-
nifies a little pebble. The calculus in the bladder is
called lithwfis; and in the kidneys, See Me¬
dicine and Surgery.
Human calculi are commonly formed of different
urata or incruftations ; fometimes fmooth and heavy
like mineral Hones ; but often rough, fpongy, light,
and full of inequalities or protuberances : chemical'y
analyzed, or diftilled in an open fire, they yield nearly
the lame principles as urine itfelf, or at leaft an em-
pyreumatic volatile urinous matter, together with a
great deal of air. Ihey never have, nor can have, na¬
turally, any foreign matter for a balls : but they may
Vol. V. Part Jk ' 7
5 1 CAL
by accident 5 an mftance of which is related by Dr Cafcblus,
Percival *. A bougie had unfortunately flipped into Calcutta;
the bladder, and upon it a ftone of conliderable fize *
was formed in lefs than a year. This ftone had foVol
much the appearance of chalk, that the doctor was p. 165.
induced to try whether it could be converted into
quicklime. His experiment fucceeded, both with that
and lome other calculi 5 from which he conjedlures,
that hard waters which contain calcareous earth may
contribute towards the formation of thefe calculi.
CALCUI 1 A, the capital of the province of Ben¬
gal, and of all the Britilh poffeflions in the Eaft Indies,
is lituated on the river Huguely, a branch of the
Ganges, about 100 miles from the fea, in N. Lat. 23.
and Long. 8S. 28. E. from Greenwich. It is but a
modern city, built on the fite of a village called
Govindpour. The Englilh firft obtained the Mogul’s
permiflion to fettle in this place in the year 1690 ; and
Mr Job Charnoek, the company’s agent, made choice
of the fpot on which the city Hands, on account of a
large Ihady grove which grew there ; though in other
relpefts it was the worft he could have pitched upon j
for three miles to the north coaft, there is a fait water
lake, which overflows in September, and when the
flood retires in December, leaves behind fuch a quan¬
tity of fifti and other putrefeent matter, as renders the
air very unhealthy. The cuftom of the Gentoos throw¬
ing the dead bodies tif their poor people into the river
is alfo very difguftful, and undoubtedly contributes to
render the place unhealthy, as well as the caufe already
mentioned.
Calcutta is now become a large and populous city,
being fuppofed at prefent to contain 500,000 inhabi¬
tants. It is elegantly built, at leaft the part inhabited
by the Englilh ; but the reft, and that the greateft
part, is built after the falhion of the cities of India in
general. The plan of all thefe is nearly the fame ;
their ftreets are exceedingly confined, narrow, and
crooked, with a vaft number of ponds, refervoirs, and
gardens interfperfed. A few of the ftreets are paved
with brick. The houfes are built, fome with brick,
others with mud, and a ftill greater number with bam¬
boos and mats j all which different kinds of fabrics
Handing intermixed wdth one another, form a very un¬
couth appearance. The brick houfes are feldom above
tw'o ftories high, but thole of mud and bamboos are
only one, and are covered with thatch. The roofs of
the brick houfes are flat and terraced. Thefe, how¬
ever, are much fewer in number than the other twu
kinds \ fo that fires, wrhich often happen, do not fome¬
times meet w ith a brick houfe to obftruft their progrefs
in a whole ftreet. Within thefe 20 or 25 years Cal¬
cutta has been greatly improved both in appearance
and in the falubrity of its air : the ftreets have been
properly drained, and the ponds filled j thereby remo¬
ving a vaft furface of ftagnant w^ater, the exhalations
of which were particularly hurtful. The citadel is
named Fort William, and is fuperior as a fortrefs to
any in India ; but is now on too extenfive a fcale to
anfwer the purpofe for which it was intended, viz. the.
holding a poll in cafe of extremity. It was begun on
this extended plan by Lord Clive immediately after
the battle of Plaffey. The expence attending it was
fuppofed to amount to two millions fterling.
Calcutta is the emporium of Bengal, and the refi-
I deuce
CAL t 66
Calcutta, clenec of the governor general of India. Its flourilh-
ing ftate may in a great meafure be fuppofed owing to
the unlimited toleration of all religions allowed here •,
the Pagans being fuffered to carry their idols in pro-
ceflion, the Mahomedans not being dilcountenanced,
and the Roman Catholics being allowed a church.—
At about a mile’s diftance from the town is a plain
where the natives annually undergo a very ftrange vin
of penance on the 9th of April; fome for the fins
4,hey have committed, others for thofe they may com-
mit, and others in confequence of a vow made by their
parents. This ceremony is performed m the follow¬
ing manner : Thirty bamboos, each about the height
of 23 feet, are erecled in the plain above mentioned.
On the top of thefe they contrive to fix a fwivel, an
another bamboo of thirty feet or more croffes it, a
each end of which hangs a rope. The people pull
down one end of this rope and the devotee placing
himfelf under it, the bramin pinches up a large piece
of Ikin under both the (houlderblades, fometimes in
the breads, and thrufts a llrong iron hook through
each. Thefe hooks have lines of Indian grafs hanging
to them, which the prieil makes fall to the rope at the
end of the crofs bamboo, and at the fame time puts a
fafh round the body of the devotee, laying it loofe y
in the hollow of the hooks, left by the {km s giving
way, he ftiould fall to the ground. W hen this is done,
the people haul down the other end of the bamboo ;
by which means the devotee is immediately lifted up
20 feet or more from the ground, and they run icun
as faft as their legs can carry them. 1 has the devo¬
tee is thrown out the whole length of the ro\x,
where, as he fwings, he plays a thoufand antic trie is,
behm painted and dreffed in a very particular manner,
on purpofe to make him look move ridiculous, borne
of them continue Twinging half an hour oth^ ef s*
The devotees undergo a preparation of four da> .
this ceremony. On the firft and third they abftam
from all kinds of food ; but eat fruit on the other
two. During this time of preparation they walk about
tbe ftreets in their fantaftical dreffes, dancing to .he
found of drums and horns; and fome to exprefs the
greater ardour of devotion, run a rod of non qune
through their tongues, and fometimes through their
^Beforef the war of Calcutta was commonly
garrifoned by 3oo Europeans, who
ployed in conveying the company’s vefihls froAv Patna^
loaded with faltpetre, piece goods, opium, and
1
CAL
town ; but Was repulfed with groat {laughter. On the Cdcutta-
16th he attacked another advanced poft, but was like-
 -n/itVi errpat lofs. Notwithftanding this
   — i—1
wife repulfed with great lofs. Notwithftanding this
difappointment, however, the attempt was renewed on
the 18th, when the troops abandoned thefe polls, and
retreated into the fort ; on which the nabob’s troops
entered the town, and plundered it for 24 hours. An
order was then given for attacking the fort; for which
purpofe a fmall breaftwork was thrown up,- and two
twelve pounders mounted upon it; but without firing
oftener than two or three times an hour. I he go¬
vernor then called a council of war, when the captain
of the train informed them, that there was not ain-
munition in the fort to ferve three days; in confe¬
quence of which the principal ladies were lent on board
the {hips lying before the fort. They were followed
by the governor, who declared himfelf a Quaker, and
left the place to be defended by Mr Holwell the lecond
in council. Befides the governor, four of the coun¬
cil eight gentlemen of the company’s iervice, tour
officers, and 100 foldiers, with 52 free merchants cap¬
tains of ihips, and other gentlemen, efcaped on board
the {hips, where were alio 59 ladies, with 33 of their
children The whole number left in the tort was about
2 co effective men, with Mr Holwell, four captains,
five lieutenants, fix enfigns, and five ferjeants; as alio
14 fea captains, and 29 gentlemen of the faftory. Mr
Holwell then having held a council of war, divided
three chefts of treafure among the difeontented iol-
diers, making them large promifes alfo if they be¬
haved with courage and fidelity ; after which he bold¬
ly flood on tbe defence of the place, notwithftanding
the immenfe force which oppofed him. -the attack
was very vigorous; the enemy having got poffeffion ot
the houfes, galled the Engliffi from thence and drove
them from the baftions ; but they themfelves were
feveral times di(lodged by the fire from the fort
which killed an incredible number, with the lols ot.
only five Engliffi foldiers the firft day. Ihe attack,
however, was continued till the afternoon of the 2Ct..;
when many of the garrifon being killed and wounded,
and their ammunition almoft exhaufted, a flag of truce
was hung out. Mr Holwell intended to have availed
himfelf of this opportunity to make his efcape on
board the {hips, but they had fallen feveral miles
down from the fort, without leaving even a fingle boat
to facilitate the efcape of thofe who remained, in the
meantime, however, the back-gate was betrayed y
tbe Dutch guard, and the enemy, entering the fort,
  1 r  ^ tVip rpft nriioners.
with faltpetre, piece goods, opium, and raw met, and took the reft prifoners.
filk. The trade of Bengal alone fupplied rich cargoes k H d^ ^ taken before fix in the evening ; and,
for co or 60 {hips annually, befides what was carried - 1 n e_,i
. r Ti arlinpent countries. It was
on in fmall veffels to the adjacent countries, it was
this flouriffiing ftate of Calcutta that probably was one
motive for th! nabob. Surajab Dowla to attack ^t in
tbp vear i-? c6. Having bad the fort of Coliimbuzar
delivered up to him, he marched againft cUc“«» "
all his forces, amounting to 70,000 horfe and foot
with 400 elephants, and inverted the place on the 15
of June Previous to any hoftilities, however, he wro e
a letter to Mr Drake the governor offering to vith-
dr "his troops, on condition that he would pay h.m
his duty on the trade for 1J years pail, detray the
expence of his armv, and deliver up the black mer¬
its who were in the fort. This being refufed he
attacked one of the redoubts at the entrance of .ho
I tie ion was .... — —- o . .
in an hour after, Mr Holwell had three audiences of
the nabob, the laft being in the durbar or council.
In all of thefe the governor had the moft pofitive at-
furances that no harm ihould happen to any of t te
prifoners ; but he was furprifed and enraged at finding
only coool. in the fort, inftead of the immenle trea-
fures he expefted ; and to tins as well as perhaps to the
refentment of the jemmidaarts or officers, of whom many
were killed inthefiege, we may impute the cataftrophe
that followed. . „ .-
As foon as it was dark, the Englifti prifoners, to
the number of 146, vere directed by the jemmidaars
who guarded them, to colled themfelves into one
body, and fit down quietly wider the arched veranda.
CAL [ 67 ] C A .L
Caloutta. or piazza, to the weft\Taid of the Black Hole prifon.
Beiides the guard over them, another was placed at
the fouth end of this veranda, to prevent the efcape of
any of them. About 500 gunmen, with lighted
matches, were drawn up on the parade •, and foon af¬
ter the faflory was in flames to the right and left of
the prifoners, who had various conjeftures on this ap¬
pearance. The fire advanced with rapidity on both
fides; and it was the prevailing opinion of the Eng-
lifli, that they were to be fuffocated between the two
fires. On this they foon came to a refolution of rufli-
ing on the guard, feizing their feimitars, and attack¬
ing the troops upon the parade, rather than be thus
tamely roafted to death ; but Mr Holwell advanced,
and found the Moors were only fearching for a place
to confine them in. At this time Mr Holwell might
have made his efcape, by the afliflance of Mr Leech,
the company’s fmith, who had efcaped when the
Moors entered the fort, and returned juft as it was
dark, to tell Mr Holwell he had provided a boat,
and would enfure his efcape, if he would follow him
through a paffage few were acquainted with, and by
which he then entered. This might eafily have been
accomplilhed, as the guard took little notice of it j
but Mr Holwell told Mr Leech, he was refolved to
{hare the fate of the gentlemen and the garrifon ; to
which Mr Leech gallantly replied, that “ then he was
refolved to {hare Mr Holwell’s fate, and would not
leave him.”
The guard on the parade advanced, and ordered
them all to rife and go into the barracks. Then, with
their mulkets prefented, they ordered them to go into
the Black Hole prifon ; while others, with clubs and
feimitars, preffed upon them fo ftrong, that there was
no refifting it; but, like one agitated wave impelling
another, they were obliged to give way and enter $
the reft following like a torrent. Few among them,
the foldiers excepted, had the leaft idea of the di-
menfions or nature of a place they had never feen *, for
if they had, they fticuld at all events have rufhed upon
the guard, and been cut to pieces by their own choice
as the leffer evil.
It was about eight o’clock when thefe 146 unhappy
perfons, exhaufted by continual action and fatigue,
were thus crammed together into a dungeon about
eighteen feet fquare, in a elofe fultry night in Bengal j
ihut up to the eaft and fouth, the only quarters from
whence air could reach them, by dead walls, and by
a wall and door to the north ; open only to the weft
by two windows, ftrongly barred with iron, from
which they could receive fcarce any circulation of freth
air.
They had been but few minutes confined before
fcvery one fell into a perfpiration fo profufe, that no
idea can be formed of it. This brought on a raging
thirft, which increafed in proportion as the body was
drained of its moifture. Various expedients were
thought of to give more room and air. Every man
was ftripped, and every hat put in motion: they fe-
veral times fat down on their hams j but at each time
feveral of the poor creatures fell, and were inftantly
fuffocated or trode to death.
Before nine o’clock every man’s thii'ft grew into¬
lerable, and refpiration difficult. Efforts were again
.made to force the door j but ftill in vain. Many in-
fults were ufed ,to the guards, to provoke them to fire
in upon the prifoners, who grew outrageous, and
many delirious. “ Water, wuter,” became the ge¬
neral cry. Some water was brought: but thefe fup-
plies like fprinkling water on fire, only ferved to
raife and feed the flames. The confufion became ge¬
neral and horrid from the cries and ravings for water j
and fome were trampled to death. This feene of mi-
fery proved entertainment to the brutal wretches
without, who fupplied them with water, that they
might have the fatisfaftion of feeing them fight
for it, as they phrafed it 5 and held up lights to th«
bars, that they might lofe no part of the inhuman di-
yerfion.
Before eleven o’clock, moft of the gentlemen were
dead, and one-third of the whole. Thirft; grewr into¬
lerable : but Mr Holwell kept his mouth moift by
fucking the perfpiration out of his ftiirt fleeves, and
catching the drops as they fell, like heavy rain, from
his head and face. By half an hour after eleven, moft
of the living xvere in an outrageous delirium. They
found that water heightened their unealinefs •, and
“ Air, air,” was the general cry. Every infult that
could be devifed againft the guard ; all the opprobrious
names that the viceroy and his officers could be loaded
with, were repeated, to provoke the guard to fire upon
them. Every man had eager hopes of meeting the firft
flint. Then a general prayer to heaven, to haften the
approach of the flames to the right and left of them,
and put a period to their mifery. Some expired on
others; while a fleam arofe as w ell from the living a»
the dead, which was very off'enfive.
About two in the morning, they crowded fo much,
to the windows, that many died fland ng, unable to fall
by the throng and equal pieffure round. When the
day broke, the flench arifing from the dead bodies was
iniufferable. At that jundlnre, the foubah, who had
received an account of the havock death had made
among them, fent one of his officers to inquire if the
chief furvived. Mr Holwell was ftiown to him 5 and
near fix, an order came for their releafe.
Thus they had remained in this infernal prifon
from eight at night until fix in the morning, when
the poor remains of 146 fouls, being only 23, came
out alive; but moft of them in a high putrid fever.
The dead bodies were dragged out of the hole by the
foldiers, and thrown promifcuoully into the ditch of
an unfiniftied ravelin, which was afterwards filled with
earth.
The injuries which Calcutta fuffered at this time,
however, were foon repaired. The place was retaken
by Admiral Watfon and Colonel Clive, early in
1737 ^ Surajah Dowla was defeated, depofed, and put
to death •, and Meer Jaffier, who fucceeded him in
the nabobfhip, engaged to pay an immenfe fum for
the indemnification of the inhabitants. Since that
time, the immenfe acquifition of territory by the Bri-
tifh in this part of the world, with the conftant flate of
fecurity enjoyed by this city, have given an opportunity
of embelliflffng and improving it greatly beyond what
it was before.—Among thefe improvements we may
reckon that of Sir Wfflliam Jones, who on the 15th
of January, 1784, inftituted a fociety for inquiring
into the hiftory civil and natural, the antiquities, arts,
fciences, and literature of Afia j and thus the literature
l l
Calcutta.
CAL [68
Calcutta of Europe, and along with it, it is to be hoped, the
!l arts of humanity, beneficence, and peace, have at
Calde/' length obtained a footing in the rich empire of Indoi-
W0° ' i tan, fo long a prey to the rapine and violence of ty¬
rants and ufurpers.
CALDARIUM, in the ancient baths, denoted a
brazen veffel or cittern, placed in the hypocauftum,
full of hot water, to be drawn thence into the pifanaox
bath, to give it the neceffary degree of heat In this
fenfe the caldarium ftood contradiftmguiftied from the
tepidanum and frigrdarium.
Caldarium, alfo denoted the fteve, or fudatory,
beinp- a clofe vaulted room, wherein by hot dry tumes,
without water, people were brought to a profuie iweat.
In which fenfe, caldarium was the fame with what was
otherwife denominated vaporarium, fudatorwm, and la-
conium; in the Greek baths, hypocaujlum, v™«v?cv.
CALDERINUS, Domitius, a learned critic, born
at Calderia near Verona. He read lettures upon po¬
lite literature at Rome with great reputation •, and
was the firft who ventured to write upon the molt
difficult of the ancient poets. He died very young m
I4CALDERON, dl la Barca, Dom Pedro a Spa-
niffi officer, who after having fignahzed himfelf, in the
military profeffion, quitted it for the ecclefiaftical, and
then commenced dramatic writer. His dramatic works
make 9 vols. in 4to, and feme Spamffi authors have
compared him to Shakefpeare. He fiouriffied about
the year 1640. j* •
CALDERWOOD, David, a famous divine ot
the church of Scotland, and a diftinguiffied writer in
behalf of the Preffiyterians, was defcended of a good
family in that kingdom •, and being early defigned or
the miniftry, he applied with great diligence to the
ftudy of the Scriptures m their original tongues, the
works of the fathers, the councils, and the beft writers
on church hiftory. He was fettled about the year
1604 at Crelling near Jedburgh. King James I. of
Great Britain, being defirous of bringing the church
of Scotland nearer to a conformity with that of g-
land laboured earneftly to reftore the epifcopal autho¬
rity’and enlarge the powers of the biffiops who were
then in Scotland. This defign was very ^rmly oppo¬
sed by many of the minifters, and particularly by Mr
David Calderwoodj who, when Mr James b^“
ffion of Orkney, came to vifit the preffiytenes of Merfe
fnd Tiviotdale, declined his jurifdia.on by a paper
under his hand, dated May 5-i6°8- BlJt tbe kinS
having its fuccefs much at heart,fent the earl of Dunbar,
The high-treafurer of Scotland, with Dr Abbot after¬
ward arcVbiffiop of Canterbury, and two other divines,
into that kingdom, with inttruftions to employ every
method to perfuade both the clergy and laity of his
maiefty’s fincere defire to promote the good of the
Swch, and of his zeal for the Proteftant region.
Mr C alder wood did not affift at the general affembly
held at Glafgow June 8. 1610, m which Lord Dun¬
bar prefided as commiffioner *, and it appears from his
waitings that he looked upon every thing tranfafted
n it a! null and void. In May following, King James
went to Scotland ; and on the 17th of June held a par-
Lament at Edinburgh. At that time the clergy met in
one of the churches, to hear and_ advife with the bi-
iliops, which kind of affembly, it feems, was contri-
1 CAL
ved in order to refemble the Engliffi convocation. Mr Cakkr-
Calderwood was prefent at it, but declared publicly
that he did not take any fuch meetings to refemble a
convocation j and being oppofed by Dr Whitford and
Dr Hamilton, who were friends to the biffiops, he took
his leave of them in thefe words : “ It is abiurd to fee
men fitting in filks and fatins, and to cry poverty in
the kirk, when purity is departing.” The parliament
proceeded in the meanwhile in the defpatch of bulintls j
and Mr Calderwood, with feveral other minifters, be¬
ing informed that a bill was depending to empower the
king, with the advice of the archbiftiops, bilhops, and
fuch a number of the miniftry as his majefty ihould
think proper, to confider and conclude as to matters
decent for the external policy of the church, not re¬
pugnant to the word of God j and that fuch ^onclu-
fions ffiould have the ftrength and power of eccleliaiti-
cal laws : againft this they protefted, for four realons :
1. Becaufe their church was fo perfeft, that, mftead
of needing reformation, it might be a pattern to others.
2. General affemblies, as now eftabliffied by law, and
which ought always to continue, might by this means
be overthrown. 3. Becaufe it might be a means of
creating fchifm, and difturb the tranquillity of the
church. 4. Becaufe they had received affurances, that
no attempts ffiould be made to bring them to a confor¬
mity w ith the church of England. 1 hey defired there¬
fore, that, for thefe and other reafons, all thoughts of
paffing fuch a law might be laid afide : but m cafe this
be not done, they proteft for themfelves and their bre¬
thren who ffiall adhere to them, that they can yield no
obedience to this law, when it ffiall be enaded, becauie
it is deftrudive of the liberty of the church j and there¬
fore ihall fubmit to fuch penalties, and think themlelves
obliged to undergo fuch puniffiments, as may be m-
flided on them for difobeymg that law. This proteft
was figned by Mr Archibald Simfon on behalf of the
members, who fubferibed another feparate roll, which
he kept for his juftification. This proteft was prefent-
ed to the clerk regifter, who refufed to read it before
the ftates in parliament. However, though not read
it had its effed •, for although the bill had the confent
of parliament, yet the king thought fit to caufe it to be
laid afide, and not long after called a general affembly
at St Andrew’s. Soon after the parliament was dii-
folved and Mr Calderwood was fummoned to appear
before’ the high-commiffion court at St Andrew s, on
the 8th of July following, to anfwer for his muti¬
nous and feditious behaviour. July 10th, the king
came to that city in perfon ; when Mr Calderwood be¬
ing called upon, and refufing to comply with what the
kffig in perfon required of him, was committed to pnfon.
Afterwards the privy council, according to the power
exercifed by them at that time, direded him to ba-
niffi himfelf out of the king’s dominions before Michael¬
mas next: and not to return without bcenfe. Having
applied to the king for a prorogation of his fentence
without fuccefs, becaufe he would neither acknowledge
his offence, nor promife conformity for the future
retired to Holland, where m 1623, he Publlfl^d b s
celebrated piece entitled Mr Cal¬
derwood having in the year 1624 been afiliacd with
a long fit of ficknefs, and nothing having been heard
of him for feme time, one Mr Patrick Scot as Cal¬
derwood himfelf informs us? took it for granted that
CAL [ 69 ] CAL
Calderwood he was dead ; and thereupon wrote a recantation in his
It . name, as if, before his deceafe, he had changed his fen-
.Calcdcnmu tjments. This impoifure being detefted, Scott went
v over to Holland, and ftaid three weeks at Amfterdam,
where he made a diligent fearch for the author of Al-
tare Damafcenum, with a defign to have defpatched
him. But Calderwood had privately retired iiito his
own country, where he lived feveral years. Scott gave
out that the king had furnilhed him with the matter
for the pretended recantation, and that he only put it
in order. During his retirement, Mr Calderwood col-
lefted all the memorials relating to the ecclefiaftical af¬
fairs of Scotland, from the beginning of the reforma¬
tion there down to the death of King James •, which
collection is ftill preferved in the univerfity library of
Glafgow ; that which was publifhed under the title of
“ The True Hiltory of Scotland,” is only an extract
from it. In the advertifement prefixed to the lalt edi¬
tion of his Altare Damafcenum mention is made of his
being miniiter of Pencaitland near Edinburgh in 1638,
but we find nothing faid there, or anywhere elfe, of
his death.
CALDRON, a large kitchen utenfil, commonly
made of copper •, having a moveable iron handle, where¬
by to hang it on the chimney hook. The word is
formed from the French chaudron, or rather the Latin
caldarium.
Boiling in CALDRONS (ca/dariis decnqnere'), is a capi¬
tal punilhment fpoken of in the middle-age writers,
decreed to divers fort of criminals, but chiefly to de¬
baters of the coin. One of the torments infliCled on
the ancient Chriftian martyrs, was boiling in caldrons
of water, oil, &c.
CALDWALL, Richard, a learned Englilh phy-
fician, born in Staffordihire about the year 1 ?'3. He
ftudied phyfic in B>-azen-nofe College, Oxford *, and
was examined, admitted into, and made cenfor of, the
College of Phvficians at London, all in one day. Six
weeks after he was chofen one oftheele Rs •, and in the
year 1 ^70, he was nwde prefident of that college. Mr
Wood tells us, that he wrote feveral pieces in his pro-
feflion •, but he does not tell us what they were, only
that he tranfiated a book on the art of furgery, written
by one Horatio More, a Florentine phyfician. We
learn from Camden, that Caldwall founded a chirurgi-
cal lefture in the College of Phyficians, and endowed
it with a handfome falary. He died in 1385.
GALEA.. See Botany
CALEB, one of the deputies fent by the Ifraelites
to take a view of the land of Canaan. He made a
good report of the country, and by this means revived
the fpirits of the deieRed people •, on which account,
he and Jofhua were the only perfons who, after their
leaving Egypt, fettled in the land of Canaan. Caleb
had for his flrare the mountains and the city of He¬
bron, from which he drove three kings. Othniel his
nephew having taken the city of Debir, Caleb gave
him his daughter Achfah in marriage 5 and died, aged
114.
CALEDONIA, the ancient name of Scotland.
From the teftimonies of Tacitus, Dio, and Solinus, we
find, that the ancient Caledonia comprehended all that
country lying to the north of the rivers Forth and
Clyde. In proportion as the Silures or Cimbri advan-
eed towards the north, the Caledonians being circum-
fcribed within narrower limits, were forced to tranf- Caledom'^
migrate into the illands which crowd the weftern coafts' '" "~v
of Scotland. It is in this period, probably, we ought
to place the firft great migration of the Britilh Gael
into Ireland j that kingdom being much nearer to the
promontory of Galloway and Cantire, than many of
the Scotilh illes are to the continent of North Bri¬
tain.
To the country which the Caledonians pofleffed,
they gave the name of Cael-doch ; which is the only ap¬
pellation the Scots, who fpeak the Gaelic language,
know for their own divifion of Britain. Cael-doch is a
compound, made up of Gael or Gael, the firft colony
of the ancient Gauls who tranfmigrated into Britain,
and dock, a diftrift or divifion of a country. The Ro¬
mans, by tranfpofing the letter / in Gael, and by foft-
ening into a Latin termination the ch of dock, formed
the well-known name of Caledonia.
When the tribes of North Britain were attacked by
the Romans, they entered into affociations, that, by
uniting their ftrength, they might be more able to re¬
pel the common enemy. The particular name of that
tribe, which either its fuperior power or military repu¬
tation placed at the head of the aflociation, was the
general name given by the Romans to all the confede¬
rates. Hence it is that the Mceatce, who with other
tribes inhabited the diftrids of Scotland lying fouth-
w'ard of the frith, and the Caledonians, who inhabited
the w'eft and north-weft parts, have engroffed all the
glory which belonged in common, though in an infe¬
rior degree, to all the other nations fettled of old in
North Britain. It was for the fame reafon that the
name of Mceat<e w as entirely forgotten by foreign wri¬
ters after the third century, and that of the Caledonians
themfelves but feldom mentioned after the fourth.
Briton?, Caledonians, Moeatce, Barbarians, are the
names conftantly given to the old inhabitants of North
Britain, by Tacitus, Herodian, Dio, Spartian, Vopif-
cus, and other ancient writers. 1 he fucceffors of thefe
Britons, Caledonians, Moeats, and barbarians, are call¬
ed Pids, Scots, and Attacots, by fome Roman wri¬
ters of the fourth century.
he origin of the appellations Scotiand Pifli, intro¬
duced by later Roman authors, has occafioned much
controverly among the antiquarians of thefe days.
The difpute leems now to be fully decided by fome
learned critics of the prefent century, vhofe knowledge
of the Gaelic language affifted their inveftigation. See
Scotland, Picts, and Highlanders.
Caledonia, the name of a fettlement made by the
Scots on the weft fide of the gulf of Darien, in 1698 j
out of which they were ftarved at the requeft of the
Eaft India Company ; for the Englifli government pro¬
hibited the other colonies fending them any provifions j
fo they were obliged to leave it in 1700.
New CALEDONIA, an ifland in the South fea, lately
difcovered by Captain Cook, and next to New Hol¬
land and New Zealand, is the largeft ifland that hath
yet been difcovered in that fea. It extends from 19.
37. to 22. 30. S. Lat. and from 163. 37. to 167. 14. •
E. Long. Its length from north-weft to fouth-eaft is-
about 80 leagues : but its greateft breadth does not ex¬
ceed ten leagues. This ifland is diverfified with hills and
valleys of various fize and extent. Irom the hills iffue
abundance of rivulets, which contribute to fertilize tb®
C A L
[ 7^ ]
CAL
■Caledonia, plains. Along its north-eaft fliore tlic land is flat *, and
•■.«>■< ynm 1 well watered, and cultivated by the inhabitants
after their manner, appeared to great advantage to Cap¬
tain Cook’s people. Was it not, indeed, for thofe
fertile fpots. on the plains, the whole country might be
called a dreary vda/le : the mountains and higher parts
of the land are in general incapable of cultivation.
They confitl chiefly of rocks, many of which are full of
mundie •, the little foil that is upon them is fcorched
arid burnt Up by the fun : it is, however, covered with
coarfe grafs and other plants, and here and there co¬
vered with trees and flirubs. The country in general
bears a great refemblance to thofe parts of New South
Wales which lie under the fame parallel of latitude.
Several of its natural productions are the fame, and the
woods are without underwood as well as in that coun¬
try. The whole coaft feems to be fur rounded by
reefs and flioals, which render all accefs to it extreme¬
ly dangerous j but at the fame time guaro the ^coahs
again ft the attacks of the wind and fea j rendering it
ftaiily navigable along the coaft by canoes, and cauling
it abound with fifh. Every part of the coaft feems to
be inhabited : the plantations in the plains are laid out
with great judgment, and cultivated with much labour.
They begin their cultivation by fetting fire to the grafs,
&c. with which the ground is covered, but have no
notion of preferving its vigour by manure } they, how¬
ever, recruit it by letting it lie for fome years untouched.
On the beach was found a large irregular mafs of rock,
not lefs than a cube of ten feet, confiding of a clofe
grained ftone fpeckled full of granites fomewhat bigger
than pins heads, from whence it feems probable that
fome valuable minerals may be found on this ifland. It
differs from all the other iflands yet difeovered in the
South fea, by being entirely deftitute of volcanic pro-
dudlions. Several plants of a 1 • w fpecies were found
here $ and a few young bread-fruit trees, not then fuf-
' ficiently grown to bear fruit, feemed to have come up
without culture •, plantains and fugar canes are here
in fmall quantity, and the cocoa-nut trees are fmall
and thinly planted. A new fpecies of paflion flower
was likewife met with, which was never known to grow
wild anywhere but in America. Several Caputi (IVIe-
LALEUCa) trees were alfo found in flower. Mnfquetos
here are very numerous. A great variety of birds was
feen of different claffes, which were for the moft part
entirely new } particularly a beautiful fpecies of par¬
rot before unknown to zoologifts. A new fpecies or
fifh, of the genus called by Linnaeus tetraodon, was
caught here •, and its liver, which was very large, pre-
fented at fupper. Several fpecies of thb genus being
reckoned poifonous, and the prefent fpecies being re¬
markably ugly, Meff. Forfters hinted their fufpicions
of its quality •, but the temptation of afreth meal, and
the affurances of Captain Cook that he had formeny
eaten this identical fort of fiih without harm, got the
better of their fcruples, and they ate of it. Its 01I1-
nefs, however, though it had no other bad tafte than
what proceeded from this, prevented them from taking
more than a morfcl or two. In a few hours after they
had retired to reft, they were awaked by very alarm¬
ing fymptoms, being all feized with an extreme giddi-
nefs • their hands and feet were numbed, fo that they
w ere fcarcely able to crawl •, and a violent languor and
pppieftion feized them. Emetics were adriumftered
with fome fuccefs, but fudorincs gave the. greateft re- |
lief. Some dogs who had eaten the remainder of the
liver were likewife taken ill} and a pig w hich had eaten
the entrails died foon after,. having fwelled to an un-
ufual fize. The effects of this poifon on the gentle¬
men did not entirely go off in leis than fix weeks.——
Abundance of turtle was feen here. T he natives had
not the leaft notion of goats, hogs, dogs, or cats, and
had not even a name for any of them.
The inhabitants are very ftout, tall, and in general
well proportioned j their features mild •, their beaids
and hair black, and ftrongly frizzled, fo as to be
fomewhat woolly in fome individuals : their colour is
fwarthy, or a dark chefnut brown. A few were feen
who meafured fix feet four inches, ihey are remarK-
ablv courteous, not at all addifled to pilfering and
ftealing : in which character of honefty they are lin¬
gular, all the other nations in the South fea being re¬
markably thievilh. Some wear their hair long, and tie
it up to the crown of their heads j others fufter only a
large lock to grow on each fide, which they tie up m
clubs; many others, as well as all the women, wear it
cropt Ihort. They make ufe of a kind of comb made
of Iticks of hard wood, from feven to nine or ten inches
long, and about the thicknefs of knitting needles ; a
number of thefe, feldom exceeding 20, but generally
fewer, are faftened together at one end, parallel to and
Hear one-tenth of an inch from each other ; the ends,
which are a little pointed, will fpread out or open like
the flicks of a fan. Thefe combs they always wear, in
their hair on one fide of their head. Some had a kind
of concave cylindrical ftiff black cap, which appeared
to be a great ornament among them, and tvas fuppofed
to be worn only by the chiefs and warriors. A large
flieet of ftrong paper, whenever they got one in ex¬
change, was commonly applied to this purpofe. . I he
men go naked •, only tying a firing round then middle,
and another round their neck. A little piece of a
brown cloth made of the bark of a fig tree, iometimea
tucked up to the belt, and fometimes pendulous,
fcarcely deferves the name of a covering j nor indeed
does it feem at all intended for that purpofe. i his
piece of cloth is fometimes of fuch a length, that the
extremity is faftened to the firing round the neck j to
this firing they likewife hang fmall round beads of
a pale green nephritic ftone. Coarfe garments were
feen among them made of a fort of matting •, but they
feemed never to wear them, except when in their, ca¬
noes and unemployed, dhe women feemed to be in. a
fervile ftate : they were the only perfons of the family
who had any employment, and feyeral of them brought
bundles of flicks and fuel on their backs.; thofe who
had children carried them on their backs in a kind of
fatchel. The women alfo were feen to dig up the earth
in order to plant it. They are in general of a dark
chefnut, and fometimes mahogany brown; their fta-
ture middle-fized, feme being rather tall, and their
whole form rather ftout and fomewhat clumfy. Their
drefs is the moft disfiguring that can be imagined,, and
gives them a thick fquat ftiape ; it is a fhort petticoat
or fringe, confifting of filaments or little cords, about
eight inches long, which are faftened to a very long
ftrino-, which they have tied feveral times round their
wailL The filaments, or little ropes, therefore, lie
above each other i» feveral layers, forming a kind, of
thick
Caledonia.
I
CAE [ 71 ] CAE
Caledonia, thick thatch all round the body, but which does not
1 v ' near cover the thigh ; thefe filaments were fomeiimes
dyed black ; but frequently thofe on the outfide only
were of that colour, the reft being of a dirty gray.
There was not a fingle inftance, during the fhip’s ftay
in this bland, of the women permitting any indecent
familiarity with an European : they took pleafure in
praftifmg the arts of a jilting coquette, but never be¬
came abfolute wantons. The general ornaments of both
fexes are ear-rings of tortoife {hells} necklaces, or
amulets, made of both (hells and ftones ; and brace¬
lets made of large (hells, which they wear above the
elbows.
The houles, or huts, in New Caledonia, are circu¬
lar, fomelhing like a bee-hive, and full as clofe and
warm \ the entrance is by a (mail door, or long fquare
hole, juft big enough to admit a man bent double :
the fide walls are about four feet and a half high *, but
the roof is lofty, and peaked to a point at the top, a-
bove which is a poll or (lick of wood, which is gene¬
rally ornamented either with carving or (hells, or
both. The framing is of fmall (pars, reeds, &c. and
both fides and roof are thick, and elofe covered with
thatch made of coarfe long grafs. In the infide of the
houfe are fet up pofts, to which crofs fpars are faften-
ed, and platforms made for the conveniency of laying
any thing on. Some houfes have two floors, one above
another; the floor is laid with dried grafs, and here
and there mats are fpread for the principal people to fit
or deep on. In thefe houfes there was no paflage for
the fmoke but through the door : they were intolerably
fmoky, and fo hot as to be infupportable to thofe un-
accuftomed to them : probably the fmoke is intended
to drive out the mufquetos which fwarm here. They
commonly ereft two or three of thefe huts near each
other under a clufterof lofty fig trees, whofe leaves are
impervious to the rays of the fun.
The canoes ufed here are very heavy clumfy vefiels •,
they are made of two trees hollowed out, having a
railed gunnel about twro inches high, and clofed at each
end with a bulk head of the fame height; fo that the
whole is like a long fquare trough about three feet
Shorter than the body of the canoe. Two canoes thus
fitted are faftened to each other about three feet afun-
der, by means of crofs fpars, which project about a
foot over each fide. Over thefe is laid a deck or heavy
platform made of plank and fmall round fpars, on which
they have a fire-hearth, and generally a fire burning ;
they are navigated by one or two latteen fails, extended
to a fmall latteen yard, the end of v hich is fixed in a
notch or hole in the deck.
Notwithftanding the inoffenfive difpofition of the in¬
habitants of New Caledonia, they are well provided
w-Jth offenfive weapons j as clubs, fpears, darts, and
flings for throwing ftones. Their clubs are about two
feet and a half long, and varioufly formed ; fome like
a feythe, others like a pick-axe ; fome have a head like
a- hawk, and others have round heads *, but all are
neatly made j many of their darts and fpears are no lefs
neat and ornamented with carvings. The (lings are
as fimple as poftible 5 but they take fome pains to Form
the ftones that they ufe into a proper (hape, which is
fomething like an egg, fuppofing both ends to be
like the fmall one. They drive the dart by the aftift-
ance of (hort cords knobbed, at one end and looped
at the other, called by the feamen beckets. Thefe con- Caledonia'
tain a quantity of red wool taken from the vampyre, ^ ^
or great Indian bat. Bows and arrows are wholly un- rjun% “
known among them. 1 y •
Their language bears no affinity to that fpoken in
the other South fea iflands, the word arrekee and
one or trvo more excepted. This is the more extra¬
ordinary, as different dialetts of one language were
fpoken not only in the eafterly iflands, but at New
Zealand.
A mufical inftrument, a kind of whiffle, was pro¬
cured here. It was a little poliftred piece of brown
Avood about two inches long, (liaped like a kind of bell,
though apparently folid, with a rope fixed at the final!
end } two holes were made in it near the bale, and ano¬
ther near the infertion of the rope, all which commu¬
nicated with each other 5 and by blowing in the up-
permoft, a (brill found like whittling was produced :
no other inftrument was feen among them that had the
leaft relation to mufic.
Many of the New Caledonians were feen with pro-
digioully thick legs and arms, which feemed to be af¬
fected with a kind of leprofy } the fwelling was found
to be extremely hard, but the (Ivin was not alike harfli
and fcaly in all thofe who were affli£ted with the dif-
order. The preternatural expanfion of the arm or leg
did not appear to be a great inconvenience ; and they
feemed to intimate that they very rarely felt any pain
in it; but in fome the diforder began to form blotches,
which are marks of a great degree of virulence. This
difeafe is probably elephantiajis.
Here they bury their dead in the ground. The
grave of a chief v'ho had been (lain in battle here re-
fembled a large mole-hill, and was decorated with
fpears, darts, paddles, &c. all (luck upright in the
ground round about it. Lieutenant Pickerfgill was
(bowed a chief whom they named Tea-booma, and ftyl-
ed their arrekee or king ; but nothing further is known
of their government, and nothing at all of their reli-
gion.
CALEFACTION, the prodmftion of heat in a
body from the aftion of fire, or that impulfe impreffed
by a hot body on others around it. This word is ufed
in pharmacy, by way of diftindtion from coEUgm, which
implies boiling j whereas calefaftion is only heating a
thing.
CALENBERG, a cattle of Germany, in the duchy
of Brunfwick and principality of Calenberg. It is
fea ted on the river Leine, and is 15 miles feuth of *
Hanover. It is fubjedl to the duke of Brunfwick Lu-
nenberg, eleftor of Hanover, and king of Great Bri¬
tain. E. Long. 9. 43. N. Lat. 52. 20.
Cai.enberg, a principality of Lower Saxony, and
one of the three parts of the duchy of Brunfwick, is
bounded on the north by the duchy of Verden, on the
eaft by the principality of Zell, on the fouth by the
principalities of Grubenhagen and Wolfenbuttle, and
on the weft by Weftphalia. It belongs to the eledior
of Hanover.
CALENDAR, in Jljlronomy and Chronology. See
Kalendar.
Calendar of prifoners, in Law, a lift of allthepri-
foners names in the cuftody of each refpedlive fhe-
riff *. * 9ee the?
CALENDARIUM Florae, in Botany, a calendar article
containing Execution*
\
C A L
talerula- contamlng an exaS; regifter of the refpe£Uve times in
riuin -which the plants of any given province or climate ger-
Calenders. minate, expand, and died their leaves and flowers, or
\ ^ ■ ripen and difperfe their feeds. For particulars on this
curious fubjedl, fee the articles Defoliatio, Efflo-
rescentia, Frondescentia, Fructescentia, and
Germinatio.
CALENDER, a machine ufed in manufaflones to
prefs certain woollen and lilken Hulls and linens, to
make them fmooth, even, and glofly, or to give them
waves, or water them, as may be feen in mohairs and
tabbies. This inftrument is compofed of two thick
cylinders, or rollers, of very hard and well polilhed
wood, round which the fluffs to be calendered aie
wound : thefe rollers are placed crofs-wife between two
very thick boards, the lower ferving as a fixed bafe,
and the up{>er moveable by means of a thick fcrew
with a rope faflened to a fpindle, which makes its ax¬
is : the uppermoft board is loaded with large Hones
weighing 20,OOolb. or more. At Paris they have an
extraordinary machine of this kind, called^ the royal
calender, made by order of M. Colbert. I he lower
table or plank is made of a block of fmooth marble,
and the upper is lined with a plate of polilhed. copper.
The alternate motion of the upper board fometimes one
way and fometimes another, together with the. prodi¬
gious weight laid upon it, gives the Huffs their glois
and fmoothnefs •, or gives them the waves, by making
the cylinders on which they are put roll with great
force over the undermoH board. When they, would
put a roller from under the calender, they only incline
the undermoff board of the machine. Ihe diefling
alone, with the many turns they make the Huffs and
linens undergo in the calender, gives the waves, or
waters them, as the workmen call it. It is a miitake
to think, as fome have aflerted, and Mr Chambers, a-
mong others, that they ufe rollers with a fliallow in¬
denture or engraving cut in them. . .
Calender of Monteith, a diftricl in the louth-
well corner of Perthfhire in Scotland, from which
a branch of the ancient family of Livingflone had
the title of earl. The chief feat of the family near
Falkirk is alfo called Calender. Both effate and title
were forfeited in confequence of the poffeffor being
engaged in the rebellion 1715-
CALENDERS, a fort of Mahometan fnars, to
•called from Santon Calender! their founder. This San-
ton wrent bareheaded, without a fhirt, and with the
fldn of a wild beaff thrown over his (boulders. He
wore a kind of apron before, the firings of which were
adorned with counterfeit precious Hones.. His dilciples
are rather a fe£l of epicures than a fociety of religr-
ous. They honour a tavern as much as they do a
mofque ; and think they pay as acceptable worlhip to
God by the free ufe of his creatures, as others do by
the preatefi aufterities and afts of devotion. They are
called in Perfia and Arabia, Abdals, or Abdallet,
i. e. perfons confecrated to the honour and fervice oi
God Their garment is a Angle coat, made up of a
variety of pieces, and quilted like a rug. They preach
in the market places, and live upon what their auditors
befiow on them. They are generally very viti.ous per¬
fons : for which reafon they are not admitted into arty
houfes.
t 72 1 CAE
CALENDS, in Roman antiquity. See KALENDS. Calends
CALENDULA, the Marigold. See Botany cJ|f.
Index. k ——y—
CALENTIUS, Elisius, a Neapolitan poet and
prole author. He was preceptor to h rederiek the Ion
of Ferdinand king of Naples, and the earliefi w riter on
the illegality of putting criminals to death, except for
murder. He died in X5°3-
CALENTURE, a fcverifli diforder incident to fai-
lors in hot countries j the principal fymptom of which
is their imagining the fea to be green Aelds : hence,
attempting to walk abroad in thefe imaginary places of
delight, they are frequently loll. Vomiting, bleeding,
a fpare diet, and the neutral falts, are recommended
in this diforder ; a Angle vomit commonly removing
the delirium, and the cooling medicines completing
tlic cure*
CALEPIN, Ambrosius, an Augufiine monk of
Calepio, whence he took his name, in the 16th cen¬
tury. He is author of a didionary of eight languages,
Ance augmented by Pafferat and others.
GALES, in Ancient Geography, a municipal city of
fome note in Campania, at rto great diltance from Ca-
Alinum. The epithet Calenus is by Horace and Juve¬
nal applied to a generous w ine which the territory pro-
duced# . ~ 1 1 r
CALETES, in Ancient Geography, a people ol
Gallia Celtica, on the conflnes of Belgica, Atuated be¬
tween the fea and the Sequana. Now called le Paix
de Caux, in Normandy.
CALETURE, a fort on the ifland of Ceylon, at
the mouth of a river of the fame name. Ihe Dutch
became maflers of it in 1655 ? ^^rt were afterwards ob¬
liged to leave it. E. Long. 80. 51. N. Lat.. 6. 38.
C*A LF, in Zoology, the young of the ox kind.
There are twm ways of breeding calves that are in¬
tended to be reared. The one is to let the. calf run.
about with its dam all the year round} which is the
method in the cheap breeding countries, ^and is gene¬
rally allowed to make the befi cattle. The other is
to take them from the dam after they have fucked a-
bout a fortnight : they are then to be taught to drink
flat milk, which is to be made but jufi warm for them,
it being very dangerous to give it them too hot. Ihe
befl time of weaning calves is from January to May :
they fliould have milk for 12 weeks after ; and a fort¬
night before that is left off, water Ihould be mixed with
the milk in larger and larger quantities. When, the
calf has been fed on milk for about a month, little
wifps of hay fliould be placed all about him in cleft
flicks to induce him to eat. In the beginning of
April they fliould be turned out to grafs; only for a
few days they ftiould be taken in for the night, and
have milk and water given them :. the fame may alfo
be given them in a pail fometimes in the Aeld, till they
are fo able to feed themfelves that they do not regard
it. The grafs they are turned into mufl not .be too
rank, but lliort and fweet, that they may like it, and
yet get it with fome labour. Calves ftiould always be
weaned at grafs •, for if it be done with hay and water,
they often grow big-bellied on it, and are apt to rot.
When thofe among the males are fele&ed which are to
be kept as bulls, the reft Ihould be gelt for oxen : the
fooner the better. Between 10 and 20 days is a pro-
pet;
T
CAL r 73 ] CAL
Calf. per age. About London almoft all tlie calvca are fat-
ted for the butcher. The reafon of this is, that there
is a good market for them , and the lands there are not
fo profitable to bred upon as in cheaper countries.
The way to make calves fat and fine, is the keeping
them very clean j giving them freth litter every day ;
and the hanging a large chalk ftone in fome corner
where they can ealily get at it to lick it, but where it
is out of the way of being fouled by their dung and
urine. The coops are to be placed fo as not to have
too much fun upon them, and fo high above the ground
that the urine may run off. They alfo bleed them
once when they are a month old, and a fecond time
before they kill them ; which is a great addition to the
beauty and whitenefs of their delh : the bleeding is by
fome repeated much oftener, but this is futhcient.
Calves are very apt to be loofe in their bowels ; which
wades and very much injures them. The remedy is
to give them chalk fcraped among milk, pouring it
down with a horn. If this does not fucceed, they
give them bole armenic in large dofes, and ufe the cold
ba.h every morning. If a cow will not let a ftrange
calf fuck her, the common method is to rub both her
nofe an 1 the calf’s with a little brandy j this general¬
ly reconciles them after a few fmellings.
G iUen CALF, an idol fet up and worfhipped by the
Ifraelites at the foot of Mount Sinai, in their paffage
through the wi-dernefs to the land of Canaan. Our
verfion makes Aaron faihion this calf with a graving
tool after he had caff it in a mould : the Geneva tranf-
lation makeshim engrave it firit, and caff it afterwards.
Others, with more probability, render the whole verfe
thus: “ And Aaron received them (the golden ear¬
rings), and tied them up in a bag, and got them caff
into a molten ca1fwhich verfion is authorifed by the
different fenfes of the word tes.vr, which fignifies to tie
up or bind, as well as to lhape or form ; and of the
word chert et, which is ufed both for a graving tool
an 1 a bag. Some of the ancient fathers have been of
op’nion that this idol had only the face of a calf, and
the ihape of a man from the neck downwards, in imi¬
tation of the Egyptian Ifis. Others have thought it
was only the head of an ox without a body. But the
moft general opinion is, that it was an entire calf in
imitation of the Apis worfhipped by the Egyptians ;
among whom, no doubt, the Ifraelites had acquired
their propenfity to idolatry. This calf Mofes is laid to
have burnt with fire, reduced to powder, and brewed
upon the water which the people were to dr’nk. How
th's could be accomplished hath been a question. Moff
people have thought, that as gold is indeffruftible, it
could only be burnt by the miraculous power of God •,
but M. Stahl conjectures that Mofes difiolved it by
* See Che- means of liver of fulphur *. The Rabbins tell us
Trcflry In~ that the people were made to drink of this water in or-
der to diitinguifh the idolaters from the reft ; for that
as foon as they had drunk of it, the beards of the for¬
mer tu ned red. The Cabbaliffs add, that the calf
weighed 12^ quintals; which they gather f,om the
Hebrew word mojf hah, whofe numerical letters make
1 2r.
CALF-^htit, in the leather manufacture, are p-epa-
red and dreHVd by the tanners, fk inner^, and curriers,
who fell them for the ufe of the Ihoemakers, faddlers-
Vou V. Pan I.
bookbinders, and other artificers, who employ them m .
their feveral manufactures. c 'lLr
Calf-Skin dr e(fed in fumnch, denotes the Ikin of this b. .
animal curried black on the hair fide, and dyed of an
orange colour on the fleflr fide, by means of fumach,
chiefly ufed in the making of belts.
The English calf-lkin is much valued abroad, and
the commerce thereof very confiderable in France and
other countries ; where divers attempts have been made-
to imitate it, but hitherto in vain. V> hat is Irke to
baffle all endeavours for imitating the Englith calf in
France is, the fmallnefs and weaknefs of the calves
about Paris ; which at I ; days old are not f« big as
the Englifh ones when they come into the world.
Sea-CALF. tee Phoca, Mammalia l'der.
CALI, a town of Popayan in South America, feat-
ed in a valley of the fame name on the river (Jauca,
The governor of the province ufually relidts there.
W. Long. 78. 5. N. Lat. t. 1 5.
CALIBER, or Calliper, properly denotes the
diameter of any body ; thus we fay, two columns of
the lame caliber, the caliber of the bore of a gun, the
caliber of a buFet, &c.
CALIBER Coma y/ef, a fort of compaffes made w'th
arched legs to take the diameter of round or fwelling
bodies. See Comp isses.
Caliber compaffes are chiefly ufed by gunners for
taking the diameters of the feveral parts of a piece of
ordnance, or of bombs, bullets, &c. Their legs are
therefore circular ; and move on an arch of brafs,
whe.eon is marked the inches and half inches, to (how
how far the points of the compaffes are opened afun-
der.
Some are alfo made for taking the diameter of the
bore of a gun or mortar.
The gaugers alfo fometimes ufe calibers, to em¬
brace the two heads of any cafk, in 01 der to find its
length.
The caliber ufed by carpenters and joiners, is a
piece of board notched triangular-wife in the middle
for the taking of meafure.
Caliber Rue, or (runners Callipers, is an In-
ftrument wherein a right line is fo divided as that the
firft p irt being equal to the diameter of an iron or
leaden ball of one pound weight, the other parts are to
the firft as the dia-utters of balls of two, three, four,
&c. pounds are to the diameter of a ball of one pound.
The caliber is ufed by engineers, from the weight of
the ball given, to determine its diameter or caliber, or
vice verfn.
The gunners callipers confift of twm thin plates of
brafs joined by a rivet, lb as to m >ve quite round each
other : its length from the centre of the joint is be¬
tween fix inches and a foot, and its breadth from one
to twro inches ; that of the moft convenient lize is a-
bout nine inches long. Many feales, tables, and pro¬
portions, &c. may be introduced on this inffrument;
but none are elTential to it, except thofe for taking the
caliber of ihot and cannon, and for meafuiing the
magnitude of fal ent and entering angles. The moft
complete callipers is exhibited Plate CXXXI1I. the
furniture and u e of which we ftiall now briefly de-
feribe Let the four faces of this inffrument be di tin-
guilhed by the letters A, B, C, 1) : A and X) confift
K. of
Caliber.
GAL [74 1 CAL
i» t> ^ r' nnlv of 1 On the face C near the point of the callipeis is a
of a circular head and leg j B and C c . y ^ table lowing the proportion of troy and avoirdu-
leOn the circular head adjoining to the kg of the face pois weighty by which one kind of weight may be ea-
A are divifions denominated //^/ diameters / which li J tbe £ace D of the callipers are
(how the diftance m inches and tenths of an in ^ flawing the proportion between the pounds
points of the callipers when they are opened ; fo that two tables mowing alfo betwe^n thc
:> 1 .11 tpn I'nrbes be introduced be-
Calibeft
points 01 tne ~ - ni ,' ,
if a ball not exceeding ten inches be introduced be¬
tween them, the bevil edge E marks its diameter a-
mone thefe divifions. „ , . „ . r 1
On the circular bevil part E of the face B is a kale
of diviiions diftinguifhed by lb., weight of iron Jhot.
When the diameter of any fliot is taken between the
points of the callipers, the inner edge of the leg A
(hows its weight in avoirdupois pounds, provided it be
lib. 4, 1, iw, 2, 3» A, Sh 6> 8» 9, J2, 16, J8, 24, 26,
52, 56, or 42 ; the figures neareft the bevil edge an-
fwering to the Ihort lines in the fcale,^ and thole be¬
hind them to the longer ftrokes. This kale is con-
ftrufted on the following geometrical theorem, viz.
that the weights of fpheres are as the cubes of their
^Onthe lower part of the circular head of the face
A is a kale of divifions marked bores of guns ; tor the
ufc of which, the legs of the callipers are flipped acrois
«ach other, till the keel points touch the concave lur-
face of the gun in its greateft breadth; then the bevi
edee F of the face B will cut a divifion in the leak
(flowing the diameter of the bore in inches and
'" within the kales of /het and bore diameters on the
circular part of A, are divifions marked pounders ; the
inner figures 4-, i^-, 3, 5h 8» ^ 3 ’ C°*1 f
fpond to the longeft lines; and the figures, 1, 2, 4, b,
9, 16, 24, 32, 42, to the Ihort ftrokes. When he
bore of a gun is taken between the points of the calli¬
pers, the bevil edge F will either cut or be near one of
thefe divifions, and ftiow the weight of iron (hot pro-
^On the upper half of the circular head of the face A
are three concentric kales of degrees; the outer kale
confifting of 180 degrees numbered from right to lett,
10 20 &c. the middle numbered the contrary way,
and the outer kale beginning at the middle, with o,
and numbered on each fide to 90 degrees. ihele
kales ferve to take the quantity of an angle, either
entering or falient. For an entering or internal angle,
apply the legs of the callipers fothat its outward edges
coincide with the legs of the given angle the degree
cut by the bevil edge F in the outer kale {hows the
meafure of the angle fougnt: for a falient or external
angle, flip the legs of the callipers acrofs_ each other,
fo that their outward edges may coincide with the
legs forming the angle, and the degree marked on the
middle kale by the bevil edge E will Ihow the meafure
of the angle required. The inner kale will krve to
determine the elevation of cannon and mortars, or o
any oblique plane. Let one end of a thread be fixed
into the notch on the plate B, and any weight red to
the other end : apply the ftraight fide of the pktc A
to the fide of the body whofe inclination is kugbt ,
hold it in this pofition, and move the plate B, ti e
thread Alls upon the line near the centre marked/cr/>.
Then will the bevil edge F cut the degrees on the in¬
ner kale, ftiowing the inclination of that body to the
horizon.
weight of London and‘Paris, and alfo between the
lengths of the foot meafure of England and France..
Near the extreme on the face A is a table contain¬
ing four rules of the circle and fphere ; and geometri¬
cal figures with numbers annexed to them : the fir ft is
a circle including the proportion in round numbers of
the diameter to its circumference ; the lecond is a cir¬
cle, infcribed in a fquare, and a fquare within that cir¬
cle, and another circle in the inner fquare : the num¬
bers 28, 22, above this figure exhibit the proportion
of the outward fquare to the area of the infcribed cir¬
cle; and the numbers 14, n, below it, fliow the pro¬
portion between the area of the infcribed fquare and
the area of its infcribed circle. The third is a cube
infcribed in a fphere; and the number 89T {hows that
a cube of iron, infcribed in a fphere rC 12 inches m
diameter, weighs 89|lb. The fourth ts a fpherein a
cube, and the number 243 expreffes the '.eight m
pounds of a fphere infcribed in a cube whofe fide is 12
inches : the fifth reprefents a cylinder and cone of one
foot diameter and height: the number in the cylinder
{flows, that an iron cylinder of that diameter and
height weighs 364.51b. and the number 121.5 m the
cone expreffes the weight of a cone, the diameter of
whofe bafe is 12 inches, and of the fame height .: the
fixth figure {hows that an iron cube, whofe fide is 12
inches, weighs 4641b. and that a fquare pyramid of
iron, whok bafe is a fquare foot and height 12 inches,
weighs i54T1h. The numbers which have been hi¬
therto fixed to the four laft figures were not ftnaiy
true ; and therefore they have been correfted m the
figure here referred to ; and by theie the figures 01,
any inftrument of this kind fliould be correfted like-
^On the leg B of the callipers, is a table fliowing the
weights of a cubic inch or' foot of various bodies in
p0 OnStbltccUPD of the circular head of the calliper*
is a table contained between five concentric fegments
of rings : the inner one marked Guru ftiows the nature
of the gun or the.weight of ball it carries ; the two
next rings contain the quantity of powder ufed for
proof and fcrvice to brafs guns, and the two outermoft
rings fliow the quantity for proof and fervice m iron
CanOnnthe face A is a table exhibiting the method of
computing the number ofjho, or fhetls in a.tnangular
fquare, or reftangular pile. Near this placed a
table containing thc principal rules relative to the>//
of bodies, expreffed in an algebraic manner : . nearer the
centre we have another table of rules for railing water
calculated on the fuppofition, that one horle is equal
in this kind of labour to five men,, and that one man
will raife a hogftiead of water to eight feet of height
in one minutef and work at that rate for tome hours.
N B. Hogiheads are reckoned at 60 gallons. .
Some of the leading principles in gunnery , relating
to /bootim in cannon and mortars, are expreffed on the
face B of Ac callipers. Bolides thc trucks alrea ,
CALIBER RI LE
PLATE CXXXUI.
WArchibald JHdp*
*
*
CAL
Caliber enumerateJ, tire feales ufually marked on thia feftor
_ J', are laid down on this inftrument: thus the line of
plant®, inches is placed on the edge of the callipers, or on
' -1 11 1 the ftraight borders of the faces C, D : the logarith¬
mic feales of numbers, fines, verfed fines, and tangents,
are placed along thefe faces near the flraight edges :
the line of lines is placed on the fame faces in an an¬
gular pofition, and marked Lin. The lines of planes
or fuperfices are alfo exhibited on the faces C and D,
tending towards the centre, and marked Plan. Fi¬
nally, The lines of folids are laid on the fame faces
tending towards the centre, and diftinguilhed by Sol.
CALICO ULAN, or Quillon, a town of Alia, in
the Fall Indies, on the coaft of Malabar, and in the
peninfula on this fide the Ganges, where the Dutch
have a factory. E. Long. 75. 21. N. Lat. 9. 5.
CALICUT, a kingdom of India, on this fide the
Ganges, upon the coait of Malabar. It is about 63
miles long, and as much broad. It has many woods,
rivers, and marlhes, and is very populous *, but does
not produce much corn, abundance of rice being im¬
ported from Canara. The land along the fea-coaft is
low and fandy, and produces a number of cocoa trees.
The higher grounds produce pepper and cardamoms
of a very good quality. They have likewife timber for
building, white and yellow fanders, caflia lignea, caf-
fia fiftula, nux vomica, and cocculus indicus. The
woods abound with parrots and monkeys, as well as
different kinds of game. They have alfo plenty of
filh, feveral forts of medicinal drugs, and their rfioun-
tains produce iron. The famorin, or king, of Calicut,
was once mailer of all the coall of Malabar ; but at
his death, he left it by will among four of his nephews.
He who governs Calicut has a palace of Hone, and
there is fome appearance of grandeur about his court.
He carries on a confiderable trade, which makes the
people of Calicut richer than their neighbours. In
former times they had feveral flrange culloms, fome
of which are Hill kept up ; particularly the famorin’s
wife mull be firll enjoyed by the high-priell, who may
have her three nights if he pleafes. The nobles per¬
mit the other prieits to take the fame liberty, but the
lower people cannot have that honour. A woman may
marry a number of hufbands; each of whom has her
ten days or more by turns, as they agree among them-
felves ; and provide her all things neceffary during
that time. When Ihe proves with child, fire names
the father: who, after the child is weaned, takes care
of its education. Thefe people have no pens, ink, or
paper ; but write with a bodkin on flags that grow
by the fides of the rivers. By this means the letters
are in fome fenfe engraved j and fo tough are the
flags, that they will lalt for a great number of years.
This was the firll land difeovered by the Portuguefe
in 1498.
Calicut, a town of Alia, in the kingdom of that
name on the coall of Malabar. It contains a great
number of mean low houfes, each of which has a gar¬
den. The Englilh had a faclory here, but it is remo¬
ved to Tellichery. E. Long. 76. 4. N. Lat. 11. 21.
CALIDiE PLANTiE (from ca/or, heat) ; plants that
are natives of warm climates. Such are thofe of the
Eaft Indies, South America, Egypt, and the Canary
illands. Thefe plants, fays Linnseus, will bear a de¬
gree of heat which is as 40 on a fcale in which the
CAL
freezing point Is 0, and loo the heat of boiling water. Caliche
In the 10th degree of cold they ceafe to grow, lofe
their leaves, become barren, are fuffocated, and pe- q.jA,
rilh. . j
CALIDUCT, in antiquity, a kind of pipes or ca¬
nal difpofed along the walls of houfes or apartments,
ufed by the ancients for conveying heat to leveral re¬
mote parts of the houfe from one common furnace.
CALIFORNIA) the moll northerly of all the Spa-
nilli dominions on the continent of America, is fome-
times diitinguilhed by the name of New P/ibion, and
the IJlas Carrabiras: but the molt ancient appellation is
California ; a word probably owing to fome accident,
or to fomc words fpoken by the Indians and mitunder-
ftood by the Spaniards. For a long time California
was thought to be an illand j but Father Caino, a Ger¬
man Jefuit, difeovered it to be a peninfula joining to the
coall of New Mexico and the fouthern parts of Ame¬
rica. The peninfula extends from Cape St Sebaltian,
lying in north latitude 43. 30. to Cape St Lucar, which
lies in north latitude 22. 32. It is divided from New
Mexico by the gulf, or as fome call it the lake, of
California, or Vermilion fca, on the eallj on the north,
by that part of the continent of North America which
is leall known j and on the welt and fouth, by the
Pacific ocean or great South fea. The coalts, efpe-
cially towards the Vermilion fea, are fcovered with
inhabited illands, on fome of which the Jefuits have
eltablilhed fettlemcnts, fuch as St Clement, Paxaros,
St Anne, Cedars (fo called from the great number of
thefe trees it produces), St Jofeph, and a multitude of
others. But the iflands bell known are three lying off
Gape St Lucar, towards the Mexican coall. Thefe are
called Les Ires Marias, “ the three Maries.” They
are fmall, but have good Wood and water, fait pits, and
abundance of game 'y therefore the Englilh and French
pirates have fometimes wintered there, when bound on
cruifes in the South feas.
As California lies altogether within the temperate
zone, the natives are neither chilled with cold nor
fcorched with heat j and indeed the improvements in
agriculture made by the Jefuits afford ftroeg proofs
of the excellency of the climate. In fome places the air
is extremely hot and dry •, and the earth wild, rugged,
and barren. In a country Itretching about 800 miles in
length, there mull be confiderable variations of foil and
climate; and indeed we find, from good authority, that
California produces fome of the moll beautiful lawns,
as well as many of the moll inhofpitable deferts, in the
univerfe. Upon the whole, although California is ra¬
ther rough and craggy, we are affured by the Jefuit
Vinegas, and other good writers, that with due culture
it furnilhes every neceffary and conveniency of life ;
and that, even where the atmofphere is hottell, vapours
rifing from the fea, and difperfed by pleafant breezes,
render it of a moderate temperature.
The peninfula of California is now Hocked with all
forts of domeilic animals known in Spain and Mexico.
Horfes, mules, affes, oxen, Iheep, hogs; goats, and all
other quadrupeds imported, thrive and increafe in this
country. Among the native animals is a fpecies of deer
of the fize of a young heifer, and greatly refembling it
in flrape •, the head is like that of a deer, and the horns
thick and crooked like thofe of a ram. The hoof of the
animal is large, round, and cloven, the Ikin fpotted, but
ti 2 tfce
[ 75 1
CAL
[ 76 1
CAL
California the hair thinner, and the tail fharper than thofe of a
' deer. Its flefh is greatly efteemed. There is another
animal peculiar to this country, larger and more bulky
than a Iheep, but greatly refernbling it in figure, and,
like it, covered with a fine black or white wool. The
flelh of this animal is nourilhing and delicious } and,
happily for the natives, it is fo abundant, that nothing
more is required than the trouble of hunting, as thele
animals wander about in droves in the forefts and on
the mountains. Father l orquemado defcribes a crea¬
ture, which he calls a fpecies of large bear, fomething
like a buffalo, of the fize of a fteer, and nearly or the
figure of a flag. Its hair is a quarter of a yard in
length, its neck long and awkward, and on its forehead
are horns branched like thole of a ftag. I he tail is a
yard in length, and half a yard in breadth ; and the
hoofs cloven like thofe of an ox. W ith regard to
birds, we have but an imperfe<a account ; only,, in ge¬
neral, Father Vinegas tells us that the coaft is plen¬
tifully ftored with peacocks, buffards, geefe, cranes,
a'id molt of the birds common in other parts of the
world. The quantity of filh which refort to thefe
coaffs is incredible. Salmon, turbot, barbel, Ikate,
mackerel, &c. are caught here with very little trou¬
ble ; together with pearl oyfters, common oyfters,
lobfters, and a variety of exquifite {hell filh. Plen¬
ty of turtle are alfo caught on the coafts. On the
South fea coaffs are feme (hell fiffi peculiar to. it, and
perhaps the moft beautiful in the world , their luftre
furpafling that of the fineft pearl, and darting their
ravs through a tranfparent varniih of an elegant vivid
blue, like the lapis lazuli. The fame of California
for pearls foon drew forth great numbers of adventur¬
ers, who fearched every part of the gulf, and are ftul
employed in that work, notwithffanding faftuon has
o-reatly diminiffied the value of this elegant natural pro¬
duction. Father Torquemado obferves that the fea of
California affords very rich pearl filheries •, and that the
Iwfms, or beds of oyiters, may be feen in three or four
fathom water, almoff as plain as if they were on the
The extremity of the peninfula towards Cape St
Lucar is more level, temperate, and fertile, than the
other parts, and confequently more woody.. In the
more diftant parts, even to the fartheft miffioiis. on
the eaft coaft, no large timber hath yet been dneo-
vered. A fpecies of manna is found in this country,
which, according to the accounts of the Jefuits, has all
the fweetnefs of refined fugar, without its whitenefs.
The natives firmly believe that this juice drops from
heaven. a
The Californians are well, made,. and very ftrong.
They are extremely pufillanimous, inconftant, ftupid,
and even infenfible, and feem extremely deierving ot
the character given to the Indians in general, under
the article America. Before the Europeans pene¬
trated into California, the natives had no form oi reli¬
gion The miffionaries indeed tell us many tales con¬
cerning them, but they fo evidently bear the marks oi
forge ry, as not to be worth repeating. Each nation was
then an affemblage of feveral cottage, more or Ids nu¬
merous that were all mutually confederated by alli¬
ances, but without any chief. They were ftrangers
even to filial ob. dience. No kind of drefs was ufed by
tivcii cu   
the men j but the women made me oi iome coverings,
and were even fond of ornamenting themfelvcs with California,
pearls and fuch other trinkets as the. country aftorded.
\Vhat moft difplayed their ingenuity was the con-
ftrudlion of their fiftring nets, which are laid by the
jefuits to have even exceeded in goodnefs thole made
in Europe. They were made by the women, of a
coarfe kind of flax procured from feme plants which
grow there. Their houfes were built of branches and
leaves of trees ; nay, many of them were only enclo-
fures of earth and ftone, raifed half a yard high with¬
out any covering and even thefe were lo imall, that
they could not llretch themfelves at length .111 them..
In winter, they dwelt under ground, in Caves either na¬
tural or artificial. _ j r .
In 1526, Ferdinand Cortez having reduced and let-
tied Mexico, attempted the conqueft of California j but
was obliged to return, without even taking a lurvey
of the country, a report of his death having dilpoied
the Mexicans to a general infurreaion. borne other
attempts were made by the officers of Cortez, but the e
were alfo unfuccefsful •, and this valuable coaft was
long neglefted by the Spaniards, who, to this day,
have but one fettlement upon it. In 1595, a galleon
was fent to make difeoveries on the Californian Ihore j
but the veffel was unfortunately loft, j even years af¬
ter, the count de Monteroy, then viceroy of New
Spain, fent Sebaftian Bifcayno on the fame defign with
two fhips and a tender *, but he made no dilcovery of
importance. In 1684, the marquis de Laguna, alfo
viceroy of New Spain, defpatched two fhips a
tender to make difeoveries on the lake of California.
He returned with an indifferent account, but was a-
mong the firft who afferted that California was not an
ifland ; which was afterwards confirmed by hather
Caino, as already related. In 1697, the Spaniards
being difeouraged by their Ioffes and disappointments,
the Jefuits folicited and obtained permiflion to under¬
take the conqueft of California. They arrived among
the lavages with curiofities that might amule them,
corn for their food, and clothes for which they could
not but perceive the neceflity. The hatred the e peo¬
ple bore the bpanifh name, could not fupport itielt a-
gainft thefe demonftrations of benevolence. I tty tel-
tified tbeir acknowledgements as much as their, want ot
fenfibility and tbeir inconftaney would permit them.
Thefe faults were partly overcome by the religious in-
ftitutors, who purfutd their project with a egrteo
warmth and refolution peculiar to the iociety. 1 hey
made themfelves caipenters, mafons, weavers, and hul-
bandmen : and by thefe means lucceeded m imparting
knowledge, and in feme meaiure a tafte for the ufeful
arts, to this favage people, who have been all fuccefs-
fively formed into one body. In 17455 tompof-
ed a\ villages, feparated from each other by the bar-
rennefs of the foil and the want of water. Ihe inha¬
bitants of thefe fmall villages fubfift principally on coin
and pulfe, which they cultivate-, and on the fruits and
domtftic animals of Europe, the breeding of which
laft is an obi eft of continual attention. Ihe Indians
have each their field, and the property of ^at they
reap: but fueh is their want of toreiight, that they
would fquander in a day what they had gathered, 1
the miffionary did not take upon fiimlelf to dihribute
it to them as they fiand in need of it. . 11 ey n.anu-
fadure iome coarie ftuffs 3 and the nectilanes they are
CAL
t 77 1
CAL
California m -want of arc purcliafed -with pearls, and with wine
nearly refembling that of Madeira, which they fell to
Caligula- ^ Mexicans and to the galleons, and which experi-
U""’v ’ ence hath ihown the necetfity of prohibiting in Cali¬
fornia. A few laws, which are very fimple, are fuffi-
cient to regulate this riling ftate. In order to enforce
them, the miffionary choofes the moil intelligent per-
fon of the village ; wffio is empowered to whip and im-
prifon 5 the only puniihments of which they have any
knowledge. In all California there are only two gar-
rifons, each confiding of 30 men, and a Hdier with
every miffionary. Thefe troops were chofen by the le-
gifiators, though they are paid by the government.
Were the court of Madrid to puffi their intereil with
half the zeal of the Jefuits, California might become
one of the moil valuable of their acquifitions, on ac¬
count of the pearls and other valuable articles of com¬
merce which the country contains. At prefent the
little Spaniffi town near Cape St Lucar is made ufe of
for no other purpofe than as a place of refreffiment for
the Manilla thips, and the head refidence of the mif-
iionaries.
CALIGA, in Roman antiquity, was the proper fol-
dier’s ffioe, made in the fandal faihion, without upper
leather to cover the luperior part of the foot, though
etherwife reaching to the middle of the leg, and faften-
ed with thongs. The foie of the caliga was of wood,
like the fabot of the French peafanls, and its bottom
ftuck full of nails $ which clavi are fuppofed to have
been very long in the (hoes of the fcouts and fentinels j
whence thefe were called, by way of diftin&ion, cnli^
Jpecu/ato ice ; as if, by mounting the wearer to a higher
pitch, they gave a greater advantage to the fight :
though others will have the caligcs fpeculatoria: to have
been made foft and woolly, to prevent their making a
noife. From thefe cahgee it was that the emperor
Caligula took his name, as having been born in the
army, and afterwards bred up in the habit of a common
foldier.
' According to Du Cange, a-fort of ctdi^a was alfo
worn by monks and bithops, when they celebrated mafs
pontifically.
CALIGATI, an appellation given by fome ancient
writers to the common foldiers in the Roman armies,
by reafon of the caliga which they wore. The caliga
was the badge or fymbol of a foldier ; whence to take
away the caliga and belt, imported a diimiffing or
caffiiering.
CALIGO, or Caligatio, in Medicine, an opacity,
@r cloudinefs of the anterior furface of the eryftal-
line lens of the eye, cauiing a dimnefs or fuffufion of
fight.
CALIGULA, the Roman emperor and tyrant,
A. D. 37, began his reign with every promifing ap¬
pearance of becoming the real father of his people j
but at the end of eight months he was ieized with a
fe er, which it is thought, left a frenzy on his mind :
for his difpofition totally changed, and he committed
the moft atrocious acts of impiety, cruelty, and folly ;
fuch as proclaiming his horfe conful, feeding it at his
table, introducing it to the temple in the veftments of
the priefls of Jupiter, &c. and caufing facrifices to be
offered to himfeif, his wife, and the horfe. After hav¬
ing murdered many of his fubjedts with his own hand,
and caufed others to be put to death without any juit
caufe, he was affaffinated by a tribune of the people as Caligula
he came out of the amphitheatre, A. D. 41, in the
29th year of his age, and 4th of his reign. period.
CALIN, a compound metal, whereof the Chinefe'—y—
make tea canifters, and the like. The ingredients feem
to be lead and tin.
CALIPH, or Khalif, the fupreme ecclefiaftical
dignity among the Saracens } or, as it is otherwife de¬
fined, a fovereign dignity among the Mahometans, veil¬
ed with abfolute authority in all matters relating both
to religion and policy. In the Arabic it fignifies fuc-
cejfar ox vicar ; the caliphs bearing the fame relation to
Mahomet that the popes pretend they do to Jefus
Chrift or St Peter. It is at this day one of the Grand
Signior’s titles, as fuccelfor of Mahomet ; and of the
Sophi of Perfia, as fucceifor of Ali. One of the chief
functions of the caliph, in quality of imam or chief
prieft of Muffulmanilm, was to begin the public pray¬
ers every Friday in the chief mofque, and to deliver
the khothbak or fermon. In after times, they had af-
fffiants for this latter office •, but the former the caliphs
always performed in perfon. 1 he caliph was alfo ob¬
liged to lead the pilgrims to Mecca in perfon, and to
march at the head of the armies of his empire. He
granted inveftiture to princes •, and fent fwords, Itand-
ards, gowns, and the like, as prefents to princes of the
Mahometan religion *, who, though they had thrown
off the yoke of the caliphate, neverthelefs held of it as
vaffals. The caliphs ufually went to the mofque
mounted on mules } and the fultans Selgiucides, though
mailers of Bagdad, held their ftirrups, and led their
mule by the bridle fome dillance on foot, till fuch time
as the caliph gave them the fign to mount on horde-
back. At one of the windows of the caliph’s palace,
there always hung a piece of black velvet 20 cubits
long, which reached to the ground, and v'as called the
caliph's fleeve : which the grandees of his court never
failed to kifs every day, with great refpect. After the
deftruflion of the caliphate by Hulaku, the Mahome¬
tan princes appointed a particular officer, in their re-
fpeftive dominions, who-fuftains the facred authority of
caliph. In Turkey, he goes under the denomination
of mufti, and .n Perfia under that oifadne.
CALIPHATE, the office or dignity of caliph ;
See the preceding article. The fucceffions of caliphs
continued from the death of Mahomet till the 653th
year of the Hegira, when the city of Bagdad was tak¬
en by the Tartars. After this, however, there were
perfons who claimed the caliphate, as pretending to be
of the family of the Abaffides, and to whom the ful¬
tans of Egypt rendered great honours at Cairo, as the
true fucceffors of Mahomet: but this honour was
merely titular, and the rights allowed them only in
matters relating to religion j and though they bore the
fovereign title of caliphs, they were neverthelefs lub-
fefts and dependents of the fultans. In the year of the
Hegira 361, a kind of cakphate was ere died by the
Fatemites in Africa, and lalted till it was iuppreffed by
Saladin. Hiiloriani alfo fpeak of a third caliphate
in Yemen or Arabia Felix, erefted by fome princes of
the family of the Jobiles. The emperors of Morocco
affume the title of §r m‘ ch nfs 5 and pretend to be the
true caliphs, or fucceffors of Mahomet, though under
another name. .
CALIPPIC FERiOD, in Chronology, a fenes of
feveritv-iis
CAL
[ ?8 1
CAL
Galipptc
period
11
Calkins.
feventy-fix years, perpetually recurring; wliicii elapfed,
the middle of the new and full moons, as its inventor
Calippus, an Athenian, imagined, return to the lame
; day of the folar year. Meton, a hundred years be¬
fore, had invented the period, or cycle, of nineteen
years} alfuming the quantity of the folar year
6/h 18' 56" 503 414 34*: and the lunar month, 25k/.
12/h 45' 47" *6* 484 30s: but Calippus, confidering
that the Metonic quantity of the folar year was not
exaft, multiplied Meton’s period by 4, and thence
arofe a period of 76 years, called the Cahppic. I he
Calippic period, therefore, contains 27,759 days: and
fince the lunar cycle contains 23 5 lunations, and the
Calippic period is quadruple of this, it contains 940
lunations. This period began in the third year of
the 112th Olympiad, or the 4384th of the Julian
period. It is demonllrated, however,, that the Calip¬
pic period itfelf is not accurate •, that it does not bring
the new and full moons precifely to their places 5 8/2.
^2// 60w? being the excefs of 940 lunations, above
76'folar years j but brings them too late, by a whole
day in 225 years. . , . ,
CALISTA, in fabulous hillory, the daughter ot
Lvcaon king of Arcadia, and one of the nymphs of
Diana. Being beloved by Jupiter, that god affumed
the form of the goddefs of chaftity, by which means
he debauched her : but her difgrace being revealed,, as
flie was bathing with her patronefs, the mcenled deity
turned her and the fon with which (lie was pregnant
into bears •, when Jupiter, in compaffion to her fuffer-
ings, took them up into the heavens, and made them
the conftellations Urfa Major and Urfa Minor.
CALIX. See Calyx.
CALIXTINS, a name given to thofe, among the
Lutherans, who follow the fentiments of George Ca-
lixtus, a celebrated divine, and profeffor at Helmltaat
in the duchy of Brunfwick, who died in 1656 :. he.op-
pofed the opinion of St Auguftin, on predeftmation,
rrace, and free will, and endeavoured to form an union
amono- the various members of the Romiih, Lutheran,
and reformed churches \ or rather, to join them m the
bonds of mutual forbearance and charity. ,
CALIXTINS alfo denote a fe& in Bohemia, derived
from the Huffites, about the middle of the 15th cen¬
tury who afferted the ufe of the cup as effential to the
eucharift. And hence their name 5 which is formed
from the Latin calyx, a cup. .A . .
The Calixtins are not ranked by Romamfts m the
lift of heretics, fmee in the main they ftill adhered to
the do&rine of Rome. The refonnation they aimed
at terminated in the four following artitles.. 1. In re-
ftoring the cup to the laity. 2. In fubjefting the cri¬
minal clerks to the puniftiment of the civil magiftrate.
2. In flopping the clergy of their lands, lordfhips, and
all temporal jurifdiftion. 4. In granting liberty to all
capable priefts to preach the word of God.
CALK A, a kingdom of Tartary, in Afia, to the eaft
of Siberia.
CALKING. See Caulking.
CALKINS, the prominent parts at the extremities
of a horfe ftioe, bent downwards, and forged to a fort
Calkins are apt to make horfes trip : they alfo oc-
cafion bleymes, and ruin the back finews. If fafhioned
in form of a har«’s ear, and the horn of a horfe’s heel
4
Calkins
be pared a little low, they do little damage j whereal,
the.great fquare calkins.quite fpoil the foot. . Callao.
Calkins are either Angle or double, that is, at one
end of the (hoe, or at both : thefe laft are deemed lefs
hurtful, as the horfes can tfbad more even.
CALL, among hunters, a leffon blown upon the
horn, to comfort the hounds.
Call, an Englifti name for the mineral called tung-
ften or wolfram by the Germans.
Call, among failors, a fort of whiffle or pipe, o*
filver or btj.rs, ufed by the boatfwain and his mates to
fummon the failors to their duty,- and direct them in
the different employments of the fhip. As the.call can
be founded to various ftrains, each of them is appro¬
priated to fome particular exercife j fuch as hoifting,
heaving, lowering, veering away, belaying, letting go
a tackle, &c. The ad of winding this inftrument.is
called piping, which is as attentively obferved by fail-
ors as the beat of the drum to march, retreat, rally,
charge, &e. is obeyed by foldiers..
Call, among fowlers, the noife or cry of a bird,
efpecially to its young, or to its mate in coupling
time. One method of catching partridges is by the
natural call of a hen trained for the purpofe, which
drawing the cocks to her, they are entangled m a net.
Different birds require different forts of calls j but they
are moft of them compofed of a pipe or reed, with a
little leathern bag or purfe, fomewhat m form of a
bellows 1 which, by the motion given thereto, yields a
noife like that of the fpecies of bird to be taken. 1 he
call for partridges is formed like a boat bored through,
and fitted with a pipe or fwan’s quill, &c to be blown
with the mouth, to make the noife or the cock par-
tridp-e, which is very different from the call of the hen.
Calls for quails, &c. are made of a leathern purfe m
ftiape like a pear, fluffed with horfe hair, and fitted at
the end with the bone of a cat’s, hare’s, or coney s leg,
formed like a flageolet. They are played, by Iqucez-
ing the purfe in the palm of the hand, at the fame
time ftriking on the flageolet part with the thumb to
counterfeit the call of the hen quail.
Call of the Houfe. See Calling.
CALLA, Wake-robin, or Ethiopian Arum, bee
Botany Index. . , *
CALLA Sufung, a town of Afia, m the ifland of
Bouton in the Eaft Indies. It is feated about a mile
from the fea, on the top of a fmall hill furrounded with
cocoa-nut trees. See Bouton. .
CALLAO, a ftrong town of South America, m
Peru. It is the port of Lima, from which it is di-
ftant about five miles. The town is built on a low flat
point of land on the fea-fhore. It is fortified | but the
fortifications were much damaged by the. laft great
earthquake, and have not fine® been repaired, ihe
town is not above nine or ten feet above the level of
high water mark *, but the tide does not commonly
rile or fall above five feet. The flreets are drawn m «
line : but are full of duft, which is very troublefome.
In a fquare near the fea fide are the governor s houie,
the viceroy’s palace, the par iff church, and a battery
of three pieces of cannon. On the north fide are 1
warehoufes for the merchandife brought from Chili,
Mexico, and other parts of Peru. The other churc
are built with reeds, and covered with timber or clay,
but they look tolerably neat. There are five monafte-
Callao
II
Calligra¬
phy.
CAL [
rles and an hofpital, though the number of families
does not exceed 400. The trade of Callao is confi-
derable. From Chili they bring cordage, leather, tal-
' low, dried fifh, and corn j from Chiloe, cedar planks,
woollen manufactures, and carpets •, from Peru, fugars,
wines, brandy, malts, cordage, timber for fhipping,
cacao, tobacco, and melatTes ; from Mexico, pitch,
tar, woods for dyeing, fulphur, balfam of Peru, both
white and brown, as well as commodities from China.
At the port of Callao the watering is eafy, but the
■wood is a mile or two diitant. Earthquakes are very
frequent in thefe parts, which have done vaft mifehief
to Lima and Callao. W. Long. 76. 15. S. Lat. 12..
29.
C L LE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hither
Spain, lituated on an eminence which hangs over the
river Durius •, whofe port was at the mouth of the ri¬
ver. Now Porto, Oporto, or Port a Port,
CALLEN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Kilkenny and province of Leinfter, about ten miles
fouth-weft of Kilkenny. W. Long. 7. 22. N. Lat.
52 25.
CALLICARPA. See Johnsonia.
CALL ICO, in commerce, a fort of cloth refemb-
ling linens made of cotton. The name is taken from
that of Calicut, a city on the coaft of Malabar, being
the hrft place at which the Portuguefe landed when
they dilcovered the India trade. The Spaniards Hill
call it calhcu.
Callicoes are of different kinds, plain, printed, paint¬
ed, itained, dyed, chintz, mullins, and the like, all in¬
cluded under the general denomination of callicoes.
Some of them are painted with various flowers of dif¬
ferent colours : others are not Itained, but have a Itripe
of gold and lilver quite through the piece, and at each
end is fixed a tiflfue of gold, filver, and filk, intermixed
with flowers. The printing of callicoes was firlt fet on
foot in London about the year 1676.
CALLICRATES, an ancient fculptor, who en¬
graved fome of Homer’s verfes on a grain of millet,
made an ivory chariot that might be concealed under
the wing of a fly, and an ant of ivory in which all the
members were diftinft : but Atlian juftly blames him
/or exerting his genius and talents in things fo ufelefs,
and at the fame time fo difficult. He flourilhed about
the year 472 before Chrift.
CALLIGONUM. See Botany Index.
CALLIGRAPHUS anciently denoted a eopyift,
or ferivener, who tranferibed fair, and at length, what
the notaries had taken down in notes or minutes. The
word is compounded of jwtAAa?, beauty, and I
'write. The minutes of a£ts, &c. were always taken in
a kind of cypher, or fliort hand ; fuch as the notes
of Tyro in Gruter : by which means the notaries, as the
Latins called them, or the cviiu.sto'ygcitpoi and Tei^vy^citpoc,
as the Greeks called them, were enabled to keep pace
with a fpeaker or perfon who dictated. Thefe notes,
being underftood by few, were copied over fair, and
at length, by perfons who had a good hand, for fale,
&c. Thefe perfons were called ca/hgrnphii a name fre¬
quently met with in the ancient writers.
CALLIGRAPHY, the art of fair writing. Cal¬
licrates is faid to have written an elegant diflich on a
fefamum feed. Junius fpeaks of a perfon, as very ex¬
traordinary, who wrote the apoftles creed, and begin-
79 1 CAL
ning of St John’s Gofpel, in the compafs of a farthing. Calligra*
What would he have laid of our famous Peter Bale, P^y
who in 1575 wrote the Lord’s prayer, creed, ten coin-caliipEedbh
mandments, and two fhort prayers in Latin, with his f , f
own name, motto, day of the month, year of the Lord,
and reign of the queen, in the compafs of a Angle
penny, enchafed in a rkrg and border of gold, and co¬
vered with a cryllal, all fo accurately wrought as to
be very legible ?
CALLIMACHUS, a celebrated architeft, painter,
and fculptor, born at Corinth, having feen by accident
a veffel about which the plant called acanthus had
. raifed its leaves, conceived the idea of forming the Co¬
rinthian capital; hence the Corinthian order of archi¬
tecture. The ancients allure us, that he worked iiv
marble with wonderful delicacy. He flourilhed about
540 B. C.
Callimachus, a celebrated Greek poet, native of
Gyrene in Libya, flourilhed under Ptolemy Philadel-
phus and Ptolemy Euergetes, kings of Egypt, about
280 years before Chrilt. He palled, according to Quin¬
tilian, for the prince of the Greek elegiac poets. His
ftyle is elegant, delicate, and nervous. He wrote a
great number of fmall poems, of which we have only
lome hymns and epigrams remaining. Catullus has
clofely imitated him, and tranflated into Latin verfe
his fmall poem on the locks of Berenice. Callimachus
was alfo a good grammarian and a learned critic. I here
is an edition of his remains, by Meff. le Fevre, quarto j
and another in two volumes 8vo, with notes by Span-
heim, Graevius, Bentley, &c\ •
CALLING the House, in the Britilh parliament,
is the calling over the members names, every one an-
fwering to his own, and going out of the houfe, in
the order in which he is called : this they do in order
to difeover whether there be any perfon there not re¬
turned by the clerk of the crown, ©r if any member
be abfent without the leave of the houfe.
CALLINICUS of Heliopolis, inventor of a com-
polition to burn in the water, called the Greek and
imee Wild-Jire, See Grecian FlitF,.
CALLINGS of Ephefus, a very ancient Greek poet,
inventor of elegiac verfe ; fome fpecimens of which are
to be found in the collection of Stobeus. He flourifh-
ed about 776 years before Chrift.
CALLION YMUS, the Dragonet. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
CALLIOPE, in the Pagan mythology, the Muf&
who prefides over eloquence, and heroic poetry. She
was thus called from the fweetnefs of her voice, and
was reckoned the firlt of the nine lifters. Her diftin-
guifhing office was to record the worthy aCtions of the
living •, and accordingly Hie is reprefented with tablets
in her hand.
C ALLIPAJDIA, the art of getting or breeding"
fine and beautiful children. We find divers rules and
practices, relating to this art, in ancient and modern
writers. Among the Magi, a fort of medicine called
ermejia was adminiftered to pregnant women, as a means
of producing a beautiful iffue. Of this kind were the
kernels of pine nuts ground with honey, myrrh, faf-
fron, palm wine and milk. The Jews are laid to have
been fo folicitous about the beauty of their children^
that care was taken to have fome very beautiful child
placed at the door of the public baths, that the women
)
GAL [Bo] GAL
CalHoaedia at going out being itruek. witn bis appearance, and
I] retaining the idea, might all have chikhen as fine as
. a^ua he. The Chinefe take Hill greater care of their breed¬
ing women, .to prevent uncouth objects of any kind
from ftriking their imagination. Muiicians are employ¬
ed at night to entertain them with agreeable longs and
odes, in which are let forth all the dudes and comforts
of a conjugal and domeilic life j that the infant may
receive good impreffions even before it is born, and not
only come forth agreeably formed in body, but well
di pofed in mind. Callipaedia, neverthelefs, feems to
have been fir 11 ereclei into a juft-art by Claude (^uillet
de Chinon, a French abbot, who, under the fictitious
name of Cilvide* Laetui, has publilhed a fine Latin
p'era in four books, under the ti le of Call!peed a, feu
de bulchrce prolis hahencLe ra :.one ; wherein are con-
taine l all the precepts of that new art. There is a
tranflation of it into Englilh verfe by Mr Rowe.
CAL LI POL IS, in .dneint G ov’etphij, the name of
feveral cities of antiquity, particulaily one upon the
Hellefpont, next the Propontis, and oppofite to Lamp-
faeus in Alia. Now G vllipoi,!.
CALLIPPIC period. See Caeippic.
CALLIRRHOE, in Ancient Geography, furnaraed
Enneacruno?, from its nine fprings or channels; a
fountain not far from Athens, greatly adorned by Pi-
fftlratus, where there were feveral wells, bi t ihis the
only,running fpring. Calhrrhoe was alro the name of
a very fine fpiing of hot water beyond Jordan near the
Dead fea, into which it empties itfelf.
CALL1SIA. See Botany Index. _
CALLISTEA, in Grecian antiquity, a Lelhian
feftival, wherein the women prelented themfel es in
Juno’s temple, and the prize was affigned to the fiai ell.
There was another of thefe contentions at the fefiival
oc Ceres Eleufinia among the Parrhafians,.and another
among the Eleans, where the mod beautiful man was
presented with a eomp’ete fuit of armour, which he
confecrated to Minerva to whofe lemple he walked in
nvocedion, being accompanied by his f iends who adorn¬
ed him with ribbons, and crowned him with a garland
of myrile.
CALLISTHENES the philofopher, difciple and
relation of Ariftotle, by whofe defire he accompanied
Alexander the Great in his expeditions; but proving
too fevere a cenfurer of that hero’s condu£t, he was by
him put to the torture (on a fufpicion of a tteafim-
able confpiracy), and died under it, 328 years be ore
Chrilt.
C \LLISTRATUS, an excellent Athenian orator,
was banilhed for having obtained too great an authority
in the government. Demofthenes was fo ifruck with
the force of his eloquence, and tne glory it procured
him, that he abandoned Plato, and refolved f.om
thenceforward to apply himrelf to oratory.
CALLITRICHE, or Star grass, in Botany, a
genus of the digynia order, belonging to the Monan-
drir dal's of plants; and in the natural meihod rank¬
ing under the 12th order, Ho'onre'. The e is no
calyx, but two petals, and the capfule is bilocular and
tetrafpe moos.
CALLOO, a fortrefs in the Netherlands, in the
territory of Waes, on the river Scheldt, fubjefl to the
houfe of Auflria. The Dutch were defeate * he.e by
the Spaniards in 1638. E. Long. 4.10. N- Lat. j 1.15.
4
C-iLLOSUM corpus, in Anatomy, a whltlfli hard Cflllofum
fubltance, jomng the tw'o hemifpherts vt the brain, and
appearing in view when the two hemripheres are drawn
back, bee Anatomy /aaex.
■CALLOl , James, a celebrated engraver, born at
Nancy m 1(59^. In his youth he travelled to Lome
to learn defigning and engraving ; and from thence
went to Florence, where the grand duke took him into
his ferviee. After, the death of that prince, Calot re¬
turned to his native country ; when he was very fa¬
vourably received by Henry duke of Loiiain, who let-
tied a conliderable pinfion upon him. H;S reputation
being loon after ipread all over Europe, the mlanta of
the Netherlands drew him to Bruiiels, where he en¬
graved the liege of Breda. Li.uisX Tt. made him de-
iign the liege oi RochGle, and that o! the ille ot Lhe.
ri he French k ng, having taken Na -cy in 103', n.ad©
Callot th. p opoial of n prdentmg that new conqueft,
as he had already done the taking of Rochelle : but
Callot begged to be exculed ; and lume courtiers relolv-
ing to oblige him to do it, he aniwtred, that he would
fooner cut off his thumb than do any thing agamit the
honour of his pr nee and country, ih s exculc the
king accepted ; and la;d, that the duke of Lorrain was
happy m having inch faithful and aftectionaie lutijebfs.
Callot followed his bulinels lo clolely, that, though ho
died at 43 years of age, he is mid to have Icit of his
own execution about 15.0 p eces. 1 he following are
a few of the princ pal. l. i.he mind, raj the nmocehts,
a fmall oval plate, engrave 1 at hlorence, Callot en¬
graved the lame lu j<At at Nancy, with tome difference
in the figures on the. back ground, ihe former is the
moft rare ; a fine impreflion of it is vt ry dithcult to bo
found. 2. The marriage oj Cana 1 Gniue , from Paolo
Veronele, a middling liztd plate, lengthwile 3. ihe
p fflon ofChn/i, on 12 very fmall upr.ght plates: hi ft
impreflions very fcarce. 4. id Joan in ih. ijland of
Pat-nos, a linall plate, nearly fquaie. 3. Ihe temptation
of St eirthony, a middling hzed plate, lengthwite. He
alfo engraved the fame iubjeef larger ; which, though
not the bell, is notwithllanding ttic fcarceit print.
There is a confiderable difference in the treatment of
the fubjetl in the two prints. 6. The p.nijbmenist
wherein is feen the execution of feveral criminal', ihe
marks of the beft impreflions of this plate are, a Imall
fquare tower which appears above the houlcs, tow'aids
the left, and a very fmall image o' the Virgin placed
in an angle of the wall, near the middle of the print*
7 The mi [crier of war, 18 fmall plates, length wife.
'i here is another let on the fame fubjeft, coniifting of
feven plates lefs than the former. 8 i he g-run jov of
Florence, fo called becaufe it was engraved at Florence.
As feveral parts of this plate w'ere not equally bitten
by the aquafortis, it is difficult to meet with a tine im-
preffion. Callot, on his return to Nancy, re-engraved
this plate without any alteration, 'iff.- copy, how¬
ever, is by no means equal to the original. 1 iie firft
is diftinguifhed from the iecond by the words m F.rt -
25'?, which appear below at the right-hand corner of
the plate. The fecond has there woids in the fame
place, Fe. Ftorient s, e\cudt Eancti. There is alfo
a large copy of this print, reverfed, publiitied uy Sil¬
very ; but the difference is ealily diffinguiihed between
it and the true print. 9. The little Jan , otherwile called
the players at bowels ,■ where alio fome pealants are re-
preiented
CAL r St ] CAL
Callot' presented dancing. This is one of the fcatcefl; of Cal-
jl lot’s prints j and it is very difficult to meet with a fine
d ia' . impreffion of it, for the diftances and other parts of the
plate failed in the biting it with the aq*afortis. 10. The
tilting, or the new Jlreet at Nancy, a middling fized
plate, lengthwife. ll. The Garden of Nancy, where
young men are playing with a balloon, the fame.
12. View of the Pont Neuf a fmall plate, lengthwife.
13. View of the Louvre, the fame. 14. Four landfcapes,
fmall plates, lengthwife.
CALLUS, or Callosity, in a general fenfe, any
cutaneous, corneous, or offeous hardnefs, whether na¬
tural or preternatural j but moft frequently it means
the callus generated about the edges of a frafture, pro¬
vided by nature to preferve the fractured bones, Dr di¬
vided parts, in the fituation in which they are replaced
bv the (urgeon. A callus, in this laft fenfe, is a fort of
jelly, or liquid vifeous matter, that fweats out from
the fmall arteries and bony fibres of the divided parts,
and fills up the chinks or cavities between them. It
firft appears of a cartilaginous fubftance 5 but at length
becomes quite bony, and joins the fractured part fo firm-
ly together, that the limb w ill often make greater re¬
finance to any external violence, with this part than
writh thofe which wrere never broken.
Callus is alfo a hard, denfe, infenfible knob, rifing
on the hands, feet, &c. by much fridlion and preffure
againft hard bodies.
CALM, the Hate of reft which appears in the air
and fea when there is no wind llirring. A calm is
more dreaded by a feafaring man than a ftorm, if he
has a ftrong fhip and fea room enough •, for under the
line exceffive heat fometimes produces fuch dead calms,
that ffiips are obliged to ftay tveo or three months w ith-,
out being able to ftir one way or other. Two oppolite
winds will fometimes make a calm. This is frequently
obferved in the gulf of Mexico, at no great diftance
from the fhore, where fome guft or land wind will
fo poife the general eafterly w ind, as to produce a per-
feft calm.
Calms are never fo great on the ocean as on the
Mediterranean, becaufe the flux and reflux of the
former keep the water in a continual agitation, even
where there is no w ind ; whereas there being no tides
in the latter, the calm is fometimes fo dead, that the
face of the wrater is as clear as a looking glafs *, but
fuch calms are almoft conftant prefages of an approach¬
ing ftorm. On the coafts about Smyrna, a long calm
is reputed a prognoftic of an earthquake.
It is not uncommon for the veflels to be calmed, or
becalmed, as the failors exprefs it, in the road of the
conftant Levantine winds, in places where they ride
hear the land. Thus between the twro capes of Car-
tooche towards the main, and Cape Antonio in Cuba,
the fea is narrow', and there is often a calm produced
by fame guft of a land wind, that poifes the Levantine
V’ind, and renders the whole perfedlly ftill for two or
three days. In this cafe, the current that runs here is
bf ufe to the Veflels, if it fets right *, when it lets eafter¬
ly, a {hip will have a paflage in three or four days to
the Havannah •, but if otherwife, it is often a fortnight
"Or three weeks fail, the {hip being embayed in the gulf
of Mexico.
When the weather is perfeflly calm, no wind at all
flirring, the failors try which way the current fets, by
Vol, V. Part I.
means of a boat which they fend out, and which will Calm
ride at anchor, though there is no bottom to be found, , '•
as regularly and well as if faftaned by the ftrongeft an- h
chor to the bottom. The method is this : they rowr
the boat to a little diftance from the {hip, and then
throw over their plummet, which is about forty pounds
weight ; they let this fink to about two hundred fa¬
thoms j and then, though it never reaches the bottom,
the boat will turn head againft the current, and ride as
firmly its can be.
CALM Latitudes, in fea language, are fituated in the
Atlantic ocean, between the tropic of Cancer and the
latitude of 290 N. or they denote the fpace that lies be¬
tween the trade and variable winds, becaufe it is fre*
quently fubjedt to calms of long duration.
CALMAR, a ftrong fea port of Swreden, in the
province of Smaland, divided into two towns, the ©Id
and the new $ but of the former there remains only the
church and a few houfes. The new town is built a
little way from the other, and has large handfome
houfes. E. Long. 16. 15. N. Lat. 56. 48.
CALMET, Augustine, one of the moft learned
and laborious writers of the 18th century, was born at
Mefnil le Horgne, a village in the diocefe of Toul in
France, in the year 1672, and took the habit of the
Benedidtines in 1688. Among the many works he
publifhed are, I. A literal expofition, in French, of all
the books in the Old Teftament, in nine volumes folio.
2. An hiftorical, critical, chronological, geographical,
and literal didtionary of the Bible, in four vols folio,
enriched with a great number of figures of Jewiffi an¬
tiquities. 3. A civil and ecclefiaftical hiftofy of Lor-
rain, three vols folio. 4. A hiftory of the Old and
New Teftament, and of the Jews, in two volumes fo¬
lio, and feven volumes duodecimo. 5. An univerfal
facred and profane hiftory, in feveral volumes quarto.
He died in 1757.
CALMUCKS. See Kalmucks.
CALNE, a town of Wiltftiire in England, feated
on a river of the fame name. It has a handfome church,
and fends two members to parliament. W. Long. 1*
59. N. Lat. 51. 30. .
CALNEH, in Aiicient Geography, a city in the land
of Shinar, built by Nimrod, and the laft city men¬
tioned (Gen. x. 10.) as belonging to his kingdom. It
is believed to be the fame w ith Calno, mentioned in
Ifaiah (x. 9.) and with Canneh in Ezekiel (xxvii. 23.)
with ftill greater variation. It is oblerved, that it
muft have been fituated in Mefopotamia, fince thefe
prophets join it with Haran, Eden Aflyrian, and Chil-
mad, which carried on a trade with Tyre. It is faid
by the Chaldee interpreters, as alfo by Eufebius and
Jerome, to be the fame with Ctefiphon, Handing upon
the Tigris, about three miles diftant from Seleucia,
and that for fome time it was the capital city of the
Parthians.
CALOGERI, in church hiftory, monks of the
Greek church, divided into three degrees : the novices,
called archari; the ordinary profeffed, called microche-
mi; and the more perfect, called megalochemi: they are
likewife divided into coenobites, anchorets, and reclufes.
The coenobites are employed in reciting their offices
from midnight to funfet, they are obliged to make
three genuflexions at the door of the choir, and, return¬
ing, to bow to the right and to the left, to their bre-
- L thren.
CAL t 82 1
Cal'Acri tliren. The anchorets retire from the converfation of
II the world, and live in hermitages in the neighbour-
Lalvart. , , , r .v_  ^ ...ii.: 4.„ „
CAL
Calvart
hood of the monafleries j they cultivate a little fpot
of ground, and never go out but on Sundays and holi¬
days to perform their devotions at the next monaftery.
As for the reclufes, they ihut themfelves up in grottoes
- and caverns on the tops of mountains, which they never
go out off, abandoning themfelves entirely to Provi¬
dence : they live on the alms fent them by the neigh¬
bouring monafteries.
C ALOMEL, or dulcified fublimate of mercury, is a
combination of mercury with the muriatic acid, in the
prefent nomenclature called a fub-munate of mercury.
bee Pharmacy and Chemistry Index.
CALOPHYLLUM. See Botany Index.
CALOTTE, a cap or coif of hair, fatin, or other
fluff; an eccleliaftical ornament in molt Popilh coun¬
tries. See Cap.
Calotte, in ArchiteBure, a round cavity or de-
preffure, in form of a cap or cup, lathed and plaftered,
tiled to diminiih the rife or elevation of a moderate cha¬
pel, cabinet, alcove, &c. which without fueh an ex¬
pedient would be too high for other pieces of the apart¬
ment.
CALPE, a mountain of Andalufia in Spain $ at
the foot of which, towards th* fea, Hands the town of
Gibraltar. It is half a league in height towards the
land, and fo fteep that there is no approaching it on
that fide.
CALPURNIUS, Titus, a Latin Sicilian poet,
lived under the emperor Carus and his fon. We have
feven of his eclogues remaining.
CALQUING, or Calking, a term ufed in paint¬
ing, &c. where the back fide of any thing is covered
over with a black or red colour, and the ftrokes or lines
traced through on a waxed plate, wall, or other mat¬
ter, by palling lightly over each llroke of the defign
with a point, which leaves an imprefiion of the colour
on the plate or wall.
CALTHA. See Botany Index.—There is only
•ne fpecies known, which grows naturally in moiit
boggy lands in many parts of England and Scotland.
The flowers gathered before they expand, and pre-
ferved in falted vinegar, are a good fubftitute for ca¬
pers. The juice of the petals, boiled with a little
alum, ftains paper yellow. The remarkable yellow-
nefs of the butter in fpring is fuppofed to be caufed
by this plant : but cows will not eat it, unlefs compell-
•ed by extreme hunger 5 and then, Boerhaave fays, it
occafions fueh an inflammation, that they generally die.
Upon May-day, the country people ftrew the flowers up¬
on the pavement before their doors. Goats and Iheep eat
this plant ; horfes, cows, and fwine, refufe it.
CALTROP. See Trirulus, Botany Index.
Caltrop, in military affairs, an inllrument with
four iron points, difpofed in a triangular form, fo that
three- of them are always on the ground, and the fourth
in the air. They are feattered over the ground where
the enemy’s cavalry is to pafs, in order to embarrals
them.
CALVARIA, in Anatomy, the hairy fcalp or upper
part of the head, which, either by difeafe or old age,
grows bald fir ft.
CALVART, Denis, a celebrated painter, was
at Antwerp in 1552} and had for his matters
Profpero Fontana and Lorenzo Sabbatini. He opened
a fchool at Bologna, which became celebrated ; and
from which proceeded Guido, Albani, and other great v ,
matters. Calvart was well fkilled in arehitefturc, per-
fpeftive, and anatomy, which he confidered as necef-
fary to a painter, and taught them to his pupils. Ha>
principal works are at Bologna, Rome, and Reggio*
He died at Bologna in 1619.
CALVARY, a term ufed in Catholic countries for
a kind of chapel of devotion raifed on a hillock near a
city, in memory of the place where Jefus Chrift was
crucified near the city of Jerufalem. The word comes
from the Latin calvarium ; and that from cvniwj-, bald,
in regard the top of that hillock was bare and deftituto
of verdure 5 which is alfo fignified by the Hebrew word
golgotha. Such is the Calvary of St Valerian near Paris j
which is accompanied with feveral little chapels, in
each of which is reprefented in fculpture one of the
myfteries of the Paffion.
Calvary, in Heraldry, a crofs fo called, becaufe it
refembles the crofs on which our Saviour fullered. It
is always fet upon fteps.
CALVERT, George, afterwards Lord Baltimore,
was born at Kipling in Yorklhire about the year IJ582,
and educated at Oxford, where he took the degree of
bachelor of arts, and afterwards travelled. At his re¬
turn, he was made fecretary to Sir Robert Cecil : he
was afterwards knighted, and in 1618 appointed one
of the principal fecretaries of ftate. But after he had
enjoyed that poll about five years, he willingly refigned
it j freely owning to his majefty that he was become a
Roman Catholic, fo that he mutt either be wanting to
his truft, or violate his confeience in difeharging his
office. This ingenuous confeflion fo afte&ed King
James, that he continued him privy counfellor all his
reign, and the fame year created him baron of Bal¬
timore in the kingdom of Ireland. He had before
obtained a patent for him and his heirs, for the pro¬
vince of Avelon in Newfoundland • but that being
expofed to the infults of the French, he abandon¬
ed it, and afterwards obtained the grant of a country
on the north part of Virginia from Charles 1. who call¬
ed it Maryland, in honour of his queen : but he died
in April 1632 (aged 30), before the patent was made
out. It was, however, filled up to his fon Cecil Cal¬
vert Lord Baltimore j and bears date June 20. 1632.^
It is held from the crown as part of the. manor of
Windfor, on one very fingular condition, viz. to pre¬
fent two Indian arrows yearly, on Eafter luelday, at
the cattle, where they a-re kept and Hi own to vifitois. •
His lordfhip wrote, I. A Latin poem on the death o*.
Sir Henry Upton. 2. Speeches in parliament. 3. Va¬
rious letters of ftate. 4. The anfwer of Tom Tell-truth.
5. The Praftice of Princes. And, 6. The Lamentation
of the Kirk. .
CALVI, a town of the province of Lavoro, m tbe
kingdom of Naples, fituated near the fea, about fifteen
miles north of the city of Naples. E. Long. 14. 45*
N. Lat. 41. 15. „ ^
CalvI is alio the name of a fea port m the lilanu ot
Corfica, fituated on a. bay, on the weft fide of the
ifland, about 40 miles fouth-weft of Baftia. E. Longv
9. c. N. Lat. 42. 16.
CALVIN, John, the celebrated reformer of the
Chriftian church frojn Rojnilh fuperftitions and doan-
CAL r 83 1 CAL
Calvin, nal errors, and founder of the feft fince called Cahinifh,
“^s* ' was born in 1509. He was the fon of a cooper of
Noyon in Picardy ; and his real name was Chauvin,
which he chofe to latinize into Calvinus, ftyling him-
felt in the title page to his fir ft work (a Commentary
on Seneca de dementia'), “ Lucius Calvinus, Civis Ro¬
manes j” an early proof of his pride, at about 24 years
of age. In 1529, he was reftor of Pont PEveque ; and
in 1534 he threw up this benefice, feparating himfelf
entirely from the Romilh church. The perfecution
againft the Proteftants in France (with whom he was
now affociated) obliged him to retire to Bafle in Swit¬
zerland : here he publiftied his famous Inftitutes of the
Chriftian religion in 153 5. The following year he w as
chofen profeflbr of divinity, and one of the minifters of
the church at Geneva. The next year, viz. 1537, he
made all the people folemnly fwear to a body of doc¬
trines ; but finding that religion had not yet had any
great influence on the morals of the people, he, aflifted
by other minifters, declared, that fince all their admo¬
nitions and warnings had proved unfuccefsful, they
«ould not celebrate the holy facrament as long as thefe
diforders reigned; he alfo declared, that he could not
fubmit to fome regulations made by the fynod of Berne.
Upon which the lyndics having fummoned the people,
it was ordered that Calvin and two other minifters
fhould leave the city within two days. Upon this Cal¬
vin retired to Straftmrg, where he eftablifhed a French
church, of which he wras the firft minifter, and was al¬
fo chofen profeflbr of divinity there. Two years af¬
ter he was chofen to aflift at the diet appointed by the
emperor to meet at Worms and at Ratifbon in order
to appeafe the troubles occafioned by the difference of
religion. He went with Beucer, and entered into a
conference with Melancthon. The people of Geneva
now entreated him to return; to which he confented,
and arrived at Geneva, September 13. 1341. He
began with eftablifhing a form of ecclefiaftical difei-
pline, and a confiftorial jurifdiftion, w ith the power of
infli&ing all kinds of canonical punifhments. This
was greatly dilliked by many perfons, who imagined
that the papal tyranny would foon be revived. Calvin,
however, afferted on all occafions the rights of his
confiftory with inflexible ftriclnefs ; and he caufed Mi¬
chael Servetus to be burnt at the flake for writing
againft the doctrine of the Trinity. But though the
rigour of his proceedings fometimes occafioned great
tumults in the city, yet nothing could {hake his ftea-
dinefs and inflexibility. Amongft all the difturbances
©f the commonwealth, he took care of the foreign
churches in England, France, Germany, and in Po¬
land \ and did more by his pen than his prefence, fend¬
ing his advice and inftruftions by letter, and writing
» greater number of books. This great reformer died
on the 27th of May 1564, aged 95. His works were
printed together at Amfterdam in 1671, in nine vo¬
lumes folio; the principal of which are his Inftitutions,
in Latin, the beft edition of which is that of Robert
Stephens in 1553, folio ; and his Commentaries on
the Holy Scriptures.—Calvin is univerfally allowed
to have had great talents, an excellent genius, and pro¬
found learning. His ftyle is grave and polite. Inde¬
pendent of his fpiritual pride, his morals were exem¬
plary ; for he wras pieus, fober, chafte, laborious, and
difinterefted. But his memory can never be purified
Calvinifts.
from the ftain of burning Servetus; it ill became a Calvin7
reformer, to adopt the moft odious practice of the cor¬
rupt church of Rome.
CALVINISM, the doftrine and fentiments of Cal¬
vin and his followers. Calvinifm fubfifts in its great-
eft purity in the city of Geneva : and from thence it
•was firft propagated into Germany, France, the United
Provinces, and England. In France it was abolifli-
ed by the revocation of the edi<ft of Nantz in 1685.
It has been the prevailing religion in the United Pro¬
vinces ever fince the year 1571. The theological fy-
ftem ef Calvin was adopted, and made the public rule-
of faith in England, under the reign of Edward VI,
and the church of Scotland was modelled by John
Knox, the difciple of Calvin, agreeably to the doc¬
trine, rites, and form of ecclefiaftical government, efta¬
blifhed at Geneva. In England, it has declined fince,
the time of Queen Elizabeth ; though it ftill fubfifts,.
fome fay a little allayed, in the articles of the eftablifti-
ed church ; and In its rigour in Scotland.
The diftinguifhing theological tenets of Calvinifm,
as the term is now generally applied, refpetft the doc¬
trines of Predestination, or particular Election
and Reprobation, original Sin, particular Redemp¬
tion, effeftual, or, as fome have called it, irrefiftibl'e
Grace in regeneration, Justification by faith, Per¬
severance, and the Trinit-Y. See each of thefe ar¬
ticles.
Befides the doflrinal part of Calvin’s fyftem, which,
fo far as it difters from that of other reformers of the
fame period, principally regarded the abfolute decree
of God, whereby the future and eternal condition of
the human race was determined out of mere fovereign
pleafure and free will ; it extended likewife to the dif-
-cipline and government of the Chriftian church, the
nature of the Eucharift, and the qualification of thofe
who were entitled to the participation of it. Calvin
confidered every church as a feparate and independent
body, invefted with the power of legiflation for itfelf.
He propofed that it fhould be governed by prefbyteries
and fynods, compofed of clergy and laity, wfithout
bilhops, or any clerical fubordination; and maintain¬
ed, that the province of the civil magiftrate extended
only to its protection and outward accommodation.
In order to facilitate an union with the Lutheran church,
he acknowledged a real, though fpiritual, prefence of
Chrift, in the Eucharift, that true Chriftians wrere uni¬
ted to the man Chrift in this ordinance, and that di¬
vine grace was conferred upon them, and fealed to
them, in the celebration of it ; and he confined the
privilege of communion to pious and regenerate be¬
lievers. In France the Calvinifts are difiinguiftied by
the name of Huguenots ; and, among the common peo¬
ple, by that of Parpail/ots. In Germany they are con¬
founded with the Lutherans, under the general title
Protejicnts ; only fometimes diftinguilhed by the name
Reformed.
CALVINISTS, in church hiftory, thofe who fol¬
low the opinions of Calvin. See the two preceding
articles.
Crypto-CAL V1NJSTS, a name given to the favourers
of Calvinifm in Saxony, on account of their fecret at¬
tachment to the Genevan dodlrine and difeipline.
Many of them fuffered by the decrees of the convoca¬
tion of Torgaw, held in 1576. The Calvinifts in their
L 2 progrefij-
CAL [84] CAL
Calvinifts progrefs have divided into various branches, or lefler
11 fefts.
Cahimet. ^ CALVISIUS, Seth, a celebrated German chro-
v nologer in the beginning of the 17th century. He
wrote Elenchus calendarii Gregorian!, et duplex calenda-
rii melioris forma, and other learned works, together
with fome excellent treatifes on mufic. He died in
1617, £ged 61.
CALVITES, or Calvitium, in Medicine, bald-
nefs, or a want of hair, particularly on the finciput,
occalioned by the moiilure of the head, which fliould
feed it, being dried up, by fome difeafe, old age,
or the immoderate ufe of powder, &c. See Alope-
CtA.
CALUMET, a fymbolical inftrument of great im¬
portance among the American Indians.—It is nothing
more than a pipe, wbofe bowl is generally made of a
foft red marble : the tube »f a very long reed, orna¬
mented with the wings and feathers of birds. No af¬
fair of confequence is tranfa&ed without the calumet.
.It ever appears in meetings of commerce or exchanges j
in congrsffes for determining of peace or war *, and
even in the very fury of a battle. The acceptance of the
calumet is a mark of concurrence with the terms pro-
pofed } as the refufal is a certain mark of rejeftion.
Even in the rage of a conflict this pipe is fometimes
offered \ and if accepted, the weapons of deftruftion
inftantly drop from their hands, and a truce enfues. It
feems the facrament of the favages •, for no compact
is ever violated which is confirmed by a whiff from
this holy reed. When they treat of war, the pipe and
all its ornaments are ufually red, or fometimes red on¬
ly on one fide. The fize and decorations of the calu¬
met are for the moff part proportioned to the quality
of the perfons to whom they are prefented, and to the
importance of the occafion. The calumet of peace is
different from that of war. They make ufe of the for¬
mer to feal their alliances and treaties, to travel with
fafety, and to receive ftrangers j but of the latter to
proclaim war. It confifts of a red ftone, like marble,
formed into a cavity refembling the head of a tobacco
pipe, and fixed to a hollow reed. They adorn it with
feathers of various colours •, and name it the calumet
of the fun, to which luminary they prefent it, in ex-
peftation of thereby obtaining a change of weather as
often as they defire. From the winged ornaments of
the calumet, and its conciliating ufes, writers compare
it to the cadueeus of Mercury, which was carried by
the caduceatores, or meffengers of peace, with terms
to the hoftile dates. It is Angular, that the moft re¬
mote nations, and the moft oppofite in their other
cuftoms and manners, ftiould in fome things have,
as it were, a certain confent of thought. The Greeks
and the Americans had the fame idea, in the inven¬
tion of the caduceus of the one, and the calumet of the
other.
Dance of the CALUMET, is a folemn rite among the
Indians on various occafions. They dare not wafti
themfelves in rivers in the beginning of fummer, nor
tafte of the new fruits, without performing it ; and
the fame ceremony always confirms a peace or precedes
a war. It is performed in the winter time in their
oabins, and in fummer in the open fields. For this
purpofe they choofe a fpot among trees to {hade
them from the heat of the fun, and lay in the middle
,a large mat, as a carpet, fetting upon it the monitor, Calumet
or god, of the chief of the company. On the right
hand of this image, they place the calumet, as their a x‘
great deity, erecting around it a kind of trophy with
their arms. Things being thus difpofed, and the hour
of dancing come, thofe who are to ling take the moft
honourable feats under the lhade of the trees. The
company is then ranged round, every one, before he fits
down, falutihg the monitor, which is done by blowing
upon it the fmoke of their tobacco. Each perfon next
receives the calumet in rotation, and holding it with
both hands, dances to the cadence of the vocal mufic,
which is accompanied with the beating of a fort of
drum. During this exercifc, he gives a fignal to one
of their warriors, v'ho takes a bow, arrow, and axe,
from the trophies already mentioned, and fights him j
the former defending himfelf with the calumet only,
and both of them dancing all the while. This mock en¬
gagement being over, he who holds the calumet makes
a fpeech, in which he gives an account of the battles
he has fought, and the prifoners he has taken, and
then receives a cloak, or fome other prelent, from the
chief of the ball. He then refigns the calumet to ano¬
ther, who, having atted a fimilar part, delivers it to a
third, wrho afterwards gives it to his neighbour, till at
laft the inftrument returns to the perfon that began the
ceremony, who prefents it to the nation invited to the
feaft, as a mark of their friendlhip, and a confirmation
of their alliance, when this is the occafion of the en¬
tertainment.
CALUMNY, the crime of accufing another falfely,
and knowingly fo, of fome heinous offence.
Oath of Calumny, Juramentum (or rather Jufu-
randum') Column ice, among civilians and canonifts, was
an oath which both parties in a caufe were obliged to
take •, the plaintiff that he did not bring his charge,
and the defendant that he did not deny it, with a defign
to abufe each other, but becaufe they believed their
caufe was juft and good j that they would not deny
the truth, nor create unneceflary delays, nor offer the
judge or evidence any gifts or bribes. If the plaintiff
refufed tliis oath, the complaint or libel was dilmiffed j
if the defendant, it was taken pro confejfo. This cuftom
was taken from the ancient athletee ; who, before they
engaged, wore to fwear that they had no malice, nor
would ufe any unfair means for overcoming each other.
The juramentum ealumnice is much diiufed, as a great
occafion of perjury. Anciently the advocates and
proftors alfo took this oath ; but of late it is dilpenled
with, and thought fufficient that they take it once for
all at their firft admiflion to practice. See alfo Law,
Part III. N° clxxxiv. 7.
CALVUS, Cornelius Licinius, a celebrated Ro¬
man orator, was the friend of Catullus ; and fleurilhed
64 B. C. Catullus, Ovid, and Horace, fpeak of him.
CALX properly lignifies lime, but has been ufed by
chemifts and phyficians for a fine powder remaining
after the calcination of metals. All metallic calces
are found to weigh more than the metal from which
they were originally produced. I his arifes from the
metal having combined with oxygen during the pro-
cefs of calcination or burning 5 and hence in the pre¬
fent chemical nomenclature they are called oxides.
CALX Nativa, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of marly
earth, of a dead whitilh colour, which, if thrown into
water,
CAM [85] CAM
Calx wster, makes a conliderable bubbling and biffing noife,
II and has, without previous burning, the quality of mak-
Camsea. a cement jjme or plafter of Paris.
v Calx Viva, or Quicklime, that whereon no water
has been call j in contradiftion to lime which has been
flaked by pouring water on it.
CALYB1TES, the inhabitants of a cottage, an ap¬
pellation given to divers faints on account of their long
relidence in forne hut by way of mortification.
The word is formed from xx>.v7rh», tego, I cover;
whence KxXt&n, a Little cot. The Romifh church com-
memorates St John the Calybite on the 15*^ De¬
cember.
CALYCANTHEMS, in Botany, an order of
plants in the Fragmenta methodi naturaiis of Linnaeus,
in which are the following genera, viz. epilobium,
eenothera, juffiaea, ludivigia, oldenlandia, ifnarda, &c.
See Botany, Natural Orders.
CALYCANTHUS. See Botany Wav.
CALYCIFLORaE, in Botany, the 16th order in
Linnaeus’s Fragmenta methodi naturaiis, conlifting of
plants which, as the title imports, have the ilamina
(the flower) inferted into the calyx. This order con¬
tains the following genera, viz. eleagnus, hippophae,
ofyris, and trophis. See Botany.
CALYCISTiE, (from calyx, the flower-cup), fy-
ftematic botaniits, fo named by Linnaeus, who have
arranged all vegetables from the different fpecies,
ftru&ure, and other circumilances, of the calyx or
flower-cup. The only fyftems of this kind are the
Char adder Plantarum Novus, a pofthumous work of
Magnolius, profeffor of botany at Montpelier, publifh-
ed in 1720;. and Linnaeus’s Methodus Ca/ycma, pub-
lifhed in his C/q/Jes Plantarum, at Leyden, in 1738.
See Botany, H/Jlory.
CAL YD ON, in Ancient Geography, a town of
^Etolia, fituated feven miles and a half from the fea,
and divided by the river Evenus •, the country was an¬
ciently called JEolir, from the Atolians its inhabitants.
This country was famous for the ftory of Meleager
and the Calydonian boar.
CALYPSO, in fabulous hiftory, a goddefs who
was the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, or, as others
fay, of Atlas. She was queen of the ifland of Ogygia,
which from her was called the ifland of Cahypfo. Ac¬
cording to Homer, Ulyffes fuffered Ihipwreck on her
coaft, and ftaid with her feveral years,
CALYPTRA, among botanifts, a thin membrana¬
ceous involucrum, ufually of a conic figure, which co¬
vers the parts of fruflification. Th» capfules of moft
ef the moffes have calyptrae.
CALYX, among botanifts, a general term, expref-
fing the cup of a flower, or that part of a plant w hich
furrounds and fupports the other parts of the flower.
The cups of flowers are very various in their ftruc-
ture, and on that account diftinguifhed by feveral names,
as perianthium, involucrum,fpatha,gluma, &.c. See Bo¬
tany.
Cx'kLZADA, a town of Old Caftile in Spain, feat-
ed on the river Leglera. W. Long. 2. 47* N. Lat.
42. 12.
C AM/EA, in NaturalH'Jlovy, a genus of the femi-
• pellucid gems, approaching to the onyx ftrufture, be¬
ing compofed of zones, and formed on a cryftalline
bafis: but having their zones very broad and thick, Cfeme*
and laid alternately one on another, with no common ^ ^ v
matter between ; ufually lefs tranfparent, and more ;;a,h
debafcd with earth, than the onyxes. u—y—=
I. One fpecies of the canuva is the dull-looking
onyx, with broad, black, and white zones j and is the
camrea of the moderns, and the Arabian onyx. This
fpecies is found in Egypt, Arabia, Perfia, and the Eaft
Indies. 2. Another fpecies of the camaea is the dull
broad-zoned, green and wdiite camasa, or the jafpi-
camteo of the Italians : it is found in the Eaft Indies,
and in fome parts of America. 3. The third is the
hard canuea, with broad white and chefnut-coloured
veins. 4. The hard canuea, with bluilh, w'hite, and
flelh-coloured broad veins, being the fardonyx of Pli¬
ny’s time, only brought from the Eaft Indies.
CikMAIEU, or Camayeu, a word ufed to exprefs
a peculiar fort of onyx : alfo by fome to exprels a
ftone, whereon are found various figures, and repre--
fentations of landfcapes, &c. formed by a kind of lufus
natures, fo as to exhibit pictures without painting.
The word comes from camahuia, a name the Orientals
give to the onyx, when they find, in preparing it, ano¬
ther colour j as who ftiould fay, a fecondJlone. It is
of thefe camaieux Pliny is to be underftood w hen he
fpeaks of the manifold picture of gems, and the party-
coloured fpots of precious ftones: Gemmarum piclura
tam multiplex lapidumque tarn difcolores macuLe.
Camaieu is alfo applied by others to thofe precious
ftones, as onyxes, cornelians, and agates, whereon the
lapidaries employ their art to aid nature, and perfect
thefe reprefentations. See Cam^ea.
Camaieu is alfo frequently applied to any kind of
gem, whereon figures may be engraved either indent-
edly or in relievo. In this fenfe the lapidaries of Paris
are called in their ftatutes, cutters of camayeux.
A fociety of learned men at Florence undertook to-
procure all the cameos or camayeux and intaglios in the
great duke’s gallery to be engraven 5 and began to
draw the heads of divers emperors in cameos.
Camaieu is alfo ufed for a painting, wherein there
is only one colour ; and where the lights and fhadows
are of gold, wrought on a golden or azure grounds
"When the ground is yellow, the French call it cirage;
when gray, griffaile. This kind of w'ork is chiefly
ufed to reprefent baffo relievos : the Greeks call pieces
of this fort pwfct'UpctTot.
CAMALDULIANS, Camaldunians, or Ca-
MALDOLITES, an order of religious, founded by Ro¬
muald, an Italian fanatic, in 1023, in the horrible de-
fert of Camaldoli, otherw ife called Campo Malduli,
fituated in the ftate of Florence, on the Appennines.
Their rule is that of St Benedict *, and their houfes, by
the ftatutes, are never to be lefs than five leagues from
cities. The Ca'raldulians have not borne that title
from the beginning of their order 5 tilLthe clofe of the
eleventh century they were called Romualdins, from
the name of their founder. Till that time, Camaldu-
lian was a particular name for thofe of the defert Ca¬
maldoli 5 and D. Grandi obferves, was not given to
the whole order in regard it was in this monaftery that
the order commenced, but becaufe the regulation w'as
beft maintained here.
Guido Grandi, mathematician of the grand duke of
Tufeany,
CAM
r
CSaaaldu- Tufcany, and a monk of this order, has publiflied Ca~
lians f J /' T\‘iT* nnA oPt-y K11 Hi -
^ B.
damanna.
maldulian Differtations, on the origin and eftablifli-
ment of it.
The Camaldulites were diftinguiflied into two claffes,
of which the one were Coenobites, and the other
Eremites.
C AMALODUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the Trinobantes, the firft Roman colony in
Britain, of veterans under the emperor. From the Iti¬
neraries it appears to have flood where now Malden
Hands. It continued to be an open place under the
Romans •, a place of pleafure rather than ftrength 5 yet
not unadorned with fplendid wrorks, as a theatre and
a temple of Claudius : which the Britons confidered as
badges of flavery, and which gave rife to feveral fedi-
tions and commotions. It Hands on a bay of the fea,
at the mouth of the Chelmer, in the county of Effex .
the modern name is curtailed from the ancient.
CAM ARAN A, an ifland-of Arabia, in the Red
fea, whofe inhabitants are little and black. It is the
beH of all the iflands in this fea, and here they fifh for
coral and pearls. N. Lat. 15. O.
CAM ASSEI, or Camace, Andrea, painter ofhi-
flory and landfcape, was born at Bevagna, and at firft
learned the principles of deiign and colouring from
Domenichino j but afterwards he fludied in the fchool
of Andrea Sacchi, and proved a very great painter.
He was employed in. St Peter’s at Rome, as alfo at St
John Lateran-, and his works are extremely admired,
for the fweetnefs of his colouring, the elegance of his
thoughts and deiign, and likewife for the delicacy 01 his
pencil. Sandrart laments that the world was deprived
of fo promifing a genius, in the very bloom of life,
when his reputation was daily advancing. He died m
1657. At St John Lateran are to be feen, the Battle
of Conflantine and Maxentius j and the Triumph of
Conftantine j which are noble and grand compofitions j
and they afford fufficient proofs of the happinefs of his
invention, and the correftnefs of his execution. Alfo
at Wilton, the feat of the earl of Pembroke, there is a
picture of Venus with the Graces, faid to be by the
hand of Camaffei.
CAMARCUM, in Ancient Geography, the capital
©f the Nervii, a people of Gallia Belgica, (Antonine,
Peutinger) \ before whofe time no mention was maEe
«f it. Now Cambray, capital of the Cambrefis, in
French Flanders. E. Long. 3. I5- Lat. 50.. I5*
CAM ARINA, in Ancient Geography, a city of Si-
tilv built by the Syracufans on an eminence near the
lea,’in the fouth of Sicily, to the weft of the promon¬
tory Pachynum, between two rivers, the Hipparis and
Oanus. Of fo famous a city nothing now remains but
its name and ancient walls, a mile and a half in com-
pafs, with the flight remains of houfes : now called
Camarana. .
CAMARINA Pa/us, a marfti or lake, near the city Ca-
jnarina, and from which it took its name. In a time of
drought, the iteneh of the lake produced a peftilence ;
upon which the inhabitants confulted the oracle, whe¬
ther they ftiould not quite drain it. J he oracle dil-
fuaded them : they notwithftanding drained it, and
opened a way for their enemies to come and plunder
their city : hence the proverb Ne tnoveas Camarinam,
that is, not to remove one evil to bring on a greater.
8(T ] CAM
Lago di Camarana, fituated in a beautiful plain, under Cr.marinZ
the very walls of Camarina, and of a triangular form, li
CAMAYEU. See Camaieu. _ • ,
CAMBAIA, or Campay, a town of Afia, in In¬
dia, and in the peninfula on this fide the Ganges $ ca¬
pital of a province of the fame name \ but more com¬
monly called Guxerat. It is feated at the bottom of
a gulf of the fame name, on a fmall river j is a large
place with high walls, and has a pretty good trade,
The product and manufaftures are inferior to few
towns in India, for it abounds in corn, cattle, and
lilk 5 and cornelian and agate ftones are found in its ri¬
vers. The inhabitants are noted for embroidery; and
fome of their quilts have been valued at 40I. It is
fubjedt to the Great Mogul. E. Long. 72. 15* N.
Lat. 22. 30.
CAME AYES, in commerce, cotton cloths made
at Bengal, Madras, and fome other places on the coaft
of Coromandel. They are proper for the trade of
Marfeilles, whither the Engliih at Madras fend great
numbers of them. Many are alfo imported into Hol-
land.
CAMBER, according to our monkifti hiftorians,
one of the three fons of Brute, who, upon his father’s
death, had that part of Britain afligned him for his
{hare, called from him Cambria, now Wales.
CAMBER-Beam, among builders, a piece of timber
in an edifice cut archwife, or with an obtufe angle in
the middle, commonly ufed in platforms, as church
leads, and on other occafions where long and ftrong
beams are required.
CAMBERED decks, among Ihip-builders. The
deck or flooring of a ftiip is faid to be cambered,
or to lie cambering, when it is higher in the middle
of the fliip’s length, and droops towards _ the ftem
and ftem, or the two ends. Alfo when it lies irregu¬
lar ; a circumftance which renders the Ihip very unfit
for war.
CAMBERT, a French mufician in the 17th cen¬
tury, was at firft admired for the manner in which he
touched the organ, and became fuperintendant of, th6
mufic to Anne of Auftria the queen-mother. The
Abbe Perin affociated him in the privilege he obtained
of his majefty, of fetting up an opera in 1669. Cam-
bert fet to mufie tv'o paftorals, one entitled Pomona,
the other Ariadne, which were the firft operas given in
France. He alfo wrote a piece entitled The pams and.
pleafure s of love. Thefe pieces pleafed the public; yet
in 1672, Lully obtaining the privilege of the opera,
Cambert v'as obliged to come to England, where he
became fuperintendant of the mufic to King Charles II.
and died there in 1677.
CAMBIO, an Italian word which fignifies exchange,
commonly ufed in Provence, and in fome other coun¬
tries, particularly Holland.
CAMBIST, a name given in France to thofe whs
trade in notes and bills of exchange. The word cam-
bifl, though a term of antiquity, is even now a techni¬
cal word, of fome ufe among merchants, traders, and
bankers. Some derive it from the Latin cambium, or
rather cambio. f
CAMBLET, or Chambeet, a fluff fometimes of
wool, fometimes filk, and fometimes hair, especial¬
ly that of .goats, with wool or filk : in fome, the
warp
I
CAM
t 87 3
CAM
fcambogia.
Camblet warp Ls filk and wool twlfted together, and the woof
hair.
The true or oriental camblet is made of the pure
hair of a fort of goat, frequent about Angora, and
which makes the riches of that city, all the inhabitants
whereof are employed in the manufacture and com¬
merce of camblets. It is certain we find mentioned
in middle-age writers fluffs made of camels hair, under
the denominations of cameletum and camehnum, whence
probably the origin of the term ; but thefe are repre-
iented as ftrangely coarfe, rough, and prickly, and feem
to have been chiefly ufed among the monks by way of
mortification, as the hair fliirt of latter times.
We have no camblets made in Europe of the goats
hair alone ; even at Bruifels, they find it necelfary to
add a mixture of woollen thread.
England, France, Holland, and Flanders, are the
chief places of this manufacture. Bruifels exceeds them
all in the beauty and quality of its camblets j thofe of
England are reputed the fecond.
Figured CAME LETS, are thofe of one colour, whereon
are llamped various figures, flowers, foliage, &c. by
means of hot irons, which are a kind of moulds, paffed
together with the ftuff under a prefs. Thefe are chief¬
ly brought from Amiens and Flanders : the commerce
of thefe was anciently much more confiderable than at
prefent.
Watered CAMBLETS, thofe which, after weaving, re¬
ceive a certain preparation with water ; and are after¬
wards palled under a hot prefs, which gives them a
fmoothnefs and luftre.
Waved CAMBLETS, are thofe whereon waves are im-
prefied, as on tabbies 5 by means of a calender, under
which they are palled and repaffed feveral times.
The manufacturers, &c. of camblets are to take care
they do not acquire any falfe and needlefs plaits; it
being almoft impoflible to get them out again. This
is notorious even to a proverb ; we fay a perfon is like
camblet he has taken his plait.
CAMBODIA, a kingdom of AEa, in the Eaft In¬
dies, bounded on the north by the kingdom of Laos,
on the call by Cochin-China and Chiapa, and on the
fouth and weft by the gulf and kingdom of Siam;
divided by a large river called Mecon. The capital
town is of the fame name, feated on the weftern flrore
of the faid river, about 150 miles north of its mouth.
This country is annually overflowed in the rainy
feafon, between June and October 5 and its produc¬
tions and fruits are much the fame with thofe-ufually
found betwCen the tropics. E. Long. 104. 15. N. Lat.
12. 40.
C AMBODUNUM, (Itinerary) •, a town of the Bri-
gantes in Britain4 now in ruins near Almonbury in
Yorkftiire. Weftchefter, (Talbot.) Alfo a town of
Vindelicia, on the Cambusj now Kempten in Suabia.
CAMBOGIA, in Botany, a genus of the monogy-
-Tua order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants;
and in the natural method ranking under the 38th or¬
der, Tr/rocc/E’. The corolla is tetvapetalous ; the calyx
tetraphyllous ; and the fruit is a pome with eight cells,
and folitary feeds. There is but one fpecies, the
gutta, a native of India, which yields the gum-refin
known by the name of gamboge in the ihops. See
Gamboge.
CAMBRASINES, in commerce, fine linen made
in Egypt, of which there is a confiderable trade at
Cairo, Alexandria, and Rofetta, or Rafchit. They
are called carnbrajines from their refemblance to cam¬
brics.
CAMBRAY, an archiepifcopal city, the capital of
the Cambrefis, in the Low Countries, feated on the
Scheldt. It is defended by good fortifications, and
has a fort on the fide of the river j and as the land is
low on that fide, they can lay the adjacent parts under
water by means of lluices. Its ditches are large and
deep, and thofe of the citadel are cut into a rock. Clo¬
dion became mafter of Cambray in 445. The Danes
burnt it afterwards; - fince w hich time it became a free
imperial city. It has been the fubjeft of conteft be¬
tween the emperors, the kings of France, and the earls
of Flanders. Francis I. let it remain neutral during
the war with Charles V. but this laft took pofleflion of
it in 1543. After this it was given to John of Mont-
luc by Henry III. of France, whom he created prince
of Cambray ; but the Spaniards took it from Montluc
in 1593, which broke his heart. It continued under
.the dominion of the houfe of Auftria till 1677, when
the king of France became mafter of it, in whole hands
it has continued ever fince.
The buildings of Cambray are tolerably handfome,
and the ftreets fine and fpacious. The place or fquare
for arms is of an extraordinary largenefs, and capable
of receiving the whole garrifon in order of battle. The
cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary is one of the
fineft in Europe. The body of the church is very large,
and there arc rich chapels, the pillars ef which are adorn¬
ed with marble tombs that are of exquifite workmanlhip,
and add greatly to the beauty of the place.
There are two galleries, one of which is of copper,
finely wrought. The door of the choir is of the fame
metal, and well carved. The fteeple of this church is
very high, and built in the form of a pyramid ; and
from its top you have a view of the city, which is one
of the fineft and moft agreeable in the Low Countries.
There are nine parilhes, four abbeys, and feveral con¬
vents for both fexes. The citadel is very advantage-
oully fitualed on the high ground, and commands the-
whole city. Cambray is one of the moft opulent and
commercial cities in the Low Countries } and makes*
every year a great number of pieces of cambric, with
which the inhabitants drive a great trade. E. Long»*
3. 20. N. Lat. 50. it.
Cambray, M. de Fenelon, archbijhop of. See Fe-
nelon.
CAMBRESIS, a province of France, in the Ne¬
therlands, about 25 miles in length. It is bounded on
the north and eaft by Hainault, on the fouth by Picar¬
dy, and on the weft by Artois. It is a very fertile and
populous country j and the inhabitants are induftrious,
aftive, and ingenious. The trade confifts principally
in corn, (beep, very fine wool, and fine linen cloth.
Cambray is the capital town.
CAMBRIA, a name for the principality of Wales.
CAMBRIC, in commerce, a fpccies of linen made
of flax, very fine and white j the name of which was
originally derived from the city of Cambray, wher®-
they were firfl manufadured, They are now made at-
other places in France..
XL*
Cambfit-
fiaes
II .
Cambric.
CAM [ SB ] CAM
Cumbrlc, The tiianufafture of cambrics hath long fmce proved
, ‘,tni rx of extraordinary advantage to France. For many
years it appeared that England did not in this article
contribute lefs than 200*000!. per annum to the inte-
reft of France. This proved motive fufficient to in¬
duce the parliament of Great Britain to enaft many
falutary laws to prevent this great lofs of our wealth.
See 18 Geo. II. c. 38. and 21 Geo. II. c. 26. See al-
follat. 32 Geo. II. c. 32. and 4 Geo. III. c. 37. which
regulates the cambric manufaftory, not long lince in¬
troduced into Winchelfea in Suffex; but very foon
abolilhed. The cambrics now allowed in this country
are manufaftured in Scotland and Ireland. Any per*
fons convicted of wearing, felling (except for expor¬
tation), or making up for hire any cambric or French
lawns, are liable to a penalty of 5I. by the two firit
Ilatutes cited above.
CAMBRIDGE, a town of England, and capital
of the county of that name. It takes the name of
Cambridge from the bridge over the Cam, which di¬
vides the town into two parts. Either it or a place in
the neighbourhood was ilyled Camborilutn, in the time
of the Romans. It fuffered much during the w'ars
with the Danes. Here w as a callle built by William
the Conqueror, of which the gatehoufe yet remains,
and is now the county gaol. By Doomfday-book it
appears that it then had ten wards, containing 387
houfes. In William Rufus’s reign it W'as quite de-
itroyed by Roger de Montgomery 5 but Henry I. be¬
llowed many privileges upon it to encourage its refto-
ration, particularly an exemption from the power of
the Iheriff, on condition of its paying yearly into the
-exchequer 100 merks (equivalent to 1000 pounds now),
and from tolls, laftage, pontage, paflage, and Railage,
in all fairs of his dominions. It was afterwards often
plundered in the barons v'ars by the outlaws from the
iile of Ely, till Henry III. fecured it by a deep ditch.
In 1388, Richard II. held a parliament there. In the
rebellion of Wat Tyler and Jack Straw again!! that
prince, the univerlity records were taken and burnt in
the market place.
The modern town is about one mile long from fouth
to north, and about half a mile broad in the middle, di-
minilhing at the extremities. It has 14 parifh churches,
of which two are without any towers. It contains above
I2QO houfes j but the private buildings are neither
elegant nor large, owing chiefly to their being held on
college or corporation leafes. It is governed by a
mayor, high Reward, recorder, 13 aldermen and 24
common council men, a town clerk, &c. Its chief
trade is W'ater carriage from hence to Downham, Lynn,
Ely, &c. The Jews, being encouraged to fettle in
England by William I. and II. were very populous
here for feveral generations, and inhabited that Rreet
now called the Jewry. They had a fynagogue, fince
converted to a pariRi church, called from the fliape^ of
its tower Round Church ; though others are of opinion
that it was built by the Knights Templars, it bearing
a refemblance to the Temple church in London. The
market place is fituated in the middle of the town, and
conRRs of two fpacious oblong fquares united together •,
at the top of the angle Rands the fliire hall, lately
crefted at the expence of the county. At the back
of the fliire hall is the town hall and gaol. In the
market place, fronting the flure hall, is a remarkably
2
handfome Rone conduit, to which water is conveyed Cam Vi*! g*.
by an aqueduft, which was the benefaction of the cele-
brated HobTon, a carrier in the reign of Janies I. who
■was a native of this town. A fine road for the benefit
of the inhabitants and fludents was made a few years
fince for four miles, from this town to Gogmagog hills,
purfuant to the will of Mr Worts. The late Dr Ad-
denbroke alfo left it 4000I. towards building and fur-
nifhing an hofpital for the cure of poor difeafed people
gratis 5 of which charity the mafler of Catharine hall
is a truRee j which hofpital has been erefted at the
fouth-eaR end of the town. At a little-'diRance from
Bennet college is the botanic garden of five acres, and
a large houfe for the ufe of the governors and the refi-
dence of the curator, given to the univerfity by the late
Dr Walker, who fettled an eRate on it towards its fup-
port, to which the late Mr Edward Betham added a
very confiderable benefaClion, The town has fairs on
June 24. and Augufl 14.
The glory of Cambridge is its univerfity 5 but when
it had its beginning is uncertain. At firfi there was
no public provifion for the accommodation or mainte¬
nance of the fcholars} but afterwards inns began to be
ereCled by pious perfons for their reception, and in
the time of Edward I. colleges began to he built and
en ’owed. This univerfity, not inferior to any in
ChriRendom, confifls of 12 colleges and 4 halls, which
have the fame privileges as the collegtes. The whole
body, which is commonly about 1500, enjoys very
great privileges granted by feVeral of our fovereigns $
but it was James I. who empowered it to fend two
members to parliament, as the town had done from
the firR. The univerfity is governed, 1. By a chan¬
cellor, whti is always feme nobleman, and may be
'changed every three years, or Continued longer by the
tacit confent of the univerfity. 2. By a high Reward,
chofen by the fenate, and holding his place by patent
from the univerfity. 3. By a vice-chancellor, who is
the head of feme college or hall, and chofen yearly by
the body of the univerfity, the heads of the colleges
naming two. 4. By two proftors chofen every year,
according to the cycle of colleges and halls •, as are
two taXors, who with the pro£lors regulate the weights
and meafures, as clerks of markets. The protlors
alfo infpeft the behaviour of the fcholafs, who muft
not be out of their colleges after nine at night. Here
are alfo 2 moderators, 2 ferutators, a commiffary, pub¬
lic orator, 1 librarians, a regifler, a fchool-keeper, 3
efquire beadles and a yeoman beadle, 18 profelfors, and
the caput, confifling of the vice-chancellor, a doctor
of divinity, a doftor of laws, a doctor of phyfic, a re¬
gent and a non-regent mafler of arts. Henry
granted it the power to print all books of any kind
within itfelf, a privilege which Oxford had not. Ihs
fenate houfe of the univerfity is an elegant building of
the Corinthian order, cbfl near l6,oool. building $ ifr
which on the north fide is a fine flatue of George I.
erefted in 1739 at the expeneeof the late Lord Town-
fhend ) oppofite to this on the fouth fide is another of-
George II. erefled in 1765 at the expence of the late^
duke of Newcaflle : at the eafl end, cn each fide cl
the entrance, are two others j one, the late duke of
Somerfet, after the Vandyke tafle; the other, anr
Italian emblematical figure of Gloria. This is allowed
to be the raefl fuperb room in England, being 101 feet
CAM [ t
.Cambridge, long, 42 bread, and 32 High; and it has a gallery
-which can contain 1000 perfons. This building forms
the north fide of the quadrangle, as the fchools and pub¬
lic library do the weft, the fchools being the ground
floor, and the library over them furrounding a fmall
court. North of the philofophy fchool is the repofitory
of Dr Woodward’s foflxls, ores, (hells, &c. The
doftor, together with that collection, and a part of his
library, left a fum of money to this univerfity for erec¬
ting a profefforfliip for natural philofophy, with a pro-
vifion of 150I. a-year for ever. At the fouth-eaft coi¬
ner of this building is an elegant geometrical ftone ftair-
cafe which leads to the old library, and confifts of 18
claffes; at the end of which is an elegant fquare room,
in which are depofited the MSth and a valuable cabi¬
net of oriental books and curiofities, &c. This room
opens to two other rooms, containing 26 large dalles,
confifting of 30,000 volumes prefented to the univerfity
by George I. being the entire colleClionof Dr Moore,
bilhop of Ely, and purchafed of the dodor’s executors by
his majefty for 6000 guineas; before which his majefty
gave the univerfity 2000I. to defray the expence of fit-
ting up the apartments, and ereCling claffes for their
reception ; they confift of the firft editions of the Greek
and Latin claffics and hirtorians, and the greateft part
•f the works of the firft printers; large collections of
prints by the greateft mafters; and a valuable MS. of
the Gofpels and ACts of the Apoftles, on vellum, in
Greek and Latin capitals, given to the univerfity by
Theodore Beza, and fuppofed to be as old as any MS.
extant. The other part of the library has been re¬
built in an elegant manner, and forms the weft fide of
the intended quadrangle. The books which are con¬
tained in the laft room are part of the old library,
augmented with a confiderable number ef the beft
modern books, feveral of which are prefents from foreign
fovereigns and eminent men. The fouth fide of the
quadrangle is defigned for a building to contain the
printing-office, &c. of the univerfity, for which pre¬
parations began lately to be made by pulling down the
old buildings on the fpot. St Mary’s church forms
the eaft fide of this quadrangle : here the univerfity
have their public fermons ; and the pulpit, which Hands
in the centre of the church, and faces the chancel, has
no foundingboard. In a grand gallery over part of the
chancel is a feat for the chancellor, vice-chancellor, &c.
George I. when he gave the books, alfo eftablifhed a
profeffor of modern hiftory and modern languages in
this univerfity, with a falary of 400I. for himfelf and
two perfons under him, qualified to inftruft in that
branch 20 fcholars, to be nominated by the king,
each of whom is obliged to learn at leaft two of the
languages. A fellowfhip is founded at Magdalen
college, appropriated to the gentlemen of. Norfolk,
and called t/te travelling Norfolk fellowjbip. All
the libraries in Cambridge, except that of King’s
college, are lending libraries: and thofe at Oxford
are ftudying libraries. The different c'olleg es are as
follow :
I.. St Peter’s, the moft ancient, and the firft on enter¬
ing the town from London, confifting of two courts, fe-
parated by a cloifter and gallery. The largeft is 144
feet long, and 84 broad. I he buildings in this court
have been lately repaired in an elegant manner. The
leffer court is divided by the chapel, which is a fine
Vol. V. Part I.
9 1 C A 54
old building, 54 feet long, 27 broad, and 27 high.
J. his college was founded in 1257. There are three col¬
leges in Oxford, which difpute the antiquity with this.
Cambridge and Oxford were univerfities long before
they weie pofleffed of any colleges in their own rights
the Undents then lodging and boarding with the
townfmen, and they then hired hotels for their ex-
ercifes and difputations. A hotel or hall, now deno¬
minated Pythagoras'sfehoo!, fituated on the weft fide of
the river, is one of thb ancient hotels that remain un-
demolilhed, and in which Erafmus read his firft Greek
ledtures in England. 2. Clare hall, on the bank of
the ri\er, over which it has an elegant ftone bridge,
w as founded in 1326, confifting of one grand court, 150
feet long, and 111 broad. The front of this building
that faces the fields has the appearance of a palace.
To this college a new- chapel has been added. 3. Pem¬
broke hall is near St Peter’s college, and was founded
I343 ? it confifts of two courts. It has an elegant
chapel, built by Sir Chrift. Wren. 4. Corpus Chrifti
or Bennet college, founded in 13 50, has but a mean ap¬
pearance, but is poffeffed of a remarkably large col-
ledhon of valuable and curious ancient manuferipts.
5; Trinity hall, on the north of Clare hall, near the
river, was founded in 1351 ; it is a fmall but remark¬
ably neat building. 6. Gonvil and Caius college is
near the middle of the town, north of the fenate houfe,
and has three courts. It was founded in 1348, and aug¬
mented in 1557. 7. King’suollege, the moft noble foun¬
dation in Europe, w-as firft endowed by Henry VI.
The old court refembles a decayed caftle, more than a
college. The new building is very magnificent, near
300 feet long. ^ The chapel is one of the fineft pieces
of Gothic archite&ure now remaining in the w^orld.
It is 304 feet long, 73 broad on the outfide, and 40
within, and 91 high ; and yet not a fingle pillar to
fuftain its ponderous roofs, of which it has two : the
firft is of ftone, moft curioufly carved ; the other of
wood, covered with lead, between which is a vacancy
of xo feet. There is fuch a profufion of carvings, both
within and without, as is nowhere to be equalled.
Henry VII. enlarged it 188 feet in length, and Hen-
ry VIII. gave the elegant ftalls and organ gallery,
with its inimitable carvings, where are the coats of
arms of that king and thofe of Anne Boleyn quarter¬
ed. He gave alfo the elegant painted glafs windows,
which are in ^pe prefervation, and wrere permitted by
Cromwell to be preferved when aim oft every other in
England was deftroyed, as he had a particular regard
for this univerfity, where he had his education, and
for the town which he had reprefented in parliament.
A new altar has been lately erecled, which correfponds
with the archite&ure of the building, ernbellifhed with
an antique painting of Chrift taking down from the
crofs, purchafed in Italy, and prefented to the college
by the earl of Carlifle. In this chapel are put-up the
Spanifh colours taken at the reduction of Manilla by
Colonel Draper, a member of this college. This col¬
lege has an ancient ftone bridge over the Cam.
8. Queen’s college, near the river, fouth of King’s, w as
founded in 1448, and confifts of two courts, with a fine
grove, and gardens on both fides of the river, conne&ed
with each other and the college by two wooden bridges,
one of which is of a curious ftrufture. 9. Catharine
hall is eaft of Queen’s, and its principal front on the
M weft,
Cambridge';
CAM
[ 90 3
CAM
(Cambridge, weft, the moft extenftve and regular in the umverfity
  It contains only one court, 180 feet long, and 120 broad,
and was founded in 1475. 10. Jefus college is at the
eaft end of the town, furrounded by groves and gar-
dens. The principal front faces the fouth,_ i^oieet
long, regularly built and falhcd : it was originally a
Benedidine convent, and converted to the prefent ufe
in 1 76. 11. Chrift’s college is oppofite to St Andrew s
church, on the eaft fide of the town j and was founded
by Henry Vllth’s mother, in 1505. It has lately had
a thorough repair, and is now a neat and “eiautl,ul
Itrudure. 12. St John’s college was founded by the
fame lady, in 1509, on the file of a diffolved priory.
It confifts of three courts, and has a large libraiy filled
with fcarce and valuable books. To this college be¬
longs a fine ftone bridge over the river, which leads to
their grand walks. 13. Magdalen college, the only
one that Hands on the north fide of the river, near the
great bridge, confifts of two courts, and was founded
in 1519. 14. Trinity college is eaft of the river, hav¬
ing St John’s college on the north, and Cams s col¬
lege and Trinity hall on the fouth. _ It contains two
large quadrangles, the firft of which is 344 feet long,
and 280 broad. It has two noble entrances | and on
the north fide of It is the chapel, 204 feet long, 34
broad, and 44 high. It has every grand ornament,
and the much admired ftatue of bivlfaac Newton,
who was a ftudent in this college. The hall is above
3 00 feet long, 40 broad, and 50 high. Ihe inner
court is efteemed the fineft in the univerfity, and fur-
paffes any in Oxford. It is very fpacious, and has an
elegant cloifter of ftone pillars, fupportmg grand apart¬
ments j on the weft is the library the moft elegant
ftrufture of the kind in the kingdom, 190 feet long,
40 broad, and 38 high ^hin Its entrance is b;, a
flaircafe, the (tops black marble, and the walls in-
crufted with ancient Roman monuments. Ihe en¬
trance into the library is by folding doors at the north
end. Its infide appearance is mexpreftibly grand, hav¬
ing at the fouth end (lately ereaed) a beautiful
painted glafs window of his prefent majefty m Ins robes ;
and the claffes are large, beautiful, and noble well
flocked with books, manufenpts, &c. ^^utfide has
every fuitable embellilhment, and was ereaed by Sir
Chriftopher Wren, at the expence of near 2°,oool.
Under this building is a fpacious piazza of equal
menfions •, out of which open three gates to a lawn
that leads to the river, over which is a new elegant
cycloidal bridge of three arches leading to extenfive
walks. In the middle is a remarkable vifta. Ibis col¬
lege was founded on the fite of two other colleges and
a hall in i <46, by Henry VIII. * 5- ^nne\ college
is at the fouth-eaft end of the town-, confifts of two
courts, the principal of which is very neat ^ and was
built on the fite of a Dominican conven . It ba been
lately in great part rebuilt and elegantly embellifh .
16. Sidney-Suffex college is in Bridge-ftreet. Its hall
is elegantf but the chapel remarkable only for Handing
north and fouth, as others do eaft and weft The num¬
ber of inhabitants in the town of Cambridge in 1801,
^CAMBRIDGESHIRE, an inland county of Eng¬
land, bounded on the eaft by Norfolk and Suffolk, on
the fouth by Effex and Hertfordfture, on the weft by
Bedfordihire and Huntingdonftiire, and on the north by Canibruige-.
T.i«rT>1n(Viirp.. Prior to the arrival of the Romans it _T
Lincolnlhire. Prior to the arrival of the Romans it
was included in the ancient divilion of the Iceni j and bridge
after their conqueft, in the third province of Flavia u—  >
Ciefarienfis, which reached from the Thames to the
Humber. During the Heptarchy it belonged to the
kingdom of the Eaft Angles, thefixth kingdom, vhich
began in 575, and ended in 792, having had 14 kings }
and it is now included in the Norfolk circuit, the dio-
cefe of Ely, and province of Canterbury^ except a
fmall part which is in the diocefe of Norwich. It is
about 40 miles in length from north to foulh, and 25
in bfcadth from eaft t© weft, and is 130 miles in cir¬
cumference, containing near sjo^oco acres. It. has
about 17,400 houfes, 140,000 inhabitants : is divided
into 17 hundreds, in which are one city, Ely} 8 market
towns, viz. Cambridge, which is the (hire tovn, and a
celebrated univerfity, Caxton, Linton, Merch, New¬
market, Soham, Wilbeach, Thorney, and part of Roy-
fton j 220 villages, 64 parifties : fends 2 members to
parliament (exclufive of 2 for the town, and 2 for the
univerfity), pays one part of the land tax, and pro¬
vides 480 men in ihe militia. Its only rivers are the
Cam, the Nene, and the Oufe. A confiderable tradl
of land in this county is diftinguiftied by the name of the
Ifle of Ely. It confifts of fenny ground, divided by in¬
numerable channels and drains : and is part of a very
fpacious level, containing 300,000 acres of land, ex¬
tending into Norfolk, Suffolk, Huntmgdonfture and
Lincolnfhire. The Ifle of Ely is the north divifion of
the county, and extends fouth almoft as far as Cam¬
bridge. The whole level of which this is part, is bound¬
ed on one fide by the fea, and on the others by up¬
lands; which taken together, form a rude kind of ie-
micircle, refembling a horfe (hoe. The air is very dif¬
ferent in different parts of the country. In the fens it
is moift and foggy, and therefore not fo wholefome j
but in the fouth and eaft parts it is very good, thele
being much drier than the other : but both, by late im¬
provements, have been rendered very fruitful, the
former by draining, and the latter by cinquefoil: io that
it produces plenty of corn, efpecially barley, lafiron,
and hemp, and affords the richeft paftures. The rivers
abound with fifh, and the fens with wild fowl. Ihe
principal manufa&ures of the county are malt, paper,
and bafkets. As the above trail appears to have
been dry land formerly, the great change.it has under¬
gone muft have been owing either to a violent breach
and inundation of the fea, or to earthquakes. As the
towns in and about the fens were great fufferers by
the ftagnation of the waters in fummer, and want of
provifions in winter, many attempts were made to
drain them, but without fuccefs, until the time of
Charles I. in which, and that of his fon, the mirk,
was happily completed, and an ail.of parliament palled,
by which a corporation was eftablifhed for its preferva-
tion and government. By the fame ail, 83,000 acres
were veiled in the corporation, and io,coo in the king.
In thefe fens are a great many DECOYS, m which in¬
credible numbers of ducks, and other wild fowl, are
caught during the feafon. The population of the
county of Cambridge, as it was taken in 1801, amount-
ed NfW9C3AMBRlDGE, a towu-of New England, about
'Xew Cam
bridge
I!
Camden.
CAM [ 9
- diree miles from Bollon, remarkable for anuniverfity con-
fifting of three colleges. W. Long. 70. 4. N. Lat. 42. o.
Cambridge Manufcript, a copy of the Gofpels and
Atts of the Apoftles in Greek and Latin. Beza
found it in the monaftery of Irenaeus at Lyons in the
year 1562, and gave it to the univerfity of Cambridge
hi 1582. It is a quarto lize, and written on vellum ;
66 leaves of it are much torn and mutilated, ten of
which are fupplied by a later tranfcriber. Beza con-
eftures, that this manufcript might have exifted fo
early as the time ©f Irenaeus : Wetftein apprehends
that it either returned or was firll brought from Egypt
into France 5 that it is the fame copy which IJruth-
mar, an ancient expofitor who lived about the year
840, had feen, and which, he obferves, Was afcribed to
St Hilary j and that R. Stephens had given a parti¬
cular account of it in his edition of the New Tefta-
ment in ijjo. It is ulually called Stephens'1 s fecond
Manufcript. Mill agrees with F. Simon in opinion,
that it was written in the weftern part of the world by
a Latin fcribe, and that it is to, a great degree inter¬
polated and corrupted : he obferves that it agrees fo
much with the Latin Vulgate, as to afford reafon for
concluding, that it was correfted or formed upon a
corrupt and faulty copy of that tranllation. From
this and the Clermont copy of St Paul’s Epiffles, Beza
puhliihed his larger Annotations in 1582.
CAMBYSES. See [Hiflory off Persia.
CAMDEN, William, the great antiquarian, wras
born in London in the year 1551. His father was a
native of Lichfield in Staffordlhire, who fettling in
London, became a member of the company of paper-
ftainers, and lived in the Old Bailey. His mother was
of the ancient family of Curwen, of Workington, in
Cumberland. He w-as educated firft at Chrift’s hofpi-
tal, and afterwards at St Paul’s fchool : from thence
he was fent, in 1 $66, to Oxford, and entered fervitor
of Magdalen college j but being difappointed of a de¬
my’s place, he removed to Broadgate hall, and fome-
V’hat more than two years after to Chrift-church,
where he was fupported by his kind friend and patron
Dr Ihornton. About this time he was a candidate for
a fellowfhip of All-fouls college, but loft it by the in¬
trigues of the Popilh party. In 1570, he fupplicated
the regents of the univerfity to be admitted bachelor of
arts 5 but in this alfo he milcarried. Lhe following
year Mr Camden came to London, v'here he profecu-
ted his favourite ftudy of antiquity, under the patro¬
nage of Dr Goodman, dean of Wertminfter, by whofe
intereft he was made fecond mafter of Weftminfter
fchool in 1575* From the time of his leaving the uni¬
verfity to this period, he took feveral journeys to dif¬
ferent parts of England, with a view to make obferva-
tions and collect materials for his Britannia, in which
he was now deeply engaged. In 1581 he became in¬
timately acquainted with the learned Prefident Briffon,
t ] CAM
who was then in England j and in 1586 he publilhed Camden,
the firft edition of his Britannia ; a wrork which, though ^
much enlarged and improved in future editions, was
even then efteemed an honour to its author, and the
glory of its country. In 1593 he fucceeded to the
head mafterlhip of Weftminfter fchool on the refigna-
tion of Dr Grant. In this office he continued till
1597, when he was promoted to be Clarencieux king
at arms. In the year 1600 Mr Camden made a tour
to the north, as far as Carlifle, accompanied by his
friend Mr (afterwards Sir Robert) Cotton. In 1606
he began his correfpondence with the celebrated Pre>
fident de Thou, which continued to the death of that
faithful hiftorian. In the following year he publilh-
ed his laft edition of the Britannia, which is that
from which the feveral Englilh tranllations have been
made j and in 1608, he began to digeft his materials
for a hiftory of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. In
1609, after recovering from a dangerous illnefs, he
retired to Chiilehurft in Kent, where he continued to
fpend the fummer months during the remainder of his
life. The firft part of his Annals of the qileen did not
appear till the year 1615, and he determined that the
fecond volume ffiould not appear till after his death (a).
The work was entirely finiffied in 16173 and from
that time he was principally employed in collecling
more materials for the further improvement of his
Britannia. In 1622, being now upwards of 70, and
finding his health decline apace, he determined to lofe
no time in executing his defign of founding a hiftory
ledlure in the univerfity of Oxford. His deed of gift
was accordingly tranfmitted by his friend Mr Heather
to Mr Gregory Wheare, who was, by himfelf, ap¬
pointed his firft profeffor. He died at Chiflehurft in
1623, in the 73d year of his age 3 and was buried
with great folemnity in Weftminfter abbey, in the fouth
aifle, where a monument of white marble was erected
to his memory. Camden was a man of lingular mo-
defty and integrity ; profoundly learned in the hiftory
and antiquities of this kingdom, and a judicious and
confcientious hiftorian. He was reverenced and efteem¬
ed by the literati of all nations, and will be ever re¬
membered as an honour to the age and country where¬
in he lived. Befides the works already mentioned, he
was author of an excellent Greek grammar, and of fe,
veral tra£ls in Hearne’s colleftion. But his great and
moft ufeful work, the Britannia, is that upon which
his fame is chiefly built. The edition above mention¬
ed, to which he put his laft hand, was correctly print¬
ed in folio, much augmented, amended where it was
neceffary, and adorned with maps. It was firft tranf-
lated into Englilh, and publiffied in folio at London,
in 1611, by the laborious Dr Philemon Holland, a
phyfician of Coventry, who is thought to have con-
fulted our author himfelf 3 and therefore great refpedl
has been paid to the additions and explanations that
M 2 occur
(a) The reign of Queen Elizabeth was fo recent when the firft volume of the Annals was publilhed, that
many of the perfons concerned, or their dependents, were ftill living. It is no wonder, therefore, that the ho-
neft hiftorian Ihould offend thofe whofe actions would not bear inquiry. Some of his enemies were clamorous
and troublefome 3 which determined him not to publiffi the'fecond volume during his life 3 but that pofterity
Inif. j3? 3n n0 fianger °f difappointment, he depofited one copy in the Cotton library, and tranfmitted another
to his friend Dupuy at Paris, It wras firft printed at Leyden in 1625.
C A M
C^meo.
IP
Camden occur therein, on a fuppofition that they may belong
" to Camden. But in a later edition of the lame tranfla-
,tion, publilhed in 1636, the Doftor has taken liberties
which cannot either be defended or exeufed. A new
tranflation, made with the utmoft fidelity from the laft
edition of our author’s work, was publilhed in 1695,
by Edmund Gibfon of Queen’s college in Oxford, af¬
terwards biihop of London ^ in which, befides the ad¬
dition of notes, and of all that deferved to be taken
notice of in Dr Holland’s firft edition, which, though
thrown out of the text, is preferved at the bottom of
the page, there are many other augmentations and im¬
provements, all properly diftinguilhed from the genuine
work of the author, as they ought to be : and the
fame judicious method obtained in the next edition ot
the fame performance, which was jultly confidered as
tile very belt book of its kind that had been hitherto
publilhed. But the public has been recently put m
poffelfion of a new tranllation, and ftill more improved
edition, by that learned and induftrious topographer
Mr Gough, under whofe hands it has been enlarged
A M
1 c .
CAMERA jeolia, a contrivance for blowing the
fire, for the fufion of ores, without bellows } by means
of water falling through a funnel into a dole vefi'tl,
which fends from it fo much air or vapour as conti¬
nually blows the fire : if there be the fpace of another
veffel for it to expatiate in by the way, it there lets
fall its humidity, which etherwife might hinder the
work. This contrivance was named camera ceoha by
CAMERA Lucida,'& contrivance of Dr Hook for ma¬
king the image of any thing appear on a wall in a
light room, either by day or night. _ Oppofite to the
place or wall where the appearance is to be, make a
hole of at leaft a foot in diameter, or_ if there be a
high window with a cafement of this dimenfion in it,
this will do much better without fuch hole or cafement
opened. . , .
At a convenient diftance, to prevent its being per¬
ceived by the company in the room, place the object
or picture intended to be reprefented, but in an in¬
verted fituation. If the pifture be tranfparent, refied
Camera
JEolia
Camera
Obfcura.
ivir xcruLiEiij liiivaa.i. « 1 i* j*
to near double the fize of the laft of the preceding edi¬
tions.
CAMEL, in Zoology. See Camelus. _
Camel, in Mechanics, a kind of machine ufed. m
Holland for raifing or lifting fhips, in order to bring
them over the Pampus, which is at the mouth oi the
river Y where the ftiallownefs of the water hinders large
ftiips from patfing. It is alfo ufed in other places par¬
ticularly at the- dock of Peterfburgh, the veffels built
here being in their paffage to Cronftadt lifted over the
bar by means of camels. Thefe machines were origi¬
nally invented by the celebrated De Wit, for^the pur-
pofe above mentioned 5 and were introduced into Kui-
fia by Peter the Great, who obtained the model ot
them when he worked in Holland as a common fhip-
wright. A camel is compofed of two ieparate parts,
whofe outfides are perpendicular, and whofe iniides are
concave, fhaped fo as to embrace the hull of. a fhip on
both Tides. Each part has a fmall cabin with fixteen
pumps and ten plugs, and contains 20 men. They are
braced to a ihip underneath by means of cables, and
entirely enelofe its Tides and bottom 5 being then tow¬
ed to the bar, the plugs are opened, and the water ad¬
mitted until the camel finks with the fhip and runs
aPTound. Then, the water being pumped out, the
camel rifes, lifts up the veflel, and the whole is towed
over the bar. This machine can raife the fhip eleven
feet, or, in other words, make it draw eleven feet lefs
'' camelFORD, a borough town of Cornwall in
England, confifting of about 100 houfes, badly built j
but the ftreets are broad and well paved. W. Long.
r 4. N. Lat. 50. 40. It fends two members to par-
ikiment •, and gives title of baron to Thomas Pitt, el¬
der brother of the great earl of Chatham.
CAM ELI A. See Botany Index.
CAMELODUNUM. See Camaloduxum.
CAMELOPARDALIS, in Zoology, the trivial
name of a fpecies of Cervus. See Mammalia In-
dC C AMELUS, or Camel, in Zoology, a genus of
quadrupeds belonging to the order of pecora. oee
Mammalia Index.
CAMEO. See Cammell.
vertea niuauuu. x ■
the fun’s rays by means of a looking -glafs, fo as tha.
they may pafs through it towards the place of repre-
fentation •, and, to prevent any rays from puffing afide
it let the picture be encompafled with fome board 01
cloth. If the objeft be a ftatue, or a living creature,
it muft be much enlightened by calling the fun s rays
on it, either by refledion, refradion, or both. Be¬
tween this objed and the place of reprefentation put
a broad convex glafs, ground to fuch a convexity a.
that it may reprefent the objed diftindly in fuch
place. The nearer this is fituated to the objed the
more will the image be magnified on the wall, and the
further the lefs: fuch diverfity depending on the dif¬
ference of the fpheres of the glaffes. If the objed
cannot be conveniently inverted, there muft be two
large glaffes of proper fpheres, fituated at fuitable di-
ftances, eafily found by trial, to make the representa¬
tions ered. This whole apparatus of objed, glaffes
&c. with the perfons employed in the management of
them, are to be placed without the window- or hole,
fo that they may not be perceived by the fpedators m
the room, and the operation itfelf will be eaiil> pe -
formed. Phil. Tranf. N° 38. p. 741- ffT .
CAMERA Obfcura, or Dark Chamber, m Optics a ma¬
chine, or apparatus, reprefenting an artificial eye 5
whereon the images of external objeds
through a double convex glafs, are exhibited diftindly
and in their native colours, on a white matter placed
within the machine, in the focus of the glafs
The firft invention of this mftrument is afcnbed to
Baptifta Porta. See his Magia haturahs, lib. xvn.
cap1 6 firft publifhed at Frankfort about the year
1389 or 1591; the firft four books of this work were
publifhed at Antwerp in 1560.
r The camera obfcura affords very diverting fpedacles,
both by exhibiting images perfedly like t^eir objeds,
and each clothed in their native colours 5. and by ex-
prelfing, at the fame time, all their motions , w Inch
latter no other art can imitate. By means of this m-
ftrument, a perfon unacquainted with defigmng wi
be able o deHneate objeds with the greateft accuracy
uc . E ^ _ ...Ml m narntmcf will
an/j’-U'Xffi well verfed” in palming will
e-...i     tLlno-e herein to perfed his art. be(
See the
find many things herein to period his art.
conitrudipn under Dioptrics. CAHERARI^
CAM [
Cameram CAMERARIA. See Botany Index.
H CAIMERARIUS, Joachim, one of the moft learn-
Caincrom- wrjters 0f hJs time, was born in 1500, at Bamberg,
» y — a city of Franconia •, and obtained great reputation by
his writings. He tranfiated into Latin Herodotus,
Demofthenes, Xenophon, Euclid, Homer, I heocritus,
Sophocles, Lucian, Theodoret, Nicephorus, &c. He
publithed a catalogue of the biihops of the principal
fees i Greek epiftles •, Accounts of his journeys, in
Latin verfe •, a Commentary on Plautus j the Lives of
Helius Eobanus Heffus, and Philip Melanclhon, &c.
He died in 1574.
Camerarius, Joachim, fon of the former, and a
learned phylician, was born at Nuremberg in 1534.
After having finifhed his ftudies in Germany, he went
into Pcaly, where he obtained the eReem of the learn¬
ed. At his return he was courted by feveral princes
to live with them j but he was too much devoted to
books, and the Rudy of chemiflry and botany, to com¬
ply. He wrote a Hortus Medicus, and feveral other
works. He died in 1598.
GAMERATED, among builders, the fame with
vaulted or arched.
CAMERET BAY, in the province of Brittany in
France, forms the harbour of BreR. See Brest.
CAMERINO, a town of the Ecclefiaflical State in
Italy, Rtuated in E. Long. 13- ?• 45- 5*
CAMERLINGO, according to Du Cange, figni-
fied formerly the pope’s or emperor’s treafurer : at pre-
fent, camerlingo is nowhere ufed but at Rome, where
it denotes the cardinal who governs the EcclefiaRical
State, and adminiRers juflice. It is the mofl eminent
office at the court of Rome, becaufe he is at the head
of the treafury. During a vacation of the papal chair,
the cardinal camerlingo publifhes edi£ls, coins money,
and exerts every other prerogative of a fovereign
prince •, he has under him a treafurer-general, auditor-
general, and 12 prelates called clerks of the chamber.
CAMERON, John, one of the moR famous di¬
vines among the Proteflants of France in the 17th cen¬
tury, was born at Glafgow in Scotland, where he taught
the Greek tongue •, and having read ledlures upon that
language for about a year, travelled, and became pro-
fefibr at feveral univerfities, and minifler at Bourdeaux.
He publiihed, 1. Theological lectures •, 2. Icon Johan-
nis Cameronis; and fome mifcellaneous pieces. He
died in 1625, aged 60.
CAMERONIANS, a fe£l or party in Scotland,
who feparated from the Prelhyterians in 1666, and
continued to hold their religious affemblies in the
fields.
The Cameronians took their denomination from
Richard Cameron, a famous field preacher, who refu-
fing to accept the indulgences to tender eonfciences,
granted by King Charles II. as iuch an acceptance
leemed an acknowledgment of the king’s fupremacy,
and that he had before a right to filence them, made
a defection from his brethren, and even headed a re¬
bellion, in which he was killed. His followers were
never entirely reduced till the Revolution, when they
voluntarily fubmitted to King 'William.
The Cameronians adhered rigidly to the form of go¬
vernment eRabliihed in 1648.
Cameronians, or Cameromtes, is alfo the denomi¬
nation of. a party of QalviniRs in France, who aflerted
93 1 CAM
that the will of a man is only determined by the prao- Cameron?-
tical judgment of the mind 5 that the caufe of men’s aJjs
doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which £anil]j;
God infufes into them •, and that God does not move i — —
the will phyfically, but only morally, in virtue of its
dependence on the judgment of the mind. They had
this name from John Cameron, a famous profeffor, firR
at Glafgow, where he was born, in 1580, and after¬
wards at Bourdeaux, Sedan, and Saumur •, at which
laR place he broached his new doctrine of grace and
free will, which was formed by Amyraut, Cappel, Bo-
chart, Daille, and others of the more learned among
the reformed miniRers, who judged Calvin’s doftrines
on thefe points too harRi. The Cameronians are a
fort of mitigated Calvinifts, and approach to the opi¬
nion of the Arminians. They are alfo called Univer-
falifls, as holding tire univerfality of ChriR’s death j*
and fometimes Amyraldi/ls. The rigid adherents to
the fynod of Dort accufed them of Pelagianifm, and
even of Manicheifm. The controverfy between the
parties was carried on wdth a zeal and fubtilty fcarce
conceivable *, yet all the queRion between them was
only, Whether the will of man is determined by the
immediate aftion of God upon it, or by the interven¬
tion of a knowledge which God impreffes into the
mind ? The fynod of Dort had defined that God not
only illuminates the underRanding, but gives motion
to the will by making an internal change therein.
Cameron only admitted the illumination, whereby the
mind is morally movedand explained the fentiment
of the fynod of Dort fo as to make the two opinions
confiRent.
GAMES, a name given to the fmall Render rods
of cafl lead of which the glaziers make their turned
lead.
Their lead being caR into Render rods of twelve or
fourteen inches long each, is called the came; fome¬
times alfo they call each of thefe rods a came, which
being afterwards drawn through their vice, makes their
turned lead.
CAMILLUS, Marcus Furius, was the firfl who
rendered the family of Furius illuflrious. He triumph¬
ed four times, wras five times didRator, and was honour¬
ed with the title of the fecond founder of Rome. In a
word, he acquired all the glory a man can gain in his
own country. Lucius Apuleius, one of the tribunes,
profccuted him to make him give an account of the
fpoils taken at Veii. Camillus anticipated judgment,
and baniflied himfelf voluntarily. During his banifh-
ment, initead of rejoicing at the devaflation of Rome
by the Gauls, he exerted all his wifdom and bravery
to drive away the enemy; and yet kept with the ut-
moR flriftnefs the facred law of Rome, in refufing to
accept the command, which feveral private perfons of¬
fered him. The Romans who wrere befieged in the
capitol, created him di&ator in the year 363 ; in
which office he added with fo much bravery and con-
ducR, that he entirely drove the army of the Gauls out
of the territories of the commonwealth.. He died in-
the 81R year of bis age, 365 years before the ChriRian
era.
CAMILLI and Camilla, in antiquity, boys and
girls of ingenuous birth, who miniRered in the facri-
fices of the gods ; and efpecially thofe who attended
the- famcn dialis, or prieR of Jupiter. The word feems>
borrowed-
CAM [9^
Oamilli borrowed from tile language of the ancient Hctrurians,
i! where it fignified minifter, and was changed from caf-
Camoens. ^ The Tufeans alfo gave the appellation CamiU
lus to Mercury, in quality of minifter of the gods.
CAMINHA, a maritime town of Portugal, in the
province of Entre-Duero-e-Minho, with the title of a
duchy. It is fituated at the mouth of the river Min*
ho, ip W. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 41. 44,
CAMIS, or KamIS, in the Japanefe theology, de¬
note deified fouls of ancient heroes, who are fuppofed
ftill to intereft themfelves in the welfare of the people
whom they anciently commanded.
The camis anfwer to the heroes in the ancient Greek
and Roman theology, and are venerated like the faints
in the modern Roman church.
Befides the heroes or camis beatified by the confent
of antiquity, the mikaddos, or pontiffs, have deified
many others, and continue ftill to grant the apotheofis
to new worthies j fo that they fwarm with camir: the
principal one is Tenjio Dai Sin, the common father of
Japan, to whom are paid devotions and pilgrimages ex«
traordinary.
CAMISADE, in the art of war, an attack by fur-
prife in the night, or at the break of day, when the
enemy is fuppofed to be a*bed. I he word is faid to
have taken its rife from an attack of this kind •, where¬
in, as a badge or fignal to know one another by, they
bore a ftiift, in French called chemife, or chamife, oyer
their arms.
C AMISARDS, a name given by the French to the
Calvinifts of the Cevennes, who formed a league, and
took up arms in their own defence, in 1688.
CAMLETINE, a flight fluff, made of hair and
coarfe filk, in the manner of oamblet. It is now out
of faftiion. . . .
CAMMA, and Gobbi, two provinces of the king¬
dom of Loango in Africa. The inhabitants are con¬
tinually at war with each other. The weapons they
formerly ufed in their wars were the fliort pike, bows
and arrows, fwrord and dagger j but fince the Euro¬
peans have become acquainted with that coaft, they
have fupplied them with fire-arms. The chief town
of Gobbi lies about a day’s journey from the fea.-—
Their rivers abound with a variety of fifh bnf are in-
fefted with fea-horfes, which do great mifehief both by
land and water. The principal commerce with the
natives is in logwood, elephants teeth and tails, the
hair of which is highly valued, and ufed for feveral
curious purpofes. . .
CAMMIN, a maritime town of Germany, in Bran¬
denburg Pomerania, fituated in E. Long. 150, N. Lat.
<4°.
CAMOENS, Louis DE, a famous Portuguefe poet,
the honour of whofe birth is claimed by different cities.
But according to N. Antonio, and Manuel Correa, his
intimate friend, this event happened at Lifbon in 1517.
His family was of confiderable note, and originally
Bpaniih. In 1370, Vafco Perez de Gasmans, difguft-
ed at the court of Caftile, fled to that of Lifbon, where
King Ferdinand immediately admitted him into his
council, and gave him the lordfhips of Sardoal, Pun-
nete, Marano, Amendo, and other confiderable lands.*,
a certain proof of the eminence of his rank and abili¬
ties. In the war for the fucceflion, which broke out
m the death of Ferdinand, Camoens fided with the
2
}. ] CAM
king of Caffile, and wras killed in the battle of Alja- Causesrn.
barota. But though John I, the vi&or, feized a great v
part of his eftate, his widow', the daughter of Gonfalo
Tereyro, grand mafter of the order of Chrift, and ge¬
neral of the Portuguefe army, was not reduced beneath
her rank. She had three fons w ho took the name of
Camoens. The family of the eldeft intermarried with
the firft nobility of Portugal ; and even, according to
Caftera, with the blood royal. But the family of the
fecond brother, whofe fortune was llender, had the fu-
perior honour to produce the author of the Lufiad.
Early in his life the misfortunes of the poet began.
In his infancy, Simon Vaz de Camoens, his father,
commander of a veffel, was fliipwrecked at Goa, where,
with his life, the greateft part of his fortune was loft.
His mother, however, Anne de Macedo of Santarene,
provided for the education of her fon Louis at the uni-
verfity of Coimbra. What he acquired there, his
works difeover j an intimacy with the claflics, equal to
that of a Scaliger, but diredfted by the tafte of a Mil-
ton or a Pope.
When he left the univerfity, he appeared at court.
He was handfome j had fpeaking eyes, it is faid j and
the ffneft complexion. Certain it is, however, he was
a poliftied fcholar, which, added to the natural ardour
and gay vivacity of his difpofition, rendered him an
accompliflied gentleman. Courts are the feenes of in¬
trigue *, and intrigue was faftiionable at Lilbon. But
the particulars of the amours of Camoens reft un¬
known. This only appears : he had afpired above his
rank, for he was banilhed from the court *, and in fe¬
veral of his fonnets he aferibes this misfortune to
love.
He now retired to his mother’s friends at Santarene.
Here he renewed his ftudies, and began his poem on
the difeovery of India. John III. at this time.prepa¬
red an armament againft Africa. Camoens, tired of
his inactive obfeure life, went to Ceuta in this expedi¬
tion, and greatly diftinguifhed his valour in feveral
rencounters. In a naval engagement with the Moors
in the ftraits of Gibraltar, in the confli&.of boarding,
he was among the foremoft, and loft his right eye.
Yet neither hurry of a&ual fervice nor the diflipation
of the camp could ftifle his genius. He continued his
Lujiadas, and feveral of his moft beautiful fonnets were
w ritten in Africa, while, as he expreffed it,
One hand the pen, and one the fword, employ’d.
The fame of his valour had now reached the court,
and he obtained permiflion to return to Lifbon. But,
while he folicited an eftablifhment which he had merit¬
ed in the ranks of battle, tbe malignity of evil tongues,
as he calls it in one of his letters, was injurioufly pour¬
ed upon him. Though the bloom of his early youth
was effaced by feveral years refidence under the fcorch-
ing heavens of Africa, and though altered by the lofs
of an eye, his prefence gave an uneafinefs to the gentle¬
men of fome families of the firft rank where he had
formerly vifited. Jealoufy is the chara&eriftic of the
Spaniards and Portuguefe ; its refentment knows no
bounds, and Camoens now found it prudent to banifli
himfelf from his native country. Accordingly, in
1553, he failed for India, with a re olution never to
return. As the {hip left the Tagus, he exclaimed, in
the words of the fepulchral monument of Scipio A fri-
canuffj
CAM [
Caweens, canus, Ingrain patria^ non pqflidebu qfla mea / “ Un-
grateful country, thou {halt not poflefs my bones !”
But he knew not what evils in the eaft would awake
the remembrance of his native fields.
When Camoens arrived in India, an expedition
was ready to fail to revenge the king of Cochin on
the king of Pimenta. Without any reft on ftiore after
his long voyage, he joined this armament, and in the
conqueft of the Alagada illands difplayed his ufual
bravery.
In the year following, he attended Manuel de Vaf-
eoncello in an expedition to the Red fea. Here, fays
Faria, as Camoens had no ufe for his fword, he em¬
ployed his pen. Nor was his activity confined to the
fleet or camp. He vifited Mount Felix and the adja¬
cent inhofpitable regions of Africa, which he fo ftrong-
ly pictures in the Lufiad, and in one of his little pieces
where he laments the abfence of his miftrefs.
When he returned to Goa, he enjoyed a tranquillity
which enabled him to beftow his attention on his epic
poem. But this ferenity was interrupted, perhaps by
his own imprudence. He wrote fome fatires which gave
offence : and by order of the viceroy Francifco Barre¬
to, he was baniihed to China.
The accompliftiments and manners of Camoens foon
found him friends, though under the difgrace of ba-
nilhment. He was appointed commiffary of the de¬
fun £1 in the ifland of Macao, a Portuguefe fettlement
in the bay of Canton. Here he continued his Lufiad ;
and here alfo, after five years refidence, he acquired a
fortune, though fmall, yet equal to his withes. Don
Conftantine de Braganza wras now viceroy of India ;
and Camoens, defirous to return to Goa, refigned his
charge. In a fhip, freighted by himfelf, he fet fail;
but was fhipwrccked in the gulf near the mouth of the
river Mehon, on the coaft of China. All he had ac¬
quired was loft in the w'aves ; his poems, which he
held in one hand, wdiile he fwimmed with the other,
were all he found himfelf poffeffed of when he flood
friendlefs on the unknown ftiore. But the natives gave
him a moft humane reception: this he has immorta¬
lized in the prophetic fong in the tenth Lufiad 5 and
in the feventh, he tells us, that here he loft the wealth
which fatisfied his withes.
Agora da efparanpa ja adqttirida, fac.
Now bleft with all the wealth fond hope could crave,
Soon I beheld that wealth beneath the wave
For ever loft ; 
My life, like Judah’s heaven-doom’d king of yore,
By miracle prolong’d———
On the banks of the Mehon he wrote his beautiful
paraphrafe of the pfalm, where the Jews, in the fineft
ftrain of poetry, are reprefented as hanging their harps
on the willows, by the rivers of Babylon, and weeping
their exile from their native country. Here Camoens
continued fome time, till an opportunity offered to
carry him to Goa. When he arrived at that city,
Don Conftantine de Braganza, the viceroy, wLofe cha-
ra&eriftic was politenefs, admitted him into intimate
friend'hip, and Camoens wras happy till Count Redon¬
do affumed the government. Thofe who had formerly
procured the baniftiment of the fatirift, were filent
while Conftantine was in potver; but now they exert¬
ed all their arts againft him. Redondo, when he en-
95 1 CAM
tered on office, pretended to be the friend of Camocnsj Camaeei*
yet, with all that unfeeling indifference with which he1J*
made his moft horrible witticifm on the Zamorin, he
fuffered the innocent man to be thrown into the com¬
mon prifon. After all the delay of bringing witneffes,
Camoens, in a public trial, fully refuted every accufa-
tion of his conduct while commiffary at Macao, and
his enemies were loaded with ignominy and reproach.
But Camoens had fome creditors, and thefe detained
him in prifon a confiderable time, till the gentlemen of
Goa began to be alhamed that a man of his lingular
merit ftiould experience fuch treatment among them*
He was fet at liberty ; and again he aflumed the pro-
feflion of arms, and received the allowance of a gen¬
tleman volunteer, a charafter at this time common in
Portuguefe India. Soon after, Pedro Barreto, ap¬
pointed governor of the fort at Sofala, by high promi-
fes, allured the poet to attend him thither. The go¬
vernor of a diftant fort, in a barbarous country, ftiares
in fome meafure the fate of an exile. Yet, though
the only motive of Barreto was, _in this unpleafant fi-
tuation, to retain the converfatien of Camoens at his
table, it was his leaft care to render the life of his
gueft agreeable. Chagrined with his treatment, and
a confiderable time having elapfed in vain dependence
upon Barreto, Camoens refolved to return to his na^
tivo country. A ftiip, on the homeward voyage, at
this time touched at Sofala, and feveral gentlemen who
were on board, were defirous that Camoens ftiould ac¬
company them. But this the governor ungeneroufly
endeavoured to prevent, and charged him with a debt
for board. Anthony de Cabra, however, and Hec¬
tor de Sylveyra, paid the demand j and Camoens,
fays Faria, and the honour of Barreto, were fold toge¬
ther.
After an abfence of 16 years, Camoens, in 1569, re¬
turned to Liftion, unhappy even in his arrival, for the
peftiience then raged in that city, and prevented his
publication for three years. At laft, in 1572, her
printed his Lufiad, which, in the opening of the firft
book, in a moft elegant turn of compliment, he ad-
dreffed to his prince, King Sebaftian, then in his 18th
year. The king, fays the French tranflator, was fo
pleafed with his merit, that he gave the author a pen-
fion of 4COO reals, on condition that he ftiould refide
at court. But this falary, fays the fame writer, v'as
withdrawn by Cardinal Henry, who fucceeded to the
crown of Portugal, loft by Sebaftian at the battle of
Alcazar.
Though the great patron of one fpecies of literature,
a fpecies the reverfe of that of Camoens, certain it is,
that the author of the Lufiad was utterly negledted by
Henry, under v hofe inglorious reign he died in all the
mifery of poverty. By fome, it is faid, he died in an
alms-houfe. It appears, however, that he had not
even the certainty of fubfiftenee which thefe houfes"
provide. He had a black fervant, who had grown old
with him, and who had long experienced his mafter’s
humanity. This grateful Indian, a native of Java,
who, according to fome writers, faved his mafter’s life
in the unhappy ftiipwretk where he loft his effects, beg¬
ged in the ftreets of Liftbon for the only man in Portu¬
gal on whom God had beftowed thofe talents which
have a tendency to ereft the fpirit of a downward age.
To the eye of a faithful obferver, the fate of Camoens
throws
CAM [ 96 ] G ,A
tlirows great light on that of his country, and trill ap- other filth, of the camp bohmcl.
pear itriclly connected with it. The fame ignorance,
the fame degenerated fpirit, which fuffered Camoens
to depend on his {hare of the alms begged in theftreets
by his old hoary fervant, the fame fpirit which caufed
this funk the kingdom of Portugal into the molt ab-
je£t vafl'alage ever experienced by a conquered nation.
While the grandees of Portugal were blind to the ruin
which impended over them, Camoens beheld it with a
qnmgency of grief which haftened his exit. In one of
his letters he has thefe remarkable words : Em Jim ac-
cabcrei/ a vida, e verram todos que fuy cfcicoada a min-
ho patridy is’e. “ I am ending the courfe of my life j
the world will witnefs how I have loved my country.
I have returned, not only to die in her bofom, but to
die with her.”
In this unhappy fituation, in 1579, in his 62d year,
the yfcar after the fatal defeat of Don Sebailian, died
Louis de Camoens, the greateft literary genius ever
produced by Portugal ; in martial courage and fpint
of honour, nothing inferior to her greateft heroes. And
in a manner fuitable to the poverty in which he died,
was he buried.
CAMOMILE. See Anthemis, Botany Index.
CAMP, the ground on wdiich an army pitch their
tents. It is marked out by the quartermafter general,
who appoints every regiment their ground.
The chief advantages to be minded in choonng a
camp for an army, are, to have it near the water, in a
country of forage, where the foldiers may find wood
for drefling their viftuals j that it have a free commu¬
nication with garrifons, and with a country from
whence it may be fupplied with provifions j and, if
poffible, that it be fituated on a rifing ground, in a dry
gravelly foil. Befides, the advantages of the ground
ought to be confidered, as marflies, wnods, rivers, and
enclofures ; and if the camp be near the enemy, with
no river or marfti to cover it, the army ought to be
intrenched. An army always encamps fronting the
enemy } and generally in two lines, running parallel
about 500 yards diftance *, the horfe and dragoons, on
the wings ; and the foot, in the centre : fometimes a
body of two, three, or four brigades, is encamped be¬
hind the two lines, and is called the body of referve.
The artillery and bread-waggons are generally encamp¬
ed in the rear of the two lines. A battalion of foot is
allowed 80 or 100 paces for its camp •, and 30 or 40
for an interval betwixt one battalion and another. A
fquadron of horfe is allowed 30 for its camp, and 30
for an interval, and more if the ground will allow it.
Where the grounds are equally dry thofe camps are ^ f07 th7chief enfigns? The middle of the
always the moft healthful that are pitched on the ban s P pj affigned to the Roman horfe : next
of >7 fivers, beesufe, in t e h0. ff:n 1 uaions .nani; then the prices.
M
> v     __  ^  This muft be fre- Camp.
quently done, if confiftent with the military operations: Y—
but when thefe render it improper to change the
ground often, the privies fhould be made deeper than
ufual, and once a-day a thick layer of earth thrown
into them till the pits arc near full} and then they are
to be well covered, and fupplied by others. It may
alfo be a proper caution to order the pits to be made
either in the front or the rear, as the then ftationary
winds may belt carry off their effluvia from the camp.
Moreover, it will be neceffary to change theffraw fre¬
quently, as being not only apt to rot, but to retain the
infectious fleams of the fick. But if frefli ftraw cannot
be procured, more care muft be taken in airing the
tents, as well as the old ftraw.
The difpofition of the Hebrew encampment was at
firft laid out by God himfelf. Their camp was of a
quadrangular form, furrounded with an enclofure of tbo
height of 10 hands-breadth. It made a fquare of 12
miles in compafs about the tabernacle y and within this
wras another called the Levites camp.
The Greeks had alfo their camps, fortified with gates
and ditches. The Lacedemonians made their camp of
a round figure, leoking upon that as the moft perfetft
and defenlible of any form : we are not, however, to
imagine, that they thought this form fo effential to a
camp, as never to be diipenfed with w hen the circum-
ftances of the place required it. Of the reft of the Gre¬
cian camps, it may be obferved, that the moft valiant
of the foldiers were placed at the extremities, the
reft in the middle. JLhus we learn from Homer, that
Achilles and Ajax were ported at the ends of the camp
before Troy, as bulwarks on each fide of the reft of
the princes. ,
The figure of the Roman camp was a {quare divided
into two principal parts : in. the upper part were the
general’s pavilion, or praetorium, and the tents of the
chief officers j in the lower, thofe of inferior degree
were placed. On one fide of the prmtonum flood the
quseftorium, or apartment of the treafurer of the army .
and near this the forum, both for a market place and
the aflembling of councils. On the other fide of the
prsetorium w ere lodged the legati j and below^ it the
tribunes had their quarters, oppofite to their refpeiftive
legions. Afide of the tribunes were the praefedh of
the foreign troops, over againft their refpcdlive wings.j
and behind thefe were the lodgments of the. evocati,
then thofe of the extraordinarii and ablefti equites,
which concluded the higher part of the camp. Be¬
tween the two partitions was a fpot of ground called
principidy for the altars and jmagesof thegods^and
of this kind have a ftream of frefti air from the water,
ferving to carry off the moift and putrid exhalations.
On the other hand, next to marffies, the worft encamp¬
ments are on low grounds clofe befet with trees ; for
then the air is not only moift and hurtful in itielf, but
by ftagnating becomes more fufceptible of corruption.
However, let the fituation of camps be ever fo good,
they are frequently rendered infeaious by the putrid
effluvia of rotten ftraw, and the privies of the ai'™y»
more efpecially if the bloody flux prevails •, in which
cafe the beft method of preventing a general infection,
b to leave the ground with the privies, foul ftraw, and
to them w ere quartered the triarii *, then the pnncipes,
and clofe by them the haftati j afterwards the foreign
horfe, and laftly, the foreign foot. They fortified
their camp with a ditch and parapet, which they term¬
ed Ma and vallum ; in the latter feme diftmgmffl two
parts, viz. the agger or earth, and the/Wer or wooden
flakes driven in to fecure it. The camps were lome-
times furrounded by w'alls made of hewn ftone ; and
the tents themfelves formed of the fame matter.
In the front of the Turkifli camp are quartered the
ianizanes and other foot, whofe tents encompafs. their
ao-a • in the rear are the quarters of the ip ah is and
0 other
CAM r 97 ] CAM
Camp otlier liorfemen. The body of the camp is poffefled
^ II. by the {lately tents or pavilions of the vizier or gene-
„'a ^ ^ ‘ ral, rais eflfendi or chancellor, khaija or fteward, the
tefterdar balhaw or lord treafurer, and kapiflar kahia-
feer or mailer of the ceremonies. In the middle of
thefe tents is a fpacious field, wherein are creeled a
building for the divan, and a hafna or treafury. When
the ground is marked out for a camp, all wrait for the
pitching of the tent lailac, the place where the courts
of juftice are held; it being the difpofition of this that
is to regulate all the reft.
The Arabs ftill live in camps, as the ancient Scenites
did. The camp of the Aflyne Emir, or king of the
country about Tadmor, is deferibed by a traveller who
viewed it, as fpread over a very large plain, and pof-
fefTmg fo vaft a fpace, that though he had the ad-
vantage of a rifing ground, he could not fee the
utmoft extent of it. His own tent was near the mid¬
dle } fcarce diftinguiftiable from the reft, except that
it was bigger, being made, like the others, of a fort of
haircloth.
Camp, is alfo ufed by the Siamefe, and fome other
nations in the Eaft Indies, as the name of the quarters
which they aflign to foreigners who come to trade with
them. In thefe camps, every nation forms, as it were,
a particular town, where they carry on all their trade,
not only keeping all their warehoufes and {hops .there,
but alfo living in thefe camps w ith their whole families.
The Europeans, however, are fo far indulged, that at
Siam, and almoft everywhere elfe, they may live either
in the cities or fuburbs, as they {hall judge moft con¬
venient.
Camp-fight) or KAMP fight, in law writers, denotes
the trial of a caufe by duel, or a legal combat of two
champions in the field, for decifion of fome contro-
verfy.
In the trial by camp-fight, the accufer was, with
the peril of his own body, to prove the accufed guilty j
and by offering him his glove, to challenge him to
this trial, which the other muft either accept of, or ac¬
knowledge himfelf guilty of the crime whereof he was
accufed.
If it w'ere a crime deferving death, the camp-fight
was for life and death : if the offence deferved only
imprifonment, the camp-fight was accomplilhed when
one combatant had fubdued the other, fo as either to
make him yield or take him prifoner. The accufed
had liberty to choofe another to fight in his Head, but
the accufer was obliged to perform it in his own per-
fon, and with equality of weapons. No women were
permitted to be fpedlators, nor men under the age of
thirteen. The prieft and the people who looked on,
were engaged filently in prayer, that the victory might
fall to him who had right. None might cry, fliriek,
or give the leaft fign •, which in fome places was exe¬
cuted with fo much ftri&nefs, that the executioner
flood ready with an axe to cut off the right hand or
foot of the party that Ihould offend herein.
He that, being wounded, yielded himfelf, was at the
other’s mercy either to be killed or fuffered to live.
But if life were granted him, he was declared infamous
by the judge, and difabled from ever bearing arms, or
riding on horfeback.
CAMPAGNA. See Campania.
CAMPAIGN, in the art of war, denotes the fpace
VOL. V. Part I.
of time that an army keeps the field, or is encamped.— Campaigw
The beginning of every campaign is confiderably more „ H .
unhealthy than if the men were to remain in quarters. ^ .
After the firft fortnight or three weeks encampment^
the ficknefs decreafes daily *, the moft infirm being by
that time in the hofpitals, and the weather daily grow¬
ing warmer. This healthy ftate continues throughout
the fummer, unlefs the men get wet clothes or wet
beds $ in which cafe, a greater or lefs degree of the
dyfentery will appear in proportion to the preceding
heats. But the moft fickly part of the campaign be¬
gins about the middle or end of Auguft, vhilft the
days are ftill hot, but the nights cool and damp, with
fogs and dews: then, and not fooner, the dyfentery
prevails : and though its violence is over by the begin¬
ning of Odlober, yet the remitting fever gaining
ground, continues throughout the reft of the campaign,,
and never entirely ceafes, even in winter-quarters, till
the froft begin. At the beginning of a campaign the
ficknefs is fo uniform, that the number may be nearly
predi<fted ; but for the reft of the feafon, as the dil-
eafes are then of a contagious nature, and depend fo
much upon the heats of fummer, it is impoffible to
forefee how many may fall fick from the beginning to
the end of autumn. It is alfo obferved, that the laft
fortnight of a campaign, if protradled till the begin¬
ning of winter, is attended with more ficknefs than
the firft two months encampment j fo that it is better
to take the field a fortnight fooner, in order to return
into winter-quarters fo much the earlier. As to win¬
ter expeditions, though fevere in appearance, they are
attended with little ficknefs, if the men have ftrong
{hoes, quarters, fuel, and provifions. Long marches
in fummer are not without danger, unlefs made in the
night, or fo early in the morning as to be over before
the heat of the day.
CAMPANACEiE, in Botany, an order of plants
in the Fragrnenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, in
which are the following genera, viz. convolvulus, ipo-
msea, polemonium, campanula, roella, viola, &c. * * See
CAMPANELLA, Thomas, a famous Italian ^atnp
philofopher, born at Stilo in Calabria, in 1568. Her u rceit',‘
diftinguiftied himfelf by his early proficiency in learn¬
ing j for at the age of 13 he was a perfedl mailer of
the ancient orators and poets. His peculiar inclina¬
tion was to philofophy, to which he at laft confined
his whole time and ftudy. In order to arrive at truth,
he {hook off the yoke of authority : by which means
the novelty of fome of his opinions expofed him to
many inconveniences \ for at Naples he wTas throwm
into prifon, in which he remained 27 years, and du¬
ring this confinement wrote his famous v'ork entitled
Atheifmas triumphatus. Being at length fet at liberty,
he went to Paris, where he was gracioully received by
Louis XIII. and Cardinal Richelieu j the latter pro¬
cured him a penfion of 2000 livres, and often confulted
him on the affairs of Italy. Campanella paffed the re¬
mainder of his days in a monaftery of Dominicans at
Paris, and died in 1639.
CAMPANI, Matthew, of Spoletto, curate at
Rome, wrote a curious treatife on the art of cutting
glaffes for fpeclacles, and made feveral improvements
in optics, affifted by his brother and pupil Jofeph. He
died after 1678.
CAMPANIA, a tewn of Italy, in the kingdom of
N Naples,
C A M
[ 93 1
CAM
Campania. Naples, and in the Farther Principato, with a biihop’s
fee. E. Long. 15. 30. N. Lat. 40. 40.
Campania, or Ca?npagna di Roma, anciently La-
jtium, a province of Italy, bounded on the weft by the
Tiber and the fea, on the fouth-weft by the fea, on the
fouth by Terra di Lavoro, on the eaft by Abruzzo,
and on the north by Sabina. Though the foil is good,
it produces little or nothing, on account ot the heavy
duties on corn ; and though the waters are good, the
air is unwholefome. It is fubjeft to the Pope, and is
about 60 miles in length on the Mediterranean fea.
It has been generally thought that the air of this
country hath fomething in it peculiarly noxious du¬
ring the fummer-time *, but Mr Condamine Is of opinion
that it is not more unhealthy than any other marlhy
country. His account follows. “ It was after the in-
valion of the Goths in the fifth and fixth centuries that
this corruption of the air began to manifeft itfelf. Ihe
bed of the Tiber being covered by the accumulated
ruins of the edifices of ancient Rome, could not but
raife itfelf eonfiderably. But what permits us not to
doubt of this fa& is, that the ancient and well-preferved
pavement of the Pantheon and its portico is overilowed
every winter} that the water even riles there fometimes
to the height of eight or ten feet: and that it is not
poftible to fuppofe that the ancient Romans ftiould
have built a temple in a place fo low as to be covered
with the waters of the Tiber on the leaft inundation.
It is evident, then, that the level1 of the bed of this river
is raifed feveral feet j which could not have happened
without forming there a kind of dikes or bars. The
choaking up of its canal neceffarily occafioned' the over¬
flow and reflux of its waters in fuch places as till then
had not been fubject to inundations : to thefe over¬
flowings of the Tiber were added all the waters that
efcaped out of the ancient aquedufts, the ruins of which
are ftill to be feen, and which were entirely broken and
deftroyed by Totila. What need, therefore, of any
thing more to infe£l the air, in a hot climate, than the
exhalations of fuch a mafs of ftagnating waters depri¬
ved of any difeharge, and become the receptacle of a
thoufand impurities, as well as the grave of feveral mil¬
lions both of men and animals? The evil could not but
inereafe from the fame caufes while Rome was expofed
to the incurfions and devaftations of the Lombards, the
Normans, and the Saracens, which lafted for feveral
centuries. The air was become fo infeaious there at
the beginning of the 13th century, that Pope Inno¬
cent III. wrote, that few people at Rome arrived at
the age of forty years, and that nothing was more
uncommon there than to fee a perfon of fixty. A very
ftiort time after, the popes transferred the leat ot their
reiidence to Avignon : during the feventy-two years
they remained there, Rome became a defert; the mo-
naftcries in it were converted into ftables •, and Gre¬
gory XL on his return to Rome, in 1376, hardly
counted there 30,000 inhabitants. At his death began
the troubles of the great fchifi* in the weft, which con¬
tinued for upwards of 50 years. Martin V in whom
this fchifm ended in the year 1429, and his firft luccel-
fors were able to make but feeble efforts'againft lo in¬
veterate an evil. It was not till the beginning of the
y6th century that Leo X. under whom Rome began to
re fume her wonted fplendour, gavehimfelf feme trouble
about re-eftablilhing the falubrity of the air ; but the
city, being ftiortly after befieged twice fucceftivcly by Campanil
the emperor Charles V. faw itfelf plunged again into
all its old calamities ; and from 83,000 inhabitants, c
which it contained under Leo X. it was reduced under
Clement VIII. to 3 2,000. In ftiort, it is only fince the
time of Pius V. and Sixtus V. at the end of the 16th
century, that the popes have conftantly employed the
neceffary methods for purifying the air of Rome and
its environs, by procuring proper difeharges for the
waters, drying up the humid and marlhy grounds, and
covering the banks of the H iber and other places repu¬
ted uninhabitable with fuperb edifices. Since that time
a perfon may dwell at Rome, and go in or out of it at
all feafons of the year. At the beginning, hovever, of
the prefent century, they were ftill afraid to lie out of
the city in fummer, when they had refided there; as
they were alfo to return to it, when once they had
quitted it. They never ventured to fleep at Rome, even
in broad day, in any other houfe than their own.
They are greatly relaxed at prefent from thefe arrcient
fcruples : I have feen cardinals, in the months of July
and Auguft, go from Rome to lie at Fratcati, liveli,
Albano, &c. and return the next or the following days
to the city, without any detriment to their health : I
have myfelf tried all thefe experiments, witnout inher¬
ing the leaft inconvenience from them : we have even
feen, in the laft war in Italy, two armies encamped
under the walls of Rome at the time when the heats
were moft violent. Yet, notwithftanding all this, the
greater part of the country people dare not ftill ven¬
ture to lie during that feafon of the year, nor even lb
much as fleep in a carriage, in any part of the terri¬
tory comprehended under the name of the Lampagna of
Rome.'1'
CAMPANIFORM, or CampaNULATED, an appel¬
lation given to flowers refembling a bell.
CAMPANINI, a name given to an Italian marble
dug out of the mountains of Carrara, becaufe, when it
is worked, it ftiunds like a bell.
CAMPANULA, or Bell-flower. Sec Botany
Tiidfcc •
CAMPBELL, Archibald, earl and marquis of
Argyle, was the fon of Archibald earl of Argyle, by
the lady Anne Douglas, daughter of William earl of
Morton. He was born in the year 1598 ; and edu¬
cated in the profeflion of the Proteftant religion, ac¬
cording to the ftri£teft rules of the church of Scotland,
as it was eftabliihed immediately after the reformation.
During the commonwealth he was induced to fubnait to
its authority. Upon the reftoration, he was tried for
his compliance j a crime common to him with the whole
nation, and fuch a one as the moft loyal and affec¬
tionate fubjeft might frequently by violence be induced
to commit. To make this compliance appear the
more voluntary and hearty, there were produced in
court letters which he had wrote to Albemarle, while
that general governed Scotland, and which contained
expreflions of the moft cordial attachment to the efta¬
bliihed government. But, befides the general indig¬
nation excited by Albemarle’s difeovery of this private
correfpondence, men thought, that even the higheft
demonftrations of affeftion might, during jealous times,
be exa&ed as a neceffary mark of compliance from a
perfon of fuch diftin&ion as Argyle; and could not, by
any equitable coaftruftion, imply the crime of trea-
CAM [ 99 1 C A M
Ctaftiphell. {on. TRe parliament, however, fcrupled not to pafs
ta—< fenjeTlce Upon him, and he fuffered with great conftan-
cy and courage.
Campbell, Archibald, earl of Argyle, fon to the
former, had from his youth diftinguiflied himfelf by his
loyalty and his attachment to the royal family. Though
his father was head of the covenanters, he himfelf re-
fufed to concur in any of their meafures 5 and when a
commidion of colonel was given him by the convention
of ftates, he forbore to aft upon it till it (hould be ra¬
tified by the king. By his relpeftful behaviour, as well
as by his fervices, he made himfelf acceptable to Charles
when that prince was in Scotland 5 and even after the
battle of Worcefier, all the misfortunes which attended
the royal caufe could not engage him to defert it. Un¬
der Middleton he obftinately perfevered to harafs and
mfeft the viftorious Englifh; and it was not till he re¬
ceived orders from that general, that he would fubmit
to accept of a capitulation. Such jealoufy of his loyal
attachments was entertained by the commonwealth and
proteftor, that a pretence was foon after fallen upon to
commit him to prifon •, and his confinement was rigo-
roufiy continued till the reftoration. The king, fen-
fible of his fervices, had remitted to him his father’s
forfeiture, and created him earl of Argyle ; and when
a moft unjuft fentence wras paffed Upon him by the Scots
parliament, Charles had anew remitted it. In the fub-
iequent part of this reign Argvle behaved himfelf du¬
tifully } and though he feemed not difpofed to go all
lengths with the court, he always appeared, even in his
oppofition, a man of mild difpofitions and peaceable
deportment.
A parliament was fummoned at Edinburgh in fum*
mer 1681, and the duke was appointed commiflioner.
Befides granting money to the king, and Voting the
indefeafible right of fucceflion, this parliament enafted
a ted, which all perfons pofieffed of offices, civil, mili¬
tary, or ecclefiaftical, wrere bound to take. In this teft
the king’s fupremacy was aflerted, the covenant renoun¬
ced, paflive obedience aflented to, and all obligations
difclaimed of endeavouring any alteration in civil or ec¬
clefiaftical eftablifhments. This Was the ftate of the
teft as propofed by the courtiers •, but the country par¬
ty propofed alfo a elaufe of adherence to the Proteftant
religion, which could not with decency be rejefted.
The whole was of an enormous length, confidered as
an oath •, and, what was worfe, a confeflion of faith
Was there ratified which had been impofed a little after
the reformation, and which contained many articles
altogether forged by the parliament and nation. A-
mong others, the doftrine of refiftance was inculcated 5
fo that the teft being Voted in a hurry, wras found on
examination to be a medley of abfurdity and corttra-
diftion. Though the courtiers could not rejeft the
claufe of adhering to the Proteftant religion, they
propofed, as a requifite mark of refpeft, that all princes
of the blood (hould be exempted from taking that
t>ath. This exception was zealoufly oppofed by Ar¬
gyle ; who obferved that the foie danger to be dreaded
for the Proteftant religion mull proceed from the
perverfion of the royal family. By infifting on fuch
topics, he drew on himfelf the fecret indignation of
the duke of York, of which he foon felt the fatal con-
fequences.
When Argylk took the teft as a privy counfellor, he
fubjoiued, in the diike’s prefence, an explanation which Campbell,
he had beforehand communicated to that prince, and ——v——
which he believed to have been approved by him. It
was in thefe words. “ I have confidered the teft, and
am very defirous of giving obedience as far as I can. I
am confident that the parliament never intended to im-
pofe contradiftory oaths : therefore I think no man can
explain it but for himfelf. Accordingly I take it as far
as it is confiftent with itfelf and the Proteftant reli¬
gion. And I do declare that I mean not to bind my-
felf, in my ftation, and in a lawful way, from wifhing
and endeavouring any alteration, which I think to the
advantage of church or ftate, and not repugnant to the
Proteftant religion and my loyalty : and this I under-
ftand as a part of my oath.” The duke, as was natural,
heard it with great tranquillity : no one took the leaft
offence : Argyle was admitted to fit that day in coun¬
cil : and it was impoflible to imagine that a capital of¬
fence had been committed where occafion feemed not
to have been given fo much as for a ftown or repri¬
mand.
Argyle Was much furprifed a few days after, to find
that a warrant was iffued for committing him to pri¬
fon *, that he was indifted for high treafon, leafing-
making, and perjury, and that from the innocent w ords
above mentioned an accufation was extrafted, by which
he W'as to forfeit life, honours, and fortune. It is need¬
le fs to enter into particulars, where the iniquity of the
whole is fo evidently apparent. Though the fword of
juftice was difplayed, even her femblance was not put
on j and the forms of law were preferved to fanftify.
Or rather aggravate, the oppreflion. Of five judges,
three did not fcruple to find the guilt of treafon and
leafing-making to be incurred by the prifoher : a jury
of 15 noblemen gave verdift againft him) and the king
being confulted, ordered the ferttence to be pronounced,
but the execution of it to be fufpended till further
orders. Argyle, howrever, faw no reafon to truft to
the juftice or mercy of fuch enemies : He made his e-
fcape from prifon, and till he could find a {hip for Hol¬
land he concealed himfelf during fome time in London.
The king heard of his lurking place, but would not
fuffer him to be arrefted. All the parts, however, of
his fentefice, fo far as the government in Scotland had
power, were rigoroufly executed) his eftate confifcated,
his arms reverfed and torn. Having got over to Hol¬
land, he remained there during the remaining part of
the feign of Charles II. But thinking himfelf at li¬
berty, before the coronation of James II. to exert him¬
felf in order to recover the conflitution by force of arms,
he concerted meafures svith the duke of Monmouth,
and Avent into Scotland, to affemble his friends: but
not meeting Avith the fuccefs he expefted, he Avas taken
prifoner j and being carried to Edinburgh, Avas be¬
headed upon his former unjuft fentence, June 30. 1685.
He ftioAved great conftancy and courage under his mif-
fortunes) on the day of his death he ate his dinner very
cheerfully 5 and, according to cuftom, flept after it
a quarter of an hour or more, very foundly. At the
place of execution, he made a ihort, grave, and religious
fpeech •, and, after foleiftnly declaring that he for¬
gave all his enemies, fubmitted to death Avith great
firmnefs.
Campbell, Archibald, firft duke of Argyle, fott
to the preceding, was an aftive promoter of the revo-
N 2 lution.
CAM
[
Campbell, lution. He came over with the prince of Orange j was
V'***' admitted into the convention as earl of Argyle, though
his father’s attainder was not reverfed j and in the claim
of rights the fentence againit him was declared to be,
what rnolhcertainly ^ Was, a reproach upon the nation.
The eftablilhment of the crown upon the prince and
princefs of Orange being carried by a great majority
in the Scotifh convention, the earl was fent from the
nobility, with Sir James Montgomery and Sir John
Dalrymple from the barons and boroughs, to offer the
crown, in the name of the convention, to their ma-
jeffies, and tendered them the coronation oath j for
which, and many other eminent fervices, he was ad¬
mitted a member of the privy council, and, in 1690,
made one of the lords of the trealury. He was af¬
terwards made a colonel of the Scots horfe guards } and,
in 1694, one of the extraordinary lords of feffion.
He was likewife created duke of Argyle, marquis of
Kintyre and Lorn, earl of Campbell and Cowall, vif-
count of Lochow and Glenila, Lord Inverary, Mull,
Morvern, and Terrey, by letters-patent, bearing date
at Kenfington the 23d of June 1701. He fent over
a regiment to Flanders for King William’s fervice, the
officers of which were chiefly of his own name and fa¬
mily, who bravely diftinguiflied themfelves through the
whole courfe of the war. He married Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir Lionel Talmafh of Helmingham in
the county of Suffolk, by Elizabeth duchefs of Lau¬
derdale his wife, daughter and heirefs of William Mur¬
ray earl of Dyfart, by whom he left xffue two fons and
a daughter j namely, John duke of Argyle, thefubjeft
of the next article •, Archibald, who fucceeded his
brother as duke of Argyle •, and Lady Anne, married
to James Stuart, fecond earl of Bute, by whom ffie had
a fon afterwards earl of Bute.
Campbell, John, fecond duke of Argyle, and alfo
duke of Greenwich and baron of Chatham, fon to the
fubjeft of the preceding article, was born on the 10th
of O&ober 1680 •, and, on the very day when his grand¬
father fuffered at Edinburgh, fell out of a window three
pair of flairs high without receiving any hurt. At
the age of 15, he had made a confiderable progrefs in
claffical learning. His father then perceived and en¬
couraged his military difpolition, and introduced him
to King William, who appointed him to the com¬
mand of a regiment. In this fituation he remained
till the death of his father in 1703 j wffien becoming
duke of Argyle, he was foen after fw'orn of Queen
Anne’s privy council, made captain of the Scotch horfe
guards, and appointed one of the extraordinary lords
of faffion. In 1704, her mnjefty’s reviving the Scotiffi
order of the Thiltle, his grace was inftalled one of the
knights of that order, and wras foon after appointed
high-com miffioner to the Scotch parliament •, where,
being of great fervice in promoting the intended union,
he was on his return created a peer of England, by the
titles of baron of Chatham and earl of Greenwich, and
ia 1710 was made knight of the Garter. His grace
iirft diftinguiffied himfelf in his military capacity at the
battle of Oudenarde *, where he commanded as brigadier-
feneral, with all the bravery of youth and the con-
u<ff of a veteran officer. He was prefent under the
duke of Marlborough at the liege of Ghent, and took
' jpoffeffion of the tow n. He had alfo a confiderable ffiare
fn the victory obtained over the French at the battle of
100 ] CAM
Malplaquet, by diflodging them from the wood of Sart, Campbell,
and gaining a poll of great confequence. In this ffiarp
engagement, feveral mulket-balls palled through the
duke’s clothes, hat, and peruke. Soon after this hot
aftion, he was fent to take the command in Spain j
and after the reduction of Port Mahon, he returned to
England. His grace having now a feat in the houfe
of lords, he cenfured the meafures of the miniltry with
fuch freedom, that all his places were difpofed of to
other noblemen : but at the acceffion of George I. he
recovered his influence. At the breaking out of the
rebellion in 1715, he w'as made commander in chief of
his majefly’s forces in North Britain j and was the
principal means and caufe of the total extindlion, at
that time, of the rebellion in Scotland, without much
bloodlhed. In direft oppolition to him, or that part of
the army he commanded, at the head of all his Camp¬
bells was placed Campbell earl of Braidalbin, of the
fame family and kindred, by fome fatal error that
ever mifguided and milled that unhappy family of the
Stuarts and all its adherents. The confequence was,
that both fets of Campbells, from family affe£tion,
refufed to Itrike a ftroke, and retired out of the
battle. He arrived at London March 6th 1716,
and was in high favour : but, to the furprife of peo¬
ple of all ranks, he was in a few months divefted of
all his employments 5 and from this period to the year
1718, he lignalized himfelf in a civil capacity, by his
uncorrupted patriotifm and manly eloquence. In the
beginning of the year 1719, he was again admitted
into favour, appointed lord-fteward of the houfehold,
and in April following was created duke of Green¬
wich. He continued in the adminiilration during all
the remaining part of that reign j and, after his late
majefty’s acceffion, till April 1740 ; when he delivered
a fpeech with fuch warmth, that the miniftry being
highly offended, he w as again difmiffed from his em¬
ployments. To thefe, however, on the change of the
miniftry, he was foon reftored 5 but not approving of
the meafures of the new miniftry more than thofe of
the old, he gave up all his polls for the laft time, and
never after engaged in affairs of Hate. He nowr en¬
joyed privacy and retirement ■, and died of a paralytic
diforder on the 4th of Oftober 1743. To the me¬
mory of his grace a very noble monument was eredted
in Weftminfter-Abbey, executed by the ingenious Rou-
billiac.
The duke of Argyle, though never firft minifter,
was a very able ftateiman and politician, moll fteadily
fixed in thofe principles he believed to be right, and
not to be ffiaken or changed. His delicacy and ho¬
nour were fo great, that it hurt him to be even fuf-
pedted 5 witnefs that application faid to be made to
him by one of the adherents of the Stuart family be¬
fore the laft rebellion in order to gain his intereft,
which wras confiderable both in Scotland and England.
He immediately fent the letter to the fecretary of ftate '7
and it vexed him much even to have an application,
made him, left any perfon Ihould think him capable of
a cling a double part. When he thought meafures
wrong or corrupt, he cared not who was the author,
however great or powerful he might be } witnefs his
boldly attacking the great duke of Marlborough in
the houfe of lords, about his forage and army con¬
tracts in Flanders, in the very zenith of his power and
popularity,
CAM t ioi ] CAM
Campbell popularity, though in all other refpe£ls he was the
^ nioll able general of his time. The duke of Argyle
on all occafions fpoke well, with a firm, manly, and
noble eloquence 5 and feems to deferve the chara&er
given of him by Pope :
Argyle the ftate’s whole thunder born to wield,
And ihake alike the fenate and the field.
In private life, the duke’s condudt was highly ex¬
emplary. He w'as an affe&ionate huiband and an in¬
dulgent mafter. He feldom parted with his fervants
till age had rendered them incapable of their employ¬
ments j and then he made provifion for their fubfift-
ence. He was liberal to the poor, and particularly to
perfons of merit in diftrefs: but though he was ready
to patronize deferving perfons, he was extremely cau¬
tious not to deceive any by lavilh promifes or lead¬
ing them to form vain expectations. He was a ftriCt
economift, and paid his tradefmen punctually every
month; and though he maintained the dignity of his
rank, he took care that no part of his income fiiould
be wafted in empty pomp or unneceflary expences.
He was twice married, and left five daughters, but
no male iflue. The titles of duke and earl of Green-
wick and baron of Chatham became extinCt at his
death j but in his other titles he was fucceeded by
his brother Archibald earl of Ida, the fubjeCt of the
next article.
Campbell, Archibald, third duke of Argyle, bro¬
ther to the fubjeft of the preceding article, was born
atHamhoufe, in England, in June 1682, and w as edu¬
cated at the univerfity of Glafgow. He afterwards
applied himfelf to the ftudy of the law at Utrecht j
but, upon his father’s being created a duke, he betook
himfelf to a military life, and ferved fome time under
the duke of Marlborough. Upon quitting the army,
in which he did not long remain, he applied to the ac-
quifition of that knowledge which would enable him to
make a figure in the political world. In 1705, he was
conftituted treafurer of Scotland, and made a confider-
able figure in parliament, though he was not more than
23 years of age. In 1706, he was appointed one of
the commiftioners for treating of the Union; and
the fame year wras created Lord Oronfay, Dunoon,
and Arrois, vifcount and earl of May. In 1708, he
was made an extraordinary lord of feflion j and w'hen
the Union was eftefted, he w'as chofen one of the Six¬
teen Peers for Scotland, in the firft parliament of
Great Britain •, and w'as conftantly eleCted to every fu¬
ture parliament till his death, except the fourth. In
1710, he wras made juftice-general of Scotland. In
17x1, he was called to the privy council •, and upon
the acceffion of George I. he was nominated lord regi-
fter of Scotland. When the rebellion broke out in
1715, he again betook himfelf to arms, in defence of
the houfe of Hanover, and by his prudent condudt in
the Weft Highlands, he prevented General Gordon
at the head of three thoufand men, from penetrating
into the country and raifing levies. He aftenvards
joined his brother at Stirling, and was Avounded at the
battle of Dumblain. In 1725, he was appointed keep¬
er of the privy feal j and from this time, he was en-
trufted Avith the management of Scotifh affairs. In
1734, upon his refigning the privy feal, he Avas made
keeper of the great feal, ay Inch office he enjoyed till his
death. Upon the deceafe of his brother, he became Campbeff.
duke of Argyle, hereditary juftice-general, lieutenant,
ftieriff, and tommiffary of Argylelhire and the Weftern
Mes, hereditary great mafter of the houfehold, heredi¬
tary keeper of Dunftaffnage, Carrick, and feveral other
caftles. He Avas alfo chancellor of the univerlity of
Aberdeen j and laboured to promote the intereft of
that, as Avell as of the other univerfities of Scotland;
He particularly encouraged the fchool of phylic at
Edinburgh, Avhich has noAv acquired fo high a reputa¬
tion. Having the chief management of Scotch affairs,
he Avas alfo extremely attentive to promote the trade,
manufactures, and improvements of his country. It
was by his advice that, after the rebellion in 1745,
the Highlanders were employed in the royal army. He
Avas a man of great endowments both natural»and ac¬
quired, well verfed in the laws of his country, and pof-
feffed confiderable parliamentary abilities. He was
likew'ife eminent for his {kill in human nature, had
great talents for converfation, and had collected
one of the moft valuable private libraries in Great Bri¬
tain. He built himfelf a very magnificent feat at
Inverary. Th« faculties of his mind continued found
and vigorous till his death, which happened fudden-
ly on the 15th of April 1761, in the 79th year of
his age. He was married, but had no iffue j and
Avas fucceeded in his titles and the eftates of the
family by John Campbell, fourth duke of Argyle, fon
of the honourable John Campbell of Mammore, Avho
was the fecond fon of Archibald the ninth earl of Ar-
gyle.
The family of Argyle Avere heritable juftice gene¬
rals for Scotland till aboliftied by the jurifdiCtion aCt.
They are ftill heritable mafters of the king’s houfe¬
hold in Scotland, and keepers of Dunftaffnage and
Carrick.
Campbell, John, an eminent hiftorical, biogra¬
phical, and political waiter, was born at Edinburgh,
March 8. 1707-8. His father, Robert Campbell of
Glenlyon, Efq. was captain of horfe in a regiment
commanded by the then earl of Hyndford 5 and his
mother, Elizabeth, daughter of —— Smith, Efq. of
Windfor in Berkftiire, had the honour of claiming a
defcent from the poet Waller. Our author, their
fourth fon, was at the age of five years carried from
Scotland to Windfor, where he received the firft prin¬
ciples of his education 5 and at a proper age, he was
placed out as clerk to an attorney, being intended for
the law'. This profeffion, hoAvever, he never followed j
but by a clofe application to the acquifition of know¬
ledge of various kinds, became qualified to appear Avith
great advantage in the literary world. In 1736, be¬
fore he had completed his 30th year, he gave to the
public, in two volumes folio, “ The Military Hi-
ftory of Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlbo¬
rough,” enriched Avith maps, plans, and cuts. The"
reputation hence acquired, occafioned him foon af¬
ter to be folicited to take a part in the 4‘ Ancient
Unh'erfal Hiftory.” Whilft employed in this capital
Avork, Mr Campbell found leifure to entertain the
YAXtrld Avith other productions. In I739> publifiied
the “ Travels and Adventures of Edw'ard BroAVn,
Efq.” 8vo. In the fame year appeared his Me¬
moirs of the Bafhaw Duke de Ripperda,” 8vo, reprint¬
ed, with improvements, in 174°* Thefc memoirs were
followed,-,
C A M { I
Campbell, followed, in 1741, by the “ Concife Hiftory of Spanilh
w«—' America,” 8vo. In 1742, he was the author of “ A
ILetter to a friend in the Country, on the Publication
of Thurloe’s State Papers $ giving an account of their
difeovery, importance, and utility. I he fame year
was diifinguifhed by the appearance of the ill; and 2d
volumes of his “ Lives of the Englilh Admirals, and
other eminent Britifti Seamen.” The two remaining
volumes were completed in 1744 i an^ the whole, not
long after, was tranflated into German. I his was the
firft of Mr Campbell’s works to which he prefixed his
name ; and it is a performance of great and acknow¬
ledged merit. In 1743, he publifhed “ Hermippus
revived j” a fecond edition of which, much improved
and enlarged, came out in 1749, under the following
title: “ Hermippus Redivivus: or, the Sage’s Tri¬
umph over Old Age and the Grave. Wherein a me¬
thod is laid down for prolonging the life and vigour
of man. Including a Commentary upon an ancient
Infcription, in which this great fecret is revealed j fup-
ported by numerous authorities. The whole interfper-
fed with a great variety of remarkable and well-atteft-
ed relations.” This extraordinary traft had its origin
in a foreign publication ; but it was wrought up to
perfection by the additional ingenuity and learning of
Mr Campbell. In 1744 he gave to the public, in two
volumes folio, his “ Voyages and Travels,” on Dr
Harris’s plan, being a very diltinguilhed improvement
of that colleftion which had appeared in 1705.. The
time and care employed by Mr Campbell in this im¬
portant undertaking did not prevent his engaging in
another great work, the “ Biographia Britanmca, ’
which -began to be publilhed in weekly numbers in
1745, and extended to feven volumes folio: but our
author’s articles were only in the firft four volumes j of
which Dr Kippis obferves, they conilitute the prime
merit. -
When the late Mr Dodfley formed the dehgn ot
“ The Preceptor,” which appeared in 1748, Mr
Campbell was to aflift in the undertaking ; and the
parts written by him were the Introduftion to Chro¬
nology, and the difeourfe on Trade and Commerce,
both of which difplayed an extenfive fund of knowledge
upon thefe fubjefts. In 17^0 he publifhed the firil
feparate edition of his “ Prefent State of Europe a
work which had been originally begun in 1746, in the
“ Mufeum,” a very valuable periodical performance,
printed for Dodfley. There is no produftion of our
author’s that hath met with a better reception. It
has gone through fix editions, and-fully deferved this
encouragement. The next great undertaking which
called for the exertion of our author’s ^ abilities and
learning, was “ The Modern Univerfal Hiilory.” This
extenfive work was publiflied, from time to time,. in
detached parts, till it amounted to 16 volumes folio $
and a fecond edition of it, in 8vo, began to make its
appearance in I7i9‘ The parts of it written by Mr
Campbell were, the hiftories of the Portuguefe, Dutch
Spanifh, French, Swedifh, Danifh, and Oftend Set¬
tlements in the Eaft-Indies-, and the Hiftories of the
Kingdoms of Spain, Portugal, Algarve, Navarre, and
that of France, from Clovis to 1656. As oui author
jiad thus diftinguifhed himfelf in the literary world, the
degree of LL. D. was very properly and honourably
02 3 GAM
conferred upon him, June 18. 1754, by the univerfity Campbell,
of Glafgow. _ _ T
His principal and favourite work was, “ A Political
Survey of Great Britain,” 2 vol. 4to, publifhed a fhort
time before his death ; in which the extent of his
knowledge, and his patriotic fpirit, are equally confpi-
cuous. Dr Campbell’s reputation was not confined to
his own country, but extended to the remoteft parts of
Europe. As a ftriking inftance of this, it may be
mentioned, that in the fpring of I774» th® emprefs of
Ruflia was pleafed to honour him with the prefent of
her picture, drawn in the robes worn in that country
in the days of John Bafiliowitz, grand duke of Mufcovy,
who was contemporary with Queen Elizabeth, la
manifeft the doitor’s fenfe of her imperial majefty’s
goodnefs, a fet of the il Political Survey of Britain,
bound in Morocco, highly ornamented, and accompa¬
nied with a letter deferiptive of the triumphs and feli¬
cities of her reign, was forwarded to St Peterfburg,
and conveyed into her hands by Prince Orloff, who
had refided fome months in this kingdom.
Dr Campbell in 1736 married Elizabeth, daughter
of Benjamin Vobe, of Leominfter, in the county of
Hereford, gentleman, with whom he lived nearly 40
years in the greateft conjugal harmony and happinefs.
So wholly did he dedicate his time to books, that he
feldom went abroad : but to relieve himfelf as much as
poflible from the inconveniences incident to a fedentary
life, it was his cuftom, when the weather would ad¬
mit, to walk in his garden j or otherw ife in fome room
of his houfe, by way of exercife. By this method,
united with the ftridleft temperance in eating, and an
equal abftemioufnefs in drinking, he enjoyed a good
Rate of health, though his conftitution was delicate.
His domeftic manner of living did not preclude him
from a very extenfive and honourable acquaintance.
His houfe, efpecially on a Sunday evening, was the
refort of the moft diftinguifhed perfons of all tanks,
and particularly of fuch as had rendered themfelves
eminent by their knowledge or love of literature. He
received foreigners, who were fond of learning, with
an affability and kindnefs which excited in them the
higheft refpeft and veneration and his inftru&ive and
cheerful converfation made him the delight of his
friends in general. He wras, during the Liter part of
his life, agent for the province of Georgia in North
America j and died at the clofe of the year 1775*
the 67th year of his age. The doftor’s literary
knowledge wras by no means confined to the fubje&s
on which he more particularly treated as an author ;
he was well acquainted with the mathematics, and
had read much in medicine. It hath been with
great reafon beli&Ved, that if be had dedicated his
Studies to this lafi: feience, he would have made a
yg^y confpicuous figure in the medical profeffion. He
was eminently verfed in the different parts of facred li¬
terature j and his acquaintance with the languages ex¬
tended not only to the Hebrew, Greek and Latin
among the ancient, and to the French, Italian, Spa-
nifh, Portuguefe, and Dutch, among the modern but
likewife to the Oriental tongues. He was particularly
fond of the Greek language. His attainment of fuch a
variety of knowledge was exceedingly aflifted b’-' a
memory furprifingly retentive, and which indeed afto-
2
CAM t
Cimp’oelL nlflicd every perfon with whom he was converfant. In
    communicating his ideas, he had an uncommon readi-
nefs and facility ; and the ilyle of his works, which had
been formed upon the model of that of the celebrated
Bifhop Sprat, was perfpicuous, eafy, flowing, and har¬
monious. To all thefe accomplifliments of the under-
ftanding, Dr Campbell joined the more important vir¬
tues of a moral and pious character. His difpofition
was gentle and humane, and his manners kind and
obliging. He was the tendereft of hufbands, a moft
indulgent parent, a kind mailer, a firm and fincere
friend. To his great Creator he paid the conilant and
ardent tribute of devotion, duty, and reverence ; and
in his correfpondences he fllowed that a fenfe of piety
was always neareft his heart.
Campbell, George, D. D'. was born at Aberdeen
in December 1719. He was educated at the gram¬
mar fchool in the fame town, and intended for the
employment of fignet-writer, an occupation fimilar
to that of an Engliih attorney, in which he was bound
an apprentice. The love of ftudy, however, prevailed
over every oppofibion : in 174* attended divinity
le&ures at Edinburgh before the term of his apprentice,
fhip was fully completed, and foon after became a regu¬
lar ftudent in the univerfity of Aberdeen, attending the
lectures of Profeffor Lumfden in King’s, and Profeflbr
Chalmers in Marifchal, college. In 1746 he was li-
cenfed to preach by the prefbytery of Aberdeen. In
1748 he obtained the living of Banchory Ternan, in
which fituation he became a married man, and was
fortunate in poffefling a lady “ remarkable for the
fagacity of her underftanding, the integrity of her
heart, the general propriety of her condudl, and her
fkill in the management of domeftic oeconomy.” Mu¬
tual happinefs was the confequence of tnis union, which
was not terminated till her death, in I792* -1757
he was tranflated to Aberdeen, to be one of the mini-
fters of that’ town, and in 175.9 was prefented to the
office of principal of Marifchal college.
Mr Hume’s Treatife on Miracles gave the new prin¬
cipal an opportunity of evincing that he was not un¬
worthy of his office. He oppofed it in a fermon preach¬
ed before the provincial fynod of Aberdeen, in 1760,
■which he was requefted to publifh 5 but he preferred
the form of a differtation, and in that Hate fent the
manufeript to Dr Blair, to be by him communicated
to the metaphyfician. Availing himfelf then of the re¬
marks of his friends, and his opponent, he gave it to
the world in 1765, with a dedication to Lord Bute :
but however defirable the patronage of the minifter
might be in other refpe&s, it was of very little affifl:-
ance in giving circulation, in the literary world, to an
effay which, from the favourable impreflions of Blair
and Hume, was eagerly read, and univerfally admired.
In 1771 he was elefted profeffor of divinity in Ma¬
rifchal college, on which he refigned his office as one
of the mtniflers of Aberdeen : but as ii minifler of
Gray Friars, an office conjoined to the profefforfhip
about a century ago, he was obliged to preach once
every Sunday in one of the eftablifhed churches.” Few
perfons feem to have entertained truer notions of
the office of a teacher in an univerfity than our new
profeffor *, and the plan he had in view, on entering
upon his lectures, though expreffed in rather too ffrong
103 ] CAM
language, may be recommended to every one who un- Campbell,
dertakes a fimilar employment. '
“ Gentlemen, (he thus addreffes his pupils) the na¬
ture of my office has been much milunderftood. It is
fuppofed, that I am to teach you every thing connec¬
ted with the ftudy of divinity. I tell you honeftly, that
I am to teach you nothing. Ye are not fchool-boys.
Ye are young men, who have finifhed your courfes of
philofophy, and ye are no longer to be treated as if ye-
were at fchool. Therefore, I repeat it, I am to teach
you nothing; but, by the grace of God, I will affift you
to teach yourfelves every thing.” In 1771 hepubliihed
his excellent fermon on the Spirit of the Gofpel j and,,
in 1776, his Philofophy of Rhetoric. In this latter
year, alfo, he acquired the friendfhip of Dr Tucker by
a fermon, then much admired, and very generally read,,
on the Duty of Allegiance, in which he endeavours to
fhow a that the Britifti colonies in America had no
right, either from reafon or from Scripture, to throw
off their allegiance 5” and he ufes thofe vulgar argu¬
ments, which, as being purely political, and more
efpecialiy adapted to the fentiments of the majority of
that day, were very improper topics for the pulpit.
It is fo much the faihion for divines to make the vary¬
ing politics of the hour the fubject of their difeourfes,
and in them to follow the fentiments of thole whofe •
patronage is deemed moft advantageous, that we muft:
not be very fevere in our animadverfions on the prefent
occafion. In 1777 he chofe a better fubjeft for a dif—
courfe, which he publifhed at the requeit of the So¬
ciety for propagating Chriftian Knowledge, and in
■which the fuccefs of the firft publilhers of the Gofpel is-
ably treated as a proof of its truth. In I779> wh611
many ©f his countrymen, led away by the madnefs of
enthufiafm and fanaticifm, were rulhing headlong into
the moft antichriftian practice of gerfecution, he pub-
lifhed a very feafonable addrefs to the people of Scot¬
land, on the alarms which had been raifed by the bill
in favour of tfie Roman Catholics.
In the fame year, alfo, he publiflied a fermon on the
Happy Influence of Religion on Civil Society. Ihe
laft work which he lived to bring before the public
was his Tranflation of the Four Gofpels, with prelimi¬
nary differtations, and explanatory notes, of which
it is unneceffary to fay any thing farther in this place
than that it is worthy of his talents and character.
In 1795 he refigned his profefforlhip, in a letter to
the moderator of the prefbytery of Aberdeen, which
they voted to be inferted in their records. Soon after
the refignation of his profefforfhip, he refigned alfo
the piincipalfhip, on a penfion of 300!. a-year being
conferred on him by government : but this penfion
he poffeffed for a very fhort time; for, on the 31ft of
March, 1796, his laft illnefs feized him, and on the
next morning it was followed by a paroxyfm of the
palfy, which deftroyed his faculty of Ipeech, and un¬
der which he languifhed till he died. _ His funeral fer¬
mon wras preached on the 17th of April by Dr Brow 11^
who had fucceeded him in the offices of principal and
profeffor.
His chara&er, very juftly drawn by the fame gentle¬
man, we fliall now lay before our readers.. “ Dr
Campbell, as a public teacher,. was long admired for
the clearnefs and copioufnefs with which he illuftrat-
'CAM
C i<H 3
GAM
Csmipbell. cd tKe great doftrines and precepts of religion, and
l**~> ' 1 the ftrength and energy with which he enforced them.
Intimately perfuaded of the truth and infinite confe-
quence of what revelation teaches, he was ftrongly de-
firous of carrying the fame conviftion to the minds of
his hearers, and delivered his difcourfes with that zeal
which flows from ftrong impreflions, and that power
of perfuafion which is the refult of fincerity of heart,
combined with clearnefs of underftanding. He was
fatisfied, that the more the pure dictates of the gofpel
were ftudied, the more they would approve them-
felves to the mind, and bring forth, in the affe&ions and
conduct, all the peaceable fruits of righteoufnefs. The
unadulterated dictates of Chriltianily, he was, there¬
fore, only ftudious to recommend and inculcate •, and
knew perfectly to difcriminate them from the inven¬
tions and traditions of men. His chief ftudy ever was,
to diredt belief to the great objedts of pradtice •, and,
without thefe, he viewed the molt orthodox profeflion
as “ a founding brafs, and a tinkling cymbal.” But,
befides the charadter of a preacher of righteoufnefs,
he had alfo that of a teacher of the fcience of divi¬
nity to fuftain. How admirably he difcharged this
duty, and with what eftedt he conveyed the foundeft
and molt profitable inftrudtion to the minds of his fcho-
lars, let thofe declare who are now in various congre¬
gations of this country, communicating to their fellow
Chriftians the fruits of their ftudies under fo able and
by the perverlion of public charadler. His underftand- Cairptel1.
ing alfo clearly (hewed him even perfonal advantage at-
tached to fuch principles and practice, as he adopted
from a fenfe of obligation, and thofe elevated concep¬
tions of real worth which were fo congenial to his foul.
He faw, he experienced, efteem, refpedt, and influence,
follow ing in the train of integrity and beneficence ; but
contempt,difgrace,averfion,and complete infignificance,
clofely linked to corruption and felfifimefs. Little minds
are feduced and overpowered by felfifti confiderations,
becaufe they have not the capacity to look beyond the
prefent advantage, and to extend to the mifery that
Hands on the other fide of it. The fame circumftance
that betrays the perverfity of their hearts, alfo evinces
the weaknefs of their judgements.
“ His reputation as a writer is as extenfive as the
prefent intercourfe of letters j not confined to his own
country, but fpread through every civilized nation. In
his literary purfuits, he aimed not, as is very often the
cafe, with men of diftinguiflied literary abilities, mere¬
ly at eftabliftiing his own celebrity, or increafing
his fortune j but had chiefly at heart the defence of
the great caufe of Religion, or the elucidation of her
di&ates.
“ At an early period he entered the lifts as a cham¬
pion for Chriftianity againft one of its acuteft oppo¬
nents. He not only triumphantly refuted his argu¬
ments, but even conciliated his refpedl by the handfome
and dexterous manner in wdrich his defence was conduc¬
ed. While he refuted the infidel, he fpared the man,
and exhibited the uncommon fpeCacle of a polemical
judicious a teacher. Difcarding all attachment to hu¬
man fyftems, merely confidered as fuch, he tied his faith
to the Word of God alone, poffeiTed the happieft ta- _ -.
lent in inveftigating its meaning, and communicated to writer poflefling all the moderation or a Ghriltian. But
his hearers the refult of his own inquiries, with a pre- while he defended Chriftianity againft its enemies, he
cifion and perfpicuity which brought light out of ob- was defirous of contributing his endeavours to mcreale,
feurity, and rendered clear and Ample what appeared
intricate and perplexed. He expofed, without referve,
the corruptions which ignorance, craft, and hypocrify,
had introduced into religion, and applied his talent for
ridicule to the beft of all purpofes, to hold up to con¬
tempt the abfurdities with which the pureft and fu-
blimeft truths had been loaded.
“ Placed at the head of a public feminary of learn¬
ing, he felt all the importance of fuch a fituation, and
uniformly direcled his influence to public utility. His
enlarged and enlightened mind juftly appreciated the
extenfive confequence of the education of youth. He
anticipated all the effefts refulting to the great com¬
munity of mankind, from numbers of young men ifluing,
in regular fucceflion, from the univerfity over which he
prefided, and occupying the different departments of
focial life.
“ His benevolent heart delighted to reprefent to it-
felf the Undents under his direftion ufefully and ho¬
nourably difeharging the refpedlive duties of their dif¬
ferent profeflions ; and fome of them, perhaps, filling
the moft diftinguifhed ftations of civil fociety. With
thefe profpedls before him, he conftantly direfted his
public condmft to their attainment. He never fuffiered
his judgement to be warped by prejudice or partiality,
©r his heart to be feduced by paftion or private intereft.
Thofe mean and ignoble motives by which many are
a&uated in the difeharge of important trufts, approach¬
ed not his mind. A certain%honourable pride, if pride
it may be called, diffufed an uniform dignity over the
whole of his behaviour. He felt the man degraded
among its profeffors, the knowledge of the facred wri¬
tings. Accordingly, in the latter part of his life, he
favoured the world with a work, the fruit of copious
erudition, of unwearied application for almoft thirty
years, and of a clear and comprehenfive judgement. We
have only to regret, that the other writings of the
New Teftament have not been elucidated by the fame
pen that tranflated the Gofpels. Nor were his literary
merits confined to theology, and the ftudies more im¬
mediately connefted with it. Philofophy, and the fine
arts, are alfo indebted to his genius and labours j and
in him the polite fcholar was eminently joined to the
deep and liberal divine.
“ Political principles will always be much affedled
by general charafler. This was alfo the cafe wfith Dr
Campbell. In politics, he maintained that moderation
which is the fureft criterion of truth and reftitude, and
was equally diftant from thofe extremes into which men
are fo apt to run in great political queftions. He che-
riftied that patriotifm which confifts in wfiftiing, and en¬
deavouring to promote, the greateft happinefs of his
country, and is always fubordinate to univerfal benevo¬
lence. Firmly attached to the Britifti conftitution, he
was animated with that genuine love of liberty which
it infpires and invigorates. He was equally avetfe to
defpotifm and to popular anarchy ; the two evils into
which political parties are fo frequently hurried, to the
deftru&ion of all that is valuable to government. Par-
ty-fpirit, of whatever defeription, he confidered as ha¬
ving an unhappy tendency to pervert, to the moft per¬
nicious purpofes, the beft principles of the human mind,
and
Campbell
II
Camphors
CAM f i
and to clotlie the moft iniquitous aliens with the moft
fpecious appearances. Although tenacious of thofe
fentiments, whether in religion or politics, which he
was convinced to be rational and juft, he never fuffer-
ed mere difference of opinion to impair his good will,
to obftruct his good offices, or to cloud the cheerfulnefs
of converfation. His own converfation was enlivened
by a vein of the moft agreeable pleafantry.”
CAMPBELTOWN, a parliament town of Ar-
gyleffiire in Scotland, feated on the eaftern (bore of
the peninfula of Kintyre or Cantyre, of which it is the
capital. It hath a good harbour j and is now a very
eonfiderable place, though within thefe 50 years only
a petty fiffiing town. It has in fa6l been created by
the fifliery : for it was appointed the place of rendez¬
vous for the buffes *, and above 260 have been feen
in the harbour at once. The inhabitants are reckon¬
ed at upwards of 8000 in number. W. Long-, c. 10.
N. Lat. 54.
CAMPDEN, a fmall town of Gloucefterihire in
England, containing about 200 houfes. It gives title
ef Vrfcount, by courtefy, to the earl of Gainfborough
his fon. W. Long. 1. 50. N. Lat. 52.
CAMPEACHY, a town of Mexico in South A-
merica, feated on the eaft coaft of a bay of the fame
name, on the weft of the province of Yucatan. It is
defended by a good wall and ftrong forts 5 but is nei¬
ther fo rich, nor carries on fuch a trade, as formerly ;
it having been the port for the fale of logwood, the
place where it is cut being about 30 miles diftant. It
was taken by the Englifli in 1596 ; by the Bucaneers
In 1678*, and by the Flibufters of St Domingo in
1685, who fet it on fire and blew up the citadel. W.
Long. 93. 7. N. Lat. 19. 20.
CAMPEACHT-Wood. See HjEMATOXYLUM, Bota-
KY Index.
CAMPEN, a ftrong town of Overyffel in the Uni¬
ted Provinces. It hath a citadel and a harbour 5 but
the latter is almoft choked up with fand. It was ta¬
ken by the Dutch in 1578, and by the French in
J672 : but they abandoned it the following year. It
is feated near the mouth of the river Yffel and Zuyder
Zee. E. Long. 5. 35. N. Lat. 52. 38.
CAMPESTRE, in antiquity, a fort of cover for
the privities, worn by the Roman foldiers in their field
exercifes; being girt under the navel, and hanging
down to the knees. The name is fuppofed to be form¬
ed from campus, the field or place where the Roman
foldiers performed their exercifes.
C AMPHORA, or Camphire, a folid concrete
fubftance extrafted from the wood of the laurus cam-
phora. See Chemistry, and Materia Medica
Index.
Pure camphire is very white, pellucid, fomewhat
umftuous to the touch j of a bitteriffi aromatic tafte,
yet accomuanied with a fenfe of coolnefs j of a very
fragrant fmell, fomewhat like that of rofemary, but
much ftronger. It has been very long efteemed one of
the moft efficacious diaphoretics; and has been cele¬
brated in fevers, malignant and epidemical diftempers.
In deliria, alfo, where opiates could not procure deep,
b it rather aggravated the fymptoms, this medicine has
often been obferved to procure it. All thefe effefts,
however, Dr Cullen attributes to its fedative property,
and denies that camphire has any ether medicinal vir-
Vol. V. Part L
05 l cam
tues than thofe of an antifpafmodic and fedative. He Camphoj'a
allows it to be very powerful, and capable of doing II.
much good or much harm. From experiments made ^amP'an j
on. different brute creatures, camphire appears to be ' ^ l_1"
poifonous to every one of them. In fome it produced
fleep followed by death, without any other fymptom.
In others, before death, they were awakened into con-
vulfions and rage. It feems, too, to aft chiefly on
the ftomach ; for an entire piece fwallowed, produced
the above-mentioned effefts with very little diminu¬
tion of weight.
CAMPHUYSEN, DirkTheodore Raphael, an
eminent painter, was born at Gorcum in 1586. He
learned the art of painting from Diederic Govertze 5
and by a ftudious application to it, he very foon not
only equalled, but far furpaffed his mafter. He had
an uncommon genius, and ftudied nature with care,
judgment, and affiduity. His fubjefts were landfcapes,
moftly fmall, with ruinous buildings, huts of peafants
or views of villages on the banks of rivers, with boats-
and hoys, and generally he reprefented them by moon¬
light. . His pencil is remarkably tender and foft, hb
colouring true nature and very tranfparent, and his ex-
pertnefs in perfpeftive is feen in the proportional di-
ftanees of his objefts, which are excellently contrived,
and have a furprifing degree of nature and truth. As
he left off painting at an age when others are fcarcely
qualified to commence artifts, few of his works are to
be met with, and they bring confiderable prices ; as
they cannot but give pleafure to the eye of every ob-
ferver. He painted his piftures with a thin body of
colour, but they are handled with fingular neatnefs
and fpirit. He praftifed in his profeffion only till he
was 18 years of age, and being then recommended as
a tutor to the fons of the lord of Nieuport, he under¬
took the employment, and difeharged it with fo much
credit, that he was appointed fecretary to that noble¬
man. Pie excelled in drawing with a pen j and the
defigns which he finilhed in that manner are exceed¬
ingly valued.
C AMPIAN, Edmund, an Englifli Jefuit, was born
at London, of indigent parents, in the year 1540; and
educated at Chrift’s hofpital, where he had the honour
to fpeak an oration before £)ueen Mary on her accef-
fion to the throne. He was admitted a fcholar of St
John’s college in Oxford at its foundation, and took
the degree of mafter of arts in 1564. About the fame
time he ivas ordained by a biffiop of the church of
England, and became an eloquent Proteftant preacher.
In 11;66, when £)ueen Elizabeth ivas entertained by
the univerfity of Oxford, he fpoke an elegant oration
before her majefty, and was alfo refpondent in the phi-
lofophy aft in St Mary’s church. In 1568, he was
junior proftor of the univerfity. In the following year,
he went over to Ireland, where he wwote a hiftory of
that kingdom, and turned Papift ; but being found
rather too affiduous in perfuading others to follow his
example, he was committed to prifon. He foon, how'-
ever, found means to make his efcape. He landed in
England in 1571 ; and thence proceeded to Douay
^ in Flanders, where, he publicly recanted his former he-
refy, and w'as created bachelor of divinity. He ivent
foon after to Rome, where, in 1 573, he was admitted
of the fociety of Jefus, and w'as fent by the general of
that order to Vienna, where he wrote his tragedy cal-
O Jci
tores.
CAM [i
Campian led Neciar et Ambrojla, which was acted before the em-
II. peror with great applaufe.
Campmoc- rrom y-enna lie went to Prague in Bohemia, where
he refided in the Jefuits college about fix years, and
then returned to Rome. From thence, in 1580, he was
lent by Pope Gregory XIII. with the celebrated Father
Parfons, to convert the people of England. From Pitts
we learn, that, fome time before, feveral Englilh priefts,
infpired by the Holy Ghoft, had undertaken to convert
their countrymen} that 80 of thefe from foreign femina-
ries, befides feveral others who by God’s grace had been
converted in England, were actually engaged in the
pious work with great fuccefs j that fome of them had
fuffered imprifonment, chains, tortures, and ignomini¬
ous death, with becoming conftancy and refolution :
but feeing at laft that the labour was abundant, and
the labourers few, they folicited the affillance of the
Jefuits \ requefling, that though not early in the morn¬
ing, they would at leafl in the third, fixtb, or ninth
hour, fend labourers into the Lord’s vineyard. In con-
fequence of this folicitation, the above two were fent
to England. They arrived in an evil hour for Campian,
at Dover; and were next day joyfully received by their
friends at London. He had not been long in England,
before Walfingham the fecrctary of Hate, being in¬
formed of his uncommon afliduity in the caufe of the
church of Rome, ufed every means in his power to ha\ e
him apprehended, but for a long time without fuccefs..
However, he was at laft taken by one Elliot, a noted
priejl-taller, who found him in the houfe of Edwa.d
Yates, Efq. at Lyford in Berkfhire, and conducted him
in triumph to London, wdth a paper on his hat, on
which was written Campian the Jejuit. He was im-
prifoned in the Tower where Wood fays, “ he did
undergo many examinations, abufes, wrackings, tor¬
tures j” exquifitijfimis cruciatibus tortus, fays 1 itts. . It
is hoped, for the credit of our reformers, this torturing
part of the Rory is not true. The poor wretch, how¬
ever, w;as condemned, on the fiatute 25 Ed. III. for
high treafon } and butchered at lyburn, with two or
three of his fraternity. Howfoever criminal in the eye
of the law, or of the Englifii gofpel, might be the zeal
of this Jefuit for the faivation of the poor heretics of
this kingdom, biographers of each perfuafion unite in
giving him a great and amiable charadler, All wri¬
ters (fays the Oxford antiquary), whether Proteftants
or Popifh, fay, that he was a man of admirable parts ,
an elegant orator, a fubtile philofopher and difputant,
and an exa£t preacher whether in Englilh or the Latin
r* • J */*. G J.T /-4 r\ I I -ia111 rv H
tongue ;
Camus.
 , of a fweet difpofition, and a well-polifhed
man.” Fuller, in his church-hiftory, fays, “ he was of
a fweet nature, conftantly carrying about him the
charms of a plaufible behaviour, of a fluent tongue,
and good parts.” His Hiftory of Ireland, in two
books, was written in 1570^ and publifhed, by Sir
James Ware, from a manufcript in the Cotton library,
Dublin, 1633, folio. He wrote alf'o Chronologia Vni-
verfalis, a very learned work} and various other trafts.
CAMPICURSIO, in the ancient military art, a
march of armed men for feveral miles, from and back
again to the camp, to inflrua them in the military pace.
This exereife was nearly akin to the decurfio, from which
it only differed, in that the latter was performed by
horfemen, the former alfo by foot.
CAMPIDOCTORLS, or Cameiductores, in the
06 ] CAM
Roman army, were officers who inftruaed the foldiery CampuloA.
in the difcipline and exercifes of war, and the art of t0^es
handling their weapons to advantage. Thefe are alfo
fometimes called campigeni, and armuioctores. v__
CAMPIDUCTOR, in middle-age writers, fignifies
the leader or commander of an army, or party.
CAMPION, in Botany, the Englifii name of the
Lychnis.
Campion, a town of the kingdom of Tangut in
Tartary. It was formerly remarkable for being a
place through which the caravans palled in the road
from Bukharia to China. E. Long. 104. 53. N. Lat.
40. 25.
CAMPISTRON, a celebrated French dramatic
author, was born in 1656. Racine directed his poe¬
tical talents to the theatre, and aflifted him in his firff
pieces. He died in 1723.
CAMPITiE, in church hiftory, an appellation gi¬
ven to the Donatifts, on account of their affembling in
the fields for want of churches. For a fimilar reaibn,
they were alfo denominated Montenjes and Cvpitam.
CAMPLI, or Campoli, a town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the farther Abruzzo, fitu-
ated in E. Long. 13. 55. N. Lat. 42. 38.
CAMPO major, a town of the province of Alen-
tejo in Portugal. W. Long. 7. 24. N. Lat. 38. 50.
CAMPREDON, a town of Catalonia in Spain,
feated at the foot of the Pyrenean mountains. The
fortifications were demoliflied by the French in 1691.
W. Long. I. 56. N. Lat. 42. 20.
CAMPS, Francis de, abbot of Notre Dame at
Sigi, was born at Amiens in 1643 1 and diftinguifhtd
himfelf by his knowledge of medals, by writing, a hi¬
ftory of France, and feveral other works. He died at
Paris in 1723.
CAMPVERE. See Veer.
CAMPUS, in antiquity, a field or vacant plain m
a city, not built upon, left vacant on account of ftvows,
combats, exercifes, or other ufes of the citizens.
CAMPUS Mali, in ancient cuftoms, an anniverfary
affembly of our anceftors held on May-day, when they
confederated together for the defence of the kingdom
again ft all its enemies.
CAMPUS Martins, a large plain in the fuburbs of an¬
cient Rome, lying betAveen the Quirinal and Capitoline
mounts and the Liber j thus called becaufe confi crated
to the god Mars, and fet apart for military fports and
exercifes to which the Roman youth were trained, as
the ufe and handling of arms, and all manner of feats
of adlivity. Here were the races run, either with cha¬
riots or fingle horfes j here alfo ftood the villa publica,
or palace for the reception of ambaffadors, who were
not permitted to enter the city. Many of the public
comitia were held in the fame field, part of which was
for that purpofe cantoned out. The place was alio
nobly decorated with ftatues, arches, columns, porticoes,
and the like ftruttures.
CAMPUS Sceleratus, a place without the walls of an¬
cient Rome, where the. Veftals who had violated their
vowrs of virginity were buried alive.
CAMUL, a town of Afia, on the eaftern extremity
of the kingdom of Cialus, on the frontiers of L angut.
E. Long. 98. 5. N. Lat. 37. 15. .
CAMUS, a perfon with a low flat nofe, hollowed m
the middle, ,
CAN [ i°7 1 CAN
The Taitars are great admirers o£ camus beauties.
Rubruquis obferves, that the wife of the great Jenghiz
Khan, a celebrated beauty, had only two holes for a
nofe.
Camus, John Peter, a French prelate born in 1582.
He was author of a number of pious romances (the
tafte of his time), and other theological works, to the
amount of 200 vols. His definition of politics is re¬
markable : Ars non tarn regendi, quatn fallendi, homi¬
nes ; “The art not fo much of governing, as of deceiv¬
ing mankind.” Ke died in 1652.
CAN, in the fca-language, as can-pump, a vefiel
wherewith feamen pour water into the pump to make
it go.
Can-Buoij. See Buoy.
CAN-Hook, an inftrument ufed to fling a calk by the
ends of the Haves : it is formed by fixing a broad and
flat hook at each end of a ihort rope j and the tackle
by which the cajk fo flung may be hoifled or lowered,
is hooked to the middle of the rope.
CANA, in Ancient Geography, a town on the con¬
fines of the Upper and Lower Galilee ; memorable for
the turning water into wine (John). The birthplace
of Simeon, called the Canaanite from this place, and of
Nathanael.
CANAAN, the fourth fon of Ham. The irreve¬
rence of Ham towards his father Noah is recorded in
Gen. ix. Upon that occafion the patriarch curfed
him in a branch of his pofterity : “ Curfed,” fays he,
“ be Canaan ; a fervant of fervants fnall he be unto
his brethren.” This curfe being pronounced, not
againft Ham the immediate tranfgrelTor, but againit
his fon, who does not appear, from the words of Mofes,
to have been anywife concerned in the crime, hath
*>ccafioned feveral conjeftures. Some have believed
that Noah curfed Canaan, becaufe he could not well
have curfed Ham himfelf, whom God had not long
before bleffed. Others think Mofes’s chief intent in
recording this predial ion Was to raife the fpirits of the
Ifraelites, then entering on a terrible war with the
children of Canaan, by the afl’urance, that, in confe-
quence of the curfe, that people were deftined by God
to be fubdued by them. For the ©pinion of thofe who
imagine all Ham’s race were here aceurfed, feems re¬
pugnant to the plain words of Scripture, which con¬
fines the malediction to Canaan and his poftcrity } and
is alfo contrary to fa£t. Indeed, the prophecy of Noah,
that “ Canaan fliould be a fervant of fervants to his
brethren,” feems to have been wholly completed in
him. It was completed with regard to Shem, not only
in that a confiderable part of the feven nations of the
Canaanites were made flaves to the Ifraelites, w-hen
they took poffeflion of their land, as part of the re¬
mainder of them W'ere afterwards enflaved by Solomon ;
but alfo by the fubfequent expeditions, of the AlTyri-
ans and Perfians, who were both defeended from Shem j
and under whom the Canaanites fuffered fubjeUion, as
well as the Ifraelites j not to mention the conquefl: of
part of Canaan by the Elamites, or Perfians, under
Chedorlaomef, prior to them all. With regard to Ja-
phet, v'e find a completion of the prophecy, in the
fucceflive conquefts of the Greeks and Romans in Pa-
leiline and Phoenicia, where the Canaanites were fet¬
tled •, but efpecially in the total fubverfion of the Car-
thaginiao power by the Romans, befides fome inva-
fions of the northern nations, as the pofterity of Tho- Canaan,
garma and Magog j wherein many of them, probably,s—v™”
were carried away captive.
The pofterity of Canaan were very numerous. Hi*
eldeft fon was Sidon, who at lealt founded and peo¬
pled the city of Sidon, and was the father of the Si-
donians and Phoenicians. Canaan had befides ten fons,
who were the fathers of fo many peoples, dwelling in
Paleftine, and in part of Syria ; namely, the Hittites,
the Jebufifces, the Amorites, the Girgafites, the Hi-
vites, the Arkites, the Smites, the Arvadites, the Ze-
marites, and Hamathites.
Land of CANAAN, the country fo named from Ca¬
naan the fon of Ham. It lies between the Mediter¬
ranean fea and the mountains of Arabia, and extends
from Egypt to Phoenicia. It is bounded to the eaffc
by the mountains of Arabia 5 to the fouth by the wil-
dernefs of Paran, Idumaea, and Egypt ; to the weft
by the Mediterranean, called in Hebrew the Great
fea •, to the north by the mountains of Libanus. Its
length from the city of Dan (fince called Caefarea
Philippi, or Pancadis, which Hands at the foot of thefe
mountains) to Beerlheba, is about 70 leagues 5 and its
breadth from the Mediterranean fea to the eaftern
borders, is in fome places 30. This country, which
was firft called Canaan, from Canaan the fon of Flam,
whole pofterity poffelfcd it, was afterw ards called Pa¬
leftine, from the people which the Hebrews call Phi-
liftines, and the Greeks and Romans corruptly Palef-
tines, who inhabited the fea coafts, and were firft
known to them. It likewife had the name of the
Land of Protnife, from the promife God made to Abra¬
ham of giving it to him $ that of the Land of Ifrael,
from the Ifraelites having made themfelves mailers of
it; that oiJudah, from the tribe of Judah, which was
the moft confiderable of the twelve ; and laftly, the
happinefs it had of being fandtified by the prefence,
adfions, miracles, and death of Jefus Chrift, has given
it the name of the Ho/y Land, which it retains to this
day. 1
The firft inhabitants of this land therefore were the
Canaanites, who were defeended from Canaan, and the
eleven fons of that patriarch. Here they multiplied
extremely ; trade and war were their firft occupations ;
thefe gave xifo to their riches, and the fcveral colonies
fcattered by them over almoft all the iflands and ma¬
ritime provinces of the Mediterranean. The meafure
of their idolatry and abominations was completed, w hen
God delivered their country into the hands of the
Ifraelites. In St Athanafius’s time, the Africans ftill
faid they were defeended from the Canaanites ; and
it is faid, that the Punic tongue w'as almoft entirely
the fame w ith the Canaanitilh and Hebrew language.
The colonies which Cadmus carried into Thebes in
Bceotia, and his brother Cilix into Cilicia, came from the
ftock of Canaan. The ifles of Sicily, Sardinia, Malta,
Cyprus, Corfu, Majorca, and Minorca, Cades and E-
bufus, are thought to have been peopled by the Ca¬
naanites. Bochart, in his large work entitled Canaan,
has fet all this matter in a good light.
Many of the old inhabitants of the north-weft of
the land of Canaan, however, particularly on the coaft
or territories of Tyre and Sidon, were not driven out
by the children of Ifrael, whence this traft feems to
have retained the name of Canaan a great while after
G 2 thofe
CAN
[
N
tliofc otlier parts of the country, which were better
inhabited by the Ifraelites, had loft the faid name.
The Greeks called this traft, inhabited by the old Ca-
naanites along the Mediterranean fea, Phoenicia $ the
more inland parts, as being inhabited pardy by Ca-
naanites, and partly by Syrians, Syrophoenieia : and
hence the woman faid by St Matthew (xv. 2 2.) to be
a woman of Canaan, whofe daughter Jefus cured, is
faid by St Mark (vii. 26.) to be.a Syrophcenician by
nation, as (lie was a Greek by religion and language.
CAN ABAC, an ifland which lies contiguous to Bu-
X,am on the ■weftern coaft of Africa, and is inhabited by
a fierce people, governed by two kings or chiefs. It
would appear that the Canabacs had been very trouble-
fome to their neighbours j for the inhabitants of lome
other iflands in that clufter rejoiced at the fettlement
of the Englifh in Bulam, hoping to find in them a de¬
fence againft the ufurpations of this peopie.
CANADA, or the province of Quebec, an ex-
tenfive country of North America, bounded on the
north-eaft by the gulf of St Lawrence, and A John’s
river ; on the fouth-wefi:, by lands inhabited by the
favage Indians, which are frequently included in this
province ; on the fouth, by the provinces of Nova
Canada.
Scotia, New England, nd New York •, and on the
north-weft, by other Indian nations. Under the name
of Canada, the French comprehended a very large
territory •, taking into their claim part of New Scot¬
land, New England, and New York on the eaft ', and
extending it on the weft as far as the Pacific ocean.
That part, however, which was reduced by the Britifh
arms in the laft war, lies between 61 and 81 degrees
of weft longitude, and between 45 arit^ 5^ north
latitude. The climate is not very different from that
of the northern Britifh colonies } but as it is much
further from the fea, and more to the northward, than
moft of thofe provinces, it has a much feverer winter,
though the air is generally clear •, and, like moft of
thofe American tracts that do not lie too far to the
nor* hward, the fummers are very hot, and exceeding
pleafant. The foil in general is very good, and in
many parts extremely fertile ; producing many differ¬
ent forts of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Ihe mea¬
dow grounds, which are wrell watered, yield excellent
grafs, and breed vaft numbers of great and fmall cattle.
The uncultivated parts are a continued wood, compofed
of prodigioufly large and lofty trees, of which there
is fuch a variety of fpecies, that even of jhofe who
have taken moft pains to know them, there is not per¬
haps one that can tell half the number. Canada pro¬
duces, among others, two forts of pines, the white
and the red •, four forts of firs ; two forts of cedar and
oak, the white and the red •, the male and female ma¬
ple •, three forts of aih trees, the free, the mungrel,
and the baftard \ three forts of walnut-trees, the hard,
the foft, and the fmooth •, vaft numbers of beech-trees
and white wood •, white and red elms, and poplars.
The Indians hollow the red ebrs into canoes, feme of
which made out of one piece will contain 20 perfons :
others are made of the bark ; the different pieces of
which they few together with the inner rind, and daub
over the feams with pitch, er rather a bituminous mat¬
ter refembling pitch, to prevent their leaking-, the ribs
of thefe canoes are made of boughs of trees. In the
hollow elms, the bears and wild cats take up their
108 ] c A
lodging from November to April. The country pro¬
duces alfo. a vaft variety of other vegetables, particu- ‘
larly tobacco, which thrives well. $ear Quebec is a
fine lead mine, and many excellent ones of iron have
been difeovered. It hath alfo been reported that fxlver
is found in fome of the mountains. The rivers are ex¬
tremely numerous, and many of them very large and
deep. The principal are, the Ouattauais, St John s,
Seguinay, Defpaires, and 1 rois Rivieres } out all thefe
are fwallowed up by the great river St Lawrence. JLhis
river iffues from the lake Ontario j and, taking its
courfe north-eaft, wafhes Montreal, where it receives
the Ouattauais, and forms many fertile ifiands. It con¬
tinues the fame courfe, and meets the tide upwards of
400 miles from the fea, where it is navigable for large
veffels $ and below Quebec, 3^^ miles fiom the lea,
it becomes fo broad and fo deep, that ftiips of the line
contributed in the laft war to reduce that city. After
receiving m its progrefs innumerable ftreams, it at laft
falls into the ocean at Cape Rollers, where it is 90
miles broad, and wheie the cold is intenfe and the lea
boifterous. This river is the only one upoif \\Inch
any fcttlements of note are as yet formed but it u
very probable, that, in time to come, Canada, and
thole vaft regions to the weft, may be enabled of them-
felves to carry on a conliderable trade upon the great
lakes of frelh water which thefe countries environ.
Here are five lakes, the leaft of which is of greater ex¬
tent than the frelh-water lakes to be found in any other
part of the world : thefe are the lake Ontario, which
is not lefs than 200 leagues in circumrt rente j Erie,
or Ofwego, longer, but not fo broad, is about the
fame extent. That of the Huron Ipieads gieatly in
width, and is about 300 leagues in circuit * as alio is
that of Michigan, though like Lake Erie it is lather
long, and comparatively narrow. But the lake Su¬
perior is larger than any of thefe, being not lets tnan
500 leagues in circumference. All theie are navigable
by any veffels, and they all communicate with each
other ; but the paffage between Erie and Ontario is
interrupted by a moft ftupendous fall or cataract,
called the fads of Niagara *. T he river St Lawrence, <■ See A7«*
as already oblerved, is the outlet of theie lakes, iiygaia,
which they difeharge themielves into the ocean. T he
French built forts at thefe ieveral ftraits, by which ihe
lakes communicate with one another, and on that
where the laft of them communicates with the river*.
By thefe, while the country was in their poffeliion,
they effectually fecured to themfelves the trade ot the
lakes, and preferved an influence over all the Indian
nations that lie near them.
The moft curious and interefting part of the natural
hiftory of Canada is the animals there produced . 1 heie
are ftags, elks, deer, bears, foxes, martens, wild cats,
ferrets, weafels, large fquirrels of a grayifti hue, hares
and rabbits. The fouthern parts, in particular, breed
great numbers of wild bulls, divers forts of roebucks,
<mats, wolves, &c. The marlhes, lakes, and pools,
with which til’s country ai ounds, fwarm with otters
and beavers, of which the white are highly valued,
as well as the right black kind. A vaft variety of birds
are alfo to be found in the woods-, and the river St
Lawrence abounds with luch quantities of fifti, that
it is affirmed by iome writers, this would be a more
profitable article than even the fur-trade.-—There arer
CAN [ i°9 ] CAN
G&n'ada. in Canada a multitude of different Indian tribes : but
thefe are obferved to decreafe in number where the
Europeans are moft numerous •, owing chiefly to the
immoderate ufe of fpirituous liquors, of which they
are exceffively fond. Their manners and way of living
See Arne- ''ve have already particularly defcribed *. The principal
ca- towns are Quebec, Trois Rivieres, and Montreal. The
commodities required by the Canadians from Europe
are, wine, or rather rum •, cloths, chiefly coarfe ; linens,
and wrought iron. The Indian trade requires rum,
tobacco, a fort of duffil blankets, guns, ponder, balls,
and flints, kettles, hatchets, toys, and trinkets of all
kinds. While the country was in poffeflion of the
French, the Indians fupplied them with poultry ; and
the French had traders, who, like fhe original inha¬
bitants, traverfed the vaft lakes and rivers in canoes,
with incredible induftry and patience, carrying their
goods into the remoteft parts of America, and among
nations entirely unknown to us. Thefe again brought
the furs, &e. home to them, as the Indians were there¬
by habituated to trade with them. For this purpofe,
people from all parts, even from the diftanee of 1000
miles, came to the French fair at Montreal, which be¬
gan in June, and fometimes lafted three months. On
this occafion many folemnities wrere obferved, guards
were placed, and the governor affifted to preferve order
in fo great and various a concourfe of fayage nations.
But fometimes great diforders and tumults happened 5
and the Indians frequently gave for a dram all that
they were poffelfed of. It is remarkable, that many
of thefe nations pftually palled by the Englifh frttle-
ment of Albany in New York, and travelled 2co miles
further to Montreal, though they could have purchafed
the goods they wanted cheaper at the former.
Since Britain became poffened of Canada, our trade
with that country has generally employed 34 fhips and
40c feamen ; their exports, at an average of three
years, in fkins, furs, ginfeng, fhake-root, capillaire,
and wheat, amount to 1 i;o,occl. Their imports from
Great Britain are computed at nearly the fame fum It
will, however, be almoft impoffible to overcome cer¬
tain inconveniences arifing from the violence of the
winter. This is fo exceffiye from December to April,
that the broadeft rivers are frozen over, and the fnow
lies commonly from four to fix feet deep on the ground,
even in thofe parts of the country which lie three de¬
grees fouth of London, and in the temperate latitude of
Paris. Another inconvenience arifes from the falls in
the river St Lawrence below Montreal, which prevent
flaps from penetrating to that emporium of inland com¬
merce. Our communication therefore with Canada,
and the immenfe regions beyond it, will always be in¬
terrupted during the wunter-feafon, until roads are form¬
ed that can be travelled without danger from the Indians.
For thefe favage people often commit hollilities againft
us without any previous notice ; and frequently, with¬
out anv provocation, they commit the moll horrid ra¬
vages for a long time with impunity.
Canada was undoubtedly difeovered by Sebaftian
Cabot, the famous Italian adventurer, who failed un¬
der a commiflion from Henry VII. But though the
Englilh monarch did not think proper to make any ufe
of this difeovery, the French quickly attempted it; wre
have an account of their fiflring for cod on the banks of
Newfoundland, and along the fea-coaft of Canada, in
the beginning of the 16th century. About the year Canatfa.
1506, one Denys, a Frenchman, drew a map of the
gulf of St Lawrence j and two years after, one i^u-
bort, a ftiip-mafter of Dieppe, carried over to France
fome of the natives of Canada. As the new countiy, •
however, did not promife the fame amazing quantities
of gold and filver produced by Mexico and Peru, the
French for fome years neglected the difeovery. At
lail, in the year 1523, Francis I. a fenfible and en-
terprifing prince, fent four Ihips, under the command
of Verazani, a Florentine, to profecute difeoveries in
that country. I he particulars of this man’s firit ex¬
pedition are not known. All we can learn is, that
he returned to France, and next year he undertook a
fecond. As he approached the coalt, he met with a vio¬
lent ftormj however, he came fo near as to perceive the
natives on the thore, making friendly figns to him to
land. This being found impracticable by reafon of the
furf upon the coalt, one of the failors threw himielf in¬
to the fea; but, endeavouring to fwim back to the Ihip,
a furge threw' him on Ihore without llgns of life. He
was, however, treated by the natives with fuch care
and humanity, that he recovered his ftrength, and was
allowed to fwim back to the Ihip, which immediately
returned to France, 'ihis is all we know of Vera-
zani’s fecond expedition. He undertook a third, but
w as no more heard of, and it is thought that he and all
his company perilhed before he could form any colony.
In 1 $ -?4, one Jaques Cartier of St Maloes fet lail under
a commiflion from the French king, and on the icth
of May arrived at Cape Bonavifta in Newfoundland.
He had with him two Imall Ihips befides the one in
which he failed. He cruifed along the coait of that
ifland, on which he diieovered inhabitants, probably
the Elkimaux. He landed in feveral places along the-
coail of the gulf, and took polTeflion of the country in
the king’s name. On his return, he was again lent
out with a commiflion, and a pretty large force : he re¬
turned in 1 535, and pafled the winter at St Croix 5 but
the feafon proved fo fevere, that he and his cpn panions -
mull have died of the feurvy, had they not, by the ad¬
vice of the natives, made ufe of the decoc ion of the
tops and bark of the white pines. As Cartier, how¬
ever, could produce neither gold nor filver, all that he
could fay about the utility of the fettlement was diire-
garded •, and in 1540, he w'as obliged to become pilot-
to one M. Roberval, who was by the French king ap¬
pointed viceroy of Canada, and who iailed from France.,
w ith five vellels. Arriving at the gulf of St Lawrence,
they built a fort; and Cartier was left to command the
garrifon in it, while Roberval returned to France for.
additional recruits to his new fettlement. At lait, hav¬
ing embarked in 1549, with a great number of adven¬
turers, neither he nor any of his followers were heard
of more.
This fatal accident fo greatly difeouraged the court
of France, that for 50 years, no meafures were taken
for fupplying with neceflaries the fettlers that were left.
At latt, Henry IV. appointed the marquis de la Roche,
lieutenant-general of Canada and the neighbouring ,
countries. In 1 C98 he landed on the ille of table,
which he abfurdly thought to be a proper place for a
fettlement, though it was without any port, and with¬
out produdt except briars. Here be left about 40 ma-
lefaftors, the refute of the French jails. Aftdr cruizing*
CAN l ti
^Canada, for fome time on the coaft of Nova Scotia, without be-
C'ana1, . ing able to relieve thefe poor wretches, he returned to
France, where he died of a broken heart. His colony
mult have perilhed, had not a French Ihip been wreck¬
ed on the illand, and a few Iheep driven upon it at the
fame time. With the boards of the Ihip they erected
huts} and while the Iheep laited they lived on them,
feeding afterwards on filh. Their clothes wearing out,
they made coats of feal-lkin *, and in this miferable con¬
dition they fpent feven years, when Henry ordered
them to be brought to France. The king had the cu-
riofity to fee them in their feal-lkin dreffes, and was fo
moved with their appearance, that he forgave them all
their offences, and gave each of them 50 crowns to be¬
gin the world anew.
In 1600, one Chauvin, a commander in the French
navy, attended by a merchant of St Malo, called Ponl-
grave, made a voyage to Canada, from whence he re¬
turned with a very profitable quantity of furs. Next
year he repeated the voyage with the fame good for¬
tune, but died while he was preparing for a third. The
many fpecimens of profit to be made by the Canadian
trade, at lalt induced the public to think favourably of
it. An armament was equipped, and the command of
it given to Pontgrave, with powers to extend his difco-
veries up the river St Lawrence. He failed in 1603,
having in his company Samuel Champlain, wh® had
been a captain in the navy, and was a man of parts
and {pirit. It was not, however, till the year 1608, that
the colony was fully effablilhed. This was accomplilh-
ed by founding the city of Quebec, which from that
time commenced the capital of all the fettlemcnts in
Canada. The colony, however, for many years conti¬
nued in a low way, and was often in danger of being
totally exterminated by the Indians. As the particu¬
lars of thefe wars, however, could neither be entertain¬
ing, nor indeed intelligible, to many of our readers,
we choofe to omit them, and in general obferve, that
the French not only concluded a permanent peace with
the Indians, but fo much ingratiated themfelves with
them, that they could with the greateft eafe prevail
upon them at any time to murder and fcalp the Eng-
lifli in their fettlemcnts. Thefe pradtices had a confi-
derable (hare in bringing about the laft war with
France, when the whole country was conquered by the
Britifh in 1761. The moft remarkable tranfaftion in
this conqueft was the fiege of Quebec 5 for a particu¬
lar account of which, fee that article. And for the
tranfattions here during the late American war, fee
America (United States of).
CANAL of Communication, an artificial cut in
the ground, fupplied with Water from rivers, fprings,
&:c. in order to make a navigable communication be¬
twixt one place and another.
The particular operations neceffary for making ar¬
tificial navigations depend upon a number of circum-
Itances. The fituation of the ground ; the vicinity or
connexion with rivers ; the eafe or difficulty with
which a proper quantity of water can be obtained :
thefe and many other eircumftances neceffarily produce
great variety in the ftrufture of artificial navigations,
and augment or diminifh the labour and expence of
executing them. When the ground is naturally level,
and unconnedted with rivers, the execution is eafy, and
'the navigation is not liable to be diffurbed with floods;
x
o 3 CAN
but, when the ground rifes and falls, and cannot be re- Catiah
duced to a level, artificial methods of raifing and low-
ering veffels mult be employed j which likewife vary
according to eircumftances.
A kind of temporary fluices are fometimes employed
for raifing boats over falls or ffioals in rivers by a very
Ample operation. Two polls or pillars of malon-work,
with grooves, are fixed, one on each bank of the river,
at fome diftance below the ffioal. The boat having
paffed thefe polls, planks are let down acrofs the river
by pulleys into the grooves, by which the water is
dammed up to a proper height for allowing the boat t*
pafs up the river over the Ihoal.
The Dutch and Flemings at this day fometimes,
when obftrudted by cafcades, form an inclined plane or
rolling-bridge upon dry land, alongft which their vef¬
fels are drawn from the river below the cafcade into
the river above it. This, it is laid, was the only me¬
thod employed by the ancients, and is Hill ufcd by the
Chinefe, who are faid to be entirely ignorant of the
nature and utility of locks. Thefe rolling-bridges con-
fill of a number of cylindrical rollers which turn eafily
on pivots, and a mill is commonly built near by, fo
that the fame machinery may ferve the double purpofe
of w'orking the mill and draw ing up veffels.
A Lock is a bafon placed lengthw ife in a river or
canal, lined with w alls of mafonry on each fide, and
terminated by two gates, placed w here there is a caf¬
cade or natural fall of the country j and fo eonftrudted,
that the bafon being filled with water by an upper
lluice to the level of the Waters above, a veffel may af-
cend through the upper gate 5 or the water in the lock
being reduced to the level of the w'ater at the bottom
of the cafcade, the veffel may defcend through the
low'er gate •, for when the waters are brought to a level
on either fide, the gate on that fide may be eafily
opened. But, as the lower gate is ftrained in propor¬
tion to the depth of water it fupports, when the per¬
pendicular height of the water exceeds 12 or 13 feet,
more locks than tfne become neceffary. Thus, if the
fall be 17 feet, two locks are required, each having
84- feet fall } and if the fall be 26 feet, three locks are
neceffary, each having 8 feet 8 inches fall. The fide
walls of a lock ought to be very fining. Where the
natural foundation is bad, they Ihould be founded on
piles and platforms of wood : they fhould likewife flope
outwards, in order to refill the preffure of the earth
from behind,
Plate CXXXIV. fig. I. A perfpe&ive view of part
of a canal: the veffel L, within the lock AC.—Fig. 2.
Section of an open lock •, the veffel L about to enter.—
Fig. 3. Section of a lock full of water j the veffel L
raifed to a level with the W'ater in the fuperior canal.—
Fig. 4. Ground feftion of a lock, L, a veffel in the
inferior canal. C, the under gate. A, the upper
gate. GH, a fubterraneous paffage for letting water
from the fuperior canal run into the lock. KF, a fub¬
terraneous paffage for water from the lock to the infe¬
rior canal.
X and Y, (fig. 1.) are the two floodgates, each
of which confifts of two leaves, refting upon one an«
other, fo as to form an obtufe angle, in order the bet¬
ter to refill the preflure of the water. The firft (X)
prevents the water of the fuperior canal from falling
into the lock j and the fecond (Y) dams up and fu¬
ll a ins,
CAN [ in ] CAN
Canal.
ftalns the water in the lock. Thefe flood-gates ought
to be very ftrong, and to turn freely upon their hinges.
In order to make them open and ihut with cafe, each
leaf is furnilhed with a long lever Ab, Ab ; C b, C b.
They fhould be made very tight and clofe, that as little
'water as poflible may be loft.
By the fubterraneous palfage GH (fig. 2, 3, and 4.)
which defcends obliquely, by opening the fiuice G, the
water is let down from the fuperior canal D into the
lock, where it is ftopt and retained by the gate C
when fhut, till the water in the lock comes to be on a
level with the water in the fuperior canal D j as repre-
fented, fig. 3. When, on the other hand, the wa¬
ter contained by the lock is to be let out, the paffage
GH muft be fhut by letting down the fiuice G j the
gate A muft be alfo ihut, and the paifage KF opened
by railing the fiuice K : a free paifage being thus
given to the water, it defeends through KF, into the
inferior canal, until the water in the lock is on a level
with the water in the inferior canal B j as reprefented,
Now, let it be required to raife the veftel L (fig. 2.)
from the inferior canal B to the fuperior one D j if
the lock happens to be full of water, the fluice G muft
be fhut, and alfo the gate A, and the fiuice K opened,
fo that the water in the lock may run out till it is on
3 level with the water in the inferior canal B. When
the water in the lock comes to be on a level with the
water at B, the leaves of the gate C are opened by the
levers C b, which is eafily performed, the water on each
fide of the gate being in equilibrio j the veflel then
fails into the lock. After this the gate C and the
fiuice K are fhut, and the fiuice G opened, in order
to fill the lock, till the water in the lock, and con-
fequently the velfel, be upon a level with the water in
the fuperior canal D j as is reprefented in fig. 3. The
gate A is then opened, and the veffel pafles into the
canal D.
Again, let it be required to make a veffel defeend
from the canal D into the inferior canal B. If the
lock is empty, as in fig. 2. the gate C and fiuice K
xnuft be ftiut, and the upper fiuice G opened, fo that
the water in the lock may rife to a level with the wa¬
ter in the upper canal D. Then open the gate A, and
let the veffel pafs through into the lock. Shut the
gate A and the fiuice G j then open the fiuice K, till
the water in the lock be on a level with the water in
the inferior canal j then the gate C is opened, and
the veffel paffes along into the canal B, as was requir¬
ed.
Seareity of water becomes a very ferious inconveni¬
ence to navigation in tbofe places where locks are ne-
ceffary, as, without a fufficient fupply, it muft be fre¬
quently interrupted. To fave water, therefore, has
been an important confideration in the conllruCtion of
locks. Various attempts have been made for this pur-
pofe. We ftiall here give an account of one which
has been propofed by Mr Playfair architedl in Lon¬
don. “ The nature and principle of this manner of
faving water, fays the inventor, conlifts in letting the
water which has ferved to raife or fall a boat or
barge from the lock, pafs into refervoirs or cifterns,
whole apertures of communication with the lock are
upon different levels, and which may be placed or
conftructed at the fide or fldes of the lock with which
they communicate, or in any other contiguous fitua-
tion that circumftances may render eligible j which '
apertures may be opened or fhut at pleafure, fo that
the water may pal's from the lock to each refervoir
of the canal, or from each refervoir to the lock, in the
following manner : . The water which fills the lock,
when a boat is to afeend or defeend, inftead of being
palled immediately into the lower part of the canal, is
let pafs into thefe cifterns or refer voir.s,. upon different
levels j then their communications with the lock being
flint, they remain full until another veffel is wanted ter
pafs j then, again, the cifterns are emptied into the
lock, which is thereby nearly filled, fo that only the re¬
mainder which is not filled is fupplicd from the higher
part of the canal. Each of thefe ciftems muft have a
furface not Ids than that of the lock, and muft con¬
tain half as much water as is meant to be expended for
the palling of each veffel. The ciftern the moft eleva¬
ted is placed twice its own depth (meafuring by the
aperture, or communicating opening of the cifterns)
under the level of the water in the higher part of the
canal. The fecond ciftern is placed once its own depth
under the firft, and fo on are the others, to the loweft 5
which laft is placed once its own depth above the level
of the water in the lower part of the canal. The aper¬
tures of the intermediate eifterns, whatever their num¬
ber may be, muft all be equally divided into different
levels j the furface of the water in the one being al¬
ways on the level of the bottom of the aperture of the
ciftern which is immediately above. As an example
of the manner and rule for conftruffing thefe cifterns,
fuppofe that a lock is to be conftruffed twelve feet
deep, that is, that the veflel may afeend or defeend twelve
feet in pafling, Suppofe the lock lixty feet long and
fix feet wide, the quantity of water required to fill the
lock, and to pafs a boat, is 4320 cubic feet} and fup¬
pofe that, in calculating the quantity of water that can
be procured for fupplying the canal, after allowing for
waite, it is found (according to the number of boats
that may be expeffed to pafs) that there wrill not be-
above 800 cubic feet for each 5 then it will be necef-
fary to fave five-fixths of the whole quantity that in the
common cafe would be neceflary : to do which ton cif¬
terns muft be made (the mode of placing which is ex-
preffed in the drawing, fig. 5. Plate CXXXIV.) each
of which muft be one foot deep, or deeper at pleafure,.
and each muft have a furfaee of 360 feet fquare, equal
to the furface of the lock. The bottom of the aper¬
ture of the low eft ciftern muft be placed one foot above
the level of the water in the lower part of the canal, or
eleven feet under the level of the high water 5 the fe¬
cond ciftern muft be tw'o feet above the level of the
low water } the third three feet, and fo on of the others
the bottom of the tenth, or uppermoft ciftern, being
ten feet above the low water, and two feet lower than
the high water j and, as each ciftern muft be twelve
inches in depth, the furface of the w ater in the higher
ciftern will be one foot under the level of the water in
the upper part of the canal. The cifterns being thus
conftiufted, when the lock is full, and the boat to be
let down, the communications between the lock and the
cifterns, which until then have all been fhut, are to be
opened in the following manner j firft, the communica¬
tion with the higher ciftern is opened, which, being at
bottom two feet under the level of the water in the-
lockj
Can.
C AN r 112 ] c A N
O&nal. lock, Is filled to the depth of one foot, the wsiter in the
lock defeending one foot alfo at the fame time j that
communication is then fhut, and the communication be¬
tween the lock and the fecond cidern is opened j one
< foot more of the water then paifes into that cittern from
the lock, and fills it •, the opening is then flint : the
fame is done with the third, fourth, fifth, fixth, fev,enth,
eighth, ninth, and tenth citterns, one by one, until
they are all filled ; and, when the tenth, or lowermoft
cittern, is filled, there remains but two feet depth of wa¬
ter in the lock. The communication between the lock
and the lower part of the canal is then opened, and the
latt two feet depth of water is emptied into the lower
part of the canal. By this means, it is evident, that,
inltead of twelve feet depth of water being let defeend
into the lower part of the canal, there is only two feet
depth that defeends, or one-fixth of the whole ; there¬
fore, inftead of 4320 cubic feet being ufed, there are
only 7 20 cubic feet ufed : the remainder of the water
in the citterns being ufed as follows. When another
boat is to mount, the tluices being then tlmt, and the
boat in the lock, the tenth or lowermott cittern, is
emptied into the lock, which it fills one foot •, the com¬
munication being then fhut, the next lowed cittern, or
the ninth, is emptied into the lock, which is thereby
filled another foot; and fo in like manner, all the other
citterns are emptied, one after another, until the higher
cittern being emptied, which fills the tenth foot of wa¬
ter in the lock, there remains but two feet of -water to
fill, which is done from the upper part of the canal, by
opening the higher tluice to pafs the boat •, by that
means the fame quantity of water defeends from the
upper part of the canal into the lock, that in the other
cafe defeended from the lock into the low'er part of the
canal *, fo that, in both cafes, the fame quantity of wa¬
ter is faved, that is, five-fixths of what wrould be necef-
fary were there no citterns. Suppofe again that, upon
the fame canal, and immediately after the twelve feet
lock, it would be advantageous to conftruft one of
eighteen feet •, then, in order not to ufe any greater
quantity of water, it will be neceffary to have fixteen
citterns, upon different levels, communicating with the
lock in the fame manner. Should, again, a lock of
only fix feet be wanted, after that of eighteen, then it
will only be neceffary to have four citterns on different
levels, and fo of any other height of lock. The rule
is this : for finding the number and fize of the citterns,
each cittern being the fame in fuperficies with the lock,
its depth mutt be fuch as to contain one half the quan¬
tity of water meant to be ufed in the paffmg of one
boat. The depth of the lock, divided by the depth
neceffary for fuch a ciltern, will give, in all cafes, the
whole number of citterns, and two more : deduft the
number two, therefore, from the number which you
find by dividing the depth of the lock by the depth of
one cittern, and you have always the number of ci¬
tterns required •, which are to be placed upon different
levels, according to the rule already given. The above
is the principle and manner of ufing the lock, for fa¬
ying water in canals, and for enabling engineers to con-
ltru£t locks of different depths upon the fame canal,
without ufing more w-ater for the deep locks than for
the fhallow ones. With regard to the manner of dif-
pofing the citterns, the circumftances of the ground,
the c' mlivity, Sic, will be the belt guide for the en¬
gineer.”
But even when rvater is abundant, if the declivity of
a country be fuch as to require numerous locks, naviga¬
tion fuffers great interruption from them. A method
by which boats could be raifed and lowered with
greater facility, or in a fhorter time than can be done
by means of locks is ttill a very defirable objeft of im¬
provement in inland navigation. For this purpofe the
inclined plane has been often reforted to, and particu¬
larly in China, where water-carriage is more generally
employed than in any country of Europe. But this'
method requires very powerful machinery or a great
number of hands, which has prevented it from being
much praftifed in this country. Other contrivances to
obviate the ufe of locks have been propofed. . Dr
Anderfon, in his Agricultural Survey of the County
of Aberdeen, has delcribed one, of which we lhall give
an account in his own words. This contrivance, he
obferves, “ in the opinion of very gcod judges of mat¬
ters of this fort, to whom the plan has been {hewn,
has been deemed fully adequate to the purpofe of railing
and lowering boats of a moderate fize, that is, of 20
tons, or downwards ; and it is the opinion of moft men
with whom I have converfed, who are beft acquainted
with the inland navigations, that a boat of from 10 to
15 tons is better than Cnofe of a larger fize. When fe-
veral are wanted to be fent at once, they may be affixed
to one another, as many as the towing-horfe can con¬
veniently draw. Were boats of this fize adopted, and
were all the boats on one canal to be of the fame di-
menfions, it would prove a great convenience to a
country in a ftate of beginning improvements ; becaufe
the expence of fueh a boat would be fo trilling, that
every farmer could have one for himfelf, and might of
courfe make ufe of it when he pleafed, by the aid of
his own horfe, without being obliged to have any de-^
pendence on the time that might fuit the convenience
of his neighbour * and if two or more boats were going
from the fame neighbourhood, one horfe could ferve
the whole.
“ You are to fuppofe that fig. 6. Plate CXXXIV.
reprefents a bird’s-eye view of this limple apparatus, as
feen from above. A is fuppofed to be the upper reach
of the canal, and B the lower reach, with the apparatus
between the two. This confilts of three divifions 5 the
middle one, extending from C to D, is a folid piece of
mafonry, raifed from a firm foundation below the level
of the bottom of the fecond reach; this is again divid¬
ed into five parts, viz. ddd, where the wall rifes only
to the height of the water in the upper reach, and ee,
two pillars, raifed high enough tolupport the pivots of a
wheel or pulleyg, placed in the pofition there marked.
“ The fecond divilion h confilts of a wooden coffer,
of the fame depth nearly as the water in the upper
reach, and of a fize exaftly fitted to contain one of the
boats. This communicates dlre&ly with the upper
reach, and being upon the fame plane with it, and fo
connected with it as to be water-tight, it is evident,
from infpeftion, that nothing can be more eafy than to
float a boat into this coffer from the upper reach, the
part of the wheel that projects over it being at a iuffi-
cient height above it, io as to occafion no iort of inter-
runtion.
1 « Third
Can
3
PLATE CXTTIV.
d A N [ i
6s*ul. f: Third divifion. At / is reprefented another eof-
' /er* precifelyof the fame dimenfions with the firft. But
here two {Juices, wliich were open in tlie former, and
only rcprefented by dotted lines, are fuppofed to be
{hut, fo as to cut off all communication between the
water in the canal and that in the coffer. As it was
impoffible to reprefent this part of the apparatus on fo
fmall a fcale, for the fake of illuftration it is reprefent-
ed more at large in fig. 9. where A, as before, repre-
fents the upper reach of the canal, and h one of the
coffers. The (Juice h goes into two cheeks of wood,
joined to the mafonry of the dam of the canal, fo as to
fit perfectly clofe 5 and tlie {Juice f fits, equally clofe,
into cheeks made in the fide of the coffer for that pur-
pofe j between tliefe two {Juices is a fmall fpace 0.
The coffer, and this divifion 0, are to be fuppofed full
of water, and it will be eafy to fee that thefe {Juices
may be let down, or drawn up at pleafure, with much
facility.
“ Fig. 10. reprefents a perpendicular feftion of thefe
parts in the fame dire&ion as in fig. 9. and in which
the fame letters reprefent the fame parts.
“ Things being thus arranged, you are to fuppofe
tire coffer h to be fufpended, by means of a chain paffed
over the pulley, and balanced by a weight tlrat is fuffi-
cient to counterpoife it, fufpended at the oppofite end
of tire chain. Suppofe, then, that the counterpoife be
made fomewhat lighter than the coffer with its con¬
tents, and that tire line 7nn (fig. ro.') reprefents a divi¬
fion between tire folid fides of the dam of feparation,
w hich terminates the upper reach, and the wooden cof¬
fer, which had been clofed only by the preffure of its
own weight (being pufired a very little from A towards
B, beyond itsprecife perpendicular fwing), and that the
joining all round is covered with lilts of cloth put upon
it for that purpofe ; it is evident that, fo long as the
coffer is fufpended to this height, the joining muff be
water-tight \ but no fooner is it lowered down a little
than this joining opens, the water in the fmall divifion
0 is allowed to run out, and an entire feparation is made
between the fixed dam and this moveable coffer, which
may be lowered down at pleafure without lofing any
part of the water it contained.
“ Suppofe the coffer now perfeftly detached, turn
to fig. 7. which reprefents a perpendicular fe&ion of
this apparatus, in the direftion of the dotted line pp
(fig. 6.) In fig. 7. h reprefents an end view of the
coffer, indicated by the fame letter as in fig. 6 fufpend¬
ed by its chain, and nowr perfectly detached from all
other objefts, and balanced by a counterpoife 2, which
is another coffer exactly of the fame fize, as low down
as the level of the lower reach. From infpection only
it is evident, that, in proportion as the one of thefe
weights rife#, the other muff defeend. For the pre-
fent, then, luppofe that the coffer h is by fome means
rendered more weighty than 2, it is plain it will de¬
feend while the other rifes ; and they will thus conti¬
nue till h comes down to the level of the lower reach,
and 2 rifes to the level of the higher one.
“ Fig. 8. reprefents a fe6Hon in the direclion AB
Vol. V. Part I.
13 1 CAN
(fig. 6.), in which the coffer i (feen in both fituations)
is fuppofed to have been gradually raifedfrom the level
of the lower reach B, to that of the higher one where
it now remains ftationary ; while the coffer h (which is
concealed behind the mafonry) has defeended in the
mean time to the level of the lower reach, where it
clofes by means of the jundlure r r, fig. 10. (which
jumffure is covered with lifts of cloth, as before explain¬
ed at m /?, and is of courfe become water-tight,) when,
by lifting the (Juice 2, and the correfponding fluice at
the end of the canal, a perfect communication by wa¬
ter is eftablilhed between them. If, then, inftead of
water only, this coffer had contained a boat, floated in¬
to it from the upper reach, and then lowered down, it
is very plain, that w hen ihefe (Juices were removed, after
it had reached the level of the low er reach, that boat
might have been floated out of the coffer with as much
facility as it was let into it above. Plere then we have
a boat taken from the higher into the lower canal j
and, by reverfing this movement, it is very obvious
that it might be, with equal eafe, railed from the low'er
into the higher one. It now only remains that I
ftiould explain by what means the equilibrium between
thefe counter-balancing weights can be deffroyed at
pleafure, and the motion of courfe produced.
“ It is very evident, that if the two correfponding
coffers be precifely of the fame dimenfions, their w'eight
will be exaftly the fame when they are both filled to
the fame depth of waiter. It is equally plain, that
fhould a boat be floated into either or both of them,
whatever its dimenfions or weight may be, fo that it
can be contained afloat in the coffer, the weight of the
coffer and its contents will continue precifely the fame
as when it w'as filled with w'ater only : hence, then,
fuppofing one boat is to be low'ered, or one to be raifed
at a time, or fuppofing one to be railed and another
low'ered at the fame time—they remain perfectly in
equilibrium in either place, till it is your pleafure to
deftroy that equilibrium. Suppofe, then, for the pre-
fent, that both coffers are loaded with a boat in each,
the double {Juices both above and below clofed j and
fuppofe alfo that a ftop-cock //, in the under edge of
the fide of the low'er coffer (fig. 8. and 10.), is opened,
fome of the wrater which ferved to float the boat in the
coffer will flow out of it, and confequently that coffer
will become lighter than the higher one 5 the upper
coffer will of courfe defeend, while the other mounts
upwards. When a gentle motion has been thus com¬
municated, it may be prevented from accelerating, mere-*
ly by turning the ftop-cock fo as to prevent the lofs
of more water, and thus one coffer will continue to
afeend, and the other to defeend, till they have affumed
their ftations refpeftively j when, in confequence of a
flop below, and another above, they are rendered fta¬
tionary at the level of the refpeflive canals (a).
“ Precifely the fame effect will be produced when
the coffers are filled entirely with water.
“ It is unneceffary to add more to this explanation,
except to obferve, that the fpace for the coffer to de¬
feend into muft be deeper than the bottom of the lower
P canal,
Canal.'
(a) “ It does not feem neceffary to adopt any other contrivance than the above for regulating the motions j
but if it fliould l>e found tteceffary, it would be eafy to put a ratch-tYheel on the fame axle.
CAN [ii
Canal, canal, in order to allow a free defcent for the coffer to
   the requisite depth ; and of courfe it will be neceffary
to have a fmall conduit to allow the water to get out of
it. Two or three inches free, below the bottom of the
canal, is all that would be neceffary.
“ Where the height is inconfiderable, there will be
no occafion for providing any counterpoife for the
chain, as that will give only a fmall addition to the
weight of the undermoft coffer, fo as to make it pre¬
ponderate, in circumftances where the two coffers would
otherwife be in perfedl equilibrium : but, where the
height is confiderable, there will be a neceffity for pro¬
viding fuch a counterpoife 5 as, without it, the chain,
by becoming more weighty every foot it defeended,
would tend to deftroy the equilibrium too much, and
accelerate the motion to an inconvenient degree. To
guard againlt this inconvenience, let a chain of the fame
weight per foot, be appended at the bottom of each
coffer, of fuch a length as to reach within a few yards
of the ground where the coffer is at its greateft height
(fee fig. 7.) j it will a£t with its whole weight upon
the higheft coffer while in this pofition 5 but, as that
gradually defeended, the chain would reach the ground,
and, being there fupported, its weight would be di-
minifhed in proportion to its defcent 5 W'hile the weight
of the chain on the oppofite fide would be augmented
in the fame proportion, fo as to counterpoife each other
exaftly, in every fituation, until the uppermoft chain
was raifed from the ground. After which it would
increafe its weight no more : and, of courfe, would then
give the under coffer that preponderance which is ne¬
ceffary for preferving the machine Heady. The under
coffer, when it reached its loweft pofition v'ould touch
the bottom on its edges, which would then fupport it,
and keep every thing in the fame pofition, till it w as
made lighter for the purpofe of afeending.
“ What conftitutes one particular excellence of the
apparatus here propofed is, that it is not only unlimited
as to the extent of the rife or depreflion of which it
is fufceptible (for it would not require the expendi¬
ture of one drop more water to lower ?t 100 feet than
one foot) ; but it would alfo be eafy fo to augment
the number of pulleys at any one place as to admit of
two, three, four, or any greater number of boats be¬
ing lowered or elevated at the fame time} fo that let
the fucceffion of boats on fuch a canal be nearly as.
rapid as that of carriages upon a highway, none of
them need be delayed one moment to wait an oppor¬
tunity of paffing : a thing that is totally impra&i-
«able where water-locks are employed 5 for the inter-
courfe, on every canal conftrufted with water-locks, is
aeceffarily limited to a certain degree, beyond which it
is impoflible to force it.
“ For example : fuppofe a hundred boats are follow¬
ing each other, in fuch a rapid fucceffion as to be only
half a minute behind each other : By the apparatus
here propofed, they would all be elevated precifely as
they came •, in the other, let it be fuppofed that the
lock is fo well conftrutted as that it takes no more than
five minutes to elofe and open it •, that is, ten minutes
in the whole to each boat (for the. lock, being once
filled, muff be again emptied before it can receive ano¬
ther in the fame direftion) : at this rate, fix boats only
could be paffed in an hour, and1 of courfe it would take
fixteen hours and forty minutes to pafs the whole hun-
4 ] CAN
dred j and as the laff boat would reach the lock in the Canal*
fpace of fifty minutes after the firit, it would be detain- " v'"""
ed fifteen hours and fifty minutes before its turn would
come to be raifed. This is an immenfe detention j but
if a fucceffion of boats, at the fame rate,, were to follow
continually, they never could pafs at all. In ftiort, in
a canal conftrufted with water-locks, not more than fix
boats, on an average, can be paffed in an hour, fo that
beyond that extent all commerce muff be flopped ; but,
on the plan here propofed, fixty, or fix hundred, might
be paffed in an hour, if neceffarv, fo as to occafion no
fort of interruption whatever. Thefe are advantages
of a very important nature, and ought not to be over¬
looked in a commercial country.
“ This apparatus might be employed for innumer¬
able other ufes as a moving power, which it would be
foreign to our prefent purpofe here to fpecify. Nor
does its power admit of any limitation, but that of the
flrength of the chain, and of the coffers which are to
fupport the weights. All the other, parts admit of
being made fo immeveably firm as to be capable of lup
porting almoft any affignable weight..
“ I will not enlarge on the benefits that may be deri.
ved from this very fimple apparatus : its chcapnefs, when
compared with any other mode of raifing and lowering
veffels that has ever yet been practifed, is very obvious y
the waite of water it would occafion is next to nothing y
and when it is confidered that a boat might be raifed
or towered fifty feet nearly with the fame eafe as five,
it is evident that the interruptions which arife from
frequent locks would be avoided, and an immenfe fay¬
ing be made in the original expence of the canal, and
in the annual repairs.,
“ It is alfo evident, that an apparatus, on the fame
principle, might be eafily applied for raifing coals or
metals from a great depth in mines, wherever a very
fmall ftream of water could be commanded, and where
the mine was level-free.”
It is almoft needlefs to fpend time in enumerating
the many advantages which neceffarily refult from ar¬
tificial navigations. Their utility is now fo apparent,
that moft nations ih Europe give the higheft encou¬
ragement to undertakings of this kind wherever they
are practicable. The advantages of navigable canals
did not efcape the obfervation of the ancients. From
the moft early accounts of fociety we read of attempts
to' cut through large ifthmufes, in order to make a
communication by water, either betwixt different na¬
tions, or diftant parts of the fame nation, where land-
carriage w as long and expenfive. Herodotus relates,
that the Cnidians, a people of Caria in Afia Minor,
defigned to cut the ifthmus which joins that peninfula
to the continent ; but w'ere fuperftitious enough to giv©
up the undertaking, beeaufe they were interdifted. by
an oracle. Several kings of Egypt attempted to join
the Red fea to the Mediterranean by a canal. It
was begun by Necos the fon of Pfammetieus, and
completed by Ptolemy II. After his reign it was
neglefled, till it wras opened in 635 under the cali¬
phate of Omar, but w as again allowed to fall into difre-
pair •, fo that it is now difficult to difeover any traces
of it. Both the Greeks and Romans intended to
make a canal acrofs the ifthmus of Corinth, which joins
the Morea and Achaia, in order to make a navigable
paffage by the Ionian fea into the Archipelago. De-
aaetriuj^
CAN [i
Cenji. jnetriua, Julius Coefar, Caligula, and rsFero, made feve-
—  ral unfuccefcful efforts to open this naffage. Eut, as
the ancients were entirely ignorant of the ufe of water-
locks, their whole attention was employed in making
level cuts, which is probably the principal reafon why
they fo often failed in their attempts. Charlemagne
formed a deiign of joining the Rhine and the Danube,
in order to make a communication between the ocean
and the Black fea, by a canal from the river Almutz
■which difcharges itfelf into the Danube, to the Reditz,
which falls into the Main, and this lail falls into the
Rhine near Mayence ; for this purpofe he employed a
prodigious number of workmen j but he met with fa
many obffacles from different quarters, that he wa*> ob¬
liged to give up the attempt.
The French at prefent have many fine canals : that
of Briare was begun under Henry IV. and finifhed un*
tier the direflion of Cardinal Richelieu in the reign of
•Louis XIII. This canal makes a communication be¬
twixt the Loire and the Seine by the river Loing. It
extends 11 French great leagues from Briare to Mon-
targis. It enters the Loire a little above Briare, and
terminates in the Loing at Cepoi. There are 42 locks
on this canal.
The canal of Orleans, for making another commu¬
nication between the Seine and the Loire, was begun
in 1675, and finifhed by Philip of Orleans, regent of
France, during the minority of Louis XV. and is fur-
niflied with 20 locks. It goes by the name of the ca¬
nal of Orleans ; but it begins dt the village of Conl-
bleux, which is a fhort French league from the town of
Orleans.
But the greateft and molt ufeful work of this kind
IS the jundlion of the ocean with the Mediterranean by
the canal of Languedoc. It was propofed in the reigns
of Francis I. and Henry IV. and was undertaken ahd
finifhed under Louis XIV. It begins with a large re-
fervoir 4000 paces in circumference, and 24 feet deep,
which receives many fprings from the mountain Noire.
This canal is about 64 leagues in length, is fupplied
by a number of rivulets, and is furnilhed with 104
locks, of about eight feet rife each. In fome places it
'paffes over bridges of vaft height j and in others it cuts
through folid rocks for looo paces. At one end it
joins the river Garonne near Thouloufe, and terminates
at the other in the lake Tau, which extends to the port
of Cette. It was planned by Francis Riquet in the
1666, and finifhed before his death, which happened
in the 1683.
In the Dutch, Auftriih, and French Netherlands,
there is a very great number of canals 5 that from Bru¬
ges to Offend carries veffels of 200 tons.
The Chinefe have alfo a great number of canals j
that which runs from Canton to Pekin extends about
825 miles in length, and was executed about 800 years
ago.
It would be an endlefs talk to deferibe the nurdber-
lefs canals in Holland, Ruflia, Germany, &c. We fliitll
therefore confine ourfelVes to fome of the more import¬
ant in our own country.
As the promoting of commerce is the principal in^
tfention of making canals, it is natural to expeft that
their frequency in any nation fliould bear fome propor¬
tion to the trade carried on in it, providing the fitua-
tion of the country will admit of them. The prefent
IS ] CAN
ftatc of England and Scotland confirms this oVferva-
tion. Though the Romans made a canal between the
Nyne, a little below Peterborough, and the Witham,
three miles beloW Lincoln, which is now almoft entire¬
ly filled up, yet it is not longfince canals were revived
in England. I hey are now however become very nu¬
merous, particularly in the counties of York, Lincoln,
and Cheihire. Moff of the counties betwixt the mouth
of the Thames and the Briffol channel are connected
together either by natural or artificial navigations j
thofe upon the Thames and Ifis reaching within about
20 miles of thofe upon the Severn. The duke of
Bridgewater’s canal in Chefhire runs 27 miles on a
perfect level; but at Barton it is carried by a very
high aquedmff bridge oVer the IrWell, a navigable
river ; fo that it is common for veffels to be^pafling at
the fame time both under and above the bridge. It is
likewife cut fome miles into the hills, where the duke’r
coal-mines are wrought.
A navigable canal betwixt the Forth and Clyde in
Scotland, and which divides the kingdom in two parts,
Was firff thought of by Charles II. for tranfports and
fmall (hips of war •, the expence of which was to have
been 503,0001. a fum far beyond the abilities of his
reign. It w as again projefted in the year 1722, and a
furvey made j but nothing more done till 1761, when
the then Lord Napier, at his own expenee, caufed
a furvey, plan, and effimate on a fmall feale to be made*
In 1764, the truffees for fifheries, &c. in Scotland cau¬
fed inake another furvey, plan, and eftimate of a canal
five feet deep, which was to coft 79,00c!. In i"]66, a
fubfeription was obtained by a number of the moff rej-
fpeftable merchants in Glafgnw, for making a canal
four feet deep and twenty-four feet in breadth ; but
when the bill was nearly obtained in parliament, it was
given up on account of the fmallnels of the fcale, and
a new fubfeription fet on foot for a canal feven feet
deep, eftimated at 150,000!. This obtained the
fanftion of parliament; attd the Work was begun ih
1768 by Mr Smeaton the engineer. The extreme
length of the canal from the Forth to the Clyde is 35
miles, beginning at the mouth of the Carron, and end¬
ing at Dalmuir Burnfoot on the Clyde, fix miles be¬
low' Glafgow, rifing and falling l6o feet by means of
39 locks, 20 on the eaft fide of the fummit, and 19
on the w eft, as the tide does not ebb fo low in Clyde as
in the Forth by nine feet. Veffels drawing eight feet
w'ater, and not exceeding nineteen feet beam and leven*
ty-three feet in length, pafs With eafe, the canal having
afterwards been deepened to upwards of eight feet.
The whole Cnterprife difplays the art of man in a high
degree. The cairying the canal through mofs, quick-
fand, gravel and rocks, up precipices and over valleys^
■was attended with inconceivable difficulties. 1 here
are eighteen draw-bridges and fifteen aquedufl bridges
of note, befides final! ones and tunnels. In the firft
three miles there are only fix locks j but in the fourth
mile there are no lefs than ten locks, and a very fine
aquedufl bridge over the great road to the weft of
Falkirk. In the next fix miles there are only four
iocks w hich carry you to the fummit. ft he canal
then runs eighteen miles on a level, and terminates by
one branch about a mile from Glafgow. In this courfe,
for a confider&ble way, the ground is banked about
twenty feet high, and the water is fixteen feet deep,
p 2 and
CanA
v
CAN [ II(^ ]
Ca/ial. and two miles of it is made through a deep mofs. At
V  Kirkintilloch, the canal is carried over the water of
Logie on an aqueduct arch of ninety feet broad. This
arch was thrown over in three ilretches, having only a
centre of thirty feet, which was fhiftcd on fmall rollers
from one ftretch to another ; a thing new, and never
attempted before with an arch ofthislize ; yet the join¬
ings are as fairly equal as any other part, and admired as
a very fine piece of mafonry. On each fide there is a very
conliderable banking over the valley, ihis work was
carried on till it came within fix miles of its junction with
the Clyde ; when the fubfcription and a fubfequent loan
being exhaufted, the work was flopt in 1775. The
city of Glafgow however, by means of a collateral
branch, opened a communication with the Forth, which
has produced a revenue of about 6oocl. annually }
and, in order to fmiih the remaining fix miles, the go¬
vernment in 1784 gave 50,000!. out of the forfeited
eftates, the dividends arifing from this fum to be ap¬
plied to making and repairing roads in the Highlands
of Scotland. The work was accordingly refumed j
and by contrad, under a high penalty, was to be en¬
tirely completed in November ^ he aqueduft
bridge over the Kelvin, which is fuppofed the great-
elf of the kind in the world, confiils of four arches, and
carries the canal over a valley 6^ feet high, and 4:0
in length, exhibiting a very lingular effort of human
ingenuity and labour. To fupply the canal with wa¬
ter was of itfelf a very great work. There is one re-
fervoir of 50 acres 24 feet deep, and another of 70
acres 22 feet deep, in which many rivers and fprings
terminate, which it is thought will afford a fufheient
fupply of water at all times. This whole undertaking
when finifhed coft about 2 20,0001. It is the greateft
fif the kind in Britain, and of great national utility ;
though it is to be regretted that it had not been exe¬
cuted on a ft ill larger fcale, the locks being too fhort
for tranfporting large mafts.
This canal was completed in July 1790. On the'
28th of this month, a track barge belonging to the
company of proprietors failed from the bafon, near the
city of Glafgow, to Bowling bay, where the canal joins
the river Clyde. The committee of management, ac¬
companied by the magiftrates of Glafgow, were the
firft voyagers on the new canal. On the arrival of the
veffel at Bowling bay, after defeending from the laft
lock into the Clyde, the ceremony of the junftion of
the Forth and Clyde was performed by the chairman of
the committee, who, with the afliftance of the chief
engineer, difeharged into the river Clyde, a hogfhead
of water taken up from the river Forth, as a fymbol
ef joining the weftern and eaftern feas together.
About the year 1801, a canal was finiftied between
LochGilp to Loch Crinan in Argylelhire. The distance
is about nine miles, i his canal, which is called the Cri¬
nan canal, is intended to accommodate the trade of the
Weftern iflands and hiherio. The veflels employed in
this trade will, by means of this canal, avoid thecircui-
tousand dangerous navigation round the Mull ofCantire.
Another canal was begun laft year (1805), which
is ini ended to open a communication between the Wef¬
tern rea, and the Murray frith, by the lochs or arms of
the fea, which ftretch inland on the weft fide, and by
Loch Nefs on the eaiL
c
A N
duel or paffage
through
Canal, in Anatomy, a
which any of the juices flow.
CANANOR, a large maritime town of Afia, on
the eoaft of Malabar, in a kingdom of the fame name,
with a very large and fafe harbour. It formerly be¬
longed to the Portuguefe, and had a ftrong fort to
guard it ; but in 1685, the Dutch, together with the
natives, drove them away ; and after they became ma¬
ilers of the town, enlarged the fortifications. They
have but a very fmall trade *, but there is a town at
the bottom of the bay, independent of the Dutch,
whofe prince can bring 20,000 men into the field. 1 he
Dutch fort is large, and the governor’s lodgings are at
a good diftance from the gate 5 fo that, when there
was a Ikirmilh between the fadlory and the natives, he
knew nothing of it till it w'as over. E. Long. 78. iQ.
N. Lat. 12. o.
CaNANOR, a fmall kingdom of Afia, on the coalt
of Malabar, whofe king can raife a confiderable army.
The natives are generally Mahometans ; and the coun¬
try produces pepper, cardamoms, ginger, mirobolans,
and tamarinds, in which they drive a confiderablc
trade.
C ANAR A, a kingdom of Afia, on the coaft of
Malabar. The inhabitants are Gentoos, or Pagans 5
and there is a paged or temple, called Ramtrut, which
is vifited every year by a great number of pilgrims..
Here the cuftom of burning the wives with their huf-
bands had its beginning, and is prablifed to this day.
The country is generally governed by a woman, who
keeps her court at a town called Bay dor, two days
journey from the fea. She may marry whom Ihe pleafesj
and is not obliged to burn with her hulband, like her
female fubjedls. They are fo good oblervers of tht ir
lawrs, that a robbery or murder is fcarce ever heard of
among them. The Canarar.s have forts built of earth
along the coaft, which' are garrifoned with 200 or 300
foldiers, to guard againft the robberies of their neigh¬
bours, The lower grounds yield every year two crops
of corn or rice •, and the higher produce pepper, betel-
nuts, fanders wood, iron, and fteel. The Portuguefe
clergy here live very loofely, and make no fcruple of
procuring women for ftrangers.
CANARIA, in Ancient Geography, one of the For¬
tunate iflands, a proof that thefe were what are now
called the Canaries. Canaria had its name from its a-
bounding with dogs of an enormous fize, two of which
were brought to Juba king of Mauritania. See the
following article.
Canaria, or the Grand Canary, an ifland in the
Atlantic ocean, about 180 miles from the coaft of
Aftica. It is about 100 miles in circumference, and
33 in diameter. It is a fruitful ifland, and famous for
the wine that bears its name. It alio abounds with
apples, melons, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, figs, o-
lives, peaches, and plantains. The hr and palm trcey
are the moll common. The towns are, Canary the ca¬
pital, Gualdera, and Geria.
C ANARY, or Cividad de Palmas, is the capital
of the ifland of Canaria, with an indifferent caftlc, and
a bilhop’s fee. It has alfo a court of inquiiition, and
the fupreme council of the reft of the Canary iflands j
as alfo four convents, two for men and two for wo¬
men. The town is about three miles in compafs, and
contains
CAN [ i
Canary. c©ntains 12,000 inhabitants, ihe houfcs are only one
 v   ftory high, and flat at the top j but they are well built.
The cathedral is a handlbme itruaure. \V. Long.
15. 20. N. Lat. 28. 4.
CANARY Ijlands^xz fltuated in the Atlantic ocean,
over againil the empire of Morocco in Africa. I hey
were formerly called the Fortuticits IJlonds^ on account
of the temperate healthy air, and excellent fruits.
The land is very fruitful, for both wheat and barley
produce 130 for one. The cattle thrive well, and the
woods are full of all forts of game. The Canary fling¬
ing birds are well known all over Europe. There are
here fugar-cmes in great abundance j but the Span¬
iards Hr it planted vines here, from whence we have the
wine called Canary or Sack.
Thefle iHands were not entirely unknown to the an¬
cients j but they were a long while forgot, till John de
Bateneourt difeovered them in 1402. it is faid they
were firll inhabited by the Phoenicians, or Carthagi¬
nians, but on no certain foundation } nor could the in¬
habitants themfelves tell from whence they were deri¬
ved ; on the contrary, they did not know there was
any other country in the world. Their language,
manners, and cuftoms, had no relemblance to thole of
their neighbours. However, they were like the people
on the coall of Barbary in complexion, ihey had no
iron. After the difeovery, the Spaniards foon got pof-
feflion of them all, under whofe dominion they are to
this day, except Madeira, which belongs to the Portu-
guefe. The inhabitants are chiefly Spaniards ; though
there are forae of the fir it people remaining, whom
they call Guanch r, who are fomewhat civilized by their
intercourfle with the Spaniards. 1 key are a hardy, ac¬
tive, bold people, and live on the mountains, i heir
chief fiKid is goats milk. Iheir complexion is tawney,
and their nofes flat. The Spaniih veffels, when they
fail for the Welt Indies, always rendezvous at thefle
iflands, going and coming, iheir number is £ 2. 1,
Alegranza ; 2. Canaria ; 3. Ferro j 4. Fuerteventura y
5. Gomera ; 6. Gratiofa ; 7. Lancerotta ; 8. Madeira ;
9. Palma*, 10. liocca; 11. Salvages; 12. Teneriff.
Welt longitude from 12 to 21. north latitude from -7.
30. to 29. 30.
CANARY-Bird. See Fringilla. Thefle birds aro
much admired for their tinging, and take their name
from the place from whence they originally came, viz.
the Canary-iflands ; but of late years there is a lort of
birds brought from Germany, and elpecially from Tirol,
and therefore called German birds, which are much
better than the oth' rs ; though both are fuppofed to
have originally come from the fame place, ihe cocks
never grow fat, and by flomc country people cannot be
diftinguilhed from common green-birds; though the
Canary-birds are much Juitier, have a longer tail, and
differ much in the heaving o; the paffages of the throat
when they ting. Thefe birds being fl* much efleemed
for their fong, are fometiiries iold at a high price, ac¬
cording to the goodnefs and excellency of their notes ;
fo that it will always be advifabie to hear one ting be¬
fore he is bought. In order to know whether he is in
good heai.h, take him out or the Itore-cage, and put
Inm in a clean cage by h'mlelf; if he Hand up boldly,
wiihout crouching or thiinking in his feathers, look
with a brilk eye, and is not fubjeit to clap h;s head
under his wing, it is a tign that he is in’ good health j
7 ] CAN
but the greateft matter is to obferve his dunging: if he Canary,
bolts his tail like a nightingale after he has dunged, it *
is a tign he is not in good health, or at leal! that he
will foon be tick ; but if his dung be very thin like
water, or of a llimy white without any blacknefs in
it, it is a fign of approaching death. When in per-
fe£t health, his dung lies round and hard, with a fine
white on the outlide, dark within, and dries quickly ;
though a feed-bird feldom dungs fo hard, unlefs he is
very young.
Canary-birds are fubjefl to many difeafesr particu-'
larly impoflhumes which affefl the head, caule them
to fall fuddenly from the perch, and die in a fliorts
time, if not fpeedily cured. The moll approved me¬
dicine is an ointment made of freth butter and capon’s
greafe melted together. With this the top of the
bird’s head is to be anointed for two or three days-,
and it will diffolve the impofthume : but if the medi¬
cine has been too long delayed, then, after three or four
times anointing, fee whether the place of his head be
{oft ; and if fo, open it gently, and let out the matter,
which will be like the yolk of an egg ; when this is
done, anoint the place, and the bird will be cured. At
the fame time he muff have figs with his other food,
and in his water a flice or two of liquorice,, with white
fugar-candy.
Canary-birds are diitinguilhed by different names at
different times and ages: Inch as are about three years
old are called runts ; thofe above two are named erijjs ;
thofe of the firft year under the care of the old ones,
are tenm# bra tic hers 7 thofe that are new-flown, and
cannot feed themfelvesj pujhers ; and thofe brought up
by hand, nejitings.
The Canary-birds may be bred with us ; and, if
treated with proper care, they will become as vigorous
and healthful as in the country from whence they
have their name. The "cages- in which thele birds
are kept are to be made either of walnut-tree or oak,,
with bars of wire; becaufe thefe, being w*oods offtrength,
do not require to be uied in large pieces. The com¬
mon fbape of cages, which is eylindric, is very impro¬
per for thefe birds ; for this allows little room to walk,
and without that the birds ufually become melancholy.
The molt proper of all ihapes is the high and long, but
narrow.
If thefe birds eat too much, they grow over-fat,
lofe their Ihape, and their flinging is {polled ; or at leaft
they become fo idle, that they will flcarce ever ling.
In this cafe their victuals are to be given them in a
much fmaller quantity, and they will oy this means be
recovered by degrees 10 all their beamy, and will ling
as art firlt.
At the time that they are about to build their nefts,
there muff be put into their cages lome hay, dried
thoroughly in the fun: with-this muff be mixed lome
mofls dried in the fame manner, and lome flag’s hair ;
and great care is to be taken of breeding the young,
in the article of food. As foon as the .young birds
are eight days old, dr. fomeuhat more, and are able to
eat and pick up food of themfelves, they are to be
taken out of the cage in which they were hatched, and
each put feparately into another cage, and hung up
in a room where it may never have an opportunity of
hearing the voice of any other bird. Alter they have
been kept thus about eight dayfe, they are to be ex-
cited
Canary,
Cancalle.
CAN [ii
cited to fing by a bird-pipe; but this is not to be
(blowed too much, or in too Ihrili a manner, leit they
fing themfelves to death.
For the firrt fifteen days the cages are to be covered
tvith a black cloth, and for the fifteen days following
tvith a green one. Five leffons in a day from the pipe
are fuffieient for thefe young creatures; and they muft
not be diilurbed with feveral lounds at the lame time,
left they confound and puzzle them i two leffons fhould
be given them early in the morning, one - about the
middle of the day, and two more at night.
The genius and temper of the feveral birds of this
kind are very different. The males are almoft always
melancholy, and will not fing unlefs they arc excited
to it by hearing others continually finging about them.
The male bird of this kind will often kill the female
put to him for breeding ; and when there arc feveial
females together with the males, they will often do
the fame to one another from jealoufy. It is therefore
not eafy to manage the article of their breeding well
in this particular, unlefs in this manner : let two female
birds be put into one cage, and when they have lived
together fome time, they will have contraaed a fort of
.love for one another, which will not eafily be diffolved.
Put a male bird into the cage with thefe two, and
every thing will go well; their friendfhip will keep
'them from quarrelling about his favours, and from dan¬
ger of his mifehievous difpofition; for if he attacks
one of them, in order to kill her, the other will imme¬
diately take her part ; and after a few of thefe battles,
the male will find that they are together an over¬
match for him at fighting, and will then dillribute hrs
favours to them, and there will not fail of being a
young breed or two, which are to be taken away from
their parents, and educated as before direfted* Some
males watch the time of the female’s laying, and de¬
vour the eggs as faff as (he depofits them; and others
take the young ones in their beak as foon as hatched,
and crulh them to death againft the fides of the cage,
or fome other way deftroy them. When a male has
been known once to have been guilty of this, he is to
be Unit up in a fmall cage, in the middle of the large
one in which the female is breeding her young, arid
thus he will often comfort her with finging all day
long, while Ihe fits upon the eggs or takes care of the
young ones; and when the time of taking away, to
put them into feparate cages, is come, the male is to
be let out, and he will always after this live in friend-
fhip with the female.
If the male become fiek during the time of the fe¬
male’s fitting or bringing up her young, he muft be re¬
moved immediately, and only brought to the fide of
her cage at certain times, that (he iHay fee him, till he
is perfectly cured ; and then he is to be fhut up again
in his cage in the middle.
Canary-birds are various in their notes ; fome having
a fweet fong, others a lowifti note, others a long fong,
which is heft, as having the greateft variety of notes;
but they fing chiefly either the titlark or nightingale
notes. See So ng of Birds.
CANCALLE, a town of France, in Upper Brit¬
tany, by the fea-fide, where there is a road. Here the
Briti’fh landed in 1758, in their way to St Maloes,
where they burnt a great number of ftiips in the har¬
bour, and then retired without lofs. This town w as in
5 ] CAN
their power ; but they afted like generous cnetmes, and
did no hurt to this nor any other on the coaft. \\.
Long. o. 13. N. Lat. 48. 41.
CANCELIEIl, in falconry, is when a light brown
hawk, in her ftooping, turns two or three times upon
the wing, to recover herfelf before ihe feizes*
CANCELLI, atermufed to denote lattice windows,
or thofe made of crofs bars difpoied latticewife; it is
alfo ufed for rails or ballufters inclofing the communion*
table, a court of juftice, or the like, and for the network
in the infide of hollow bones.
CANCELLING, in the civil law, an a& whereby
a.perfon confents that fome former deed be rendered
null and void. This is otherwife called refcifion. The
word comes from the Latin cancellare, to encompafs or
pale a thing round. *In the proper fenfe of the word,
to cancel, is to deface an obligation, by paffing the pen
from top to bottom, or acrofs it; which makes a kind
of chequer lattice, which the Latins call cancelli.
CANCER, in Zoology) a genus of infers belonging
to the order of infe&a aptera. This genus includes the
lobfter, the crab, the prawn, the fhrimp, and the craw-
fifli. See Entomology Index.
Cancer, in Medicine) a roundilh, unequal, hard, and
livid tumour, generally feated in the glandulous part*
of the body, fuppofed to be fo called, becaufe it appears
at length with turgid veins {hooting out from it, io as
to referable, as it is thought, the figure of a crab-fifti,
or others lay, becaufe, like that fifti, where it has onco
got, it is fcarce poffible to drive it away. See MEDI¬
CINE Index.
Cancer, in Afronorntj) one of the twelve figns, re-
prefented on the globe 111 the form of a crab, and thus
marked (es) in books. It is the fourth conftellation
in the Harry zodiac, and that froin which one qua¬
drant of the ecliptic takes its denomination, iherea-
fon generally alligned for its name as well as figure, is
a fuppofed refemblance which the iun’s motion in this
fign bears to the crab-fifli. As the latter walks back¬
wards, fo the former, in this part of his courfe, be¬
gins to go backwards, or recede from us : though tha
difpofition of ftars in this fign is by others fuppofed to
have given the firft hint to the repreientation of A
crab. .
Tropic of CANCER) in Aftronomy^ a leffer circle of
the fphere parallel to the equator, and palling through,
the beginning of the fign Cancer.
CANCHERIZANTE. or Cancherizato, in the
Italian mufic, a term lignifying a piece of mufic tnat
begins at the end, being the retrograde motion frorm
the end of a fong, &c. to the beginning.
CANCROMA, or Boat-bill. See OrnithologT
Index.
CANDAHAR, a province of Perfia, bounded on
the north by the province of Balk ; on the eaft, by that
of Cabul; on the fouth, by Buchor and Sableitan ; and
on the weft, by Sigeftan. There have been bloody wars
between the Indians and Perfians on account of this
province ; but in 1650 it fell to the Perfians. Ihe
inhabitants are known by the name of AghuatiS) or
AjffghanS) who have often endeavoured to throw off the
yoke. But in 1737, they were feverely punilhed for
fuch an attempt. See Persia.
CanDaHak, the capital of the above province, is
feated on a mountain; and being a place of great
tradtj
Cane alii
II
Canclahar.
Cantlahar
II.
Candia.
(5 A N
trade, fias a confiderable fortrefs. Tlie caravans tliat
travel from Perfia and the parts about the Cafpian fea
to the Eaft Indies, choofe to pafs through Candahar,
becaufe there is no danger of being robbed on this road,
and provifions are very reafonable. The religion is
Mahometanifm, but there are many Banians and Gue-
bres. E. Long. 67. 5. N. Lat. 33. o.
CANDAULES, the laft king of Lydia, of the fa¬
mily of the Heraclidse. See Lydia.
CANDELAHES, (from candela, a candle), the
name of an order in the former editions of Linnaeus’s
Fragments of a Natural Method, confifting of thefe
three genera, rhixophera, ny[fa, and mimnfops. They
are removed, in the later editions, into the order Ho-
LORACEy'E.
CANDIA, the modern name of the ifland of Crete
(fee Crete). The word is a variation of Khunda,
which was originally the Arabian name of the metro¬
polis only, but in time came to be applied to the
whole ifland.
Candia came into the pofleffum t>f the Venetians,
by purchafe, in the year 1194, as related under the
article Crete •, and foon began to flourilh under the
laws of that wife republic. The inhabitants, living
under the prote&ion of a moderate government, and
being encouraged by their mailers, engaged in com¬
merce and agriculture. The Venetian commandants
readily afforded to thofe travellers who vifited the ifland,
that afliftance which is neceffary to enable them to ex¬
tend and improve ufeful knowledge. Belon, the natu-
ralift, is lavilh in praife of their good offices, and de-
feribes, in an interefting manner, the flourilhing Hate
»f that part of the iiland which he vifited.
The feat of government was eftablilhed at Candia-.
The magiftrates and officers, who compofed the coun¬
cil, refided there. The provifor-general rvas preiident.
He poffeffed the chief authority •, and his power ex¬
tended over the whole principality. It continued in
the poffeffion of the Venetians for five centuries and
a half. Cornaro held the chief command at the time
when it was threatened with a ftorm, on the fide of
Conftantinople. The Turks, for the fpace of a year,
had been employed in preparing a vail armament. They
deceived the Venetian, by alluring him that it was in¬
tended againll Malta. In the year 1645, in the
midll of a folemn peace, they appeared unexpe&edly
before Crete with a fleet of 400 fail, having on board
60,000 land forces, under the command of four pa¬
chas. The emperor Ibrahim, under whom this ex¬
pedition was undertaken, had no fair pretext to oFat
in juftification of his enterprife. He made ufe of all
that perfidy which chara&erifes the people of the eaft,
to impofe on the Venetian fenate. He loaded their
ambaffador wflth prefents, direfted his fleet to bear for
Cape Matapan, as if they had been going beyond the
Archipelago •, and caufed the governors of Tina and
Cerigna to be folemnly affured that the republic had
nothing to fear for her pofleflions. At the very inftant
when he was making thofe affurances, his naval ar¬
mament entered the gulf of Canea; and, palling be¬
tween that city and St Theodore, anchored at the
mouth of Platania.
The Venetians, not expelling this fudden attack,
had made no preparations to repel it. The Turks
landed without oppofltion. The ifle of St Theodore
CAN
is but a league and an half from Canea. It Is «nly Candia.
three quarters of a league in compafs. The Venetians
had erefted two forts there $ one of which, Handing
on the fummit of the higheft eminence, on the coait
of that little ifle, \ras called Turluru •, the other, on a
lower fituation, was named St Theodore. It was an
important objecl to the Muffulmans to make them-
felves mafter of that rock, which might annoy their
ftiips. They immediately attacked it with ardour.
The firft of thofe fortreffes, being deftitute of foldiers*
and cannon, was taken without linking a blow. The
garrifon of the other confifted of no more than 60
men. They made a gallant defence, and Hood out till
the laft extremity ; and when the Turks at laft pre¬
vailed, their number was diminiihed to ten, whom the
captain-pacha cruelly caufed to be beheaded.
Being now mailers of that important poll, as well
as of Lazaret, an elevated rock, Handing about half
a league from Canea, the Turks invefted the city by
fea and land. General Cornaro was ilruck, as with a
thunder-clap, when he learned the defeent of the ene¬
my. In the whole ifland there were no more than
a body of 3500 infantry, and a fmall number of ca¬
valry. The befieged city was defended only by 1000
regular troops, and a few citizens, who were able to-
bear arms. He made halle to give the republic notice
of his diftrefs j and polled himfolf off the road, that he
might the more readily fuccour the befieged city. He
threw a body of 250 men into the town before the
lines of the enemy were completed. He afterwards
made feveral attempts to ftrengthen the befieged with
other reinforcements but in vain. The Turks had
advanced in bodies clofe to the town, had carried a
half-moon battery, which covered the gate of Retimo j
and were battering the walls night and day with their
numerous artillery. The befieged defended themfelves
with refolute valour, and the fmall eft advantage which
the befiegers gained colt them dear. General Cor¬
naro made an attempt to arm the Greeks, particularly
the Spaehlots, who boafted loudly ot their valour. He
formed a battalion of thefe. But the tera of their va¬
lour was long pail. When they beheld the enemy, and
heard the thunder of the cannon, they took to flight
not one of them would Hand fire.
When the fenate of Venice were deliberating on the
means to be ufed for relieving Canea, and endeavour¬
ing to equip a fleet, the Mahometan generals were
facrificing the lives of their foldiers to bring their en¬
terprife to a glorious termination. In different en¬
gagements they had already loft 20,000 warriors j but,,
defeending into the ditches, they had undermined the
walls, and blown up the moll impregnable forts with
explofions of powder. They fprung one of thofe mines-
beneath the baftion of St Demetri. It overturned a
confiderable part of the wall, which crulhed all the
defenders of the baftion. That inftant the befiegers
fprung up with their fabres in their hands, and taking
advantage of the general confternation of the befieged
on that quarter, made themfelves mafters of the poll.
The befieged, recovering from their terror, attacked
them with unequalled intrepidity. About 400 men af-
failed 2000 Turks already firmly polled' on the wall,
and preffed upon them with fuch obftinate and daunt-
lefs valour, that they killed a great number, and drove
the reft down into the ditch. In this extremity, every
perfoit
t ”9 1
CAN [ x
perfon in the city ivas in arms. The Greek monks
took up mufkets } and the women, forgetting the deli
cacy of their fex, appeared on the walls among the de¬
fenders, either fupplying the men with ammunition and
arms, or fighting them'"elves j and feveral of thofe dar¬
ing heroines loll their lives.
For <;o days the city held out againft all the forces
of the Turks. If, even at the end of that time, the
Venetians had font a naval armament to its relief, the
kingdom of Candia might have been faved. Doubtlefs,
they were not ignorant of this we 1-known fafl. I he
north wind blows llvaight into the harbour of Canea.
When it blows a little brilkly, the fea rages. It is
then impoffible for any fquadron of ‘1 ips, however
numerous,' to form in line of battle in the harbour, and
to meet an enemy. If the Venetians had let out from
Cerigo with a fair wind, they might have reached
Canea in five hours, and might have entered the har¬
bour with full tails, without being expofed to one
cannon Ihot j while none of the Turkilh flips would
have dared to appear before them ; or if they had ven¬
tured, mud have been driven bacK. on the Ihore, and
dallied in pieces among the rocks. But, inftead of thus
taking advantage of the natural circumllances the
place, they fent a few galleys, which, not daring to
double Cape Spada, coalled along the fouthern Ihore
of the iiland, and failed of accomplilhing the defign of
their expedition.
At laid, the Cancans, defpairmg ©f relief from Ve¬
nice, feeing three breaches made in their walls, through
which the infidels might eafily advance upon them,
exhaulled with fatigue, and covered with wounds, and
reduced to the number of fQO men, who were obliged
to fcatter themfelves round the walls, which were hair
a league m extent, and undermined in all quarters,
demanded a parley, and offered to capitulate. They
obtained very honourable conditions j and after a glo¬
rious defence ‘of two months, which coll the 1 urks
20,000 men, -marched out of the city with the ho¬
nours of war. Thofe citizens who did not choofe to
continue in the city, were permitted to remove •, and
the Ottomans, contrary to their ufual practice, faith¬
fully obferved their llipulations.
The Venetians, after the lofs of Canea, retired to
Retimo. The captain-pacha laid fiege to the citadel
of the Sude, fituated in the entrance of the bay, on a*
high rock, of about a quarter of a league m circum¬
ference. He raifed earthen-batteries, and made an in¬
effectual attempt to level the ramparts. At lalt, de-
fpairing of taking it by affauit, he left fome forces to
block it up from all communication, and advanced to¬
wards Retimo. That city, being unwalled, was de¬
fended by a citadel, Handing on an eminence which
overlooks the harbour. General Cornaro had retired
thither. At the approach of the enemy, he advanced
from the city, and waited for them in the open field.
In the aftion, inattentive to his own fafety, he en¬
couraged the foldiers, by fighting in the ranks. A
glorious death was the reward of his valour j but his
fall determined the fate of Retimo..
The Turks having landed additional forces on the
ifiand they introduced the plague, which was almoft
a conilant attendant on their armies. This dreadful
neft rapidly advanced, and, like a devouring fire, waft¬
ing all before it, deftroyed raoft part of the inhabi-
4
20 ] CAM
tants. The reft, fiying in terror before its ravages, C
efcaped into the Venetian territories, and the ifiand ^
was left almoft defolate.
The fiege of the capital commenced in i6q6, and
was protracted much longer than that of Iroy. Till
the year 164b, the Turks fearce gained any advan¬
tages before that city. They were often routed by the
Venetians, and fometl^nes compelled to retire to Re¬
timo. At that period Ibrahim was folexnnly depofed,
and his eldeit fon, at the age of nine years, was raifed
to the throne, under the name of Mahomet IV. Not
falisfied with confining the fultan to the horrors and
obfeurity (if a dungeon, the partizans of his fon ftrangled
him on the 19th of Auguft, in the lame year, i hat
young prince, who mounted tne throne by the death
of his father, was afterwards exp; lied from it, and
condemned to pais the remainder of his life in con¬
finement.
In the year 1649, Uffein Pacha, who blockaded
Candia, receiving no fupplies from the Porte, was
compelled to raile the fiege, and retreat to Canea.
The Venetians were then on the fea with a ftrong fqua¬
dron. They attacked the Turkilh fleet in the bay of
Smyrna, burnt 1 2 of their ftnps and tw'o galleys, and
killed 6coo of their men. Some time after, the Ma¬
hometans having found means to land an army on Can¬
dia, renewed the fiege of the city with great vi¬
gour, and made themlelves mailers of an advanced
fort that Was very troublelome to ihe befieged j which
obliged them to blowT it up.
From the year 1650 till 1658, the Venetians, con¬
tinuing mailers of the fea, intercepted the Ottomans
every year in the ftraits of the Dardanelles, and fought
them in four naval engagements j in which they de¬
feated their numerous fleets, funk a number of their
caravels, took others, and extended the terj.or of their
arms even to the walls of Conllantinople. d hat capi¬
tal became a feene of tumult and disorder. Ihe Grand
Signior, alarmed, and trembling for his fafety, left the
city with precipitation.
Such glorious fuccefs revived the hopes of the Ve-*
netians, and depreffed the courage of the Turks. They
converted the fiege of Candia into a blockade, and
fuffered confiderable Ioffes. 1 he lultan, in order to
exclude the Venetian fleet from the Dardanelles, and
to open to his own navy a free and iafe paffage, caufed
two fortreffes to be built at the entrance of the ftraits.
He gave orders to the pacha of Canea to appear again
before the walls of Candia, and to make every pcfftble
effort to gain the city. In the mean, time, the repub¬
lic of Venice, to improve the advantages which they
had gained, made feveral attempts on Canea. In 1660,
that city was about to furrender to their arms, when
the pacha of Rhodes, haftening to its relief, reinforced
the defenders with a body of 2CCO men. He happily
doubled the extremity of Cape Melee, though wiihm
fight of the Venetian fleet, which was becalmed off
Cape Spada, and could not advance one fathom to
oppefe an enemy confiderably weaker than them¬
felves.
Klopruli, fon and fucceffor to the viur of that nanie^
who had long been the fupport of the Ottoman em¬
pire, knowing that the murmurs of the people, againft
the long continuance of the fiege of Candia
jifmg to a height, and fearing a general revolt, winch
CAN [ i
Candia. M-ould be fatal to himfelf and bis raailef, fet out from
~ V~“1f Byzantium about the end of the year 1666 at the
head of a formidable army. Having efcaped the Ve¬
netian fleet, -which was lying off Canea with a view to
intercept him, he landed at Palio Cq/iro, and formed
his lines around Candia. Under his command were
four pachas, and the flower of the Ottoman forces.
Thofe troops, being encouraged by the prefence and
the promifes of their chiefs, and fupported by a great
<juantity of artillery, performed prodigies of valour.
All the exterior forts were deftroyed. Nothing now
remained to the befieged but the bare line of the walls,
Unprotefted by fbrtrefles; and thefe being battered by
inceffant difeharge of artillery, foon gave way on
all quarters. Still, however, what pofterity may per¬
haps regard as incredible, the Candians held out three
years againfl: all the force of the Ottoman empire.
At laft they were geing to capitulate, when the hope
•f afliftance from France reanimated their valour, and
rendered them invincible. The expe&ed fuccours ar¬
rived on the 26th of June 1669. They were conduft-
«d by the duke of Noailles. Under his command
were a great number of French noblemen, who came
to make trial of their fkill in arms againfl; the
Turks.
. Next day after their arrival, the ardour of the French
. prompted them to make a general fally. The duke
of Beaufort, admiral of France, aflumed the command
«f the forlorn hope. He was the firft to advance
againft the Muffulmans, and was followed by a nume¬
rous body of infantry and cavalry. They advanced
furioufly upon the enemy, attacked them within their
trenches, forced the trenches, and would have com¬
pelled them to abandon their lines and artillery, had
not an unforefeen accident damped their courage. In
the midft of the engagement a magazine of powder
was fet on fire j the foremoft of the combatants loft
their lives ', the French ranks were broken ; feveral of
their leaders, among whom was the duke of Beaufort,
difappeared for ever; the foldiers fled in diforder ; and
the duke of Noailles, with difficulty, eflfe&ed a retreat
within the walls of Candia. The French accufed the
Italians of having betrayed them ; and on that pretext
prepared to fet off fooner than the time agreed upon.
No entreaties of the commandant could prevail with
them to delay their departure j fo they reimbarked.
Their departure determined the fate of the city. There
were now no more than five hundred men to defend
it. Morofini capitulated with Kiopruli, to whom he
furrendered the kingdom of Crete, excepting only the
Sude, Grabuia, and Spina-Longua. The grand-vifir
made his entrance into Candia on the 4th of October
3670, and flaid eight months in that city, infpedting
the reparation of its w alls and fortreffes.
# The three fortreffes left in the hands of the Vene¬
tians by the treaty of capitulation remained long after
in their poffeflion. At laft they were all taken, one
axter another. In fhort, after a war of 30 years con¬
tinuance^ in the courfe of which more than 200,000
men teh in the ifland, and it was deluged with ftreams
of Chriftian and Mahometan blood, Candia was en¬
tirely fubdued by the Turks, in whofe hands it ftill
•continues.
Of the climate of Candia travellers fpeak with rap¬
ture. I he heat is never cxceflive : and in the plains
Vol. V. Part I.
A N
In the warmeft days of Ciujfiik
21 ] C
violent cold is never felt,
fummer the atmofphere is cooled by breezes from the
fea. Winter properly begins here with December and
ends with January J and during that fhort period fnow
never falls on the lower grounds, and the furface of
the water is rarely frozen over. Moft frequently the
weather is as fine then as it is in Britain at the begin¬
ning of June. Thefe two months have received the
name of winter, becaufe in them there is a copious fall
of rain, the fky is obfeured with clouds, and the north
winds blow violently \ but the rains are favourable t»
agriculture, the winds chafe the clouds towards the
fummits of the mountains, where a repofitory is form¬
ed for thofe waters which are to fertilize the fields j,
and the inhabitants of the plain fuffer no inconvenience
from thefe tranfient blafts. In the month of February,
the ground is overfpread with flowers and rifing crops.
rIhe reft of the year is almoft one continued fine day.
JL he inhabitants of Crete never experience any of thofe
mortifying returns of piercing cold, which are fo fre¬
quently felt in Britain and even more fouthern coun¬
tries } and which, fucceeding fuddenly after the che-
rilhing heats of fpring, nip the bloffoming flowers, wi¬
ther the open buds, deftroy half the fruits of the year,
and are fatal to delicate conftitutions. The Iky is al¬
ways unclouded and ferene j the winds are mild and
refrefhing breezes. The radiant fun proceeds in fmil-
ing majefty along the azure vault, and ripens the fruit*
on the lofty mountains, the rifing hills, and the plains.
The nights are no lefs beautiful j their eoolnefs is de¬
licious. The atmofphere not being overloaded with
vapours, the Iky unfolds to the obferver’s view- a count-
lefs profufion of ftars ; thofe numerous ftars fparkle
with the moft vivid rays, and ftrew the azure vault in
which they appear fixed, with gold, w-ith diamonds,
and w'ith rubies. Nothing can be more magnificent
than this fight, and the Cretans enjoy it for fix months
in the year.
To the charms of the climate other advantages arc
joined which augment their value : There are fcarce
any moraffes in the ifland •, the waters here are never
in a ftate of ftagnation j they flow in numberlefs
ftreams from the tops of the mountains, and form here
and there large fountains or fmall rivers that empty
themfelves into the fea •, the elevated fituation of their
fprings caufes them to dafh dowrn with fuch rapidity,
that they never lofe themfelves in pools or lakes j con-
fequently infefts cannot depofit their eggs upon them,
as they would be immediately hurried dow-n into the
fea j and Crete is not infefted like Egypt w ith thofe
clouds of infetfts which fwarm in the houles, and whofe
fling is infufferably painful j nor is the atmofphere here
loaded with thofe noxious vapours which rife from
marfhy grounds.
The mountains and hills are overfpread w-ith various
kinds of thyme, favoury, wild thyme, and with a mul¬
titude of - odoriferous and balfamic plants j the rivulets
which flow down the valleys are overhung with myr¬
tles, laurel, and rofes ; clumps of orange, citron, and
almond trees, are plentifully fcattered over the fields ;
the gardens are adorned with tufts of Arabian jafmine.
In fpring, they are beftrewed with beds of violets j
fome extenfive plains are arrayed in faffron; the cavi¬
ties of the rocks are fringed with fweet finelling ditta¬
ny. In a word, from the hills, the, vales, and the
jftaitu?,
CAN
[
plains, on all hands, there arife clouds of cxquilite per¬
fumes, which embalm the air, and render it a luxury
to breathe it.
As to the inhabitants, the Mahometan men are ge¬
nerally from five feet and a half to fix feet tall. 1 hey
bear a ftrong refemblance to ancient ftatues and it
mull have been after fuch models that the ancient ar-
tifts wrought. The women alfo are generally beauti¬
ful. Their drefs does not reftrain the growth of any
part, of their bodies, and their drape therefore affumes
thofe admirable proportions with which the hand ot
the Creator has graced his faired workmandrip on
«arth. They are not all handfome or charming j but
dome of them are beautiful, particularly the Turkidi
ladies. In general, the Cretan women have a rifing
throat, a neck gracefully rounded, black eyes fparkling
with animation, a finall mouth, a fine nofe, anti cheeks
delicately coloured with the frefir vermilion of health.
But the oval of their form is different from that of
Europeans, and the charader of their beauty is pecu¬
liar t© their own nation.
The quadrupeds belonging to the xdand are not of
a ferocious temper. 'Ihere are no lions, tigers, beats,
wolves, foxes, or indeed any dangerous animal here.
Wild goats are the only inhabitants of the foreds that
Dverfpread the lofty mountains } and thefe have no¬
thing to fear but the ball of the hunter : hares inhabit
the hills and the plain ; fheep graze in fecurity en the
thyme and the heath ; they are folded every night, and
the diepherd deeps foundly without being didurbed
with the fear that wild animals may invade and ravage
his folds. .
The Cretans are very happy m.not being expoied
to the troublefome bite of noxious infefls, the poilon
of ferpents, or the rapacity of the wild beads of the
defert. The ancients believed that the idand enjoyed
thefe fingular advantages, on account of its having
been the birth-place of Jupiter. “ The Cretans (fays
ALlian) celebrate in their fongs the beneficence of Ju¬
piter, and the favour which he conferred on their
idand, which was the place of his birth and education,
by freeing it from every noxious animal, and evtn
rendering' it unfit for nouridiing thofe noxious ani¬
mals that are introduced into it from foreign coun-
tries.”
Dittany holds the fird; rank among the medicinal
plants which are produced in Crete. The praifes be¬
llowed on the virtues of this plant by the ancients are
altogether extravagant; yet v^e perhaps treat the me¬
dicinal virtues of this plant with too much contempt.
Its leaf is very balfamic, and its dow'er diffufes around
it a delicious odour. At prefent the inhabitants of
the idand apply it with fuccefs on various occafions.
The leaf, when dried and taken in an infudon with a
little fugar, makes a very pleafant drink, of a finer fla¬
vour than tea. It is there an immediate cure for a
weak domach, and enables it to recover its tone after
a bad digedion. .
Difeafes are very rare m a country whole atmo-
fphere is exceedingly pure*, and in Candia, epidemical
difeafes are unknown. Fevers prevail here in dimmer,
but are not dangerous ; and the plague wmdd be whol¬
ly unknown, had not the Turks dedroyed the lazarets
■that were edablifhed by th» Venetians, for drangersto
4o quarantine in. Since the period when thefe were
122 ] CAN
demolidied, it is occafionally introduced by diips from <
Smyrna and Condantinople. As no precautions are
taken againft it, it gains ground, and Ipreads over the
idand from one province to another *, and as the colds
and heats are never intemperate, it fometimes conti¬
nues its ravages for fix months at a time.
This fine country is infeded v ith a difeafe fomewhat
lefs dangerous than the plague, but whofe iynaptom»
are fomewhat more hideous j that difeale is the leproiy.
In ancient times, Syria was the focus in which it ra¬
ged with mod fury : and from Syria it w'as carried in¬
to feveral of the idands of the Archipelago. It is in-
fe&ious, and is indantaneoudy communicated by con-
tadl. The victims who are attacked by it, are driven
from fociety, and confined to little ruinous houies on
the highway. They are driftiy forbidden to leave
thefe miferable dwellings, or hold intercourfe with any
perfon. Thofe poor wretches have generally befide
their huts a fmall garden producing pulfe, and feeding
poultry *, and with that fupport, and what they obtain
from paffengers, they find means to drag out a painful
life in circumilances of Shocking bodily didrefs. I heir
bloated (kin is covered with a fcaly cruft, fpecklcd with
red and white fpots; which afflift them with intolera¬
ble itchings. A hoarfe and tremulous voice iflue#
from the bottom of their breads. Their words arer
fcarce articulated •, becaufe their didemper inwardly
preys upon the organs of fpeech. Thtfe frightful
fpectres gradually lofe the ufe of their limbs. They
continue to breathe till fueh time as the whole mals of
their blood is corrupted, and their bodies entirely in a
date of putrefaction : The rich are not attacked by
this didemper : it confines itfelf to the poor, chiefly
to the Greeks. But thofe Greeks obferve dri&ly their
four lents $ and eat nothing during that time but fait
fidi, botargo falted and finoked, pickled olives, and
cheefe. They drink plentifully of the hot and muddy
wines of the idand. ihe natural tendency of fuch a
regimen mud be, to dre the blood, to thicken the
duid part of it, and thus at length to bring on a le-
profy.
Candia is at prefent governed by three pachas, who
redde refpeftively at Candia, Canea, and Retimo.
The firft, who is always a pacha of three tails, may
be conddered as viceroy of the ifland. He enjoys
more extendve powers than the others. To him the
infpeclion of the forts and arfenals is intrufted. He
nominates to fuch military employments as fall vacant,
as well as to the governments of the Sude, Grabufa,
Spina Longua, and Gira-petra. The governors of
thefe forts are denominated beys, .Each of them has a
condable and three general officers under him : one of
whom is commander of the artillery j another of th^
cavalry j and the third of the janidanes.
The council of the pacha condds of a kyaia, who is
the channel through which all orders are ihued, and
all favours bedowed ; an aga of the janiffaries, colonel-
general of the troops, who has the chief care of the
regulation of the police j two topigi bachi j a defter-
dar, who is treafurer-general for the imperial reve¬
nues *, a keeper of the imperial treafury 5 and the chief
officers of the army. This government is entirely mi¬
litary, and the power of the pacha ferafquier is abfo-
lute. The judice of his fentences is never called iu
queftion j they are inftantly carried into execution.
Cancha.
'Camas*
CAN t 123 ] CAN
Hie people of the law arc the mufti, who is the re¬
ligious head, and the cadi. The firft interprets thofe
laws which regard the diviiion of the patrimony among
the children of a family, fucceflions, and marriages,—
in a word, all that are contained in the Koran j and
he alfo decides on every thing that relates to the cere¬
monies of the Muffulman religion. The cadi cannot
fironounce fentence on affairs connedted with thefe
aws, without firlt taking the opinion of the mufti in
writing, which is named Faitfa. It is his bufinefs to
receive the declarations, complaints, and donations of
private perfons; and to decide on fuch differences as
erife among them. The pacha is obliged to confult
thole judges when he puts a Turk legally to death j
but the pacha, who is dignified with three tails, fets
himfclf above all laws, condemns to death, and fees his
fentenee executed, of his own proper authority. All
the mofques have their itam, a kind of curate, whofe
duty is to perform the fervice. There are fchoolma-
fters in the different quarters of the city. Thefe per¬
fons are much refpeclcd in Turkey, and are honoured
with the title of effendi.
The garrifon of Candia confilfs of 46 companies,
compofing a military force of about ten thoufand men.
All thefe forces do not refide conltantly in the city,
but they may be muftered in a very fhort time. They
are all regularly paid every three months, excepting
the janiffaries, none of whom but the officers receive
pay. The different gradations of this military body do
not depend on the pacha. The council of each com¬
pany, confifting of veterans, and of officers in adtual
fervice, has the power of naming to them. A perfon
tan occupy the fame pofl for no longer than two
years j but the pofl of forbagi, or captain, which is
purchafed at Conftantinople, is held for life. The
*ufia, or ceok, is ailb continued in his employment as
long as the company to which he belongs is fatified
with him. Each company has its almoner, denomi¬
nated imam.
The garrifons of Canea and Retimo, formed on a
limilar plan, are much lefs numerous. The firft con-
lifts of about 3600 men, the other of 500 ; but as all
the male children of the Turks are enrolled among the
janiffarles as foon as born, the number-of thef’e troops
might be greatly augmented in time of war 5 but, to
fay the truth, they are far from formidable. Moll of
them have never feen fire, nor are they ever exercifed
in military evolutions.
The pachas of Canea and Retimo are no lefs abfo»
lute, within the bounds of their refpeftive provinces,
than the pacha of Candia. They enjoy the fame pri¬
vileges with him, and their council confifts of the fame
officers. Thefe governors chief obje£l is to get rich
ws fpeedily as poffible *, and in order to accomplifh that
end, they praftife all the arts and cruelties of oppref-
lion, to fqueeze money from the Greeks. In truth,
thofe poor wretches run to meet the chains with which
they are loaded. Envy, which always preys Upon them,
'Continually prompts them to tike up arms. If fome
one among them happen to enjoy a decent fortune,
the reft aftiduoufly feek fome pretence for accufing him
before the pacha, who takes advantage of thefe diflen-
ftons, to feize the property of both the parties. It is
by no means aftonifhing, that under fo barbarous a go¬
vernment, the number of the Greeks is daily diminifhed,
There are fcarcely
in the ifland, 65,000 of whom pay
the carach.
The Turks have not pofTeffed the
ifland for more than 120 years ', yet
as they are not expofed to the fame
oppreflion, they have multiplied in
it, and raifed themfelves upon the
ruin of the ancient inhabitants.
Their number amounts to
The Jews, of whom there are not
many in the ifland, amount only to
150,000 Greeks Candia.
200,000 Turks*
200
Total is 350,200 fouls.
Th is fertile country Is in want of nothing but in-
duflrious hufbandmen, fecurc of enjoying the fruit of
their labours. It might maintain four times its prefent
number of inhabitants.
Antiquity has celebrated the ifland of Crete as
containing 100 populous cities ; and the induftry of
geographers has preferved their names and fttuations.
Many of thefe cities contained no feaver than 30,000
inhabitants j and by reckoning them, on an average,
at 6000 each, we {hall in all probability be rather
within than beyond the truth. This calculation gives
for 100 cities 600,000
By allowing the fame number as inhabi¬
tants of the towns, villages, and all the reft
of the ifland, 600,oco
the whole number of the inhabitants of
ancient Crete will amount to 1,200,00#
This number cannot be exaggerated. When Can¬
dia was in the hands of the Venetians, it was reckon¬
ed to contain nine hundred fourfeore and fixteen vil¬
lages.
It appears, therefore, that when the ifland of Crete
enjoyed the blefling of liberty, it maintained to the
number of 849,800 more inhabitants than it does at
prefent. But lince thofe happier times, (he has been
deprived of her laws by the tyranny of the Romans j
has groaned under the deftruftive fway of the monarch*
of the lower empire *, has been expofed for a period of
I 20 years to the ravages of the Arabians j has next
paffed under the dominion of the Venetians •, and has
at laft been fubjefled to the defpotifm of the Turks,
who have produced a dreadful depopulation in all the
countries wffiich have been fubdued by their arms.
The Turks allow the Greeks the free exercife of
their religion, but forbid them to repair their churches
or monafteries 5 and accordingly they cannot obtain
permiffion to repair their places of vorlhip, or religious
houfes, but by the powerful Jnfluence of gold. From
this article the pachas derive very confidevable fums.
They have 12 bifhops as formerly, the firft of v hom
affumes the title of archbifliop of Gortynia. He re-
fides at Candia 5 in which city the metropolitan church
of the ifland Hands. He is appointed by the patriarch
of Conftantinople : and has the right of nominating to,
all the other bifhoprics of the ifland *, the names of
which are, Gortynia, Cnoffou, Mirabella, Hyera, Gi-
ra-petra, Arcadia, Cherronefe, Lambis, Milopotamo,
Retimo, Canea, Cifaftio. Thefe bifhoprics are nearly
the fame as under the reign of the Greek emperors.
Q,2 Thu
CAN [1
Cjindia. The patriarch wears a triple tiara, writes his {ignature
  v " in reci ink, and anfwers for all the debts of the clergy.
To enable him to fulfil his engagements, he lays im-
pofitions on the reft of the biftiops, and particularly on
the monafteries, from which he draws very handfome
contributions. He is confidered as the head of the
Greeks, whom he protects, as far as his {lender credit
goes. The orders of government are direfted to him
on important occafions } and he is the only one of all
the Greeks in the illand who enjoys the privilege of
entering the city on horfeback.
Candia, is the capital of the above ifland, fituated
on its northern-coaft, in E. Long. 25. Lat. 35-
30. It ftands on the fame fituation which was for¬
merly occupied by Heraclea, and is the feat of govern¬
ment under the Turks. Its walls which are more than
a league in compafs, are in good repair, and defended
by deep ditches, but not protea.ed by any exterior fort.
Towards the fea, it has no attacks to fear j becaufe
the fhallownefs of the harbour renders it inacceflible to
, ftiips of war.
The Porte generally commits the^“government of
this illand to a pacha of three tails. The principal of¬
ficers, and feveral bodies of the Ottoman foldiery,. are
ftationed here. This city, when under the Venetians,
was opulent, commercial, and populous 5 but it has
now loft much of its former ftrength and grandeur.
The harbour, naturally a fine bafon, in which Ihips were
ihcurely Iheltered from every ftorm, is every day be¬
coming narrower and Ihallower. At prefent it> admits
only boats, and fmall Ihips after they have difcharged
a part of their freight. Thofe veffels, which the lurks
freight at Candia, are obliged to go almoft empty to
the port of Standie, whither'their cargoes are conveyed
to them in barks. Such inconveniences are highly un¬
favourable to commerce ; and as government never
thinks of removing them, the trade of Candia is there¬
fore conliderably decayed.
Candia, which was embellilhed by the Venetians
with regular ftreets, handfome houfes, a fine fquare,
and a magnificent ciftern, contains at prefent but a
fmall number of inhabitants, notwithftanding the vaft
extent of the area enclofed within its walls. ^Several
divifions of the city are void of inhabitants. -Thut in
which the market-place ftands is the only one which
difeovers any ftir of bufinefs, or Chow of affluence. Xhe
Mahometans have converted moft of the Chriftian tem¬
ples into mofques j yet they have left two churches to
the Greeks, one to the Armenians, and a fynagogue
to the Jews. The Capuchins poffefs a fmall convent,
with a chapel in which the vice-conful of France hears
mafs At prefent he is the only Frenchman who at¬
tends it, as the French merchants have taken up their
i«fidenee at Canea.
Weft of the city of Candia is an extenfive range oi
hills which are a continuation of Mount Ida, and of
which the extremity forms the promontory of Dion.
On the way to Dion, we find Palio Caftro, on the
fflore ; a name which the modern Greeks give mdifte-
rently to all remains of ancient cities. Its fituation
eorrefponds to that of the ancient Panormus, which
flood north-weft from Heraclea.
The river which runs weft of Candia was anciently
known by the name of Triton 5 near the fource of
which Minerva fprung from the piain of Jove. J^oaxus
24 1 C A N
is a little farther diftant. About a league eaft of that GancLa
city, the river Ceratus flows through a delightful vale.
According to Strabo, in one part of its courfe it runs ir _“^c ^
near by Gnolfus. A little beyond that, is another
river fuppofed to be ilherenus, on the banks of which,
fable relates that Jupiter confummated his marriage
with Juno. For the fpace of more than half a league
round the walls of Candia there is nat a Angle tree to
be feen. The Turks cut them all down in the time of
the fiege, and laid wafte the gardens and orchards.
Beyond that extent, the country is plentifully covered
with corn and fruit trees. The neighbouring hills
are overlpread with vineyards, which produce the
malmfey of Mount Ida,—worthy of preference at the
table of the moft exquifite connoifleur in wines. 1 hat
fpecies of wane, though little known, has a fine flavour,
a very pleafant reliftij and is highly efteemed m the
ifland.
CANDIAC, John Lewis, a premature genius,
born at Candiac in the diocefe of Nifmes in France, m
1710. In the cradle he diftinguiftied his letters : at
13 months, he knew them perfeftly :. at three years of
acre, he read Latin, either printed or inmanufeript: at
four, he tranflated from that tongue : at fix, he read
Greek and Hebrew 5 was matter of the principles of
arithmetic, hiftory, geography, heraldry, and the fei-
ence of medals j and had read the beft authors on al-
moft every branch of literature. He died of a compli-*
cation of diforders, at Paris, in 1726. . -
CANDIDATE, a perfon who afpires to fome pub¬
lic office. ,‘
In the Roman commonwealth, they were obliged U
wear a white gown during the two years of their foL-
citing a place. This garment, according to Plutarch,
they wore without any other clothes, that the people
might not fufpecT they concealed money for purchafing
votes, and alfo that they might more eafily fflow to the
people the fears of thofe wounds they had received m
fio-hting for the defence of the commonwealth, ihe
candidates ufually declared their pretenfions a year be¬
fore the time of ele&ion, which they fpent m making
intereft and gaining friends. Various arts of populari¬
ty were praftifed for this purpofe, and frequent circuit®
made round the city, and vifits and compliments to all
forts of perfons, the propels of . which was called ambitus..
See Ambitus.
CANDIDATI MILITES, an order ot ioldiers, a-
mono the Romans, who ferved aS the emperor’s body¬
guards to defend him in battle. They were the talleft
and ftrongeft of the whole troops, and moft proper to
infpire terror. They were called Candidati, becaule
clothed in white, either that they might be more con-
fpicuous, or becaufe they were confidered in the way
of preferment. . . ,
CANDISH, a confiderable province oi Aha, m ttie
dominions of the Great Mogul, bounded by Chytor
and Malva on the north, Orixa on the eaft, Decan on
the fouth, and Guzerat on the weft. It is populous and
rich } and abounds in cotton, rice, and indigo. Eraia-
pore is the capital town.
CANDLE, a fmall taper of tallow, wax, or Iperma-
ceti 5 the wick of which is commonly of feveral threads.
of cotton, fpun and twifted together. ,
A tallow-candle, to be good, muft be half ftieep a
and half bullock’s tallow j for hog’s tallow makes th£
•andte
CAN [ 125' 3 C A IN
Candle, candle gutter, and always gives an offer.fire fmell, with
v  a thick black fmoke. The wick ought to be pure, fuf-
ficiently dry, and properly twitted •, otherwife the candle
will emit an-ineonttant vibratory flame, which is both
prejudicial to the eyes and infufficient for the diftinft
illumination of objects.
There are two forts of tallow-candles *, the one dip¬
ped, the other moulded : the former are the common
candles 5 the others are the invention of the fieur le
.Brege at Paris.
As to the method of making candles in general :
After the tallow has been weighed, and mixed in the
due proportions, it is cut into very fmall pieces, that
it may melt the fooner j for the tallow m lumps, as it
comes from the butchers, would be in danger of burn¬
ing or turning black, if it were left too long over the
Are. Being perfeftly melted and flammed, they pour
a certain quantity of water into it, proportionable to
the quantity of tallow. This ferves to precipitate to
the bottom of the veffel the impurities of the tallow
which may have efcaped the fkimmer. No water, how¬
ever, mull be thrown into the tallow' defigned for the
three firft dips} becaufe the wick, being Hill quite dry,
would imbibe the water, which makes the candles
crackle in burning, and renders them of bad ufe. The
tallow, thus melted, is poured into a tub, through a
coarfe lieve of horfe-hair, to purify it flill more, and
may be ufed after having flood three hours. It will
continue fit for ufe 24 hours in fummer and 15 in win¬
ter. The wicks are made of fpun cotton, wrhich the
tallow-chandlers buy in Ikains, and which they wind up
into bottoms or clues } whence they are cut out, with
an inftrument contrived on purpofe, into pieces of the
length of the candle required } then put on the flicks or
broaches, or elfe placed in the moulds, as the candles
are intended to be either dipped or moulded.
Wax-candles are made of a cotton or flaxen wick,
flightly twilled, and covered with white or yellow
wax. Of thefe, there are feveral kinds: fome of a
conical figure, ufed to illuminate churches, and in
proceflions, funeral ceremonies, &c. (fee Taper) }
others of a cylindrical form, ufed on ordinary occa-
fions. The firft are either made with a ladle or the
hand. 1. To make wax-candles with the ladle. The
wicks being prepared, a dozen of them are tied by
. the neck, at equal diftances, round an iron circle, fuf-
pended over a large bafon of copper tinned, and full
of melted rvax : a large ladle full of this wax is poured
gently on the tops of the wicks one after another,
and this operation continued till the candle arrive at
its deflined bignefs 5 rvith this precaution that the
three firft ladles be poured on at the top of the wick,
the fourth at the height of the fifth at and the
fixth at in order to give the candle its pyramidal
form. Then the candles are taken down, kept warm,
and rolled and fmoothed upon a walnut-tree table, with
a long fquare inftrument of box, fmooth at the bottom.
2. As to the manner of making wax-candles by the
hand, they begin to foften the wax, by working it fe¬
veral times in hot water, contained in a narrow but
deep caldron. A piece of the wax is then taken out,
and difpofed by little and little around the wick,
which is hung on a hook in the wall, by the extre¬
mity oppofite to the neck } fo that they begin with
the big end, diminiftiing flill as they defeend towards
the neck. In ether refpefts the method is nearly the
fame as in the former cafe. However, it mult be ob-
ferved, that, in the former cafe, water is always ufed to
moiften the feveral inftruments, to prevent the wax from
flicking} and in the latter, oil of olives, or lard, for
the hands, &c. The cylindrical wax-candles are either
made as the former, with a ladle, or drawn. Wax-
candles drawn, are fo called, becaufe adtually drawn
in the manner of wire, by means of two large rollers
of wood, turned by a handle, which, turning back¬
wards and forwards feveral times, pafs the wick
through melted wax contained in a brafs bafon, and afc-
the fame time through the holes of an inftrument like
that ufed for drawing wire faftened at one fide of the
bafon.
If any chandlers mix with their wares any thing de¬
ceitfully, &c. the candles lhall be forfeited, by flat. 23
Eliz.} and a tax or duty is granted on candles, by 8
and 9 Anne, cap. 6. made for fale, of one penny a
pound, befides the duty upon tallow, by 8 Anne, cap.
9. And by 24 Geo. III. cap. 11. an additional duty
of a halfpenny a pound : and by the fame an addition¬
al duty of a halfpenny a pound is laid upon all candles
imported (except thofe of wax and fpermaceti, for which
fee WAX-Cand/es), fubject alfo to the two additional
5 per cents, impofed by 19 and 22 Geo. III. befides
the duty of 2^d. formerly impofed by 2 W. left'. 2.
cap. 4. 8 Anne, cap. 9. and 9 Anne, cap. 6. And
every maker of candles, other than wax-candles, for
fale, lhall annually take out a licenfe at il. The
maker of candles lhall, in four weeks within the bills,
and elfewhere in fix weeks, after entry, clear off the
duties on pain of double duty : nor fell any after de¬
fault in payment on pain of double value } 8 Anne,,
cap. 9. The makers of candles are not to ufe melting
houfes, without making a true entry, on pain of xool.
and to give notice of making candles to the excife of¬
ficer for the duties} and of the number, &c. or lhall
forfeit 50I. flat. II. Geo. I. cap. 30. See alfo
23 Geo. II. cap. 21. and 26 Geo. II. cap. 32. No
maker of candles for fale lhall begin to make candles,
without notice firft given to the officers, unlefs from
September 29. to March 25. yearly, between feven
in the morning and five in the evening, and from
March 25. to September 29. between five in the
morning and feven in the evening, on pain of 10I.
10 Anne, cap. 26. The penalty of obftrufting the-
officer is 20I. and of removing candles before they
are furveyed 20I. 8 Anne, cap. 9. The penalty of
privately making candles is the forfeiture of the fame
and utenfils, and 100I. 5 Geo. III. cap. 43. And
the penalty of mingling weighed with unweighed
candles, of removing them before they are weighed, or'
of concealing them, is the forfeiture of 100I. 11 Geo.
cap. 30. Candles, for which the duty hath been paid,
may be exported, and the duty drawn back } bui
no draw-back ihall be allowed on the exportation of
any foreign candles imported. 8 Ann. cap. 9. 23
Geo. II. cap. 21.
The Roman candles w'ere at firft little ftrings dipt ^
in pitch, or furrounded with wTax } though afterwards
they made them of the papyrus, covered likewife with
wax } and fometimes alfo of ruffles, by ftripping off
the outer rind, and only retaining the pith.—For reli- ^r
gious offices, w ax-candies were ufed j for vulgar.ufes, *
thofe. -
Canctfe.'
CAN [ 126 ] CAN
Candle. {We of tallow. Lord Bacon pronofes candles of divers fiderable accuracy are defcribed in the Traitf d'Optique
  ' compofitions and ingredients, as alfo of different forts of of Bouguer, of which an abridged account is given by
wicks : with experiments of the degrees of duration. Dr Prieilley m his Optics 1 he firft of thefe two me.
and light of each. Good houfewives bury their candles thods has been ufed by others fince that time, and pro¬
in flour or bran, which it is faid increafes their lading bably, before, from its very obvious nature, but parti-
Sdmofl half. cularly by Count Rumford, who has given a deicrip*
tion and drawings of an inflrument called the photome*
Experiments to determine the real and comparative value ter, in the Philofophical Tranfadions for 1794. The
Catvllc*.
of burning CANDLES of different forts and fixes.
Numb.of
candles
in one
pound.
Small wick.
.Large wick.
18^
J9
16^
12
I0|:
71
8
5!
Mould-
candles.
5-ir
4
Weight
of one
candle.
The time
one can¬
dle lafted.
Oz. Dr.
Hr. Min.
14
134
i54-
5t
8
1
o
*3
12
o
The time
that one
pound
will laft.
Hr. Min.
15
40
40
27
36
9
*9
20
3
59
5°
44
41
38
32
34
30
26
34
2
24
24
12
o
15
42
The expence
z hours
when candles
are at 6d per
dozen, which
alfo fliows the
proportion of
the expence
at any price
per dozeip
Farthings and
rooth parts.
4- 85
5- 7°
6- 54
6.96
7- 5°
8.94
8.47
9-53
Mould-candl.
at 7s per doz.
7.87
9.28
N. B. The time that one candle laded was taken
from an average of feveral trials in each frze.
It is obfervable, in optics, that the^ flame of two
candles joined, gives a much dronger light than both
of them feparate.1 The obfervation was fuggeded by
Dr Franklin. Probably the union of the two flames
produces a greater degree of heat, whereby the vapour
is attenuated, and the.particles of which light confids
are more copioufly emitted. 4
Mr Nicholfon has made fome mteredmg obferva-
tions on the light afforded by lamps and candles,
which we (hall lay before our readers in his own
* Philo/oph. words *. “We are acquainted wdh ho means, (fays
J'owr. vol i. unlefs we may except eledtricity, of producing
light but by conlbudion, and this is mod probably of
the fame nature. The rude method of illumination
confids in fuccedively burning certain maffes of fuel
in the folid date. Common fires anfwer this pur-
pofe in the apartments of houies, and in fome hght-
houfes : fmall pieces of refmous wood,, and the bi¬
tuminous coal called Unnel-coal, are m fome coun¬
tries applied to the fame ufe but the mod genera
and ufeful method is that m which fat oil, of an animal
or vegetable kind, is burned, by means of a wick.
Thefe inftruments of illumination are either lamps or
candles In the lamp, the oil mud be one of tho e
which retains its fluidity in the ordinary temperature
the atmofphere. The candle is formed of an oil, or
ether material, which is not fufible but at a tempera¬
ture confiderably elevated. . . _ .
“The method of meafunng the comparative mtenfities
ef light is one of the fird requifites in an inquiry con¬
cerning the art of illumination. Two .methods of con-
principle it is grounded upon is, that if two lights
fhine upon the fame furface at equal obliquities, and
an opake body be interpofed, the two fhadows it will
produce mud differ in blacknefs or intenlity in the
fame degree. For the fhadow formed by intercepting
the greater light will be illuminated by the fmaller
light only, and reverfely the other fhadow will be il¬
luminated by the greater light. That is to fay, irt
fhort, the dronger light will be attended with a deeper
fhadow. But it is eafy, by removing the greater light
to a greater didance, to render the illumination it pro¬
duces at the common furface equal to that afforded by
the lefs. Experiments of this kind may be convenient-
ly made by fadening a fheet of white paper againft
the wall of a room. 1 he two lights or candles intend¬
ed to be compared, mud then be placed fo that the
ray of light from each fliall fall with nearly the fame
angle of incidence upon the middle of the paper. By
fome experiments made in this way in the. year 1785*
I was fatisfied that the degree of illumination could be
thus afeertamed to the Both or 90th part of the wholes
“ By experiments of this kind many ufeful particulars
may be fhewn. Thus, for example, the light of a
candle, which is fo exceedingly brilliant when firft
fnuffed, is very fpeedily diminifhed to one-half, and is
ufually not more than one-fifth or one-fixt.h before the
uneafinefs of the eye induces us to fhuff it. Whence
it follows, that if candles could be made, fo as not to
require fnuffing, the average quantity of light afforded
by the fame quantity of combudible matter would be
more than doubled.* In the fame way, likewife, finc6
the cod and duration of candles, and the Confumption
of oil in lamps, are eafily afcertainable, it may be
fhewn whether more or lefs of light is obtained at the
fame expence during a given time, by burning a num¬
ber of fmall candles indead of one of greater thicknefs.
From a few experiments already made but of the nu¬
merous and ufeful feries that prefents itfelf, I have rea-
fon to think that there is very much wade in this ex-
penfive article of accommodation.
“ In the lamp there are three articles which demand
our attention, the oil, the wick, and the fupply.of air.
It is required that the oil flrould be readily inflam¬
mable, without containing any fetid fubdance which may
prove offenfive, or mucilage, or other matter, to ob-
drua; the channels of the wick. I do not know of any
procefs for ameliorating oils for this purpofe, excepting
that of wafhing with water containing acid or alkali.
Either of thefe is faid to render the mucilage of animal
oils more foluble in the water ; but acid is preferred,
becaufe it is lefs difpofed to combine with the oil itfelf.
The office of the wick appears to be chiefly, if not fole-
ly, to convey the oil by capillary attra&ion to the
place of combudion. As the oil is confumed and flies
off, other oil fucceeds, and in this way a continued
current of oil and maint enance of the flame are effect¬
ed. But as (he wicks of lamps are commonly formed
of
CAN [ 127 ] CAN
, (Vidle. ot combufHble matter, it appears to be of fome confe-
quence what the nature and ftructure of this material
may be. It is certain that the' flame aiforded by
a wick of ruth differs very confiderably from that
afforded by cotton j though perhaps this difference
may, in a great measure, depend on the relative di-
meniions of each. And if we may judge from the dif¬
ferent odour in blowing out a candle of each fort,
there is fome reafon to fufpeft that the decompolition
of the oil is not effected precifely in the fame manner
in each. We have alfo fome obicure accounts of pre¬
pared wicks for lamps, ’which are it a ted to poffefs the
property of facilitating the combuftion of very impure
oils, fo that they ihail burn for many hours without
fmoke or fmell.
“ The acceis of air is of the lail importance in every
procefs of combuftion. When a lamp is fitted up with
a very {lender wick, the flame is fmall, and of a bril¬
liant white colour : if the wick be larger, the com¬
buftion is lefs perfeft, and the flame is brown : a ftill
larger wick not only exhibits a brown flame, but the
fewer internal part appears dark, and is occupied by a
portion of volatilized matter, which docs not become
ignited until it has afeended towards the point. When
the wick is either very large or very long, part of this
matter efcapes combuftion, and ftiews itfelf in the form
©f coal or fmoke. The different intenfity of the igni¬
tion of flame, according to the greater or lefs fupply
of air, i.s remarkably feen by placing a lamp with a
fmall wick beneath a (hade of glafs not perfectly
clofed below', and more or lefs covered abo/e. While
the current of air through the glafs ihade is perfettly
free, the flame is white ; but in proportion as the
aperture above is diminiihed, the flame becomes brown,
long, wavering, and fmoky •, it inftantly recovers its
original whitenefs when the opening is again enlarged.
The inconvenience of a thick wick has been long fince
obferved, and attempts made to remove it: in fome in-
ftances by fubftifuting a number of fmall wicks inftead
of a larger ; and in others, by making the wrick flat
inftead of cylindrical. The moft fcientific improve¬
ment of this kind, though perhaps lefs Ample than the
ordinary purpofes of life demand, is the well-known
lamp of Argand. In this the wick forms a hollow
cylinder or tube, which Aides over another tube of
metal, fo as to afford an adjuftment with regard to its
length. When this wick is righted, tbe flame itfelf
has the figure of a thin tube, to the Inner as well as
the outer furface of wfiieh the air has accefs from be¬
low. And a cylindrical {hade of glafs fcrves to keep
the flame fteady, and in a certain degree to accelerate
the current of air. In this very ingenious apparatus
many experiments may be made with the greateft faci¬
lity. The inconvenience of a long wick, which fup-
plies more oil than the volume of flame is capable
of burning, and which confequently emits fmoke, is
feen at once by railing the wick ; and on the other
hand, the effeft of a ihort wick, which affords a di¬
minutive flame merely for want of a fufficient fupply
of combuftible matter, is obfervable by the contrary
procels.
“ The moft obvious inconvenience of lamps in ge¬
neral, arifes from the fluidity of the combuftible ma¬
terial, which requires a veffel adapted to contain it,
and even ia the beft conftructed lamps is more or lefs
liable to be fpilled. When the wick of a lamp is Can (Tier
once adjufted as to its length, the flame contiimes W'v"“w
nearly in the fame ftate for a very confiderable time.
“ It is almoil unneeeffary to deferibe a thing fo uni-
verfally known as a candle. This article is formed of
a confiftent oil, which envelopes a porous wick of
fibrous vegetable matter. The cylindrical form and
dimenfionsof the oil are given either by cafting it in a
mould, or by repeatedly dipping the wick into the
fufed ingredient. Upon comparing a candle with a
lamp, two very remarkable particulars are immediately
feen. In the firft place,, the tallow itfelf, which re»
mains in the unfufed ftate, affords a cup or cavity to
hold that portion of melted tallow which is ready to
flow into the lighted part of the wick. In the fecond
place, the combuftion, inftead of being confined, as in
the lamp, to a certain determinate portion of the
fibrous matter, is carried, by a flow' fucceflion, through
the whole length. Hence arifes the greater ncceflity
ior frequent fnutfing the candle 5 and hence alfo the
ftation of the freezing point of the fat oil becomes of
great confequence. For it has been ftunvn that the
brilliancy of the flame depends very much on the dia--
meter of the wick being as fmall as poflible j and this
requifite will be moft attainable in candles formed of a
material that requires a higher degree of heat to fufe it^
Ihe wick of a tallow candle muft be made thicker in
proportion to the greater fufibility of the material,
which would otherwife melt the fidcs of the cup, and
run over in ftreams. The flame will therefore be yel¬
low, fmoky, and obfeure, excepting for a Ihort time
immediately after fRuffing. Tallow melts at the 9 2d
degree ©f Fahrenheit’s thermometer j fpermaceti at the’
133d degree j the fatty matter formed of fleftr after-
long immerfion in water melts at 1270 5 the />e/a of
the Chinefe, at 145° j bees w ax at 1420 j and bleach¬
ed wax at 1550. Two of thefe materials are well
known in the fabrication of candles. Wax in particu¬
lar does not afford fo brilliant a flame as tallow': but,.
on account of its fufibility, the wick can be made
fmaller ; which not only affords the advantage of a
clear perfeft flame, but from its flexibility it is difpofed
to turn on one fide, and come in contact with the ex¬
ternal air, which completely burns the extremity of
the wick to white allies, and thus performs the office
of fnuffing. We fee, therefore, that the important ob¬
ject to foeiety of rendering tallow candles equal to thofe
of wax, does not at all depend on the combuftibility of s
the refpeftive materials, but upon a mechanical advan¬
tage in the cup, which is afforded by the inferior de¬
gree of fufibility in the wax 5 and that, to obtain this
valuable objeft, one of the following effe&s muft; be
produced: Either the tallow muft be burned in a
lamp, to avoid the gradual progreffion of the flame
along the wick j or fome means muft be devifed to
enable the candle to fnuff itfelf, as the wax candle
does j or, laftly, the tallow itfelf muft be rendered lefs
fufible by fome chemical procefs. I have no great rea¬
fon to boaft of fuccefs in the endeavour to effeft thefe j
but my hope is, that the fafts and obfervations here
prefented may confiderably abridge the labour of others
in the fame purfuit.
“ The makers of thermometers and other fmall arti¬
cles with the blow-pipe and lamp, give the preference
to tallow inftead of oil, becaufe its combuftion is more
complete.
C A N
. -Cmffie.
[ i
CSTQplete, aiul does not blacken tbe glals. In this
' operation, the beat of the lamp melts the tallow whieli
is occalionally brought into its vicinity by the work¬
man. But for the ufual purpofes of illumination, it
cannot be fuppofed that a perfon can attend to fupply
the combuflible matter. Conliderable difficulties arife
in the pro]eft for affording this gradual fupply as
it may be wanted. A cylindrical piece of tallow was
inferted into a metallic tube, the upper aperture of
which was partly clofed by a ring, and the central
'part occupied by a metallic piece nearly refembling
-that part of the common lamp which carries the wick.
In this apparatus the piece latl defcribed was intended
to anfwer the fame purpofe, and was provided with a
fhort wick. Bhe cylinder of tallow was fupported
beneath in fuch a manner that the metallic tube and
i other part of this lamp were left to reft with their
whole weight upon the tallow at the ring or con-
traftion of the upper aperture. In this fituation the
lamp was lighted. It burned for fome time with a very
bright clear flame, which, when compared with that
of a candle, poffelfed the advantages of uniform inten-
lity, and was much fuperior to the ordinary flame of a
lamp in its colour, and the perfeft abfence of fmell.
After fome minutes it began to decay, and very foon
afterwards went out. Upon examination it was found,
that the metallic piece which carried the wick had
fufed a fufficient quantity of tallow for the fupply du¬
ring the combuftion ; that part of this tallow had flow¬
ed beneath the ring, and to other remote parts of the
apparatus, beyond the influence of the flame j in con-
fequence of which, the tube, and the cylinder of tallow
were fattened together, and the expefted progreflion
of fupply prevented. It feems probable, that in every
lamp for burning confiftent oils, the material ought to
be fo difpofed that it may defcend to the flame upon
the principle of the fountain refervoir. I fhall not
here ftate the obftacles which prefent themfelves in the
profpeft of this conftruftion, but {hall difmifs the fub-
■jeft by remarking, that a contrivance of this nature
would be of the greateft public utility.
“ The wick of a candle, being furrounded by the
flame, is nearly in the fttuation of a body expofed to
deftruftive diftillation in a clofe veffel. After lofing
its volatile produfts, the carbonaceous refidue retains
its figure, until, by the defcent of the flame,^the exter¬
nal air can have accefs to its upper_ extremity. But,
in this cafe, the requiftte combuftion, which might
fnuff it, is not effefted. For the portion of oil emitted
by the long wuck is not only too large to be perfeftly
burned, but alfo carries off much of the heat of the
flame while it affumes the elaftie ftate. By this dimi-
nilhed combuftion and increafed efflux of half-decom-
pofed oil, a portion of coal or foot is depofited on the
upper part of the wick, which gradually accumulates,
and at length aflumes the. appearance of a fungus.
The candle does not then give more than one-tenth of
the light emitted in its beft ftate. Hence it is that a
candle of tallow cannot fpontaneoufly fnuff itfelf. It
w as not probable that the addition of a fubftance con¬
taining vital air or oxygene would fupply that principle
at the precife period of time required •, but, as experi¬
ment is the teft of every probability of this nature, I
foaked a wick of cotton in a folution of nitre, then
dried it, and made a candle. When this came to be
28 ] CAN
lighted, nothing remarkable happened for a fliort time} Candle,
at the expiration of which a decrepitation followed at1 i,r —v"-**
the lower extremity of the flame, which completely
divided the wick where the blackened part commences.
The whole of the matter in combuftion therefore fell
off, and the candle was of courfe inftantly extinguifti-
ed. Whether this would have happened in all pro¬
portions of the fait or conftruftions of the candle I
did not try, becaufe the fmell of azote was Sufficiently
ftrong and unpleafant to forbid tbe ufe of nitre in the
purtuit. From various confiderations I am difpofed to
think that the fpontaneous fnuffing of candles made of
tallow, or other fufible materials, wull Scarcely be
effefted but by the difcovery of fome material for the
wick which fhall be voluminous enough to abforb the
tallow, and at the fame time Sufficiently flexible to
bend on one fide.
“ The moft promifing fpeculation refpefting this moft
ufeful article, feems to direft itfelf to the cup which
contains the melted tallow. The imperfeftion of this
part has already been noticed, namely, that it bleaks
down by fufion, and fuffers its fluid contents to efcape.
The Chinefe have a kind of candle about half an inch
in diameter, which, in the harbour of Canton, is call¬
ed iobchock ; but whether the name be Chinefe, or the
corruption of fome European word, I am ignorant.
The wick is of cotton, wrapped round a fmall flick or
match of the bamboo cane, ft he body of the .candle
is white tallow j but tbe external part to the thicknefs
of perhaps one-thirtieth of an inch, confifts of a waxy
matter coloured red. This covering gives a confidcr-
able degree of folidity to the candle, and prevents its
guttering, becaufe lefs fufible than the tallow itfelf.
I did not obferve that the flick in the middle w as
either advantageous or the contrary ; and, as I now?
write from the recolleftion of this objeft. at fo remote
a period as 25 years ago, I can only conjefture that it
might be of advantage in throwing up a lefs quantity
of oil into the flame than would have been conveyed
by a wick of cotton fufficiently flout to have occupied
its place unfupported in the axis of the candle..
Many years ago I made a candle in imitation of
the lobchock. The expedient to which I had recourfe
confifted in adapting the wick in the ufual pewter
mould : wax was then poured in, and immediately
afterwards poured out: the film of wax which adherid
to the inner furface of the mould foon became cool j
and tbe candle was completed by filling the mould
with tallow. When it was drawn out, it was found
to be cracked longitudinally on its furface, which I
attributed to the contraftion of the wax, by cooling,
being greater than that of the tallow.. At prefent I
think it equally probable that the cracking might have
been occafioned by too fudden cooling of the w ax be¬
fore tbe tallow w as poured in ; but. other. avocations
prevented the experiments from being varied and re¬
peated. It is probable that the Chineie external coat¬
ing may not be formed of pure bard bleached wax. .
“ But the moft decifive remedy for the imperfeftion
of this cheapeft, and in other refpefts beft material for
candles, would undoubtedly be to diminifh its fuftbili-
ty. Various fubftances may be combined with tallow,
either in the direft or indireft method. In the latter
by the decompofition of foap, a number of ex-
.ray, — r  *-
perixnents were made by Berthollet, of which an ac-
■r count
CAN [ t29 ] CAN
Candle, count is inferted in the memoirs of the academy at
■—nr-—' Paris for the year 1780, and copied into the 26th vo¬
lume of the Journal de Phyfique. None ofthefe point
direftly to the prefent objeft j belides which, it is pro¬
bable that the foap made ufe of by that eminent che-
mift was formed not of tallow, but oil. I am not
aware of any regular feries of experiments concerning
the mutual action of fat oils and other chemical agents,
more efpecially fuch as may be direfted to this im¬
portant obje£t of diminifhing its folubility j for which
reafon I ihall mention a few experiments made with
this view.
il I. Tallow was melted in a fmall filver veffel. Solid
tallow finks in the fluid, and difiblves without any re¬
markable appearance. 2. Gum fandarach in tears was
not diflolved, but emitted bubbles, fwelled up, became
brown, emitted fumes, and became crifp or friable.
No folution nor improvement of the tallow. 3. Shell-
lac fwelled up with bubbles, and was more perfectly
fufed than the gum fandarach in the former experi¬
ment. When the tallow was poured off, it was thought
to congeal rather more fpeedily. The lae did not ap¬
pear to be altered. 4. Benzoin bubbled without much
fwelling, was fufed, and emitted fumes of an agreeable
fmell, though not refembling the flowers of benzoin.
A flight or partial folution feemed to take place. The
benzoin was fofter and of a darker colour than before,
and the tallow lefs confiftent. 5. Common refin unites
very readily with melted tallow, and forms a more
Fufible compound than the tallow itfelf. 6. Camphor
melts eafily in tallow, without altering its appearance.
When the tallow is near boiling, camphoric fumes fly
off. The compound appeared more fufible than tal¬
low. 7. The acid or flowers of benzoin difiblves in
great quantities without any ebullition or commotion.
Much fmoke arifes from the compound, which does
not fmell like the acid of benzoin. Tallow alone does
not fume at a low heat, though it emits a fmell fome-
thing like that of oil-olive. When the proportion of
the acid was confiderable, fmall needled cryftals ap¬
peared as the temperature diminifhed. The appear¬
ances of feparation are different according to the quan¬
tity of acid. The compound has the hardnefs and con-
fiftence of firm foap, and is partially tranfparent. 8.
Vitriolated tartar, nitre, white fugar, cream of tartar,
cryftallized borax, and the fait fold in the markets un¬
der the name of fait of lemons, but which is fuppofed
to be the eflential fait of forrel, or vegetable alkali
fuperfaturated with acid of fugar, were refpeftively
tried without any obvious mutual aftion or change of
properties in the tallow. 9. Calcined magnefia render¬
ed tallow opake and turbid, but did not feem to difiolve.
Its effect refembled that of lime.
“ It is propofed to try the oxigenated acetous acid,
or radical vinegar ; the acid of ants, of fugar, of borax,
■of galls, the tanning principle, the ferous and gelati¬
nous animal matter, the fecula of vegetables, vegetable
gluten, bird-lime, and other principles, either by direct
or indirect application. The object, in a commercial
point of view, is entitled to an extenfive and affiduous
inveftigation. Chemifls in general fuppofe the hard-
neis or lefs fufibility of wax to arife from oxygen, and
to this object it may perhaps be advantageous to direft
a certain portion of the inquiry. The metallic falts
and calces are the combinations from which this prin-
Vol. V. Part I.
ciple is moft commonly obtained ; but the combina- Candle,
tions of thefe with fat oils have hitherto afforded little * '
promife of the improvement here fought. The fub-
jeft is however fo little known, that experiments of
the loofeft and molt conjedtural kind are by no means
to be defpifed.”
Lighting a Candle by a fmallfparh ofelectricity. This
method, which is an invention of Dr Ingenhoufz, is
recorded in the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixviii. It is done by
a fmall phial, having eight or ten inches of metallic
coating, or even lefs, charged with electricity, which
may be done at any time of the night by a perfon,
who has an eleftric machine in his room. “ When I
have occafion to light a candle,” fays he, “ I charge
a fmall coated phial, whofe knob is bent outwards, fo
as to hang a little over the body of the phial j then I
wrap fome loofe cotton over the extremity of a long
brafs pin or a wire, fo as to flick moderately fall to
its fubflance. I next roll this extremity of the pin
wrapped up with cotton in fome fine powder of refin,
(which I always keep in readinefs upon the table for
this purpofe, either in a wide-mouthed phial or in a
loofe paper) ; this being done, I apply the extremity
of the pin or wire to the external coating of the char¬
ged phial, and bring as quickly as poflible the other
extremity wrapped round with cotton to the knob :
the powder of refin takes fire, and communicates its
flame to the cotton, and both together burn long e-
nough to light a candle. As I do not want more than
half a minute to light my candle in this way, I find it
a readier method than kindling it by a flint and fteel,
or calling a fervant. I have found that powder of
white or yellow refin lights eafier than that of brown.
The farina lycopodii may be ufed for the fame purpofe :
but it is not fo good as the powder of refin, becaufe it
does not take fire quite fo readily, requiring a ftronger
fpark not to mifs : befides, it is foon burnt away. By
dipping the cotton in oil of turpentine, the fame ef-
feft may be as readily obtained, if you take ajar fome-
what greater in fize. This oil will inflame fo much the
readier if you ftrew a few fine particles of brafs upon it.
The pin duft is the beft for this purpofe : but as this
oil is fcattered about by the explofion, and when kind¬
led fills the room with much more fmoke than the
powder of refin, I prefer the laft.”
Candle-J5owZ>j-, a name given to fmall glafs bubbles,
having a neck about an inch long, with a very flender
bore, by means of which a fmall quantity of water is
introduced into them, and the orifice afterwards clofed
up. This ftalk being put through the wick of a burn¬
ing candle, the vicinity of the flame foon rarefies the
water into fleam, by the elaflicity of which the glafs
is broken with a loud crack.
Candle is alfo a term of medicine, and is reckoned
among the inftruments of furgery. Thus the candela
fumalis, or the candela pro fu'ffitu odorata, is a mafs of
an oblong form, confifling of odoriferous porvders mix¬
ed up with a third or more of the charcoal of willow
or lime tree, and reduced to a proper confipence with
a mucilage of gum tragacanth, labdanum, or turpen¬
tine. It is intended to excite a grateful fmell with¬
out any flame, to cor reft the air, to fortify the brain,
and to excite the fpirits.
Medicated Candle, the fame with Bougie.
CANDLE, bale orauftion by inch of candle, is when
a *
€andle
Candle-
ftick.
CAN [ 130 ] CAN
a {mail piece of candle, being lighted, the byftanders Babylonifli captivity, the golden candleftick was again Candle.
are allowed to bid for the merchandife that is felling ;
but the moment the candle is out, the commodity is ad¬
judged to the laft bidder.
There is alfo an excommunication by inch of can¬
dle ; when the finner is allowed to come to repentance
while a candle continues burning ; but after it is con-
fumed, he remains excommunicated to all intents and
purpofes.
Rujl Candles, ufed in different parts of England,
are made of the pith of a fort of rufties, peeled or drip¬
ped of the (kin, except on one fide, and dipped in melt¬
ed greafe.
CANDLE-Wood, flips of pine about the thicknefs of a
finger, ufed in New England and other colonies to
burn inftead of candles, giving a very good light. The
French inhabitants of Tortuga ufe flips of yellow fan-
tal-wood for the fame purpofe, and under the fame de¬
nomination, which yields a clear flame though of a
green colour.
C ANDLEBERRY tree. See Myrica, Botany
Index.
CANDLEMAS, a feafl; of the church held on the
fecond day of February, in honour of the purification
of the Virgin Mary. It is borrowed from the practice
of the ancient Chriftians, who on that day uled abun¬
dance of lights both in their churches and proceffions,
in memory, as is fuppofed, of our Saviour’s being on
that day declared by Simon “ to be a light to lighten
the Gentiles.” In imitation of this cuftom, the Roman
Catholies on this day confecrate all the tapers and
candles which they ufe in their churches during the
whole year. At Rome, the pope performs that ce¬
remony himfelf •, and diftributes w'ax-candles to the
cardinals and others, who carry them in proceflion
through the great hall of the pope’s palace. This
ceremony was prohibited in England by an order of
council in 1548.
Candlemas, (2d Feb.) is made one of the four
terms of the year for paying and receiving rents or
borrowed money, &c.—In the courts of law, Candle¬
mas term begins 15th January, and ends 3d February.
CANDLESTICK, an inftrument to hold a candle,
made in different forms, and of all forts of matter.
The golden candleftick was one of the facred uten-
fils made by Mofes to be placed in the Jewilh taber¬
nacle. It was made of hammered gold, a talent in
weight. It confifted of feven branches fupported by
a bafe or foot. Thefe branches were adorned at equal
diftances w’ith fix flowrers like lilies, and with as many
bow'Is and knobs placed alternately. Upon the ftock
and fix branches of the candleftick were the golden
lamps, which were immovable, wherein were put oil
and cotton.
Thefe feven lamps Avere lighted every evening, and
extinguiftied every morning. The lamps had their tongs
or fnuffers to draw the cotton in or out, and . diflies
underneath them to receive the fparks or droppings of
the oil. This candleftick w as placed in the antichamber
of the fan&uary on the fouth fide, and ferved to illu¬
minate the altar of perfume and the tabernacle of the
ftiew-bread. When Solomon had built the temple of
the Lord, he placed in it ten golden candlefticks of the
fame form as that defcribed by Mofes, five on the north
and five on the fouth fide of the holy : But after the
placed in the temple, as it had been before in the ta- ^ ^ ^
bernacle by Mofes. This facred utenfil, upon the de- 1 ' ^ _
ftruftion of the temple by the Romans, Avas lodged in
the temple of Peace built by Vefpafian; and the repre-
fentation of it is ftill to be feen on the triumphal arch
at the foot of Mount Palatine, on Avhich Vefpafian’s tri¬
umph is delineated.
CANDY, a large kingdom of Afia, in theifland of
Ceylon. It contains about a quarter of the ifland *, and
as it is encompaffed with high mountains, and covered
with thick forefts, through which the roads and paths
are narrow and difficult, the king has them guarded to
prevent his fubje&s from going into other countries.
It is full of hills, from Avhence rivulets proceed which
are full of fifli; but as they run among the rocks, they
are not fit for boats : hoAvever, the inhabitants are very
dexterous in turning them to Avater their land, which
is fruitful in rice, pulfe, and hemp.
Since the ifland of Ceylon fell into the hands of the
Englifti, Ave have obtained fuller information refpefting
it. Mr PercNal, who has publiftied an account of this
ifland, mentions the jealoufy, both of the Dutch and
of the natives, as difficulties which could not have been
eafily furmounted by travellers- while it remained fub-
jeft to Holland *. “ The. interior of the ifland (he fays), * Accowd
owing to the jealoufy of the Dutch, has been little, ex- of Ceylon,
plored by Europeans *, and any traveller who might P* 23'
have obtained the permiffion of the Dutch to vifit it,
could not have executed his purpofe from the jealoufy
of the natives. Since the Candians have been driven
by their invaders into the mountains of the interior, it
has been their policy carefully to pre\*ent any Europe¬
an from feeing thofe objects which might tempt the
avarice of his countrymen, or from obferving the ap¬
proaches by wffiich an army could penetrate their moun¬
tains. If an European by any accident Avas carried in¬
to their territories, they took every precaution to pre¬
vent him from efcaping 5 and the guards, Rationed
everyAvhere at the approaches, joined to the Aride and
pathlefs woods which divide the interior from the coaft^
rendered fuch an attempt almoft completely defperate.
When an ambaffador Avas fent from any European go¬
vernment to the king of Candy, he was Avatched a\ ith
all that ftriftnefs and jealoufy, which the lufpicious
temper of uncivilized nations dictates. In an em-
baffy which I attended to the court of that monarch,
I had an opportunity of obferving how careful the na¬
tives Avere to prevent ftrangers from making any ob-
fervations. Mr Boyd, who about twenty years ago
went on a fimilar embaffy, was watched Avith the fame
particular circumfpe&ion ; and has therefore been able
to add little to our ftock of knowledge concerning the
interior.
“ The dominions of the native prince are complete¬
ly cut off on all fides from thofe of the Europeans by
almoft impenetrable woods and mountains. I he paffes
which lead through thefe to the coafts are extremely
fteep and difficult, and fcarcely known even by the
natives themfeNes. As foon as Ave advance from ten
to tAventy miles from the coafts, a country prefents it-
felf greatly differing from the fea coaft, both in foil,
climate, and appearance. After afeending the moun¬
tains and palling the woods, Ave find ourfelves in the
midft of a country not advanced many ftages beyond
the
CAN [ 131 ] CAN
Candy, the ilrft flate of improvement, and wliiclr rve are afto-
-^V nifhed to find in the neighbourhood of the highly cul¬
tivated fields which furround Columbo. As we advance
towards the centre of the ifland, the country gradually
rifes, and the woods and mountains which feparate the
feveral parts of the country become more fteep and im¬
pervious.
“ It is in the midft of thefe faftnefles that the native
prince ftill preferves thofe remains of territory and
power which have been left him by fucceflive invaders.
H is dominions are now much reduced in fize : for be-
fides the whole of the fea coafls which were of any va¬
lue, the Dutch, in their various attacks during the laid
•century, have contrived to get into their power every
tract from which they could derive either emolument
or fecurity. Thofe provinces which ftill remain to
him, are Nourecalva and Hotcourly towards the north
and north-weft ; while Matuly, comprehending the
diftri£ts of Bintana, Velas, and Panoa, with a few
others, occupy thofe parts more to the eaftward. To
the fouth-eaft lies Ouvvah, a province of fome note, and
giving the king one of his titles. The weftern parts
are chiefly included in the provinces of Cotcmal and
Hotteracorley. Thefe different provinces are fubdi-
vided into corles or diftri<5ts, and entirely belong to
the native prince. It is needlefs to recount the names
of thofe divifions which ftretch towards the fea-coaft,
and are now chiefly in our poffeflion.
“ In the higheft and mold centrical part of the native
king’s dominions lie the corles or counties of Oudanor
and Tatanour, in which are fituated the two principal
cities. Thefe counties take the pre-eminence of all the
reft, and are both better cultivated, and more populous,
than any of the other diftrieds, and are diftinguiihed by
the general name of Conde Uddaj conde or cande in
the native language fignifying a mountain, and udda
the greateft or higheft.
“ This province of Conde Udda is even more inac-
ceflible than the others, and forms as it were a feparate
kingdom of itfelf. On every fide it is furrounded by
lofty mountains covered with wood, and the paths by
which it is entered feem little more than the tracks of
wild heafts. Guards are ftationed all around to pre¬
vent both entrance and efcape 5 for defence they might
feem entirely fuperfluous, did we not recolleft that the
perfeverance of the Dutch overcame all thefe obftacles,
and forced a way into the very centre of this natufal
fortification.”
Candy, a town of Afia, and capital of a kingdom
of the fame name, in the ifland of Ceylon. It has been
often burnt by the Portuguefe, when they were mafters
of thefe coafts. It is fituated in E. Long. 79. 12. N.
Lat. 7. 35.
We have the following defeription of Candy by Mr
Percival, whom we have already quoted, and who at¬
tended an embaffy to the king.
“ In the diftrift of Tatanour lies Candy, the royal
refidence and the capital of the native prince’s domi¬
nions. It is fituated at the diftance of 80 miles from
Columbo, and twice as far from Trincomalee, in the
midft of lofty and fteep hills covered with thick jun¬
gle. The narrow and difficult paffes by which it is
approached are interfered with thick hedges of thorn 5
and hedges of the fame fort are drawn round the hills
in the vicinity of Candy like lines of circumvallation.
Through them the only paffage is by gates of the fame
thorny materials, fo contrived as to be drawn up and
let down by ropes. When the Candians are obliged
to retreat within thefe barriers, they cut the ropes, and
then it is impoffible to force a paffage except by burn¬
ing down the gates, which from their green ftate,
and the conftant annoyance of the enemy ffieltered
behind them, would prove an enterprife of time and
difficulty. Thefe hedge-rows form the chief fortifica¬
tions of Candy. The Malivagonga alfo nearly fur-
rounds the hill on which it Hands : that river is here
broad, rocky, and rapid 5 a very ftrift guard is kept
on it, and every one who paffes or repaffes is clofely
watched and examined.
“ The city itfelf is a poor miferable-looking place,
furrounded by a mud wall of no ftrength wffiatever.
It has been fcveral times burnt by Europeans, and
was once deferted by the king, who retired to a more
inacceffible part of his dominions. It is upon occalion
of the embaffy of General Macdowal, that any infor¬
mation concerning the prefent ftate of Candy has been
obtained } and even then it could be little more than
gueffed at, as the ambaffador and his fuite -were ad¬
mitted only by torch-light, and always retired before
break of day. From what could then be obferved,
the city confifts of a long ftraggling ftreet built on
the declivity of a hill $ the houfes mean and lowq but
with their foundations raifed in fuch a manner above
the level of the ftreet that they appear quite lofty to
paffengers. The reafon of this extraordinary tafte is
to enable the king to hold his affcmblies of the people
and to have his elephant and buffalo fights in the
ftreet, without interfering with the houfes. When
the king paffes along the ftreet, none of the inha¬
bitants are allowed to appear before their houfes,
or the paths on a level with them, as that would
be attended with the heinous indecorum of placing
a fubjeff higher than the prince defeended of the
fun.
“ At the upper end of this ftreet, ftands the palace,
a poor manfion for the abode of a king. It is fur¬
rounded with high ftone walls, and confifts of two
fquares, one within the other. In the inner of thefe
are the royal apartments,. and it is there that the court
is held and audiences given. The exterior of the pa¬
lace and the heft of the city could be but very par¬
tially obferved by thofe who attended General Mac¬
dowal, owing to the preffure of the crowd, and the
dazzling glare of the torches. By every account in¬
deed which I have heard, Candy contains nothing
worthy of notice, and from the want of either wealth
or induftry among the inhabitants, it is not indeed
to be expedited that any thing could be met with in
this ftraggling village to attract the attention of the
traveller.”
Candy, or Sugar-Candy, a preparation of fugar made
by melting and cryftallizing it fix or feven times over,
to render it hard or tranfparent. It is of three kinds,
•white, yellow, and red. The white comes from the
loaf-fugar, the yellow from the caffonado, and the red
from the mufeovado.
CANDYING, the aft of preferving fimples in
fubftance, by boiling them in fugar. The perfor-
R 2 mance
Gandy,
Candying.
CAN
r 132 i
CAN
Candying
(!
Canea.
matice of this originally belonged to the apothecaries,
but is now become a part of the bufinefs of the con¬
fectioner.
CANE. See Arundo and Calamus, .Botany
Index.
Cane, denotes alfo a walking flick. It is cunomary
to adorn it with a head of gold, filver, agate, &c.
Some are without knots, and very fmooth and even j
others are full of knots about two inches diftance from
one another. Thefe laft have very little elafticity, and
will not bend fo well as the others.
Canes of Bengal are the moft beautiful which the
Europeans bring into Europe. Some of them are fo
fine, that people work them into bowls or veffels, which
being varnifhed over in the infide, with black or yel¬
low lacca, will hold liquors as well as glafs or China
ware does j and the Indians ufe them for that pur-
CANE is alfo the name of a long meafure, which dif¬
fers according to the feveral countries where it is ufed.
At Naples the cane is equal to 7 feet 3^ inches Eng-
lith meafwre : the cane of Thouloufe and the Upper
Languedoc, is equal to the varre of Arragon, and
contains five feet 84 inches j at Montpellier Provence
Dauphiny, and the Lower Languedoc, to fix Englifh
feet inches. j r r
CANEA, a confiderable town of the ifland ot Uan-
dia where a bafliaw refides. It was built by the Ve¬
netians, and occupies part of the _ file of the ancient
Cydonia. It is but about two miles in compals ; en¬
circled on the land fide with a fingle wall, extremely
and defended by a broad and deep ditch, cut
Melee, and all the {hips that are entering in or paf-
fino- out. The harbour, at prefent, receives mips ot
200 tons burden} and it might be enlarged fo as to
admit the largeft frigates. Its mouth is expofed to the
violence of the north winds, which fometimes {well the
billows above the ramparts. But, as it is narrow, and
the bottom is good, {hips that are well moored run no
danger. At the time when Tournefort vihted Crete,
Canea did not contain more than five or fix thoufand
inhabitants. But, at prefent, when the gates of Gira-
Petra, Candi, and Retimo, are choaked up, the mer¬
chants have retired to Canea j and it is reckoned to
contain 16,000 fouls. T he environs of the town are ad¬
mirable : being adorned with forefts of olive-trees mix¬
ed with fields, vineyards, gardens, and brooks border¬
ed with myrtle-trees and laurel-rofes. The chief re¬
venue of this town confifts in oil-olive. E. Long. 24.
15. N.Lat. 35. 28.
CANELLA. See Botany Index. .
CANELLE, or Cane Land, a large country in the
ifland of Ceylon, called formerly the kingdom of Cota.
It contains a great number of cantons, the principal of
which are occupied by the Dutch. The chief riches of
this country confift in cinnamon, of which there are
large forefts. There are five towns on the coaft, iome
forts, and a great number of harbours. The reft ot
the country is inhabited by the natives; and there are
feveral rich mines, from whence they get rubies, lap-
phires, topazes, cats eyes, and feveral other precious
{tones. . . . • • t,
CANEPHORiE, in Grecian antiquity, virgins who
when they became marriageable, prefented certain baf-
kets full of little curiofities to Diana, m order to get
Canea
II
Canes.
command a wider extent of the adjacent plam. ihe "7 ”f0V^e eve of t’heir marriage-day. At
city has only one gate, the gate of Ketimo proteaed man g cane„horia confifted in this, that the maid,
by a half-moon battery winch .s the only exterror fort f*6™ her father and mother, went to the tern-
The fide which faces the fea is the belt fortified. On c“n“uf“?n^v“rcarr with her a balket full of pre.
the left of the harbour are four batter,esrifing one above C,he Sefs to make the marriage-
another, and planted with a number of large cannons fonts to g g g fchoUaft of Theocritus has it,
of caft metal marked with the arms of Venice, ihe itate happy , or, as ^ i, 
_ • n t 1 P.    4-1, 1 vs \r
firft of thefe’batteries Hands clofe on the br ink of the
fea. The right fide of the harbour is defended only
by'a ftrong wall, extending along a chain oi pointed
rocks which it is dangerous for {hips to aPPr^ch- ^
the extremity of this wall, there is an old cattle, fa _ g
into ruins. Beneath that caftle the Venetians had im-
menfe arfenals, vaulted with ftone. Each of thefe
vaults was of futficient length, breadth, and height, to
ferve as a work-ftiop for building a ftnp of the line.
The ground is Hoping, and the outermoft part of thefe
capacious arfenals is on a level with the fea , fo th t t
waPs very eafy to launch the {hips built there into the
water. The Turks are fuffering that magnificent work
to fall into ruins. r i nrVio
The city of Canea is laid out on a fine plan. 1 he
ftreets are large and ftraight *, and the fquares adorned
with fountains. There are no remarkable buildings
in it Moft of the houfes are flat-roofed, and have on¬
ly one ftory. Thefe contiguous to the harbour are
adorned with galleries, from which you enjoy a de-
liehtful profpeft. From the windows you difeover
♦he large bay formed between Cape Spada and Cape
the balket was intended as a kind of honourable
amends made to that goddefs, the protearix of virgi¬
nity, for abandoning her party ; or as a ceremony to
appeafe her wrath. Suidas calls it a feftival in honour
of Diana. r n* i • e
CanepHORIA is alfo the name of a feruval in ho¬
nour of Bacchus, celebrated particularly by the Athe¬
nians, on which the young maids carried golden bai-
kets full of fruit, which balkets were covered, to con¬
ceal the myftery from the uninitiated.
CANES, in Egypt and other eaftern countries, a
poor fort of buildings for the reception of ft rangers and
travellers. People are accommodated in thefe with a
room at a fmall price, but with no other neceffaries j
fo that, excepting the room, there are no greater ac¬
commodations in thefe houfes than in the deferts, cmy
that there is a market near.
CANFS Venatici, in Afronomy, the Greyhounds, two
new conftellations, firft eftabliftied by Hevelius, between
the tail of the Great Bear and Bootes’s arms, above
the Coma Berenices. The firft is called ajlenon,
ing that next the Bear’s tail j the other char a. ihey
° comprehend
CAN T 133 ] CAN
Canes comprehend 23 ftars, of which Tycho only obferv-
>j . ed two. The longitudes and latitudes of each are
.Caiuus-j- given by Hevelius. In the Britifh Catalogue they
are 25.
CANETO, a ftrong town of Italy in the duchy
of Mantua, feated on the river Oglio, which was
taken by the Imperialilfs in 1701, by the French in
1702, afterwards by the Imperialifts, and then by
the French in 1705. E. Long. 10. 45. N. Lat. 4c.
55-
GANG A, in the Chinefe affairs, a wooden clog
borne on the neck, by way of puniihment for divers
offences. The canga is compofed of two pieces of
wood notched, to receive the criminal’s neck j the load
lies on his ihoulders, and is more or lefs heavy accord¬
ing to the quality of his offence. Some cangas weigh
20olb. 5 the generality from 50 to 60. The manda¬
rins condemn to the punifhment of the canga. Sen¬
tence of death is fometimes changed for this kind of
puniihment.
CANGE, Charles du Fresne, Sieur du, one of
the moil learned writers of his time, was born at A-
miens in 1601, and ftudied at the Jefuits college in
that city. Afterwards he applied himfelf to the iiudy
of the law at Orleans, and gained great reputation by
his works ; among which are, 1. The hiftory of the
empire of Conftantinople under the French emperors.
2. John Cinnamus’s fix books of the hiftory of the af¬
fairs of John and Manuel Comnenus, in Greek and La¬
tin, with hiftorical and philological notes. 3. G/oJJa-
num ad Scn’ptores me dice et injimce Latinitatis.
CANGI, Ceangi, or Cangani, anciently a people
of Britain, concerning whofe fituations antiquaries have
been much perplexed. They are all the fame people.
Camden difcovered fome traces of them in many dif¬
ferent and diftant places, as in Somerfetfhire, Wales,
Derbyfhire, and Chefhire ; and he might have found
as plain veftiges of them in Devonfhire, Dorfetfhire,
Effex, Wiltfhire, &c. Mr Horfley and others are no
lefs perplexed and undetermined in their opinions on
this fubjeft. But Mr Baxter feems to have difcovered
the true caufe of all this perplexity, by obferving that
the Cangi or Ceangi were not a diftinft nation feated
in one particular place, but fuch of the youth of many
different nations as were employed in pafturage, in
feeding the flocks and herds of their refpecftive tribes.
Almoft all the ancient nations of Britain had their
ceangi, their paftoritia pubes, the keepers of their flocks
and herds, who ranged about the country in great num¬
bers, as they were invited by the feafon and plenty of
pafture for their cattle. This is the reafon that vefti¬
ges of their name are to be found in fo many different
parts of Britain ; but chiefly in thofe parts which are
moft fit for pafturage. Thefe ceangi of the different
Britifh nations, naturally brave, and rendered ftill more
hardy by their way of life, were conftantly armed for
the proteflion of their flocks from wild beafts ; and
thefe arms they occafionally employed in the defence
of their country and their liberty.
CANGIAGIO, or Cambiasi Ludovico, one of
the moft eminent of the Genoefe painters, Avas born
in 1527. His AATorks at Genoa are very numerous j
and he was employed by the king of Spain to adorn
part of the Efcurial. It is remarked of him, that he
Ayas not only a moft: expeditious and rapid painter,
but alfo that he worked equally well with both hands j Gangisgia
and by that unufual power he executed more defigns, II.
and finifhed more grand works with his own pencils, jvjadndk
in a much fhorter time, than moft other artifts could y ‘ '
do with feveral afliftants. He died in 1585.
In the royal colle&ion at Paris there is a Sleeping
Cupid, as large as life, and likewife Judith Avith her
attendant, Avhich are painted by Cangiagio, and are an
honour to that mafter. And in the Pembroke collec¬
tion at Wilton is a picture, reputed the Avork of Can¬
giagio, reprefenting Chrift bearing his crofs.
CANICULA, is a name proper to one of the ftars
of the conftellation canis major, called alfo Amply the
dogjiar; by the Greeks 2s<^o?, dinus. Canicula is
the tenth in order in the Britannic catalogue ; in
Tycho’s and Ptolemy’s it is the fecond. It is fituated.
in the mouth of the conftellation ; and is of the firfl
magnitude, being the largeft and brighteft of all the
ftars in the heaArens. From the riling of this ftar not
cofmically, or Avitli the fun, but heliacally, that is, its
emerfion from the fun’s rays, which now happens about
the 15th day of Auguft, the ancients reckoned their
dies caniculares, or dog days. The Egyptians and E-
thiopians began their year at the rifing of the Canicula,
reckoning to its rife again the next year, which is
called the annus canarius, or canicular year. This year
confided ordinarily of 365 days, and every fourth year
of 366, by Avhich it was accommodated to the civil
year. The reafon of their choice of the Canicula be¬
fore the other ftars to compute their time by, Avas not
only the fuperior brightnefs of that ftar, but becaufe
its heliacal rifing Avas in Egypt a time of lingular note,
as falling on the greateft augmentation of the Nile,
the reputed father of Egypt. Epheftion adds, that,
from the afpeft and colour of Canicula, the Egyptians
drew prognoftics concerning the rife of the Nile j and,
according to Florus, predicted the future ftate of the
year; fo that the firft rifing of this ftar Avas annually
obferved with great attention.
CANICULUM, or Caniculus, in the Byzantine
antiquities, a golden ftandifh or ink veffel, decorated
with precious ftones, wherein Avas kept the facred en~
caujlum, or red ink, whereAvith the emperors figned their
decrees, letters, &c. The Avord is by fome derived
from canis, or caniculus ; alluding to the figure of a dog
Avhich it reprefented, or rather becaufe it Avas fupported
by the figures of dogs. The caniculum Avas under the
care of a particular officer of ftate.
CANINA, the north part of the ancient Epirus, a
province of Greece, which now belongs to the Turks,
and lies off the entrance of the gulf of Venice. The
principal town is of the fame name, and is feated on the
fea coaft, at the foot of tire mountains of Chimera.
E. Long. 19. 25. N. Lat. 40. 55.
CANINANA, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of
ferpent found in America, and efteemed one of the lefs
poifonous kinds. It groAvs to about tAvo feet long 5 and
is green on the back, and yellow on the belly. It feeds
on eggs and fmall birds ; the natives cut off the head
and tail, and eat the body as a delicate diflr.
CANINE, whatever partakes of, or has any rela¬
tion to, the nature of a dog.
CANINE Appetite, amounts to much the fame with
Bulimy.
CANINE Madnefs, See Medicine Index.
Canine
Canine
Teeth
II .
•Cannabis,
CAN [13+
CANINE Teeth, are two (harp-edged teeth in each
CAN
jaw ; one on each (ide, placed between the incifores and
molares.
, CANINI, John Angelo and Marc Anthony,
brothers and Romans, celebrated for their love of an¬
tiquities. John excelled in defigns for engraving on
Rones, particularly heads-, Marc engraved them. They
were encouraged by Colbert to publifh a fuccefllon of
heads of the heroes and great men of antiquity, de-
flgned from medals, antique Rones, and other ancient
remains but John died at Rome foon after the voik
was begun: Marc Anthony, however, procured al-
fiftance, finidied and publiflted it in Italian in 1669.
The cuts of this edition were engraved by Canini, Pi¬
card, and Valet; and a curious explanation is given,
which difeovers the (Jcill of the Caninis in hiRory and
mythology. The French edition of Amflerdam, in
1731, is fjturious.
CANIS, or Dog. See Mammalia Index.
CANTS Major, the Great Dog, in AJlronomy, a con-
Rellation of the fouthern hemifphere, below Orion’s
feet, though fomewhat to the weRward of him j
whole flars Ptolemy makes 29 ; Tycho obferved only
13 5 Hevelius 21 ; in the Britannic catalogue they are
31.
■Cants Minor, the Little Dog, in AJlronomy, a con-
Rellation of the northern hemifphere -, called alfo by
the Greeks, Trocyon, and by the Latins Antecani^ and
Canicula. The Rars in the conRellation Canis Minor,
are in Ptolemy’s catalogue, 2; in Tycho’s, 5 ; in He-
velius’s, 13 i arid io the Britifli catalogue, 14.
CANISIUS, Henry, a native of Nimeguen, and
one of the mofl learned men of his time, was profeffor
of canon law at Ingoldfladt-, and wrote a great number
of books-, the principal of which are, 1. Snrnma juris
Canonici. 2. Antiques Le&iones, a very valuable work.
He died in 1609.
CANITZ, the baron of, a German poet and
Ratefman, was of an ancient and illuftrious family in
Brandenburg, and born at Berlin in 1654, five months
after his father’s death. After his early Rudies, he
travelled to France, Italy, Holland, and England-, rfnd
upon his return to his country^ was charged with im¬
portant negotiations by Frederic II. Frederic III.
employed him alfo. Canitz united the Ratefman with
the poet -, and was converfant in many languages, dead
as well as living. His German poems were publifhed
for the tenth time, 1750, in 8vo. He is faid to have
taken Horace for his model, and to have written pure¬
ly and delicately. But he did not content himfelfwith
barely cultivating the fine arts in himfelf; he gave
all the encouragement he could to them in others.
He died at Berlin, in 1699, privy counfellor of Rate,
aged 4?. ,.
CANKER, a difeafe incident to trees, proceeding
chiefly from the nature of the foil. It makes the bark
rot and fall. If the canker be in a bough, cut it off;
in a large bough, at fome diRance from the Rem ; in a
fmall one, clofe to it: but for over hot ftrong. ground,
the ground is to be cooled about the roots with pond
mud and cow dung.
Canker, among farriers. See Farriery Index.
GANNA, Indian reed. See Botany Index.
CANNABIS, Hemp. See Botany Index.
From the leaves, of hemp pounded and boiled in
2
water, the natives of the EaR Indies prepare an in¬
toxicating liquor of which they are very tond. I he ^
plant, when frefh, has a rank narcotic fmell ; the wa¬
ter in which the (talks are foaked, in order to feparate
the tough rind for mechanic ufes, is faid to be violent¬
ly poifonous, and to produce its effects almoR as foon
as drank. The feeds alfo have fome fmell of the herb,
and their taRe is un&uous and fweetifli: they ara
recommended, boiled in milk, or triturated with wa¬
ter into an emulfion, againR coughs, heat of urine, and
the like. They are alfo faid to be ufeful in inconti¬
nence of urine, and for reflraining venereal appetites ,
but experience does not warrant their having any vir¬
tues of that kind.
CANNAE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apulia
on the Adriatic, at the mouth of the river Aufidus,
rendered famous by a terrible overthrow which the
Romans here received from the Carthaginians undci
Hannibal. The Roman confuls, iEmilius Paulus and
Terentius Varro, being authorized by the fenate to
quit the defenfive plan, and flake the fortunes of the
republic on the chance of a battle, marched from Ca-
nufium, and encamped a few miles eafl, in two unequal
divifions, with the Aufidus between them. . In this po-
(ition they meant to wait for an opportunity of enga¬
ging to advantage j but Hannibal, whofe critical fitu-
ation in a defolated country, without refuge or allies,
could admit of no delay, found means to inflame the
vanity of V arro by iome trivial advantages in (kirmilh-
es between the light horle. I he Roman elated with
this fuccefs, determined to bring matters to a fpeedy
conclufion ; but, finding the ground on the fouth fide
too confined for the operations of fo large an army,
croffed the river 5 and Varro, refling his right wing
upon the Aufidus, drew out his forces in the plain.
Hannibal, whofe head-quarters were at Cannae, no
fooner perceived the enemy in motion, than he forded
the water below, and marihallcd his troops in a line
oppofite to that of his adverfaries.
The Romans were vaflly fuperior in number to the
Carthaginians -, but the latter were fuperior in cavalry.
The army of the former, confiRing of 87,000. men,
was drawn up in the ufual manner -, the hajlati in the
firfl line, the principes in the fecond, and the triarn in
the third. The cavalry were pofled on the wings.-—
On the right, the Roman knights flanked , the legio¬
naries 5 on the left, the cavalry of the allies covered
their own infantry. The two confuls commanded the
two wings, AEmilius the right, and Terentius the left 5
and the two proconfuls, Servilius and Attilius, the main
body. On the other hand, Hannibal, whofe army
confiRed of 40,000 foot and .10,000 horfe, placed his
Gaulilh and Spaniffi cavalry in his left wing, to face
the Roman knights ; and the Numidian .horfe in his
right, over-againft the cavalry of the allies of Rome.
As to his infantry, he divided the African battalions
into two bodies ", one of w hich he pofled near the Gaul-
ifli and Spanifli horfe, the other near the Numidian,
Between thefe twro bodies ivere placed on one fide the
Gaulifh, on the other the Spaniih infantry, drawn.up
in fuch a manner as to form an obtufe angle, projecting
a confiderable way beyond the two wings. Behind
this line he drew- ux a fecond which had no projec¬
tion. Afdrubal commanded the left wing j Maherbal
the right and Hannibal himfelf, with his brother
6 Mago,
Cannabi*,
Cannae.
CAN [ 135 ] CAN
Cannse- Mago, the main body. He had alfo taken care to port
—"V"—-' himfelf in fuch a manner, that the -wind Vulturnus,
which riles at certain ftated times, fhould blow direftly
in the faces of the Romans during the fight, and cover
them with dull. The onfet was begun by the light¬
armed infantry *, the Romans difcharging their jave¬
lins, and the baleares their ftones, with pretty equal
fuceefs; neverthelefs, the conful -^Emilius was wounded.
—Then the Roman cavalry in the right wing ad¬
vanced againrt the Gaulilh and Spanifh in Hannibal’s
left. As they were fhut in by the river Aufidus on
one fide, and by their infantry on the other, they did
not fight, as ufual, by charging and wheeling off, and
then returning to the charge ; but continued fighting
each man againft his adverfary, till one of them was
killed or retired. After they had made prodigious
efforts on both fides to overbear each other, they all
on a fudden difmounted, and fought on foot with
great fury. In this attack the Gauls and Spaniards
foon prevailed; put the Romans to the route; and, pur-
fuing them along the river, ftrewed the ground with
their dead bodies, Afdrubal giving no quarter. This
aftion was fearce over, when the infantry on both fides
advanced. The Romans firft fell upon the Spaniards
and Gauls, who, as already obferved, formed a kind of
triangle proje£ting beyond the two wings. Thefe
gave ground, and, purfuant to Hannibal’s directions,
lunk into the void fpace in their rear, by which means
they infenfibly brought the Romans into the centre of
the African infantry ; and then the fugitives rallying,
attacked them in front, while the Africans charged
them in both flanks. The Romans being, by this art¬
ful retreat, drawn into the fnare and furrounded, no
longer kept their ranks, but formed feveral platoons
in order to face every way. ^Emilius, who was on the
right wing, feeing the danger of the main body, at the
head of his legionaries acted the part both of a foldier
and general, penetrating into the heart of the enemy’s
battalions, and cutting great numbers of them in pieces.
All the Roman cavalry that were left, attended the
brave conful on foot j and, encouraged by his example,
fought like men in defpair. But, in the mean time,
Afdrubal, at the head of a detachment of Gaulilh and
Spanilh infantry brought from the centre, attacked
iEmilius’s legionaries with fuch fury, that they were
forced to give ground and fly : the conful, being all
covered with wounds, was at lafl: killed by fome of the
enemy who did not know him. In the main body,
the Romans, though invefted on all fides, continued to
fell their lives dear ■, fighting in platoons, and making
a great flaughter of the enemy. But being at length
overpowered, and dilheartened by the death of the two
proconfuls, Servilius and Attilius, who headed them,
they ditperfed and fled, fome to the right, and others to
the left, as they could find opportunity ; but the Nu-
midian horfe cut moll of them in pieces : the whole
plain was covered with heaps of dead bodies, infomuch
that Hannibal himfelf, thinking the butchery too ter¬
rible, ordered his men to put a flop to it.—There is
a great difagreement among authors as to the number
of Romans killed and taken at the battle of Cannae.
According to Livy, the republic loll 50,000 men, in¬
cluding the auxiliaries. According to Polybius, of
6000 Roman horfe, only 70 efcaped to Venufia with
Terentius Varro, and 300 of the auxiliary horfe. As
to the infantry, that writer tells us, that 70,000 cf the Canr.*
Roman foot died on the field of battle fighting like , !l
brave men j and that 13,000 were made prifoners. , Car'nor'
According to Dionyfius of Haliearnaffus, of 6oco
horfe, only 370 efcaped the general flaughter, and of
80,000 foot, 3000 only were left. The moll moderate
computation makes the number of Romans killed to
amount to 45,000. The feene of a£Hon is marked
out to pollerity, by the name of Pezxo di Saneue.
“ Field of Blood.’’
Thefe plains have more than once, fince the Punic
war, afforded room for men to accomplilh their mutual
deltruAion. Melo of Bari, after railing the llandard
of revolt again!! the Greek emperors, and defeating
their generals in feveral engagements, was at lall rout¬
ed here in 1019, by the Catapan Bolanus. Out of
250 Norman adventurers, the flower of Melo’s army,
only ten efcaped the llaughter of that day. In 1201,
the archbilhop of Palermo and his rebellious affociates,
who had taken advantage of the nonage of Frederick
of Swabia, were cut to pieces at Cannae by Walter de
Brienne, fent by the Pope to defend the young king’s
dominions.
The traces of the town of Cannae are very faint,
confining of fragments of altars, cornices, gates, walls,
vaults, and under-ground granaries. It was deltroyed
the year before the battle : but, being rebuilt, became
an epifcopal fee in the infancy of Chriftianity. It was
again ruined in the fixth century, but feems to have
fubfilted in a humble Hate many ages later j for we
read of its contending with Barletta for the territory
which till then had been enjoyed in common by them j
and in 1284, Charles I. iffued an edi<ff for divid- *■
ing the lands, to prevent all future litigation. The
profperity of the towns along the coall, which increaf-
ed in wealth and population by embarkations of the
crufades and by traffic, proved the annihilation of the
great inland cities ; and Cannm was probably aban¬
doned entirely before the end of the thirteenth cen¬
tury.
CANNEQUINS, in commerce, white cotton cloths
brought from the Ealt Indies. They are a proper
commodity for trading on the coall of Guinea, parti¬
cularly about the rivers Senegal and Gambia. Thefe
linens are folded fquare-wife, and are about eight ells
long.
CANNEL coal. See Mineralogy Index.
CANNES, a town of France, in Provence, and in
the viguerie of Graffe, feated on the coall of the Me¬
diterranean fea, with a harbour and a callle. E. Long.
7. 7. N. Lat. 43. 34.
CANNIBAL, a modem term for an anthropo-
phagus or man-eater, more efpeeially in the Well In¬
dies. See Anthropophagi.
CANNON, a military engine for throwing balls,,
&c. by the help of Gunpowder.
The invention of brafs cannon is by Laney aferibed
to J. Owen : he fays, that they were firft known in
England in the year 1535 ; but yet acknowledges,
that, in 1346, there were four pieces of cannon in the
Englifh army at the battle of Creffy, and that thefe
were the firlt that were known in France. And Me-
zeray relates, that King Edward, by five or fix pieces
of cannon, ilruck terror into the French army, it be¬
ing the firil time they had feen any of thefe thunder-
Gaanon
II
Cano.
CAN [ 136 T
Ing machines •, though others affirm^ that cannon were
known alfo in France at the fame time j but that the
| French king, in his hurry to attack the Engliih, and
in confidence of viftory, left all his cannon behind him
as ufelefs encumbrances (fee Artillery). I he .Ger¬
mans carry the invention farther back, and attribute
it to Albertus Magnus, a Dominican monk, about the
year I 250. Voflius rejects all thefe opinions, and finds
cannon 'in China almoft 1700 years ago. According
to him, they were invented by the emperor Kitey in
the year of Chrift 8^. bor further particulars of their
hiftory, &c. fee Gun and Gunnery.
For the catting of cannon, fee FounderY. For
their different parts, proportions, management, ope¬
ration, and effeitt, fee Gunnery.
Cannon, with letter-founders and printers, the
name of the largeft fize of letters they ufe.
CANNONADE, the application of artillery to
the purpofes of war, or the direction of its. efiorts
againtt fome diftant objeft intended to be feized or
deftroyed, as a Ihip, battery, or fortrefs. See Gun-
NERY.
Since a large {hip of war may be confidered as a
combination of floating batteries, it is evident that the
efforts of her artillery mutt be greatly fuperior.to thofe
of a fortrefs on the fen coaft 5 that is to fay, in gene¬
ral ; becaufe, on fome particular occafions, her fit.ua-
tion mav be extremely dangerous, and her cannonading
ineffedual. Her fuperiority confifts in fe.veral circum-
ftances, as the power of bringing her different batte¬
ries to converge to one point ; of Ihifting the Ime. 01
her attack fo as to do the greateft poffible execution
againft the enemy, or to lie where Ihe will be the leatt
expofed to his (hot; and chiefly becaufe, by employ¬
ing a much greater number of cannon againft a fort
than it can poflibly return, the impreffion of her artil¬
lery againtt ftone walls foon becomes decifive and irre-
fiftible. Befides thefe advantages in the attack, ftie is
alfo greatly fuperior in point of defence j becaufe the
cannon (hot, patting with rapidity through her .fides
feldom do any execution out of the line of their flight,
or occafion much mifchief by their {plinters ; whereas
they very foon (hatter and deftroy the faces of a para¬
pet and produce incredible havock among the men by
the’fragments of the (tones, &c. A (hip may alfo re¬
treat when (lie finds it too dangerous to remain longer
expofed to the enemy’s fire, or when her own fire can¬
not produce the defired effea. Finally , The fluctuating
fituation of a drip, and of the element on which (he
reds renders the effeas of bombs very uncertain, and
altogether deftroys the effea of the ricochet, or rolling
and bounding (hot, which is fo pernicious and de-
ftruaive in a fortrefs or land engagement. J he chief
inconveniency to which a (hip is expofed, on the con¬
trary is, that the low-laid cannon in a fort near the
brink of the fea, may (trike her repeatedly on or under
- /• r* f 1  /* . -ft-r-.l’- Vw=»r V'w-iTnr P n P f*
CAN
the furface of the water, fo as to fink her before her
cannonade can have any confiderable efficacy.
CANO, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland, with
a town of the fame name. It is bounded by Zaara on
the north, by the river Niger on the fouth, the king¬
dom of Agades on the weft, and that of Caflina on the
eaft. Some of the inhabitants are herdfmen, and o-
thers till the ground and dwell in villages. It produces
.com, rice, and cotton. Here are alfo many deferts,
1
and mountains covered with woods, in which are wild
citrons and lemon trees. The walls and houfes of
the town are made of clay, and the principal inha¬
bitants are merchants. E. Long. 16. 18. N. Lat.
21.
CANOBIA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of Mi¬
lan, feated on the weftern bank of Lago Maggiore,
or the Greater Lake. E. Long. 8. 47* N. Lat. 45.
"CANOE, a fort of Indian boat or veffel, formed of
the trunk of a tree hollowTed, anu fometimes of feverai
pieces of the bark put together.
Canoes are of various fixes, according to the ules
for which they may be defigned, or the countries
wherein they are formed. Ihe largeft are mace of the
cotton tree j fome of them will carry between 20 and
30 hoglheads of fugar or molailes. Some are made to
carry fail : and for this purpofe are deeped m water
till they become pliant 5 after which their (ides are ex¬
tended, and ftrong beams placed between them, on
■which a deck is afterwards laid that ferves to mpport
their fides. The other forts very rarely carry fad, un-
lefs when going before the wind : their (ails are made
of a fort of (hort filk grafs or nifties. They are com¬
monly rowed with paddles, which are pieces of light
wood fomewhat refembling a corn (hovel j and, mitead
of rowing with it horizontally like an oar, they ma¬
nage it perpendicularly. The (mall canoes are very
narrow, having only room for one perfon in breadth,
and feven or eight length wife. The rowers,, who are
generally American favages, are very expert m mana¬
ging their paddles uniformly, and in balancing the ca¬
noes with their bodies •, which would be difficult for a
ftranger to do, how well accuftomed foever to the con-
dufting of European boats, becaufe the canoes are ex¬
tremely light, and liable to be overturned. The Ame¬
rican Indians, when they are under the neceffity of
landing to avoid a water-fall, or of crofting the land
from one river to another, carry their canoes on their
heads, till they arrive at a place where they can
launch them again. This is the.general conftruftion
of canoes, and method of managing them : but (ome
nations have veffels going under the name of ca¬
noes, which differ confiderable from the above *, , as
the inhabitants of Greenland, Hudfon’s bay, Otaheite,
CANON, a perfon who poffeffes a prebend, or.re¬
venue allotted, for the performance of divine (ervice,
in a cathedral, or collegiate church.
Canons are of no great antiquity : Pafchier obferves,
that the name canon was not known before Charle¬
magne : at lead the firft we hear of are in. Gregory dft
Tours, w ho mentions a college of canons, mftituted by
Baldwin XVI. archbiftiop of that.city, m the time ot
Clotharius I. The common opinion attributes the
inftitution of this order to Chrodegangus, biftiop ot
Metz about the middle of the eighth century. .
Originally canons were only priefts, or inferior ec-
clefiaftics, who lived in community *, refiding by the
cathedral church, to affift the biftiop j depending en¬
tirely on his will 5 fupported by the revenues of the
bithopric j and living in the fame houfe, as his dome-
ftics, or counfellors, &c. They even inherited his
moveables, till the year 817, when this was prohibited
by the council of Aix-la-Chapelle, and a new
Cano
Canon.
Canons.
CAN [ 137 ] CAN
ftituted in the place of that which had been appointed
by Chrodegangus, and which was obferved for the
moil part in the weft till the 12th century. By de¬
grees, thefe communities of priefts, (baking off their
dependence, formed feparate bodies j whereof the bi-
(hops, however, were (till heads. In the tenth cen¬
tury, there were communities or congregations of the
fame kind, eftabliftied even in cities where there were
no biftiops : thefe were called collegiates, as they ufed
the terms congregation and college indifferently : the
name chapter, now given to thefe bodies, being much
more modern. Under the feeond race of the French
kings, the canonical or collegiate life had fpread it-
felf all over the country j and each cathedral had its
chapter, diftinft from the reft of the clergy. They
had the name canon from the Greek x.*veov, which (ig-
niiies three different things j a rule, a penfion or fixed
revenue to live on, and a catalogue or matricula ; all
which are applicable to them.
In time, the canons freed themfelves from their
rules, the obfervance relaxed, and, at length, they
ceafed to live in community : yet they (till formed bo¬
dies ■, pretending to other functions befides the cele¬
bration of the common, office in the church *, yet af¬
firming the rights of the reft of the clergy : making
themfelves as a neceffary council of the biihop; taking
upon them the adminiftration of a fee during a vacan-
oy, and the eledion of a biftrop to fupply it. There
are even fome chapters exempt from the jurifdidion of
the bifhop, and owning no head but their dean. Af¬
ter the example of cathedral chapters, collegiate ones
alfo continued to form bodies, after they had abandon¬
ed living in community.
Canons are of various kinds •, as,
Cardinal Canons, which are thofe attached, and, as
the Latins call it, mcardinatiy to a church, as a prieft
is to a parilh.
Domicellary Canons, wrere young canons, who, not
being in orders, had no right in any particular chap¬
ters.
Expe&ahve Canons, were fuch as, without having
any revenue or prebend, had the title and dignities of
canons, a voice in the chapter, and a place in the
choir j till fuch time as a prebend (hould fall.
Foreign Canons, Wrere fuch as did not officiate in the
eanonries to which they belonged. To thefe were op-
pofed manfionary canons, or canons refidentiary.
Lay or honorary Canons, are fuch among the laity
as have been admitted, out of honour and refpedt, in¬
to fome chapter of canons.
Regular Canons, are canons that ftill live in com¬
munity ; and who, like religious, have, in procefs of
time, to the practice of their rules, added the folemn
profeflion of vows. They are called regulars, to dif-
tinguifh them from thofe fecular canons who abandon
living in community, and at the fame time the ob¬
fervance of the canons made as the rule of the clergy,
for the maintenance of the ancient difeipline. The
canons fubfiffed in their fimplicity till the eleventh,
fome fay the twelfth century, when fome of them, fe-
parating from the community, took with them the
name of canons, or acephalous priefts, becaufe they
declined to live in community with the Id (hop ; and
thofe who were left thenceforth acquired the denomi¬
nation of canons regular, and adopted molt of the pro-
VdL. V. Part I.
feflions of the rule of St Auguftine. This order of re- Canons,
gular canons of St Auguftine was brought into Eng- v
land by Adelwald, eonfeffor to Henry I. who erected
a priory at Noftel in Yorkfhire j and obtained for
them the church of Carlifle as an epifcopal fee, with
the privilege of choofing their own biihop. They were
Angularly protected and encouraged by Henry I. who
gave, them the priory of Dunitable in 1x07, and by
Queen Maud, who, in the following year, gave them
the priory of the Holy Trinity in London. It appears,
that under the reign of Edward I. they had fifty-three
priories.
Tertiary CANONS, thofe who had only the third part
of the revenues of the canonicate.
Canon, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, is a law or rule,
either of dottrine or difeipline, enabled efpecially by a
council, and confirmed by the authority of the fove-
reign.
Canons are properly decifions of matters of religion j
or regulations of the policy and difeipline of a church,
made by councils, either general, national, or provin¬
cial. Such are the canons of the council of Nice, or
Trent, &c.
There have been various collections of the canons
of the eaftern councils 5 but four principal ones, each
ampler than the preceding. The firft, according to
Uftier, A. D. 380, containing only thofe of the firft
ecumenical council, and the firft provincial ones: they
v'ere but 164 in number. To thefe, Dionyfius Exi-
guus, in the year 52c, added the 50 canons of the
apoftles, and thofe of the other general councils. The
Greek canons in this fecond collection end w ith thofe
of the council of Chalcedon j to which are fubjoined
thofe of the council of Sardica, and the African coun¬
cils. The fourth and laft collection comes down as
low as the fecond council of Nice j and it is on this
that Balfamon and Zonaras have commented.
Apojlolical CANONS, are thofe which have been ufu-
ally aferibed to St Clement. Bellarmin, Baronius, &c.
will have them to be genuine canons of the apoftles :
Catelerius obferves, that they cannot be aferibed to the
apoftles or Clement, becaufe they are not received with
other books of Scripture, are not quoted by the writ¬
ers of the firft ages, and contain many things not a-
greeable to the apoftolical times : Hincmar, De M ar¬
ea, Beveridge, &c. take them to be framed by the
bifhops who were the apoftles difciples in the fecond
or third century; S. Bafnage is of opinion that they
were collected by an anonymous writer in the fifth
century j but Daille, &c. maintain them to have been
forged by fome heretic in the fixth century 3 and S.
Baihage conjectures that fome of them are ancient,
and others not older than the feventh century. The
Greek church allows only 85 of them, and the Latins
only 50 j though there are 84 in the edition given of
them in the Corpus Juris Canonici.
Canon is alfo ufed for the authorized catalogue of
the facred writings. See Bible.
The ancient canon, or catalogue of the books of the
Old Teftament, was made by the Jews, and is ordina¬
rily attributed to Ezra 3 who is faid to have diftri-
buted them into the law, the prophets, and the ha-
giographa, to w'hich our Saviour refers, Luke, chap,
xxir. ver. 44. The fame divifion is alfo mentioned by
Jofephus, cont* Appion.
The
S
CAN [i
Canon. This is the canon allowed to have been followed by
—V—' the primitive church, till the council of Carthage j
and, according to St Jerome, this confided of no more
than 22 books j anfwering to the number of the He¬
brew alphabet j though at prefont they are claffcd into
24 diviiions, containing Genelis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joftiua, Judges, Samuel,
Kings, Ifaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the twelve minor
prophets, the Pfalms, the Proverbs, Job, Canticles,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclefiaites, Efther, Daniel, Ez¬
ra, comprehending the book of Nehemiah and the
Chronicles. However, this order is not univerfally
obferved either among Jews or Chriitiansj nor were
all the books above enumerated admitted into the ca¬
non in Ezra’s time. It is mod likely, fays Dr Pri-
deaux, that the two books of Chronicles, Ezra, Ne¬
hemiah, Either, and Malachi, w^ere added in the time
of Simon the Jud, when the canon was completed.
But that council enlarged the canon very confiderably,
taking into it the books which we call apocryphal :
which the council of Trent has further enforced, en¬
joining all thefe to be received as books of Holy Scrip¬
ture, upon pain of anathema, and being attainted of
herefy. The Romanids, in defence of this canon, fay,
that it is the fame with that of the council of Hippo,
held in 393 j and with that of the third council of
Carthage, in 397, at which were prefent 46 bithops,
and, among the red, St Augudine j who declared that
they received it from their fathers.
Their canon of the New Tedament perfe^ly agrees
with ours. It condds of books that are well known }
fome of w'hich have been univerfally acknowledged 3
fuch are the four Gofpels, the Afts of the Apodles,
thirteen Epidles of St Paul, one Epidle of St Peter,
and one Epidle of St John ; and others, concerning
which doubts were entertained, but which were after¬
wards received as genuine } fuch are the epidle to the
Hebrews, that of JameSj the fecond of Peter, the fe-
cond and third of John, that of Jude, and the Reve¬
lation. Thefe books were written at different times ;
and they are authenticated, not by the decrees of coun¬
cils, or infallible authority, but by fuch Kind of evi¬
dence as is thought fufficient in the cafe of any other
ancient writings. They were very extendvely diffufed j
they w ere read in every Chridian fociety 5 they w ere
valued and preferved with care by the fird Cnridians,
they were cited by Chridian wTriters of the fecond,
third, and fourth century, as by Irenseus, Clement the
Alexandrian, Tertullian, Origen, Eufeoius, &c. and
their genuinenefs is proved by the tellimony of thofe
who were contemporary with the apodles themfelves,
and by tradition. The four Gofpels, and mod of the
other books of the New Tedament, were colleaed
either by one of the apodles, or fome of their difci-
ples and fucceffors, before the end of the. fird century.
The catalogue of canonical books furnilhed by the
more ancient Chridian writers, as Origen about the
year 210, Eufebius and Athanafius in 315, Epiphanius
in 370, Jerome in 382, Audin in 394> many o-
thers, agrees with that which is now’ received among
Chridians. For the time of writing the feveral books
©f the New Tedament, fee the titles of the books
themfelves > as the Gofpel of St Matthew, Mark,
&.C*
Some of the fathers didinguilh the infpired writings
38 ] CAN
into three claffes $ proto-canonical, deutcvo-canonical,
and apocryphal.
Pafchal CANON, a table of the moveable feads, ftiow-
ing the day of Eader, and the other feads depending
on it, for a cycle of 19 years.
The pafchal canon is fuppofed to be the calculation
of Eufebius of Ctefarea, and to have been done by or¬
der of the council of Nice.
Canon, in monadic orders, a book wherein the re¬
ligious of every convent have a fair tranfcript of the
rules of their order, frequently read among them as
their local datutes. This is alfo called rcgu/a, as con¬
taining the rule and inditution of their order.
The canon differs from the miffale, martyrologium,
and necrologium. .
Canon, again, is ufed for the catalogue of faints
acknowledged and canonized in the Romifh church.
Canon is alfo ufed, by way of excellence, in the
Romidi church, for the fecret words of the mafs, from
the preface to the Pater ; in the middle of which the
pried confecrates the hod. The common opinion is,,
that the canon of the mafs commences with Te igitury
grc. 'J'he people are to be on their knees, hearing the
canon j and are to rehearfe it to themfelves, fo as not
to be heard. ' . f
Canon, in the ancient mufic, is a rule or method ot
determining the intervals of notes.
Ptolemy, rejecting the A.ridoxcnian way of mo.1 lur¬
ing the intervals in mufic, by the magnitude of a tone
(which was fuppofed to be formed by the difference
between a diapente and a diateffaron), thought that
mufical intervals diould be dillinguidicd, according to
the ratios or proportions which the founds terminating
thofe intervals bear to one another, ithen confidered
according to their degree of acutenefs or gravity j
which, before Aridoxenus, was the old Pythagorean
way. He therefore made the diapafon confid in a
double ratio ; the diapente, in a fefquialterate 5 the
diateffaron, in a fefquitertian •, and the tone itfelf, m
a fefquioftave } and all the other intervals, accoidmg
to the proportion of the founds that, terminate then* .
wherefore taking the canon (as it is called) for.a de¬
terminate line of any length, he Ihows how this ca¬
non is to be cut accordingly, fo that it may reprefent
the refpe&ive intervals : and. this method anfwers ex-
attly to experiment, in the different lengths.of mufical
chords. From this canon, Ptolemy and his follow ers
have been called Canomci; as thofe of Aridoxenus.
were called Mujici. , . . . . ...
Canon, in modern mufic, is a kind of fugue, w hich
they call a perpetual fugue, becaufe. the different parts
beginning one after another, repeat mceflantly the lame
Canon,
Formerly, fays Zarlino, they placed, at the head of
perpetual fugues, particular direftions which fhowed
how this kind of fugues was to be fung 5 and thele di¬
rections, being properly the rules by which perpetual
fugues were compofed, were called.cw/om, rules ox ca¬
nons. From this cudom, others taking the title for the-
thing fignified, by a metonymy, termed this kind, ot
compofition canon. Such canons as are compofed with
the greated facility, and of confequence mod generally
ufed, begin the fugue either with the oftave or the
unifon ; that is to fay, that every part repeats in the
fame tone the melody of the preceding. In order to
'CAN
Canon, form a canon of this kind, it is only neceffary for the
^ compofer to make an air according to his tafte ; to add
in fcore as many parts as he choofes, where the voices
in oitave or uniform repeat the fame melody j then
forming a tingle air from all thefe parts fucceflively ex¬
ecuted, to try whether this fucceflion may form an en¬
tire piece, which will give pleafure as well in the har¬
mony as the melody.
In order to execute fuch a canon, he who lings the
firft part begins alone, and continues till the air is fi-
nilhed •, then recommences immediately, without any
fufpenfe of found or interruption of time j as foon as
he has ended the firft couplet, which ought to ferve
for the perpetual fubje£t upon which the whole canon
has been compofed, the fecond part begins and repeats
the fame couplet, whilft the firft who had begun pur-
fues the fecond : others in fucceflion begin and pro¬
ceed the fame way, as foon as he who precedes has
reached the end of the frit couplet. Thus, by incef-
fantly recommencing, an univerfal clofe can never be
found, and the canon may be repeated as long as the
lingers pleafe.
A perpetual fugue may likewife confift of parts
which begin with the intervals of a fourth or fifth ; or,
in other words, every part may repeat the melody of
the firft, a fourth or a fifth higher or lower.. It is
then necelfary that the whole canon fliould be invent¬
ed di prvna intenxione, as the Italians fay ; and that
lharps or flats Ihould be added to the notes, whofe na¬
tural gradations do not anfwer exactly, by a fourth or
fifth, to the melody of the preceding part, and pro¬
duce the fame intervals with itfelf. Here the compo¬
fer cannot pay the leaft regard to modulation 5 his on¬
ly care is, that the melody may be the fame, which
renders the formation of a canon more difficult j for at
wvery time when any part refumes the fugue, it takes
a new key •, it changes the tone almoft at every note,
and, what is ftill worfe, no part is at the fame time
found in the fame tone with another j hence it is that
this kind of canons, in other refpedts far from being
eafy to be perufed, never produce a pleafing efteft,
however good the harmony may be, and however pro¬
perly it may be fung.
There is a third kind of canon, but very fcarce, as
well becaufe it is extremely difficult, as becaufe it is for
the moft part incapable of giving pleafure, and can
boaft no other merit but the pains which have been
thrown away in its compofition. This may be called
a double canon inverted, as well by the inverfions which
are praftifed in it wuth refpeft to the melody of the
parts, as by thofe which are found among the ,parts
themfelves in finging. There is fuch an artifice in
this kind of canon, that, whether the parts be fung in
their natural order, or whether the paper in which
they are fet be turned the contrary way, to fing them
backward from the end to the beginning, in fuch a
manner that the bafs becomes the upper part, and the
reft undergo a fimilar change, ftill you have pretty har¬
mony, and ftill a regular canon. The reader may con-
fult Roulfeau’s Dictionary in this article, where he is
referred to Plate D. fig. ti. for two examples of ca¬
nons of this fort extra£ted from Bonterapi, who like-
wife gives rules for their compofition. But he adds,
that the true principle from which this rule is deduced
will be found at the word Syjleme, in his account of
CAN
the fyftem ofTartini, to which we muft likewdfe once
more refer the reader •, as a quotation of fuch length
muft have protracted our article to an enormous ex¬
tent.
To form a canon, in which the harmony may be a
little varied, it is neceflary that the parts fliould not
follow each other in a fucceflion too rapid, and that
the one ffiould only begin a confiderable time after the
other. When they follow one another fo immediately
as at the diftance of a femibreve or a minim, the dura¬
tion is not fufficient to admit a great number of chords,
and the canon muft of neceffity exhibit a difagreeable
monotony 5 but it is a method of compofing, without
much difficulty, a canon in as many parts as the com¬
pofer cheofes. For a canon ef four bars only, will
confift of eight parts, if they follow each other at the
diftance of half a bar •, and by each bar which is add¬
ed, two parts will eonftantly be gained.
The emperor Charles VI. who was a great mufieian,
and compofed extremely well, took much pleafure in
compofing and finging canons. Italy is ftill replete with
moft beautiful canons compofed for this prince, by the
belt mafters in that country. To what has been fiiid
by Rouffeau, we need only fubjoin, that the Englilh
catch and the Italian canon are much the fame j as any
intelligent reader may perceive, from comparing the
ftrudlure and execution of the Engliffi catch with the
account of canons which has now been given.
Canon, in Geometry and Algebra, a general rule
for the folution of all cafes of a like nature with the
prefent inquiry. Thus every laft ftep of an equation
is a canon •, and, if turned into words, becomes a rule
to folve all queftions of the fame nature with that pro-
pofed.
CANON Law, a collection of ecclefiaftical laws,
ferving as the rule and meafure of church-govern¬
ment.
The power of making laws was exercifed by the
church before the Roman empire became Chriftian.
The canon law that obtained throughout the weft, till
the 12th century, was the collection of canons made
by Dionyfius Exiguusin 520, the capitularies of Char¬
lemagne, and the decrees of the popes from Sircius to
Anaftafius.
The canon law, even when papal authority was at
its height in England, was of no force when it was
found to contradict the prerogative of the king, the
laws, ftatutes, and cuftoms of the realm, or the doctrine
of the eftabliffied church.
The ecclefiaftical jurifdiction of the fee of Rome in
England was founded on the canon law j and this
created quarrels between kings and feveral archbifhops
and prelates who adhered to the papal ufurpation.
Befides the foreign canons, there were feveral laws
and conftitutions made here for the government of the
church : but all thefe received their force from the
royal aflent j and if, at any time, the ecclefiaftical
courts did, by their fentence, endeavour to enforce
obedience to fuch canons, the courts at common law,
upon complaints made, would grant prohibition. The
authority veiled in the church of England of making
canons, was afeertained 'by a ftatute of Henry VIII.
commonly called the aB of the clergy's fubmi/Jion ; by
which they acknowledged, that the convocation had
always been affembled by the king’s writ j fo that,
S 2 though
[ 139 1
CAN
Canon though the power of making canons refided in the cler-
11 gy met in -convocation, their force was derived from
Canonical , 011<-Vlrir;fV nf tV1P IclnP'’
I 14° ]
CAN
puniOi-
nients.
OJ • •' # #
the authority of the king’s affenting to and contirmxng
them.
The old canons continued in full force till the reign
of James I. when the clergy being affembled in convo¬
cation, the king gave them leave to treat and confult
upon canons } which they did, and prefented them to
the king, who gave them the royal affent: thefe were
a collection out of feveral preceding canons, and in¬
junctions. Some of thefe canons are now obfolete. In
the reign of Charles I. feveral canons were palled by
the clergy in convocation.
CANONESS, in the Romifh church, a woman who
enjoys a prebend, affixed, by the foundation, to maids,
without their being obliged to renounce the world, or
make any vows.
CANONIC A, in philofophical hiltory, an appella¬
tion given by Epicurus to his doCtrine of logic. It
was called canonic a, as confifting of a few canons or
rules for directing the underitanding in the purfuit and
knowledge of truth. Epicurus’s canonica is reprefent-
ed as a very flight and infufficient logic by feveral of
the ancients, who put a great value on his ethics and
phyfics. Laertius even aifures us, that the Epicureans
rejefted logic as a fuperfluous fcience •, and Plutarch
complains that Epicurus niade an unlkilful and pre-
pofterous ufe of lyllogifms. But thefe cenfures feem
too fevere. Epicurus was not averfe to the ftudy of
logic, but even gave better rules in this art than thofe
philofophers who aimed at no glory but that of logics.
He only feems to have rejeCted the dialectics of the
Stoics, as full of vain fubtleties and deceits, and fitted
rather for parade and difputation than real ufe. The
ftrefs of Epicurus’s canonica conflits in his doCtrine of
the criteria of truth. All queltions in philofophy are
either concerning words or things : concerning things,
we feek their truth; concerning words, their fignifica-
tion : things are either natural or moral •, and the for¬
mer are either perceived by fenfe or by the underftan-
ding. Hence, according to Epicurus, arife three cri-
terions of truth, viz. fenfe, anticipation or prsenotjon,
and paffion. The great canon or principle of Epicu-
*us’s logic is, that the fenfes are never deceived ; and
therefore, that every fenfation or perception of an ap¬
pearance is true.
CANONICAL, fomething that belongs to, or par¬
takes of, the nature of a rule or canon.
CANONICAL Hours, are certain flated times of the
day, conflgned, more efpecially by the Romiffi church,
to the offices of prayer and devotion. Such are matins,
lauds, firth, ninth vefpers. In pur country the cano¬
nical hours are from eight to twelve in the forenoon,
before or after which marriage cannot be legally per¬
formed in any pariffi church.
CANONICAL Obedience, is that fubmiffion which, by
the ecclefiaftical laws, the inferior clergy are to pay to
their bithops, and religious to their fuperiors.
Canonical Sms, in the ancient church, thofe which
were camtal or mortal. Such cfpecially were idolatry,
murder,A adultery, herefy, and fchifm.
CANONICAL Punijhments, are thofe which the church
may inflift j fuch as excommunication, degradation,
and penance, in Roman Catholic countries, alio failing,
alms, whipping, Sec.
Canonift.
CANONICAL Life, the method or rule of living pre- Canonical'
feribed by the ancient clergy who lived in community.
The canonical life was a kind of medium between the
monaftic and clerical lives. Originally the orders of
monks and clerks were entirely diitinft •, but pious per-
fons, in procefs of time, inilituted colleges of priefts
and canons, where clerks, brought up for the miniilry,
as well as others already engaged therein, might live
under a fixed rule, which, though fomewhat more eafy
than the monaftic, was yet more reftrained than the fe-
cular. This was called the canonical life, and thofe
wdio embraced it canons. Authors are divided about
the founder of the canonical life. Some will have it te
be founded by the apoftles j others aferibe it to Pope
Urban I. about the year 1230, who is faid to have
ordered biftiops to provide fucli of their clergy as were
willing to live in community, with neceffaries out of
the revenues of their churches. T-he generality attri¬
bute it to St Auguftine •, who, having gathered a num¬
ber of clerks to devote themfelves to religion, inftitut-
ed a monaftery within the epifcopal palace, where he
lived in community with them. Onuphrius Panvinus
brings the inftitution fomewhat lower } according to
him, Pope Gelafius I. about the year 495, placed the
firft regular canons of St Auguftine in the Lateran
church.
CANONICAL Letters, in the ancient church, were a
fort of teftimonials of the orthodox faith, which the
biftiops and clergy font each other to keep up the Ca¬
tholic communion, and diftinguiffi orthodox Chriftiana
from Arians and other heretics. They were denomi¬
nated canonical, either as being compoied according to
a certain rule or form, or becaufe they were given to
the canonici, that is, thofe comprehended in the canon
or catalogue of their church. When they had occafion
to travel into other diocefes or countries, dimiffory and
recommendatory letters, alfo letters of peace, &.c. were
fo many fpecies of canonical letters.
Canonical is alfo an appellation given to thofe
epiftles in the Neft Teftament, more frequently called
catholic or general epiftles.
CANONICUM in a general fenfe, denotes a tax or
tribute. . .
CaNONICUM is more particularly ufed in the Greek
church for a fee paid by the clergy to biffiops, arch-
biffiops, and metropolitans, for degrees and promo*-
tions.
Canonicum alfo denotes a due of firft fruits, paid
by the Greek laity to their biffiops, or, according to
Du Cange, to their priefts. The canonicum is affedted
according to the number of houfes or chimneys in a
place.
The emperor Ifaac Comnenus made a conftitution
for regulating the canonicum of biffiops, which was
confirmed by another made in 1086, by his nephew
Alexis Comnenus. A village containing thirty fires,
was to pay for its canonicum one piece of gold, two of
filver, one flieep, fix buffiels of barley, fix of wheat
flour, fix meafures of w ine, and thirty hens.
CANONIST, a perfon {killed in or who makes pro-
feffion of the ftudy and praftice of the canon law. Ca~
nonifts and civilians are ufually combined in the fame
perfons : and hence the title of doBor juris utriufque, or
legum ufually exprefled in abbreviature, L. L. D.
CANONIZATION,
'CAN
[ i
Canon-za-
tion
II
Canopus.
CANONIZATION, a ceremony in the Romifk
church, by which perfons deceafed are ranked in the
catalogue of the faints. It fucceeds beatification.
Before a beatified perfon is canonized, the qualifica¬
tions of the candidate are ftriitly examined into, in
feme confiftories held for that purpofe •, after which,
one of the confiltorial advocates, in the' prefence of
the pope and cardinals, makes the panegyric of the
perfon who is to be proclaimed a faint, and gives a
particular detail of his life and miracles : which done,
the holy father decrees his canonization, and appoints
the day.
On the day of canonization the pope officiates in
white, and their eminences are dreli in the fame colour.
St Peter’s church is hung with rich tapeftry, upon
which the arms of the pope, and of the prince or flate
requiring the canonization, are embroidered in gold
and filver. An infinite number of lights blaze all round
the church, which is crowded with pious fouls, who
wait with devout impatience till the new faint has made
his public entry as it were into paradife, that they may
offer up their petitions to him without danger of being
reje&ed.
The following maxim with regard to canonization is
now obferved, though it has not been followed above a
century, viz. not to enter into the inquiries prior to ca¬
nonization, till 50 years, at leaf!, after the death of the
perfon to be canonized. By the ceremony of canoni¬
zation, it appears that this rite of the modern Romans
has fomething in it very like the apotheofis or deifica¬
tion of the ancient Romans, and, in all probability,
takes its rife from it j at lealt feveral ceremonies of the
fame nature are confpicuous in both.
CANONRY, the benefice filled by a canon. It dif¬
fers from a prebend, in that the prebend may fubfift
without the canonicate, whereas the canonicate is infe-
parable from the prebend : again, the right of fuffra-
ges, and other privileges, are annexed to the eanoni-
cate, and not to the prebend.
CANOPUS, in //Jlrovomy, a flar of the firft mag¬
nitude in the rudder of Argo, a confteilation of the
fouthern hemifphere.
Canopus, in Pagan mythology, one of the deities
of the ancient Egyptians, and, according to fome, the
god of water. It is faid, that the Chaldeans, who
worfhipped fire, carried their fancied deity through o-
ther countries to try its powers, in order that, if it obtain¬
ed the victory over the other gods, it might be acknow¬
ledged as the true object of worfhip } and it having ea-
fily fubdued the gods of wood, flone, brafs, filver, and
gold, its priefts declared that all gods did it homage.
This the prieft of Canopus hearing, and finding that
the Chaldeans had brought their god to contend with
Canopus, they took a large earthen veffel, in which
they bored feveral holes, which they afterwards flopped
with wax, and having filled the veffel with water, paint¬
ed it of feveral colours, and fitting the head of an idol
to it, brought it out, in order to contend with the Chal¬
dean deity. The Chaldeans accordingly kindled their
fire all around it ; but the heat having melted the wax,
the water guflied out through the holes, and extinguifh-
ed the fire; and thus Canopus conquered the god of the
Chaldeans.
Canopus, or Canobus, according to Strabo, had
been Menelaus’s pilot, and had a temple erected to him
41 ] 4 C A N
in a town called Canopus, near one of the mouths of the Canopus
Nile. Dionyfius mentions it: Canofas
Ki« Tiptiog Ay.vx.Xcu 010 HLxvuZov. ^ ^
There Hands Canobus’ temple known to fame :
The pilot who from fair Amycla came.
Voflius remarks, on this occafion, the vanity of the
Greeks, who, as he conjectures, hearing of an Egyp¬
tian deity named Canopus, took from thence an oppor¬
tunity of deifying the pilot of Menelaus who bore the
fame name, and giving out that the Egyptian god Ca¬
nopus had been a Greek. F. Montfaucon gives feveral
reprefentations of this deity. One, in allufion to the
victory above-mentioned, throws out water on every
fide through little holes.
Canopus, or Canobus, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Lower Egypt, on the Mediterranean, a hun¬
dred and twenty itadia, or fifteen miles, to the eaft of
Alexandria •, as old as the war of Troy, Canopus, or
Canobus, Menelaus’s fteerfman, being there buried.
Camped the gentilitious name ; famous for their luxu¬
ry and debauchery, (Strabo, Juvenal.) See Auou-
KIR.
CANOPY, in ArchileBure and Sculpture, a magni¬
ficent kind of decoration, ferving to cover and crown
an altar, throne, tribunal, pulpit, chair, or the like,.
The word is formed from the barbarous Latin canopeumy
of x.uvo7ruov, a net fpread over a bed to keep off the gnats,
from a gnat.
Canopies are alfo borne over the head in proceflions
of ftate, after the manner of umbrellas. The canopy
of an altar is more peculiarly called ciborinm.
The Roman grandees had their canopies, or fpread
veils, called thenfee, over their chairs 5 the like were al¬
fo in temples over the ftatues of their gods. The mo¬
dern cardinals Hill retain the ufe of canopies.
CANOSA, a town of. Puglia in Italy, occupying
part of the fite of the ancient Canufium. The old
city was founded by Diomedes, according to Strabo. It
afterwards became a Roman colony, and one of the
molt confiderable cities of this part of Italy fes: extent,
population, and magnificence of building. The era of
Trajan feems to have been that of its greatelt fplen-
dour : but this pomp only ferved to mark it as a capi¬
tal objeft for the avarice and fury of the Barbarians.
Genferie, Totila, and Autharis, treated it with ex¬
treme cruelty. The deplorable ftate to which this-SW?/--
province was reduced in ^90 is concifely but ftrongly fume's .
painted by Gregory the Great in thefe terms: “ Qn^1,J'
every fide we hear groans 5 on every fide we behold page ^cg,
crowds of mourners, cities burnt, cattles razed to tho
ground, countries laid watte, provinces become de- .
ferts, fome citizens led away captives, and others in¬
humanly maffacred.” No town in Puglia fuffered
more than Canofa from the outrages of the Saracens j
the contefts between the Greeks and Normans increaf-
ed the mcafure of its woes, which was filled by a con¬
flagration that happened when it was ftormed by Duke
Robert. In 1090, it was afligned, by agreement, to
Bohemund prince of Antioch, who died here in 11 II.
Under the reign of Ferdinand the Third, this eftafe
belonged to the Grimaldis. On their forfeiture,
the Affaititi acquired it, and flill retain the title of
marquis, though the Capeci are the proprietors of tho
fief.
Tb>
CAN [ i
-Cnnofa The ancient city flood in a plain between the hills
ll . and the river Ofanto, and covered a large tra£l of
Cantabria. ndi Many brick monumcnts, though degraded
and ftripped of their marble caling, ftill attefl its ancient
grandeur. Among them may be traced the fragments
of aquedu&s, tombs, amphitheatres, baths, military co¬
lumns, and two triumphal arches, which, by their po-
fition, feem to have been two city gates. I he prefent
town ftands above, on the foundations of the old cita¬
del, and is a moft pitiful remnant of fo great a city,
not containing above three hundred houfes. Ihe
church of Sabinus, built, as is faid, in the fixth cen¬
tury, is now without the enclofure. It is aflomlhing
that any part of this ancient cathedral ihould have
withftood fo many calamities. Its altars and pavements
are rich in marble} and in a fmall court adjoining,
tinder an oftagonal cupola, is the maufoleum of Bohe-
mund, adorned in a minute Gothic ftyle.
CANSO, a fea port town of Acadia, or Nova Sco¬
tia, in North America, feated on a narrow ftrait which
feparates Nova Scotia from Cape Breton. Near this
town is a fine fiihery for cod. W. Long. 62. N. Lat.
^ CANSTAT, a town of Swabia, in Germany, mthe
duchy of Wirtemberg, fituated on the river Neckar, in
E. Long. 9. 9. N. Lat. 48. 51. .
CAN!', a quaint affe&ed manner of fpeakmg, ad¬
apted chiefly to the lower fort. Skinner racks his in¬
vention for the origin of this word j which he iuccei-
fively deduces from the German, Flemifh, and Saxon
tongues. According to the general opinion, Cant is
originally the proper name of a Cameronian preacher
in Scotland, who by exercife had attained the faculty
of talking in the pulpit in fuch a tone and dialed as was
underlined by none but his own congregation : fmee
Andrew Cant’s time, the word has been extended to
fignify all hidden exclamations, and whining unmufical
tones, efpecially in praying and preaching But this
origin of the word has been difputed by others ; and
perhaps the true derivation is from the Latin canlare
Cant is alfo applied to words and phrafes affeded by
particular perfons or prwfeflions for low ends and not
* See Cant- authorized by the eftablilhed language . e 1 e-
ing Lan- rence between cant and technical feems to be this . the
guage. former is reftrained to words introduced out of folly,
affedation, or impofture : the latter is applied to luch
as are introduced for the fake of clearnefs, precifionand
fignificancy^ ^ ^ a ^ by auaion. The
origin of the word in this fenfe is dubious 5 it may
come, according to feme, from quantum, how much •,
according to others, from cant are, to ling or cry aloud ,
agreeably to which, we fometimes alio call it an out*
^CAm-Timbers, in (hip-building, thofe timbers which
are fituated at the two ends of a (hip. I hey derive
their name from being canted, or raifed obliquely from
the keel ; in contradiftindion from thofe whole planes
are perpendicular to it. The upper ends of thole on
the bow, or fore part of the (hip, are inclined to t e
ftern ■ as thofe in the after or hind part, incline to the
flern poll above. SHIP-Building.
CANTABRIA, in Ancient Geography, a diitrufl ot
Tarraconenfis, on tl.c Oceanus Cantabrian, or bay
42 ] CAN
of Bifcay •, now Biscay. The inhabitants were fa- Cantahri
mous for their warlike charader. In conjundion with '
the Afturians f, they carried on defperate wars with >
the Romans j but were fubdued by them about 25
years before Chrift, Being impatient, however, of , a
foreign yoke, they in a few years revolted. Moft of
their youth had been already taken prifoners by the
Romans, and fold for (laves to the neighbouring na¬
tions : but having found means to break their chains,
they cut the throats of their mailers j and returning in¬
to their own country, attacked the Roman garrifons with
incredible fury. Agrippa marched againft them with
great expedition j but on his arrival, met with fo vi¬
gorous a refiitance, that his foldiers began to defpair
of ever being able to reduce them. As the Cantabrians
had waged war with the Romans for upwards of 200
years, they were well acquainted with their manner of
fighting, no way inferior to them in courage, and were
now become defperate*, well knowing, that if they
were conquered, after having io often attempted to re¬
cover their liberty, they muft exped the moft fevere
ufage, and cruel flavery. Animated with this reflec¬
tion, they fell upon the Romans with a fury hardly to
be expreffed, routed them in feveral engagements, and
defended themfelves when attacked by the enemy with
fuch intrepidity, that Agrippa afterwards owned that
he had never, either by lea or land, been engaged in a
more dangerous enterprife. JLhat brave commander
was obliged to ufe entreaties, menaces, and to brand
fome of his legionaries with ignominy, before he could
bring them to enter the lifts with fuch a formidable
enemv. But having at laft, With much ado, prevailed
upon them to try the chance of an engagement in the
open field, he fo animated them by his example, that
after a moft obftinate difpute, he gained a complete
victory, which indeed coll him dear, but put an end
to that'deftruftive war. All the Cantabrians fit to bear
arms were cut in pieces 5 their caftles and ftrong holds
taken and razed 5 and their women, children, and
old men (none elfe being left alive), were obliged
to abandon the mountainous places, and fettle in the
plain. ...
l)r Wallis feems to make tVe Cantabrian the ancient
language of all Spain *, which, according to him, like
the Gaulifti, give way to a kind of broken Latin called
romance, romanjh ; which by degrees was refined in¬
to the Caftilian or prefent Spanifh.. But w e can hard-
ly fuppofe that fo large a country, inhabited by fuch a
variety of people, fpoke all the fame language, ihe
ancient Cantabrian, in effeft, is ftill found to fubfift in
the more barren and mountainous parts of the provinces
of Bifcay, Afturias, and Navarre, as far as Bayonne,
much as the Britilh does in Wales *, but the people
only talk it; for writing, they ufe either the Spaniih
or French, as they happen to live under the one or the
other nation. Some attribute this to a jealoufy of fo¬
reigners learning the myfteries of their language j
others to a poverty of words and expreflions. Ihe
Cantabrian does not appear to have any affinity with
anv other known language, abating that fome Spanifli
words have been adopted in it for things whofe ufe the
Bifcayans were anciently unacquainted with. Its pro¬
nunciation is not difagreeable. The Lord’s prayer,
in the Cantabrian tongue, runs thus : Cure aita cerve-
tan aicena, fant die a bedi hire icena, ethor ledi hirerejuma,
J eguin
CAN [ i
i Cantabria gpu'n hedi hire vorandatea cervan lecata lurrean ere,
il &c.
-Cantaro. ^ CANTABRICA, in Botany, a fynonyme of a fpe-
cies of Convolvulus.
CANTABRUM, in antiquity, a large kind of flag
ufed by the Roman emperors, diftinguilhed by its pe¬
culiar colour, and bearing on it fome word or motto
of good omen, to encourage the foldiers.
CANTACUZENUS, Johannes, of Conftantino-
ple, a celebrated flatefman, general, and historian, was
born in that city, of a very ancient and noble family.
He was bred to letters and to arms, and admitted to
the higheft offices in the Rate. The emperor Andro-
nicus loaded him with wealth and honour j made him
generaliffimo of his forces j and was deflrous of hav¬
ing him join him in the government, but this he re-
fuled. Andronicus dying in 1341, left to Cantacu-
zenus the care of the empire, till his fon John Paleo-
logus, who was then but nine years of age, (hould be
fit to take it upon himfelf. This truft he faithfully
difeharged 5 till the emprefs-dowager and her faction
forming a party againfl; him, declared him a traitor.
On this the principal nobility and the army befought
him to afeend the throne } and accordingly he was
crowned on the 21ft of May 1342. This was follow¬
ed by a civil war, which lalled five years j when he
admitted John a partner with him in the empire, and
their union was confirmed by his giving him his
daughter in marriage. Sufpicions and enmities, how¬
ever, foon arifing, the war broke out again, and con¬
tinued till John took Conftantinople in 1355. A few
days after, Cantacuzenus, unwilling to continue the
effufion of blood, abdicated his lhare of the empire,
and retiring to a monaftery, took the habit of a
monky and the name of Joafaphas. His wife alfo re¬
tired to a nunnery, and changed her name of Irene for
that of Eugenia. In this retirement he lived till the
year 1411, when he was upwards of 100 years of age.
Here he wrote a hiftory of his own times, a Latin
tranflation of which, from the Greek manufeript, was
publilhed by Pontanus at Ingollladt, in 1603 j and a
fplendid edition was printed at Paris in 1645, in three
volumes folio, of the original Greek, and Pontanus’s
Latin verfion-. He alfo wrote an apology for the Chri-
flian religion againfl: that of Mahomet, under the name
ef Chrijlodulus.
CANTALIVERS, in Arc hit eel ure, pieces of wood
framed into the front or fides of a houfe, to fufpend
the mouldings and eyes over it..
CANTAR, or Cantaro, an eaftern w'eight, of
different value in different places, equal at Acra in
Turkey to 603 pounds, at Tunis and Tripoli to 11.4
pounds.
Cantar is alfo an Egyptian weight, which is de¬
nominated a quintal, and confifts of a hundred or of an
hundred and fifty rotolos, according to the goods they
are to weigh.
Cantaro is alfo an Egyptian weight, which at
Naples is equivalent to 25 pounds, at Genoa to 150
pounds.. At Leghorn there are three kinds of cantaro f,
one weighing 130 pounds, another 151, and a third
i6d pounds.
Cantaro is alfo a Spaniffi liquid meafure, in ufe
afpeeially at Alicant, containing three gallons.
43 J c a n
Cantaro is alfo a meafure of capacity, ufed at Co- Cantar*
chin, containing four rubis, the rubi 32 rotolos. II
CANTARINI, Simon, a famous painter, called the Cantemir*
Pefcrefe, from his being born at Pefaro, was the difei- v"r"’U
pie of Guido; and copied the manner of his mafter fo
happily, that it is often difficult to diftinguilh between
their works. He died at Verona in 1648.
CANTATA, in Mujic, a fong or compofition, in¬
termixed with recitatives, airs, and different move--
ments, chiefly intended for a Angle voice, with a
thorough bafs, though fometimes for other inflru--
ments.
The cantata, when performed vuth judgement, has
fomething in it very agreeable y the variety of the
movement not clogging the ear, like other compofi-
tions.. It w as firft ufed in Italy, then in France, whence
it paffed to us.
CANTAZARO, an epifcopal city of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the territory of Calabria
Ulterior. It is the refidence of the governor of the
province, and is feated near the fea, in E. Long-. 17. o.
N. Lat. 38. 59, 6 '
CAN 1 ECROIX, a fmall territory of the Nether--
lands, in Brabant, and in the quarter of Antwerp w ith \
the title of a principality ; there is a fmall town of the
fame name, but Lire is the capital.
CAN I EMIR, Demetrius, fon of a prince of Mol¬
davia.. Difappointed by not fucceeding his father in
that dignity, held under the Ottoman Porte, he went
over with his army to the Czar Peter the Great, againfl:
whom he had been fent by the Grand Signior : He
fignalized himfclf in the czar’s fervice j and in the
republic of letters, by a Latin hirtory of the origin
and decline of the Ottoman empire, &c. He died
in 1723.
Cantemir, Antiochus, efleemed the founder of the
Ruffian poetry, was the youngeft fon of the preced-
ing. Under the moft ingenious profeffors, whom the
czar had invited to Peterfburgh, he learned mathe¬
matics, phyfic, hiflory, moral philofophy, and polite
literature y without neglecting the ftudy of the Holy
Scriptures., to which he had a great inclination. Scarce
had he finilhed his academic courfe, when he printed a
Concordance of the Pfalms in the Ruffian language,
and was elected member of the academy. The af¬
fairs of ftate in which he was foon after engaged, did
not make him negleCt his literary purfuits. In order
to make himfelf ufeful to his fellow citizens, he com-
pofed his fatires, to ridicule certain prejudices which
had got footing among them. When but 24 years of
age, he was nominated minifter at the court of Great
Britain j and kis dexterity in the management of pub¬
lic affairs was as much admired as his tafle for the
fciences. He had the fame reputation in France,.
whither he wamt in 1738 in quality of minifter ple¬
nipotentiary, and foon after was invefted with the
chara&er of ambaffador extraordinary. The wife and
prudent manner in which he conduced himfelf during
the different revolutions which happened in Ruffia du¬
ring his abfence, gained him the confidence and efteem
of three fucceffive princes. Fie died of a dropfy, at
Paris, in 1744, aged 44. Befides the pieces already
mentioned, he wrote, j . Some Fables and Odes. 2. A
trauflation of Horace’s Epiitles in Ruffian verfe. 3. A
profs-
GAN t *4
Cafttemlr, profe tr&nflatxon of Fontenelle’s Plurality of V^orlasj
Canterbury. anc^ ^ Algarotti’s Dialogues on Sight. The Abbe
v Guafco has written his life in French, and tranilated
his fatires into that language.
CANTERBURY, a city of England, and capital
of the county of Kent, fituated in E. Eong. l. 15*
N. Lat. 51. 16. It has the names of Durovernum
and Darvernum given it by the Romans, and Durober-
nia by Bede, which are thought to be derived from
Durwhcm, fignifying a rapid dream, fuch as the Stour,
on which it Hands, is. The Britons call it Laei' Kent,
i. e. the city of Kent j and its prefent Engliih name
is of the fame import, derived from the Saxon. Modern
writers in Latin call it Ucmtuaria. Its great antiquity
appears not only from Antoninus’s Itinerary, but from
the military way which has been difcovered here, and
the caufeways leading to Dover and Lymme, befides
the coins and other curiolities found about it. 16
archiepifcopal and metropolitan dignity feems to have
been fettled here very early and to prevent its being
removed, an anathema was decreed againit any w o
fhould attempt it. After that, the city Hourifhed great¬
ly 1 though it fuffered in common with other towns
during the Danilh invafions, and at other times by the
cafuaiities of fire. The city was given entirely to the
bifhops by William Rufus, and was held m the utmoit
veneration in the Popilh times, efpecially after tie
murder of Becket in the reign of Henry II. to whole
Ihrine fo great was the refort, and fo rich were the
offerings, that Erafmus, who was an£eye-witnels ot its
wealth, fays the whole church and chapel m which he
was interred glittered with jewels j and at the diffolu-
tion, the plate and jewels filled two great chelis, each
of which required eight ftrong men to carry out. 1 he
cathedral was granted by Ethelbert, king of Kent, up¬
on his converfion, to Auftin the monk, together with
his palace, and the royalty of the city and its territo¬
ries This Auitin founded a monaftery for monks,
called from him Augujline. After the cathedral had
been feveral times deftroyed by fire and rebuilt, the
prefent was begun about the year 1174, and augment¬
ed and embellifhed by the fucceedmg archbilhops, till
it was completed in the reign of Henry . • tis a
noble Gothic pile, and before the Reformation had 37
altars. A great many kings, princes cardinals, and
archbilhops, are buried in it. At the diffolution,Henry
VIII feizedall the revenues both of the church and
monaftery, except what he allotted for the maintenance
of a dean, 12 prebendaries, and fix preachers,_ whom
he eftablilhed in place of the monks. During t he
grand rebellion, it fuffered much j the ufurper Crom¬
well having made a liable of it for his dragoons. Af¬
ter the Reftoration, it was repaired, and made what it
n°Befides the cathedral and other churches as well as
a monaftery, the city had anciently a caftle on the
fouth fide, and ftrong walls, with towers, a ditch, and
rampart 5 it had alfo a mint and an exchange. As to
its government, it feems to have been entirely fubjed
to the archbilhop, both in fpirituals and temporals j at
leaft from the time that W illiam Rufus gave it iok y
to Biftiop Anfelm, till the Reformation. It is now a
county of itfelf: and the corporation confifts of a may¬
or, recorder, 12 aldermen, a ftienff, 24 common coun
jcU men, a mace-bearer, fword-bearer, and four ferjeanfe
CAN
at mace. Every Monday a court is held at GuidhallCanterbuty
1
at mace, c.vc^    - ranterus
for civil and criminal caules : and every other luelday ,
for the government of the city. Here were formerly
2000 ot 3000 French Proteftants employed in the filk
manufacture j but this branch is now greatly decayed
in the place, fince Spittalfields became fo flouriftnng.
Befides the cathedral, it contains 1 5 parifti churches,
feven hofpitals, a free fchool, a houfe of correaion a
gaol for criminals, and fumptuous conduit for fupply-
mg the inhabitants with water. It confifts of four
ftreets, difpofed in the form of a crofs, and divided in¬
to fix wards, which are about three miles in circumfe¬
rence. It is/urrounded on all hands with hop grounds
much to its advantage, and is famed for its excellent
brawn. .
The diocefe of Canterbury contains 257 panlhes,
befides chapels, in Kent, and about 100 more in other
diocefes. Thefe are called Peculiars ; it being an an¬
cient privilege of this fee, that, wherefoever the arch¬
bilhops had either manors or advowfons, the place v^as
exempted from the jurifdiaion of the ordinary of the
diocefe where it was fituated, and was deemed in the
diocefe of Canterbury. This fee is valued m the king s
books at 28161. 17s. 9^d, but is reckoned to produce
a clear revenue of 8000I. a y.ar. ihe clergy’s tenths
come to 6151. 18s. 2^d. This fee had many great
privileges in the time of Popery, fome of which it ftill
retains The archbifhop is accounted primate and me¬
tropolitan of all England, and is the firft peer in the
realm : having the precedence of all dukes not of the
blood-royal, and of all the great officers of ftate. In
common fpeech he is ftyled His Grace and he writes
himfelf Divina Providentia ; whereas other biffiops ftyle
themfelves Divma Pernnjftone. At coronations, he
places the crown on the king’s head •, and, where-
ever the court may be, the king and queen are the
proper domeftic pariffiioners of the archbiffiop of Can¬
terbury. The biffiop of London is accounted his pro¬
vincial dean, the biffiop of Winchefter his fub-aean,
the biffiop of Lincoln his chancellor, and the biftiop of
Rochefter his chaplain. This fee hath yielded to the
church 18 faints $ to the church of Rome, 9 cardinals*,
to the civil ftate of England, 1 2 lord chancellors, 4
lord treafurers, and 1 lord chief jufticeq and 9 chan¬
cellors to the univerfity of Oxford. 1 o this fee belongs
only one archdeacon, viz. of Canterbury To the ca¬
thedral belongs an archbiftiop, a dean, a chancellor, an
archdeacon, 1 i prebends, 6 preachers, 6 minor ^nons,
6 fubftitutes, t2 lay clerks, 10 chorifters, 2 matters,
co fcholars, and 12 almfmen. _ . r . f
Canterbury Bell, the Engliffi name of a fpecies of
Campanula. See Botany Index. _
CANTERUS, William, an eminent Imguift and
philologer, was born at Utrecht, in I541; He ftu^lc
at Louvain and Paris *, and gave furprifing proofs of
his progrefs in Greek and Latin literature. He after¬
wards vifited the feveral univerfities of Germany and
Italy, and died at Louvain, in I575> agfJ.SS* f16
underftood fix languages, befides that of his native
country ; and, notwithftandmg his dying fo young,
wrote feveral philological and critical works, among
which ate, AW', Kh l i, Emendationes,et Explications,
in Eur pidem. Sophoclem, Efchy/em, Ciceronem, 1 -
pertium, Aufonium, &c. and many tranflations of Greek
auLh r6, CANTHARIDES,
CAN [ i
Cantliarldes CANTHARIDES, in the MaterU Medica, flies
II
Canticles.
which are employed to produce blifters on the ild’n.
C AN I HARIS, in Zoology, a genus of infefts be¬
longing to tlie order of infedta coleoptera. Linnasus
enumerates 27 fpecies of the cantharis, moft of them
to be found in different parts of Europe. The can¬
tharis ufed in making bliftering plafters is ranked un¬
der the genus Meloe. See Entomology Index.
CANTHI, in Anatomy, cavities at the extremities
of the eyelids, commonly called the corners of the eye:
the greater of them, or the great canthus, is next the
nofe j the leffer of them, or the little canthus, lies to¬
wards the temple.
CANTICLES, a canonical book of the Old Tefta-
ment, otherwife called the Song of Solomon ; by the
Jews the Song of Songs, Canticum Canticorum. The
book of Canticles is ufually fuppofed to be an epitha-
lamium compofed by Solomon, on occafion of his mar¬
riage with the king of Egypt’s daughter. But thofe
who penetrate further into the myftery, find in it the
mairiage of Jefus Chrift with human nature, the church,
and good men. On this principle the Canticles is held
to be a continued. allegory, wherein under the terms
©f a common wedding, a divine and fpiritual marriage
is expreffed. rJ.his fong contains the adventures of
feven days and feven nights 5 the exaft time allowed
for the celebration of marriage among the Hebrews.
The Jew-s themfelves, apprehending the boek liable to
be underftood in a grofs and carnal manner, prohibited
the reading of it before the age of 30, and the fame
ufage anciently obtained in the Chriffian church. A-
inong the ancients, Theodore Mopfuetanus reje&ed
the book of Canticles _ as not divine. Divers rabbins
have alfo queftioned its being written by infpiration.
It is alleged, that the name of God is not once found
m it. Mr W" hiffon has a difeourfe exprefs to prove
that the Canticles is not a facred book of the Old
Teftament. He alleges it indeed to have been writ¬
ten by King Solomon the fon of David ; but afferts
that it was compofed at the time when that prince,
blinded by his concubines, was funk in luff and idola-
try* I his he chiefly infers from the general character
of vanity and diffolutenefs which reigns through the
Canticles: in which there is not, according to Whif-
ton, one thought that leads the mind towards religion,
but all is worldly and carnal, to fay no worfe. For the
myftic fenfe, he afferts it to be without foundation ;
and that the book is not cited as canonical by any
writer before the deltrudtion of Jerufaletn. Mr Whif-
ton will have it to have been taken into the canon be¬
tween the years 77 and 128, when allegories came in-
to vogue, and the rabbins began to corrupt the text
of Scripture. . Grctius, Nierembergius, the Dutch di¬
vines who criticifed F. Simon, Menetrier, Bafnage, and
ome others, feem alfo to take the Canticles for a pro¬
fane compofition, on a footing with the love pieces of
Catullus or Ovid. But this opinion is refuted by Mi-
chaelis, Majus, Witfius, Nat. Alexander, Outrein,
Fiancius, and others. Mr Whifton’s arguments have
been particularly confidered by Itchener, and alfo by
r.kilh R. Akiba finds the book of Canticles more
iyme than the reft : the whole wTorld, according to
this rabbin, is not worth that day when the Canticles
was given to Ifrael 5 for, whereas all the hagiographers
are holy, the Canticles is the holy of holies.
VOL. V. Part I.
45 1 CAN
CANTIMARONS, or Catimarons, a kind of
floats or rafts, ufed by the inhabitants of the coaft of
Coromandel to go a fiftiing in, and to trade along the
coaft. Ihey are made of three or four fmall canoes,
or trunks of trees dug hollow, and tied together with
cacao ropes, with a triangular fail in the middle, made
of mats. The perfons who manage them are almoft
half in the water, there being only a place in the mid¬
dle a little railed to hold their merchandife : which
laft particular is only to be underftood of the trading
cantimarons, and not of thofe that go a-fiihing.
CANTIN, Cape, a promontory of the coaft of
Morocco in Africa, fituated in W. Long. 10. 2. N.
Lat. 33. 9.
CANTING, a fea phrafe, denotes the aft of turn¬
ing any thing about.
Canting Language or Dialed, is a myfterious fort
of jargon ufed by gypfies, thieves, and itrolling beg¬
gars, to exprefs their fentiments to each other, w ithout
being underftood by the reft of mankind. This dia-
left is not founded on any rules •, yet even out of that
irregularity many words feem to retain fomething of
fcholarlhip ; as to genian, a gown, from toga in the La¬
tin j pnnriutn, bread, from panis; cafan, cheek, from
cafeus, &c. It is obfervable, that, even unknown to
ourfelves, we have adopted fome of their terms inter
our vulgar language 5 as bite and bilk, to cheat; bounce^
to vapour ; boufe, ftrong drink j filch, to fteal ; flog, to
whip; rig, game or ridicule; roaji, to rally ; rhino, mo¬
ney. From the fame fource proceed the wmrds Jham,
banter, bubble, bully, Jharper, cutting, fhuffling, palm¬
ing, &c. An anonymous author has given a canting
di&ionary, comprehending all the terms ufed by the
feveral tribes of gypfies, beggars, Ihoplifters, highway¬
men, foot-pads, and other clans of cheats and villains,
with a colledlion of fongs in the canting dialed : Lon¬
don, 1725, 8vo.
CANJTUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of Britain, literally denoting a headland : giving name
to a territory called Cantium, now Kent ; and to a
people called Cantii (C&ffar), commended for their
great humanity and politenefs. The promontory now
the North Foreland. It is fsppofed that this was the
firft diftrid in Britain which received a colony from
the continent j and that it had frequently changed its
matters, by new colonies coming over from time ter
time, and driving the inhabitants further north. In
the midft of all thefe revolutions it ftill retained its an¬
cient name (which was fo agreeable to its ftiape and
lituation), and gave the fame name to all the fucceflive
tribes by which it was inhabited. Thofe who poffelfed
it at the time of the firft Roman invafion ^vere evident¬
ly of Belgic origin, and had come over fo lately, that
they differed in nothing from their countrymen on the
continent. “ The inhabitants of Kent (fays CaLar) are
the moft civilized of all the Britons, and differ but
very little in their manners from the Gauls.” This
great refemblance between the people of Kent and
their neighbours on the continent, might be partly
owing to the fituation of their country, which being
neareft to the continent, was moft frequented by
ft rangers from thence. It was this fituation alfo
which expofed them to the firft affaults of the Romans.
For Caffar, in both his expeditions into this iftand,
landed in Kent } and therefore we may conclude,
X that
Cantlma-v
rons
II
Cantium*.
Cantium
II
Canton.
CAN [
that the Cantii had a great .{hare m the vigorous
polition that was made to his landing, and in the.
i veral battles and fkirmidies which were fought againfl.
him after his landing •, particularly, they made a very
bold, but unfuccefsful attempt, upon his naval camp.
The Cantii did not make the fame vigorous reliifance
to the Romans on their next invalion in the reign of
Claudius. For Aulus Plautius, the Roman general
in that expedition, traveried their country without
feeing an enemy ; and as they now fubmitted to the
power of Rome without a ftruggle, fo they continued
in a Rate of quiet fubmiflion to it to. the very laid. The
fituation of Cantium occafioned its being much fre¬
quented by the Romans, who generally took their way
through it in their marches to and from the continent.
Few places in Britain are more frequently mentioned
by the Roman writers than Rutupium and Portus
Rutupenfis, moft probably Richborough and Stonar.
Rutupium was the fame in thofe times that Dover is
in ours •, the ufual place of embarking for, and land¬
ing from, the continent. Before the final departure of
the Romans out of Britain, Portus Dubris, now Do-
had become a confiderable place, and a well fre¬
quented harbour, where the third iter of Antoninus
ends, and from whence they often embarked for Gaul.
Portus Lemanus, fuppofed to be. Lime • near Weft
Hythe, was alfo a noted feaport in thefe times, and
the termination of the fourth iter of Antoninus. Du-
robrivce and Durovernum, now Rochefter and Can¬
terbury, were both Roman towms and Rations, and aic
often mentioned in the Itinerary and other books.
Befides thefe, there were feveral other Roman Rations,
towns, and ports in Cantium, which need not be par¬
ticularly enumerated here. Cantium, in the moft per-
fed Rate of the Roman government, made a part of
the province which was called Flavin Ccrfanenjis.
CANTO, denotes a part or divifion of a poem, an-
fwering to what is otherwife called a book. ^ I he wor d
is Italian, where it properly fignifies/o/tf. Taffo, An-
ofto, and feveral other Italians, have divided their longer
or heroic poems into cantos. In imitation of them,
Scarron has alfo divided his Giganlomacliia, and Boi-
leau his Lutrin, into chants or fongs. The like ufage
has been adopted by fome Englifh writers, as Butler,
who divides his Hudibras, and Dr Garth his Difpen-
fary, into cantos. A late tranilator of part of Viigil s
Aineid has even fubdivided a book of Virgil into feve-
cantos.
Canto, in the Italian mufic, fignifies "i-fong : hence
canto Jimplice is where all the notes or figures are equal,
and called alfo canto fermo ; canto fignrato, that where
the figures are unequal, and exprefs different motions.
Canto alfo fignifies the treble part of a fong . hence
canto concertcnte, the treble of the little chorus; canto
repieno, the treble of the grand chorus, or that which
lings only now and then in particular places. Canto
iignifies the firft treble, unlefs fome other word be add¬
ed to it, as fecondo; in which cafe it denotes the le-
cond treble. . . a
CANTON, in Geography, denotes a imall OiRrict
or country conftituting a diftind government: fuch
are the cantons of Switzerland.
Canton, ^uang-tong, or Koanton, one of the louth-
ern provinces of China j bounded on the nerth-eaft by
Fokien, on the north by Kjang-fi, on the weft by
146] CAN
Qoang-fi and the kingdom of Tonking, and every- ^
where elfe by the fea. The country is diverfified with
hills and plains, and the foil in general fo fertile that
it produces two crops annually. Befides many of the
fruits of Europe, and thofe common in other parts
of the Indies, the province of Canton produces fome
peculiar to itfelf. Abundance of valuable aromatic
woods is alfo to be met with in this province, as well
as eagle wood, ebony, &c. and in the. mineral king¬
dom th^ province furnithes gold, precious ftones, tin,,
quickfilver, and copper. Silk and iugar are alfo culti¬
vated here, and pearls are fiftred upon the coafts } i*
that every thing w'hich can contribute to the plealuie or
convenience of life is to be met with in Canton. “ One
begins (fays F. Premare) to have an idea of China, on
entering the river Canton. Both {ides of it preknt
laro-e fields of rice which referable green meadows, and
extend beyond the reach of fight. They are inter¬
fered by an infinite number of fmall canals, in fuch a
manner that the barks which pafs and repais in them
feem at a diftance, while the water which carries, them
is concealed, to glide along the grafs. Farther inland
the country appears covered with trees, and cultivated
along the valleys 5 and the whole feene is mterfperled
with villages, rural feats, and fuch a variety of de¬
lightful profpedls, that one is never tired of viewing
them, and regrets to be obliged to pals them i»
quickly. a
All the coafts of this province abound with fifti, and
furnilh vaft numbers of crabs, oyfters, and tortoifes of
an immenfe fize. The inhabitants keep a prodigious
number of tame ducks, w'hich they hatch in ovens or
dunghills, though it does not appear that they bor¬
rowed this cuftom from the Egyptians. The docility
of thefe creatures exceeds what we {hould be apt at
firft to imagine. The inhabitants load a. number of
fmall barks with them, and carry them in flocks to
feed on the fea {bore, where they find ftinmps and
Canton.
other animals proper
for their nouriftiment. But
OUlCt cumnaio —*  
though the ducks from the different barks are thus
unavoidably mixed together in the day time, they are
eafily collected by only beating on a bafon, on which
they immediately collect themielves into different flocks,
and each returns to its proper bark. 1 j e
In this province the Chinefe have alfo a method 01
preferving not only the flefli of the ducks in fuch a
manner that it lofes nothing of its original flavour
but their eggs alfo. The latter operation is performed
by covering the eggs with a coat of clay mixed with
fait. When mixed in this manner, it feems that the
fait has the property of penetrating through the pores
of the ftiell, and thus impregnating the fubftance m the
egg which it could not do by Ample folution in water.
Canton, though it fuffered much in the Chinefe
wars, is at prefent one of the moft flouriftiing provinces
of the empire \ and being at a great diflance from
court, its government is one of the moft important.
A great number of fortreffes, many of which are cities,
provided with numerous garrifons, have been built
along the coafts for the fuppreflion of. pirates and
robbers \ for which purpofe alio a certain number of
troops are kept properly polled in different parts of
the province. It is divided into ten diftricls, which
contain as many cities of the firft clafs, and 84 of the
fecond and third. The air in general is warm but
* hpalthV.
GAN [ 147 ] C A N
Cantofi. healthy, and the people are very mduftrious. They
■*"*v**“' poffefs in an eminent degree the talent of imitation; fo
that if they are only Ihown any European work, they
can execute others like it with.furpriling exaftnefs.
The molt remarkable cities in the province befitdes
Canton the capital are, 1. Chao-tcheou-fou, chiefly
noted for a monaftery of bonzes in its neighbourhood,
to which the adjacent country belongs, and the origin
of which is traced back for 800 or 9^0 years. It has
under its jurifdi£tion fix cities of the third clafs j near
one of thefe grows a reed of which feveral inftruments
are made, which cannot be diftinguilhed from real
ebony. The air of Chao-tcheou-fou, however, is un¬
healthy *, and great numbers of the inhabitants are car¬
ried off annually by contagious diftempers, which pre¬
vail from the middle of October to the beginning of
December. 2. Kao-tcheou-fou, fituated in a delight¬
ful and plentiful country. In the neighbourhood is
found a lingular kind of flone much refembling mar¬
ble, on which are natural reprefentations of rivers,
mountains, landfcapes, and trees. Thefe ftones are
cut into flabs, and made into tables, &c. Crabs are
alfo caught on the coaifs here, which very much re-
iemble thofe of Europe j but, fays M. Grofier, they
have this Angularity, that when taken out of the wa¬
ter, they become petrified without lofing any thing of
their natural figure. 3. Kiun-tcheou-fou, the capital
of the ifland of Hai-nan. See Hai-NAN.
Canton, a large, populous, and wealthy city of
China, capital of the province of that name, Hands on
the banks of the river Taa, or great river, which, near
the city, is wide and fpacious. The wall of the city
is pretty high, and about fix or feven miles in circum¬
ference, though not more than one-third of the ground
is occupied by buildings, the other parts being appro¬
priated to pleafure grounds or to fifli ponds. The
country is extremely pleafant, and towards the eafl
hilly, fo as to command a beautiful profpeft of the city
and fuburbs, the coxnpafs of which, together, is about
ten miles.
The buildings of Canton are in general low, confift-
ing of one ftory and a ground floor, which is covered
with earth or red tiles in order to keep it cool j but
the houfes of the moil; refpeftable merchants and man¬
darins are comparatively lefty and well built. In dif¬
ferent parts of the city and fuburbs are jofs houfes or
temples, in which are placed the images worshipped by
the Chinefe : before whom are placed, at particular
feafons, a vail variety of fweetmeats, oranges, great
plenty of food ready dreffed, and alfo incenfe, which
is kept perpetually burning.
The llreets of Canton are long &nd narrow, paved
with flat ftones, adorned at intervals with triumphal
arches, which have a pleafing effe£l, and much crowded
With people. On both fides are (hops as in London,
appropriated to the fale of different commodities ; and
a kind of awning is extended from houfe to houfe,
which prevents the fun’s rays from incommoding either
inhabitants or paffengers. At the end of every ftreet
is a barrier, which, with the gates of the city, is fliut
in the evening. In China ft'reet, which is pretty
long and considerably wider than the reft, refide mer¬
chants } whofe trade, fo far as refpefls china, lack¬
ered ware, fans, See. is wholly confined to Europeans.
Moft of them Speak the foreign languages tolerably
well, or at leaft fufficiently intelligible to tranfadl bu- Canton
finefs. Befides thefe merchants, there is a company of v
twelve or thirteen, called the Cohong; who have an
exclufive right by appointment from authority to pur-
chafe the cargoes from the different Ships, and alio to
fupply them with teas, raw filks, &c. in return. The
establishment of the Cohong, though injurious to pri¬
vate trade, is admirably well adapted for the fecurity
of the different companies with which they tratfic $
becaufe each individual becomes a guarantee for the
whole j fo that if* one fail, the others confider them-
felvess as refponfible.
In Canton there are no carriages j all burdens are
carried by porters acrofs their Shoulders on bamboos \
as are alfo the principal people in fedan chairs, and the
ladies always. The Streets of Canton may be traver-
fed from morning till evening without feeing a woman,
thofe excepted who are Tartars, and even thefe but
very feldom.
On the wharf of the river, which is commodious and
pleafant, ftand the factories of the different European
nations, viz. the Dutch, French, Swedes, Danes, Eng¬
lish, &c. In thofe refide the fupercargoes belonging
to their refpeftive companies, who are appointed to
difpofe of the cargoes brought to market j to fupply
the Ships with others from Europe in return 5 and, du¬
ring their abfence, to contradl with the merchants for
fuch articles as may be judged neceffary for the next
fleet. Between the refidents of the factories the moft
perfeft cordiality fubfiSts j in each a common and
Splendid table is kept at the company’s expence, and
vifits are reciprocally exchanged; fo that nothing is
wanting to make refidence at Canton agreeable to an
European, but the pleafure naturally refulting from
the fociety of Women.
The fide of the river next the city is covered with
boats, which forln a kind of town or Streets, in which
live the poorer fort of the Chinefe, or rather the de-
feendants of the Tartars. Some of the men come on
Shore in the morning to their refpe&ive employments,
and in thofe fampans, or boats which are not Station¬
ary, the women and alfo the men carry paffengers
from place to place in the fame manner as is done by
wherries on the Thames. On this river live many
thoufand fouls who never were permitted to come on
fliore j whofe only habitation is their boat} in which
they eat, drink, Sleep, carry on many occupations,
keep ducks, &c. and occasionally a hog. .
The manufactures of Canton are principally carried
on in the fuburbs j though it has been frequently fup-
pofed that they were confined to the city 5 and this, by
feme writers, has been given as a reafon why Euro¬
peans are hot permitted to enter within the gates.
But this is a mistake ; and perhaps the true reafon for
this very lingular restraint is, that the houfes in which
they keep their women are chiefly within the city.
At Wampoa, a large commodious place for anchor¬
age, and which is about 12 or 14 miles from Canton,
the European veffels lie and unload their cargoes,
which are tranfmitted by lighters to the factories 5
and by the fame conveyance receive their refpeCtive
freights. Between this place and the city are three
hoppo, or cuftomhoufes, at which the boats pafling and
repalling are obliged to Stop, and undergo with thei;
paffemjers an examination, in order to prevent fmug-
T 2 gling.
Ci A tt t H8 ] CAN
Canfria. gling. The lighters juft mentioned, and alfo the cap-
' tain’s pinnace, are, however, excepted ; the former
having proper officers on board for the purpofe, and
the latter being narrowly watched and examined at the
landing.
The weather at Canton is, in fummer, (extremely
hot ; and in the months of December, January, and
February, cold : the country is neverthelefs pleafant
and healthful, abounding with all the neceflaries and
delicacies of life, which may be procured on terms much
cheaper than in Europe. The number of inhabitants
has been eftimated at one million ; but later calcula¬
tions have made the number conflderably lefs. N. Lat.
23. 30. E. Long. 113. 2©.
Canton, John, an ingenious natural philofopher,
was born at Stroud, in Gloucefterfhire, in 1718 ; and
was placed, when young, under the care of a Mr Da¬
vis of the fame place, a very able mathematician, with
whom, before he had attained the age of nine years, he
had gone through both vulgar and decimal arithmetic.
He then proceeded to the mathematics, and particularly
to algebra and aftronomy, wherein he had made a con-
fiderable progrefs, when his father took him from
fchool, *nd put him to learn his own bufmefs, which
* was that of a broad-cloth weaver. This circumftance
was not able to damp his zeal for the accjuiiition of
knowledge. All his leifure time was devoted to the
affiduous cultivation of aftronomical fcience j and, by
the help of the Caroline tables annexed to “ Wing’s
Aftronomy,” he computed eclipfes of the moon and
other phenomena. His acquaintance with that fcience
he applied likewife to the conftru&ing of feveral kinds
of dials. But the ftudies of our young philofopher
being frequently purfued to very late hours, his father,
fearing that they would injure his health, forbade him
the ufe of a candle in his chamber any longer than for
the purpofe of going to bed, and would himfelf often
fee that his injunction wras obeyed, ft he fon’s thirft
cf knowledge was, however, fo great, that it ma<je him
attempt to evade the prohibition, and to find means of
fecreting his light till the family had retired to reft,
when he rofe to profecute undifturbed his favourite
purfuits. It was during this prohibition, and at thefe
hours, that he computed, and cut upon ftone, with no
better an inftrument than a common knife, the lines of
a large upright fun dial, on which, befides the hour of
the day, was ftiown the rifmg of the fun, his place in
the ecliptic, and fome other particulars. When this
was fimffied, and made known to his father, he permit¬
ted it to be placed before the front of his houfe, where
it excited the admiration of feveral gentlemen in the
neighbourhood, and introduced young Mr Canton to
their acquaintance, which was followed by the oiler of
the ufe of their libraries. In the library of one of thefe
gentlemen, he found “ Martin’s Philofophmal Gram¬
mar,” which was the firft book that gave him a tafte
ffir natural philofophy. In the poffeffion of another gen¬
tleman, a few miles from Stroud, he firft farv a paii of
globes •, an objeft that afforded him uncommon plea-
fure, from the great eafe with which he could folve
thofe problems he had hitherto been accuftomed to
compute. The dial was beautified a few years ago at
the expence of the gentlemen at Stroud, fcvtral of
w-hom. had been his fchoolfellows, and who continued
ftill to regard it as a very diftinguifhed performance. CantcA
Among other perfons with whom he became acquaint- '■““"V'T
ed in early life, was the late reverend and ingenious
Dr Henry Miles of ft'ooting, a learned and refpedtable
member of the Royal Society, and of approved emi¬
nence in natural knowledge. This gentleman percei¬
ving that Mr Canton poffeffed abilities too promifing
to be confined within the.narrow limits of a country
town, prevailed qn his father to permit him to come
to London. Accordingly he arrived at the metropolis
March 4. T737, and refided with Dr Miles atTooting
till the 6th of May following j when he articled him¬
felf for the term of five years, as a clerk to Mr Samuel
Watkins, mafter of the academy in Spital-fquare. In
this fituation, his ingenuity, diligence, and good con-
dufr, were fo well difplayed, that on the expiration
of his clerkftiip in May 1742, he was taken into part-
nerffiip with Mr Watkins for three years •, which gen¬
tleman he aftenvards fucceeded in Spital-fquare, and
there continued during his whole life. In I744> he
married Penelope, the eldeft daughter of Mr Thomas
Colbrooke, and niece to James Colbrooke, Efq. banker
in London.
Towards the end of 1745, eleftricity, which feems
early to have engaged Mr Canton’s notice, received a
very capital improvement by the difcovery of the fa¬
mous Leyden Phial. 'This event turned the thoughts
of moft of the philofophers of Europe to that branch
of natural philofophy ; and our author, who was one
of the firft to repeat and to purfue the experiment,
found his affiduity and attention rewarded by many
capital difcoveries. Towards the end of 1749, he was
concerned with his friend, the late Mr Benjamin Ro¬
bins, in making experiments in order to determine to
what height rockets may be made to afcend, and at
what diftance their light may be feen. In 1750 was
read at the Royal Society Mr Canton’s “ Method of
making artificial magnets, without the ufe of, and yet
far fuperior to, any natural ones.” ft'his paper pro¬
cured him the honour of being elefted a member of
the fociety, and the prefent of their gold medal. "The
fame year he was complimented with the degree of
M. A. by the univerfity of Aberdeen 5 and, in I75L
was chofen one of the council of the Royal Society.
In 1752, our philofopher was fo fortunate as to be
the firft perfon in England, -who, by attra&ing the
eleftric fire from the clouds during a thunder ftorm,
\rerified Dr Franklin’s hypothefis of the fimilarity of
lightning and eleftricity. Next year, his paper en¬
titled, “ Ele&rical Experiments, with an attempt tp
account for their feveral Phenomena,” was read at the
Royal Society. In the fame paper Mr Canton men¬
tioned his having difcovered by a great number of ex¬
periments, that fome clouds were in a pofitive, and
fome in a negative, ftate of ele&ricity. Dr Franklin,
much about the fame time, made the like difcovery in
America, ft'his circumftance, together with our au¬
thor’s conftant defence of the dolor’s hypothefis, in¬
duced that excellent philofopher, immediately on his
arrival in England, to pay Mr Canton a vifit, and gave
rife to a friendffiip which ever after continued without
interruption or diminution. In the “ Lady’s Diary,
for 17 if6,” our author anfwered the prize queftion that
had been propofed in the preceding. year». The que-
ftion
CAN [i
Canton. $ion was, “ How can what we call the fhooting of
——v 1 ftars be beft accounted for j what is the fubitance of
this phenomenon ; and in what ftate of the atmofphere
doth it molt frequently fhow itfelf?” The fwlution,
though anonymous, was fo fatisfadory to his friend,
Mr Thomas Simpfon, who then conduced that w^ork,
that he fent Mr Canton the prize, accompanied with a
note, in which he faid, he was fure that he w'as not mi-
ftaken in the author of it, as no one befides, that he
knew of, could have anfwered the queilion. Our phi-
lofopher’s next communication to the public, w^as a
letter in the “ Gentleman’s Magazine, for September
I759>” on ele&rical properties of the tourmalin,
in which the law s of that wonderful ftone are laid down
in a very concife and elegant manner. On December
13. in the fame year, was read at the Royal Society,
“ An attempt to account for the regular diurnal va¬
riation of the Horizontal Magnetic Needle j and alfo
for its irregular variation at the time of an Aurora
Borealis.” A complete year’s obfervations of the di¬
urnal variations of the needle are annexed to the pa¬
per. On Nov. 5. IJ61, our author communicated
to the Royal Society an account of the Tranfit of Ve¬
nus, June 6. 1761, obferved in Spital-fquare. Mr Can¬
ton’s next communication to the Society, was a letter
addreflfed to Dr Benjamin Franklin, and read Feb. 4.
17625 containing fome remarks on Mr Delaval’s elec¬
trical experiments. On Dec. 16. in the fame year,
another curious addition w'as made by him to philofo-
phical knowledge, in a paper entitled, “ Experiments
to prove that water is not incompreflible.” Thefe ex¬
periments are a complete refutation of the famous
Florentine experiments, which fo many philofophers
have mentioned as a proof of the incompreilibility of
water.. On St Andrews’s day, 1763, our author was
the third time defied one of the council of the Royal
Society 5 and on Nov. 8. in the following year, were
read before that learned body, his farther “ Experi¬
ments and obfervations on the compreflibility of wa¬
ter, and fome other fluids.” The eftablifhment of this
fafl, in oppofition to the received opinion, formed on
the halty decifion of the Florentine Academy, was
thought to be deferving of the fociety’s gold medal.
It w^as accordingly moved for in the council of 1764 5
and after feveral invidious delays, which terminated
much to the honour of Mr Canton, it wras prefented
to him Nov. 30. 1766.
The next communication of our ingenious author to
the Royal Society, which wTe (hall take notice of in
this place, was on Dec. 22. 1763, being “ An eafy
method of making a Phofphorus that wall imbibe and
emit light like the Bolognian ftone ; with experiments
and obfervations.” When he firft fhow'ed to Dr Frank¬
lin the inftantaneous light acquired by fome of this
phofphorus from the near difcharge of an eleflrified
bottle, the doftor immediately exclaimed, “ And God
laid, Let there be light, and there was light.” The
dean and chapter of St Paul’s having, in a letter to the
prelident, dated March 5. 1769, requefted the opinion
of the Royal Society relative to the beft and mull ef-
feftual method of fixing electrical conductors to pre-
ferve that cathedral from damage by lightning, Mr
Canton was oile of the committee appointed to take
the letter into conftderation, and to report their oni-
49 ] CAN
nion upon it. The gentlemen joined with him in this GTantofi
bufinefs were, Dr Watfon, Dr Franklin, Mr Delaval, II
and Mr Wilfon. Their report was made on the 8th, ^,?ir!*Trc-
of June following 5 and the mode recommended by ^
them has been carried into execution. The laft paper
of our author’s, which wras read before the Royal So¬
ciety, was on Dec. 21. 1769 ; and contained “ Expe¬
riments to prove that the Luminoufnefs of the Sea
arifes from the putrefaftion of its animal fubftances,”
In the account now given of his communications to
the public, w'e have chiefly confined ourfelves to fuch
as were the moft important, and which threw' new and
diftinguifhed light on various objects in the philofophi-
cal world. Befides thefe he wrrote a number of papers
both in earlier and in later life, which appeared in feve¬
ral different publications, and particularly in the Gen¬
tleman’s Magazine.
The clofe and fedentary life of Mr Canton, arifing
from an unremitted attention to the duties of his pro-
feflion, and to the profecution of his philofophical in¬
quiries and experiments, probably contributed to fhort-
en his days. The diforder into which he fell, and
which carried him off, was a dropfy. His death hap¬
pened on March 22. 1772, in the 34th year of his age.
CANTONING, in the military art, is the allotting
diftinft and feparate quarters to each regiment 5 the
town where they are quartered being divided into as
many cantons as there are regiments.
CAN FRED, or Cantreth, fignifies a hundred vil¬
lages. It is a Britifh w'ord, compounded of the adje£liv«
can/, i. e. hundred 5 and /ref, a towm or village. In
Wales fome of the counties are divided into cantreds,
as in England info hundreds.
CANTYRE, from Cantierre, fignifying a “ head¬
land 5” the fouthern divifion of the (hire of Argyle in
Scotland, It is a peninfula, ftretching 27 miles from
north to fouth, and feven miles in breadth. It is moft-
ly plain, arable, and populous 5 inhabited promifeuoufly
by Highlanders and Lowlanders, the latter being in¬
vited to fettle in this place by the Argyle family, that.-
the lands might be the better cultivated. It gives the
title of marquis to the duke, and is by Lochfyn divid¬
ed from Argyle Proper. This loch is an inlet from
the fea, about 60 miles in length and four in breadth*.,
celebrated for its herring fifliery. There are many
paltry villages in this country, but no town of any con-
fequence except Campbelltown.
Cantyre was granted to the houfe of Argyle after the
fuppreffion of a rebellion of the Macdonalds of the
Ifles (and it is fuppofed of this peninfula) in the be¬
ginning of the laft century, and the grant was after¬
wards ratified by parliament. The ancient inhabitants
were the Mac-donalds, Maq-eachrans, Mac-kays, and
Mac-maths.
Mull of CANTTRE, the fouth cape or promontory of
the peninfula. There is here a lighthoufe 235 feet
above the fea at high water, fituated on the rocks call¬
ed the Merchants. Lat. 5 5. 22. Long. 5. 42. weft of
London. The found of Ilia from the lighthoufe bear¬
ing, by the compa.s, N. by E. diftant 27 miles 5 the
fouth end of Ilia N. N. W. diftant 25 miles 5 the
north end of Rathlin ifland, N. W. by W. one half
W. 5 the Maiden Rocks, S. by W. one half W. di-~'
ftant 14 miles 5 Copland light, S. by. W. one half W.
diftant-
e a n
[ 15° ]
CAN
Cjmute.
Cantyrc diilant 31 miles. The lanthorn is feen from N. N. E.
1.4th E. from S. by W. i-4th W. and intermediate
, points of the compafs N. of thefe two points.
CANTZ, a town of Silefia in Germany. E. Long.
16. 36. N. Lat. 51. 6. , ,. ,
CANVAS, m Commerce, a very clear unbleached
•cloth of hemp, or llax, wove regularly in little fquares.
It is ufed for working tapeftry with the needle, by
paflfing the threads of gold, filver, filk, or wool, through
the intervals or fquares.
Canvas is alio a coarfe cloth of hemp, unbleached,
fomewhat clear, which ferves to cover women’s flays,
alfo to ftiffen men’s clothes, and to make fome other of
their wearing apparel, &c.
Canvas is alfo ufed among the French for the mo¬
del or firft words whereon an air or piece of mufic is
compofed, and given to a poet to regulate and finiftv.
The canvas of a fong contains certain notes of the
compofer, which Ihow the poet the meafure of the
verfes he is to make. Lhus Du Lot fays, he has can¬
vas for ten fonnets againft the Mufes.
Canvas is alfo the name of a cloth made of hemp,
and ufed for Ihip fails.. . '
Canvas, among painters, is the cloth on which they
ufually draw their pi&ures * the canvas being fmoothed
over with a flick ftone, then fized, and afterwards
whited over, makes what the painters called their/>r?«W
cloth, on which they draw their fir ft fketches with coal
•or chalk, and afterwards finiftr with colours.
CANULA, in Surgery, a tube made of different
metals, principally of filver and lead, but fometimes of
iron. . ,
They are introduced into hollow ulcers, in order to
facilitate a difeharge of pus or any other fubftance •, or
into wounds, either accidental or artificial, of the large
cavities, as the thorax or abdomen : they are uied in
the operation of bronchotomy •, and by fome, after the
cutting for the ftone, as a drain for urine.
Other canulas are ufed for introducing cauteries,
either attual or potential, into hollow parts, in order
to guard the parts adjacent to that to be cauterized,
from injury. They are of various figures ; feme being
oval, fome round, and others crooked.
CANUSIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Apulia, on the right or fouth fide of the Aufidus, to
the weft of Cannae, whither the Romans fled after the
defeat fuftained there. It Was famous for its red Alin¬
ing Wool-, whence thofe who wore clothes made of
it were called Canvjinati. Now called CaNosa j
which fee. ... „ _ , , r
CANUTE, the firft Damfli king ol England after
Ironfide. He married Emma widow of King Ethelred j
and put to death feveral perfons of quality who flood
in his way to the crown. Having thus fettled his power
in England, he made a voyage to his other kingdom of
Denmark, in order to refill the attacks of the king of
Sweden and he carried along with him a great body
of the Englifti under the command of the earl of God¬
win. This nobleman had here an opportunity of per¬
forming a fervice by which he both reconciled the
king’s mind to the Englifli nation, and, gaining to
iiimfelf the friendihip of his fovereign, laid the founda¬
tion of that immenfe fortune which he acquired to his
family. He was ftationed next the Swedifh camp 5 and
ebferving a favourable opportunity which he was ob-
2
liged fuddenly to feize, he attacked the enemy m the
night, drove them fuddenly from their trenches, threw
them into diforder, purfued his advantage, and obtained
a deeifive victory over them. Next morning, Canute,
feeing the Englilh camp entirely abandoned, imagined .
that thefe difaffe&ed troops had deferted to the enemy}
and he was agreeably furprifed to find that they veve
at that time engaged in purfuit of the difcomfited
Swedes. He was fo pleafed with this fuccefs, and the
manner of obtaining it, that he beftowed his daughter
in marriage upon Godwin, and treated him ever after
with the moll entire confidence and regard.
In another voyage which he afterwards made to
Denmark, Canute attacked Norway, and expelled the
juft but unwarlike Olaus from his kingdom, of which
he kept poffelfion till the death of that prince. He
had now by his conquefts and valour attained the ut-
moft height of his ambition, and having leifure from
wars and intrigues, he felt the unfatisfaftory nature of
all human enjoyments: and equally weary of the glory
and turmoils of this life, he began to caft his view to-
■wards that future exiftence, which it is lo natural for
the human mind, whether latiated by profperity, or
difgufted with adverfity, to make the objefit of its at¬
tention. Unfortunately the fpirit which prevailed m
that age gave a wrong direction to his devotion *, and,
inllead of making atonement to thofe whom he .had
formerly injured by his a&s of violence, he entirely
employed himfelf in thofe exercifes of piety ^
Cafitl'
the monks reprefented as moil meritorious..
He builC
churches \ he endowed monafteries } he eniiched eccle-
fiaftics -, and he beftowed revenues for the fupport oi
chantries at Aflington and other places, where he ap¬
pointed prayers to be faid for the iouls of thole who
had there fallen in battle againft him. Fie even under¬
took a pilgrimage to Rome, where he fojourned a eon-
fiderable time ; and, befides obtaining from the pope
fome privileges for the Englifh fchocl erefte.d there, he
engaged all the princes through v hofe dominions he waa
obliged to pafs, to defiil from thofe heavy impofitions
and tolls which they were accuftomed to exaft from
the Englifli pilgrims. By this fpirit of. devotion, no
lefs than by his equitable and politic adminiftration, he
gained in a good meafure the affe&iohs of his fubjeas.
Canute, who was the greateft and moft powerful
prince of his time, fovereign of Denmark and Norway
as well as of England,, could hot fail to meet with
adulation from his courtiers } a tribute which is.libe¬
rally paid even to the meaneft and weakeft of . princes.
Some of his flatterers breaking out one day in admi¬
ration of his grandeur, exclaimed that every thing
was poffible for him: upon which the monarch, it.is
faid, ordered a chair to be fet on the fea ftiore while
the tide was making j and as the waters approached?
he commanded them to retire, and obey. the voice
of him who was lord of the ocean. He feigned to fit
fome time in expefilation of their fubmiflion-, but when
the fea ftill advanced towards him, and began to wafti
him with its billows, he turned to his courtiers., and
remarked to them, That every creature m the umverle
was feeble and impotent, and that power refided with
one Being alone, in whofe hands were all the elements
of nature, who could fay to the oceafi, “ fai
{halt thou go, and no farther,” and who could level
with his nod the moft towering piles of human pride
CAN [i
Canute and nmbition. From that time, it is faid, he never
'i would wear a crown. He died in the 20th year of
,Caoutchouc ^ rejgn ^ anc| was interred at Winchefter, in the old
re on a fiery.
CANZONE, in Mujic, fignifies, in general, a fong,
where fome little fugues are introduced ; but it is
fometimes ufed for a fort of Italian poem, ufually
pretly long, to which mulic may be compofed in the
ftyle of a cantata. If this term be added to a piece of
inllrumental mufic, it fignifies much the fame as can¬
tata ; if placed in any part of a fonata, it implies the
fame meaning as allegro, and only denotes that the part
to which it is prefixed is to be played or fung in a briik
and lively manner.
CANZONETTA, a diminutive of canzone, denot¬
ing a little fliort fong. The canzonette Neapolitane
has two {trains, each whereof is fung twice over, as
the vaudevilles of the French. The canzonette Sieiliane
is a fpecies of jig, the meafure whereof is ufually
twelve eighths, and fix eighths, and fometimes both,
as rondeaus.
CAORLO, a fmall iiland in the gulf of Venice, on
the coaft of Friuli, 20 miles fouth-wefl of Aquileia,
fubje£t to Venice. It has a town of the fame name,
with a bilhop’s fee.
CAOUTCHOUC, Elastic Resin, or India rub¬
ber, a fubltance produced from the fyringe tree of
Cayenne and other parts of South America, and pof-
fei'ied of the moft fingular properties. No fubftance is
yet known which is fo pliable, and at the fame time fo
elaftic 5 and it is farther a matter of curiofity, as being
capable of refilling the adtion of very powerful men-
ilrua. From the account of M. de la Condamirre, we
learn that this fubftance oozes out, under the form of
a vegetable milk, from incifions mr.de in the tree :
and that it is gathered chiefly in time of rain, becaufe,
though it may be colledled at all times, it flows then
molt abundantly. The means employed to infpiflate
and indurate it, M. de la Borde fays, are kept a pro¬
found fecret. M. Bemare, and others, affirm, that it
thickens and hardens gradually by being expofed to
the air j and as foon as it acquires a folid confiftence
it manifefts a very extraordinary degree of flexibility
and elafticity. Accordingly the Indians make boots
of it which water cannot penetrate, and which, when
fmoked, have the appearance of real leather. Bottles
are alfo made of it, to the necks of which are faftened
hollow reeds, fo that the liquor contained in them may
be fquirted through the reeds or pipes by prefliire.
One of thefe filled with water is always prefented to
each of the guefts at their entertainments, who never
fail to make ufe of it before eating. This whimfical
cuftom led the Portuguefe in that country to call the
tree that produces the refinpao di xirringa ; and hence
the name offeringat is given both to the tree and to
its refinous produffion. Flambeaux, an inch and a half
in diameter, and two feet long, are likewife made of
this refin, which give a beautiful light, have no bad
fmell, and burn twelve hours. A kind of cloth is alfo
prepared from it, which the inhabitants of Quito apply
to the fame purpofe as our oil cloth and fail cloth. It
is formed, in fine, by means of moulds, into a variety
of figures for ufe and ornament 5 and the procefs is faid
to be thus :—1'he juice, which is obtained by incifion,
is fpread ov^r pieces of clay formed into the defired
51 1 CAN
fhape *, and as fall as one layer is dry, another is add- Caoutchouc
ed, till the veffel be of the proper thicknefs: the whole ^ " J
is then held over a ftrong fmoke of vegetables on fire,
whereby it hardens into the texture and appearance of
leather 5 and before the finifiiing, while yet foft, is
capable of having any impreffion made on the outfide,
which remains for ever after. When the whole is done,
the infide mould is picked out.
Since this relin has been known in Europe, its che¬
mical qualities and other interefting properties have
been very diligently inveftigated. In particular, it
has been endeavoured to difcover fome method of dif-
folving it in fuch a manner that it would affume differ¬
ent figures, with equal eafe as when in its original fluid
ftate. In the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for
1768, we have an account of feveral attempts far this
purpofe, and how it may be effefted.—The ftate of
vegetable milk in which the caoutchouc refin is found
when it comes from the tree, led M. Maequer to ima¬
gine that it was compofed of an oil and a watery mat¬
ter. From its wanting aromatic flavour, from its lit¬
tle volatility, and from its being incapable of folution
in Ipirit of vine, he concluded that the oil which en--
tered its compofition was not an effential, but a fatty,
one. Hence he thought it probable that it palled
from a fluid to a folid form by the evaporation of the
watery part, and that the oily folvents would reduce
it to a foft ftate. The firft trials he made for diflblv-
ing it were with linfeed oil, effence of turpentine, and
feveral others. But all he could obtain by means of
thefe menftrua was a vifeid fubftanee incapable of be¬
ing hardened, and totally void of elafticity. The rec¬
tified effential oil of turpentine was employed feeming-
ly with greater fuccefs. To feparate from this men-
ftruum the caoutchouc which it had diffolved, M. Mac-
quer added fpirit of wine j but the confequence was^
that part only of the oil united with the fprrit j the
reft remaining obftinately attached to the refin which
it had difiblved, and thus preventing it from affuming
a folid confiftence. The author next endeavoured to
diffolve it by means of heat in Papin’s digefter. But
neither water, nor fpirit of wine, although in this way
capable of diffolving the hardeft bones, could produce
any other effeft upon it than to render it more firm
than before. After this, he tried what effe<ft the mil¬
ky juice of other vegetables would have upon it. He
uled feveral kinds, particularly that of the fig. But,
in this way, he could obtain no folution. From the
great volatility of ether, he was next induced to try it
as a menftruum j and, for this purpofe, he prepared
fome with great attention. The caoutchouc, cut into
little bits, and put into a proper veffel with as much
ether as was fufficient to cover it, was perfectly dif¬
folved without any other heat than that of the atmo-
fphere. This folution was tranfparent and of an am¬
ber colour. It Hill preferved the fmell of ether, but
mixed with the difagreeable odour of the caoutchouc,
and it is a little lefs fluid than pure ether. Upon its
being thrown into water, no milky liquor was produ¬
ced y but there arofe to the furface a folid membrane,
which poffeffed the great elafticity and other peculiar
properties of the caoutchouc. He obferves, however,
that two pints of the beft ether, obtained by rectifying
eight or ten pints of the common ether by a gentle
heat, imift be ufed, in order to the fuccefs of the ope¬
ration.—
C A O 15
Caoutchouc, ration.—The diftinguiftiing properties of this iub-
" ' ftance, viz. its iblidity, flexibility, and elafticity, and
its quality of refilling the adlionof aqueous, fpirituous,
faline, oily, and other common folvents, render it ex¬
tremely fit for the conftruftion of tubes, catheters,
and other inftruments, in which thefe properties are
wanted. In order to form this refin into fmall tubes,
M. Macquer prepared a folid cylindrical mould, of
wax, of the defired fize and lhape j and then dipping
a pencil into the ethereal folution of tne refin, daubed
the mould over with it, till he had covered it with a
coat of refin of a fuflicient thickneis. -The whole
piece is then thrown into boiling water j by the neat
of which the wax is foon melted, and rifes to the lur-
face, leaving the refinous tube completely formed be-
Groffart informs us, that he has fucceeded very well
in employing the effential oils of turpentine and laven¬
der as a folvent for the elailicgum, and thus forming it
into tubes or giving it any lhape that is wanted. When
the elaltic tube is prepared with oil of lavender, the
latter may be feparated by immerfing the tube in aico-
hol, which charges itfelf with the oil, and becomes a
good lavender water. Alcohol ferves another purpofe
befide taking up the effential oil. It accelerates ^ry
much the drying of caoutchouc inllruments which
are thus formed. Oil of turpentine appeared always
to have a kind of ftickinefs ; and the fme.ll which could
not be got rid of, by any means yet difcovered, was
another inconvenience. .
Groflart propofes another folvent, which is eaiily
procured, and is not liable to the inconvenience juft
mentioned. This folvent is water. “ I conceive
(fays he) it will appear ftrange to mention water as a
lolvent of elaftic gum, that liquid having been always
fuppofed to have no aflion upon it. I myfelf refilled
the idea-, but reflefting that ether, by being faturated
with water, is the better enabled to a cl on caoutchouc,
and that this gum when plunged into boiling water be¬
comes more tranfparent at the edges, I prefumed that
this efteft was not due fimply to the dilatation ot its
volume by the heat. I thought that, at that tempe¬
rature, fome action might take place, and that a long-
continued ebullition might produce more ienlible el-
fefts. I was not difappointed in my expectations, and
one of thofe tubes was prepared without any other fol¬
vent than water and heat. I proceeded m the ame
manner as with ether : the elaftic gum.dilates but very
little in boiling water j it becomes whitilh, but reco¬
vers its colour again by drying it in the air and light.
It is fufficiently prepared for ufe when it has been , a
quarter of an hour in boiling water : by this time its
edges are fomewhat tranfparent. It is to be turned
fpirally round the mould, in the manner we delcnbed
before, and replunged frequently into the boiling wn-
ter, during the time that is employed m forming the
tube, to the end that the edges may be difpofed to
unite together. When the whole is bound with
packthread, it is to be kept fome hours m boiling v a-
ter -, after which it is to be dried, ftill keeping on the
- “ we wifti to be more certain that the connexion
is perfeft, the fpiral may be doubled -, but we muft al¬
ways avoid placing the exterior furfaces of the dips one
iipon the other, as thofe furfaces are the parts which
2 ] ' GAO
moft refift the action of folvents. This precaution isCaout
lefs neceffary when ether is employed, on account of
its great action upon the caoutchouc^
“ It might be feared that the adtion of water upon
caoutchouc would deprive us of the advantages which
might otherwife be expedted $ but thefe fears will be
removed, if we confider that the affinities differ ac¬
cording to the temperatures -, that it is only at % very
high temperature that water exercifes any fenfible ac¬
tion upon caoutchouc. I can affirm, that at 1 20° of
Reaumur’s thermometer (302° of Fahrenheit) this af¬
finity is not fuch as that the water can give a liquid
form to caoutchouc *, and it does not appear that we
having any thing to fear in pradlice from a combination
between thefe two bodies, which, though it really is a
true folution, does not take place in. any fenfible de¬
gree but at a high temperature. It is therefore at pre-
fent eafy to make of caoutchouc whatever. inftruments
it may be advantageous to have of a flexible, fupple,
and elaftie fubftance, which is impermeable to water
at the temperature of our atmofphere, and refifts the
adlion of acids as well as that of m6ft other folvents.
As to the durability of thefe inftruments, few fubftan-
ces promife more than this, becaufe it may be foldered
afreffi in a damaged part. Any vroven fubftance may
be covered with it; it is only required that the fub-
ftance ffiould be of a nature not to be adled upon du¬
ring the preparation, either by ether or by boiling w a¬
ter j for thefe twro agents are thofe which appear to me
to merit the preference. Artifts will frequently find
an advantage in employing ether, as it requires lefs
time} fo that a perfon may make, in a fingle day, any
tube he may have occafion for. The expenc.e of ether
is very little, fince it is needful only to difpofe the
caoutchouc to adhere } and being brought into that
ftate, the caoutchouc may be kept in a veffel perfe£lly
well clofed. It would alfo diminifh the expence, of
the ether, if, inftead of wafhing it with a large quantity
of water, there ftiould be added to it only as much water
as it can take up.” Annales de Chitnie, vol. xi. p. 149.
A refin fimilar to this was fome years ago difcover¬
ed by M. Poivre, in the ifle of France ; and there are
various milky juices extrafted from trees in America
and elfewhere, which by previous mixtures and prepa¬
rations are formed into an elaftic refin, but of an infe¬
rior quality to that of Cayenne ^ fuch, for mftance,
are the juices obtained from the Cecropia peltatay the
Ficus rehgiofa and Lndica, &c.
Of the genuine trees, thofe growing along the banks
of the river of the Amazons are deferibed by M. Con-
damine as attaining a very great height, being at the
fame time perfedlly ftraight, and having no branches
except at top, which is but fmall, covering no more
than a circumference of ten feet. Its leaves bear fome
refemblance to thofe of the manioc : they are green on
the upper part, and white beneath. The feeds are
three in number, and contained in a pod confifting of
three cells, not unlike thofe of the ricinus or palma
Chrifti; and in each of them there is a kernel, which
being ftripped and boiled in water produces a thick oil
or fat, anfwering the purpofe of butter in the cookery
of that country.
A method of diffolving this elaliic gum without e-
ther, for the purpofes of a varnifh or the like, is as fol¬
lows’: Take one pound of the fpirit of turpentine, and
GAO [ 153 ] C A F
Cm*!- ft pound of the gum cut into very final] pieces j
c“ouc; pour the turpentine into a long-necked matrafs, which
^ Y mull be placed in a fand bath ; throw in the gum,
not all at once, but by little and little according as it
is perceived to dlffolve : When it is entirely diffolved,
pour into the matrafs a pint of nut or linfeed oil, or
oil of poppies, rendered deiiccative in the ufual man¬
ner with litharge : Then let the whole boil for a quar¬
ter of an hour, and the preparation is finiflied. This
would make an excellent varnifh for air balloons, were
it not fo expenfive on account of the price of the gum.
—Another method, invented by Mr Baldwin, is as
follows. Take any quantity of the caoutchouc, as
two ounces avoirdupois : cut it into fmall bits with a
pair of fciflars. Put a ftrong iron ladle (luch as plum¬
bers or glaziers melt their lead in) over a common pit-
coal or other fire. The fire muft be gentle, glowing,
and without fmoke. When the ladle is hot, much be¬
low a red heat, put a fingle bit into the ladle. If
black imoke ilfues, it will prefently flame and difap-
pear ; or it will evaporate without flame : the ladle is
then too hot. When the ladle is lefs hot, put in a fe-
cond bit, which will produce a white Imoke. 1 his
white fmoke will continue during the operation, and
evaporate the caoutchouc : therefore no time is to be
loft ; but little bits are to be put in, a few at a time,
till the whole are melted. It fhould be continually
and gently flirred with an iron or brafs fpoon. Two
pounds, or one quart, of the belt drying oil (or of
raw linfeed oil, which, together with a few drops of
neats foot oil, has flood a month, or not fo long, on a
lump of quicklime, to make it more or lefs drying) is
to be put into the melted caoutchouc, and ftirred till
hot : and the whole poured into a glazed vefl'el, through
a coarfe gauze, or fine fieve. When fettled and clear,
which will be in a few minutes, it is fit for ufe, either
hot or cold.
The abb£ Clavigero informs us, that the elaftic
gum is called by the Mexicans Ollin or 0//f, and by the
Spaniards of that kingdom Ule i That it diilils from
the olquahuitl, which is a tree of moderate fize ; the
trunk of which is fmooth and yellowifh, the leaves
pretty large, the flowers white, and the fruit yellow
and rather round, but angular •, within which there are
kernels as large as filberts, and white, but covered
with a yellowifh pellicle : That the kernel has a bitter
tafte, and the fruit always grows attached to the bark
of the tree : That when the trunk is cut, the ule which
diftils from it is white, liquid, and vifeous ; afterwards
it becomes yellow ; and laftly of a leaden colour,
though rather blacker, which it always retains. The
tree, he adds, is very common in the kingdom of Gua-
timala.
Different trees, it would appear, yield the ela¬
ftic gum. Aublet, in his H/Zaire des P/antes de In
Guiane (p. 871.), deferibes the tree, the fruit* and
manner of collecting the juice ; but never faw the
flower : he calls it, however, Hevea Guianenjis, In
Jacquin’s America, it is called Echites Corymbo/a. The
younger Linnaeus, in his Supp'ementum Plantarum (p.
422), names it Jatrophn Eiq/lica; but acknowledges
that he only gives it this name from the ftrufture of
the fruit having moft refetnblance to that genus, his
dry fpecies wanting the flowers*
Of the above gum, it is faid, the Chinefe make e-
Yol. Y. Part I,
laftic rings for lafeivious purpofes.—Among us it is
ufed by furgeons for inje&mg liquids, and by painters
for rubbing out black lead pencil marks, &c.
CAP, a part of drels made to cover the head, much
in the figure thereof.
The ufe of caps and hats is referred to the year
-1449, the firft feen in thefe parts of the world being
at the entry of Charles VI1. into Rouen : from that
time they began to take place of the hoods, or chape-
roons, that had been ufed till then. When the cap
was of velvet, they called it mortier; when of wool*
fimply bonnet. None but kings, princes, and knights,
vrere allowed the ufe of the mortier. The cap was the
head-drefs of the clergy and graduates. Pafquier fays,
that it was anciently a part of the hood worn by the
people of the robe j the fkirts whereof being cut off
as an encumbrance, left the round cap ail eafy com¬
modious cover for the head $ which round cap being
afterwards affumed by the people, thofe of the gown
changed it far a fquare one, firft invented by a French¬
man, called Patrouillet : he adds, that the giving of
the cap to the Undents in the univeriities, was to de¬
note, that they had acquired full liberty, and were no
longer fubjeft to the rod of their fuperiors *, in imita¬
tion of the ancient Romans, who gave a piieus, or cap,
to their flaves, in the ceremony of making them free :
whence the proverb, Vocare fervos ad piieum. Hence,
alfo, on medals, the cap is the fymbol of Liberty,
w'hom they reprefent holding a cap in her right hand,
by the point.
The Romans were many ages without any regular
covering for the head : when either the rain or fun
was troublefome, the lappet of the gown w as thrown
over the head •, and hence it is that all the ancient fta-
tues appear bareheaded, excepting fometimes a wueath,
or the like. And the fame ufage obtained among the
Greeks, where, at leaft during the heroic age, no caps
were known. The fort of caps or covers of the head
in ufe among the Romans, on divers occafions, wrere
the pur a, pi/eus, cucuilut, ga/erus, and pailiolum ; the
differences between which are often confounded by an¬
cient as well as modern writers.
The French clergy wear a ftiallowr kind of cap,
called calotte, w'hich only covers the top of the head,
made of leather, fatin, worfted, or other fluff’. The
red cap is a mark of dignity allowed only to thofe w ho
are railed to the cardinalate. The fecular clergy are
diftinguilhed by black leathern caps, the regulars by
knit and ■worfted ones.
Churchmen, and the members of univerfities, ftu-
deuts in law, phyfic, &e. as well as graduates, wear
fquare caps. In moft univerfities doftors are diftin¬
guilhed by peculiar caps, given them in affuming the
deflorate. Wiekliff calls the canons of his time bi-
furcati, from their caps. Pafquier obferves, that, in
his time, the caps w'orn by the churchmen, &c. were
called fquare caps ; though, in effeft, they were round
yellow caps.
The Chinefe have not the ufe of the hat, like us $
but wrear a cap of a peculiar ftruflure, which the laws
of civility will not allow' them to put off’: it is differ¬
ent for the different feafohs of the year : that ufed in
fummer is in form of a cone, ending at top in a point.
It is made of a very beautiful kind of mat, much va¬
lued in that country, and lined with faiin: to this is
U added.
Caout¬
chouc,
Cap-
GAP
[ 154 1
CAP
added, at top, a large lock of red filk, which.falls all
round as l@w as the bottom } fo that, in walking, the
filk fluctuating regularly on all Tides, makes a graceful
appearance : fometimes, inftead of filk, they ui’e a kind
of bright red hair, the luftre whereof no weather ef¬
faces. In winter they wear a pluih cap, bordered with
martlet’s or fox’s {kin } as to the reft, like thofe. for
the fummer. Thefe caps are frequently fold for eight
or ten crowns j but they are fo fliort, that the ears are
expofed. , r • r
The cap is fometimes ufed as a mark ot intamy j in
Italy the Jews are diftinguiftied by a yellow cap ; at
Lucca by an orange one. In France, thofe who had
been bankrupts were obliged ever after to wear a green
cap, to prevent people from being impofed on in any
future commerce. By feveral arrets in J 5^4» 1622,
1628, 1688, it was decreed, that if they were at any
time ’found without their green cap, their prote&ion
ftiould be null, and their creditors empowered to call
them into prifon : but the fentence is not now exe¬
cuted.
CAP of Maintenance, one of the regalia, or orna¬
ments of ft ate, belonging to the kings of England, be¬
fore whom it was carried at the coronation and other
great folemnities. Caps of maintenance, are alfo car¬
ried before the mayors of the feveral cities in Eng-
Cap and Button*, are two fmall iflands, lying in
longitude 48' 30" eaft ; and in latitude, the for¬
mer 58' 3 ", the latter 50 49' fouth. They are
thus deferibed by Sir George Staunton.
« At a little diftance they might be.miftaken tor
the remains of old caftles, mouldering into heaps of
ruins, with tall trees already growing upon the tops j
but at a nearer view, they betrayed evident marks of a
volcanic origin. Explofions from fubterraneous fires,
produce, for the molt part, hills of a regular ftiape,
and terminating in truncated cones •, but when from a
fubaqueous volcano eruptions are thrown up above the
furface of the fea, the materials, falling back into the
water, are more irregularly difperled, and generally
leave the Tides of the new creation naked and mifliapen,
us in the infiance of Amfterdam, and of thofe fmaller
fpots called, from fome refemblance in fliape, the Cap
and Button. . ,
“ In the Cap were found Two caverns,, running ho¬
rizontally into the fide of the rock ; and in thefe were
a number of thofe birds nefts fo much prized by the
Chinefe epicures. They feemed to be compofed ol
fine filaments cemented together by a tranfparent vil-
cous matter, not unlike what is left by the foam of the
fea upon ftones alternately covered by the tide, or thole
gelatinous animal fubftances found floating on every
coaft. The nefts adhere to each other, and to the
Tides of the cavern, moftly in rows, without any break
or interruption. The birds that build thefe nefls are
fmall gray {wallows, with bellies of a dirty white.
They wrere flving about in coniiderable numbers *, but
they were To fmall, and their night fo quick, that they
efcap d the (hot fired at them. 'I he fame nefts are laid
abo to be found in deep caverns, at the foot of the
hb’heft mountains in the middle of Java, and at a di¬
ftance from die fea, from which the birds, it is thought,
derive no materials, either for their food or the con-
ftrudion of their nefts j as it does not appear prooab.e
they Ihould fly, in fearch of either, over the interme¬
diate mountains, which are very high, or againft the
boifterous winds prevailing thereabouts. They feed
on infeas, which they find hovering over ftagnated
pools between the mountains, and for catching which
their wide-opening beaks are particularly adapted.
They prepare their nefts from the belt remnants of
their food. Their greateft enemy is the kite, who of¬
ten intercepts them in their paflage to and from the ca¬
verns which are generally iurrounded with rocks of
gray limeftone or white marble. I he neiis are placed
in horizontal rows at different depths, from 30 to jjoo
feet. The colour and value of the nefts depend on the
quantity and quality of the infedts caught, and perhaps
alfo on the fituation where they are built. I heir va¬
lue is chiefly determined by the uniform finenefs and
delicacy of their texture } thole that white and
tranfparent being moft efteemed, and fetching oiten in
China their wreight in lilver. Ihele nefts are a confi-
derable objeft ot traffic among the Javanefe, and many
are employed in it from their infancy. I he. birds hav¬
ing fpent near two months in preparing their nefts, lay
each two eggs, which are hatched in aoout fifteen
days. When the young birds become fledged, it is
thought time to feize upon their nefts, which is done
regularly thrice a-year, and is effe. ed by means of
ladders of bamboo and reeds, by which the people de-
feend into the cavern •, but when it. is very deep, rope
ladders are preferred. This operation is attended with
much danger j and feveral break their necks in the at¬
tempt. The inhabitants of the mountains generally
employed in it begin always by facrificing a buffalo j
which cuftom is conftantly obferved by the Javanefe
on the eve of every extraordinary enterprife. T hey
alfo pronounce fome prayers, anoint themlelves with
fweet-feented oil, and fmoke the entrance of the ca¬
vern with gum-benjamin. Near fome of thofe caverns
a tutelar goddefs is worftu'pped, whofe prieft burns in-
cenfe, and lays his protecting hands on every perfon
preparing to defeend into the cavern. A flambeau u
carefully prepared at the fame time, with a gum which
exudes from a tree growing in the vicinity, and is not
'eafily extinguifhed by fixed air or fubterraneous va-
p mrs. The {wallow, which bunds thofe nefts, is de¬
feribed as not having its tail feathers marked with
white fpots, which is a charader attributed to it by
Linnaeus •, and it is poffible that there aie two fpecies
or varieties of the fwallow, whofe nefts are alike va¬
luable
Cap, in fhip-building, a ftrong thick block ol to China,
wood, ufed to confine two mails together, when one is
eredled at the head of the other in order to lengthen
it. It is for this purpofe furnifhed with two holes
perpendicular to its length and breadth, and parallel
to its thicknefs : one of thefe is fquare, and the other
round : the former being folidly fixed upon the upper
end of the lower mail, whilft the latter receives the
maft employed to lengthen it, and fecures it in this
pofition. . T , . ,
CAPACIO, an epifcopal town of Italy m the
kingdom of Naples, and in the hither Principato. E.
Long. 13. 18. N. Lat. 40. 40.
CAPACITY, in a general fenfe, an aptitude or
difpofition to hold or retain any tl mg.
Capacity, in (Jcorneiry, is the folid contents of any
body 5
GAP [ 155 1 CAP
Cupac-ity body ; alio our hollow meafures for wine, beer, corn,
!! fait, &c. are called meafures of Capacity.
**aPe^’ Capacity, in Law, the ability of a man, or body
* ' politic, to give or take lands or other things, or fue
a&ions.
Our law allows the king two capacities ; a natural,
and a political 1 in the firlt, he may purchafe lands to
him and his heirs j in the fecond, to him and his fuc-
ceffors. The clergy of the church of England have
the like.
CAPARASON, or Caparison, the covering or
clothing laid over a horfe •, efpeeially a fumpter horfe,
• or horfe of Hate. The word is Spanifh, being an aug¬
mentative of cape, caput, head.
Anciently the caparafons were a kind of iron ar¬
mour, wherewith horfes were covered in battle.
CAPE, in Geography, a high land running out
with a point into the fea, as Cape Nord, Cape Horn,
the Cape of Good Hope, &c.
Cape Elk. See Cervus, Mammalia Index.
Cape Breton. See Breton.
Cape Coajl Cafle. See Coast.
Cape of Good Hope. See Good Hope.
Cape Verd. See Verd.
CAPELL, Edward, a gentleman well known by
his indefatigable attention to the works of Shakefpeare,
was a native of the county of Suffolk, and received his
education at the fchool of St Edmund’s Bury. In the
dedication of his edition of Shakefpeare, in 1768, to
the duke of Grafton, he obferves *, that “ his father
and the grandfather of his grace, were friends, and to
the patronage of the deceafed nobleman he owed the
leifure which enabled him to beftow the attention of
2o years on that work.” The office which his grace
beftowed on Mr Capell Was that of deputy-infpebtor
of the plays, to which a falary is annexed of 200I. a-year.
So early as the year 1745, as Mr Capell himfelf informs
us, fhocked at the licentioufnefs of Hanmer’s plan, he
firft projefted an edition of Shakefpeare, of the itribteft
accuracy, to be collated and published in due time,
ex fide codicum. He immediately proceeded to collect
and compare the oldeft and fcarceft copies 5 noting the
Original excellencies and defeats of the rareft quartos,
and diftinguifhing the improvements or variations of
the fir if, fecond, and third folios ; and after many
years labour produced a very beautiful fmall oftavo,
in 10 volumes, with an “ Introdudtion.” There is
net, the authors of the Monthly Review obferve,
among the various publications of the prefent literary
era, a more lingular compofition than that ii Intro¬
duction.” In fiyle and manner it is more obfolete
and antique than the age of which he treats. It is
Lord Herbert of Cherbury, walking the new pave¬
ment in all the trappings of romance •, but, like Lord
Herbert, it difplays many valuable qualities accom¬
panying this air of extravagance, much found fenfe,
and appropriate erudition. In the title-page of “ Mr
William Shakefpeare, his Comedies, Hiftories, and
Tragedies,” it was alfo announced and promulgated,
“ Whereunto will be added, hi fome other volumes,
notes critical and explanatory, and a body of various
readings entire.” “ The Introduction” likewife de¬
clared, that thefe “ notes and various readings” would
be accompanied with another work, difclofing the
fhurcee from which Shakefpeare “ drew the greater
part of his knowledge in mythological and claffical Capet!
matters, his fable, his hiifory, and even the feeming N.
peculiarities of his language—to which,” fays Mr U5'.
Capell, “ we have given for title, The School of
Shakefpeare.” Nothing furely could be more pro¬
perly conceived than fuch defigns j nor have we ever
met with any thing better grounded on the iubjedf of
“ the learning of Shakefpeare,” than what may be
found in the long note to this part of Mr Capeli’s In-
troduftion. It is more folid than even the popular
“ Eifay” on this topic. Certain quaintneffes of llyle,
and peculiarities of printing and pUnftuation, attended
the whole of this publication. The outline, however*
vras correct j and the critic, with unremitting toil*
proceeded in his undertaking. But while he wras div¬
ing into the clalfics of Caxton (to continue the Re¬
viewers account), and working his way under ground*
like the river Mole, in order to emerge with all his
glories •, while he w'as looking forward to his tri¬
umphs, certain other a&ive fpirits went to work upon
his plan j and, digging out the promifed treaiures,
laid them prematurely before the public, defeating the
elfecl of our critic’s difeoveries by anticipation, btee-
vens, Malone, Farmer, Percy, Reed, and a whole
hoft of literary ferrets, burrow ed into every hole and
corner of the warren of modern antiquity, and over¬
ran all the country, whole map had been delineated
by Edward Capell. Such a contingency nearly dag¬
gered the Heady and unfhaken perfeverance of our
critic, at the very eve of the completion of his la¬
bours, and as his editor informs us—for, alas ! at
the end of near 40 years, the publication was poflhu-
mous, and the critic himfelf no more!—he was almoft
determined to lay the work wholly alide. He perfevered*
however, by the encouragement of fome noble and wor¬
thy perfons ^ and to fuch their encouragement, and his
perfeverance, the public was, in 1783, indebted for
three large volumes in 4to, under the title of “ Notes
and various readings of Shakefpeare *, together with
the School of bhakefpeare, or Extracts from divers
Englilh Books that were in print in the Author’s
time ; evidently fhowing from whence his feveral Fa¬
bles were taken, and fome parcel of his Dialogue. Al¬
fo farther extrafts, which contribute to a due under-
flanding of his Writings, or give a light to the Hillory
of his Life, or to the Dramatic Pliftory of his Time. By
Edw. Capell.”—Bolides the works already mentioned,
Mr Capell was the editor of a volume of ancient poems
called “ Prolulions j” and the alteration of “ Anthony
and Cleopatra,” as affed at Drury Lane in 1758. Hts
died January 24. 1781.
CAPELLA, in /ijlronomy, a bright fixed liar in
the left fhoulder of the conliellation Auriga.
CAPELLE, a town of France, in Picardy, and ill
the Tierache, eight miles from Guife. It was taken
by the Spaniards in 1636; but retaken the year after.
E. Long. 3. 59. N. Lat. 49. 58.
CAPELLETS. See Farriery Index.
CAPELL US, Lewis, an eminent French Prote-
ftant divine, born at Sedan in Champagne about the
year 1579. He was the author of fome learned works :
but is chiefly known from the controverfy he engaged
in with the younger Buxtorf concerning the antiquity
of Hebrew points, which Capellus undertook to dif-
prove. His Critica Sacra was alfo an elaborate work,
U 2 and
CAP t ti
€apePus and excited feme difputes. He died in 1658, having
II made an abridgement of his life in his work De Gente
Capellori.
CAPER. See Capfaris, Botany Index.
Caper alfo denotes a veflel ufed by the Dutch for
cruifmg and taking prizes from the enemy •, in which
fenfe, caper amounts to the fame with privateer. Ca¬
pers are commonly double officered, and crowded with
hands even beyond the rates of {hips of war, becaufe the
thing chiefly in view is boarding the enemies.
CAPERNAUM, a city celebrated in the Gofpels,
being the place where Jefus ufually refuted during the
time of his miniftry. This city is nowhere mention¬
ed in the Old Teftament under this or any other name
like it 5 and therefore it is not improbable that it was
one of thofe towns which the Jews built after their
return from the Babyloniffi captivity. It^ flood on
the fea coaft, i. e. on the coaft of the fea of Galilee, m
the borders of Zebulon and Nephtalim (Mat. iv. 15.),
and confequently towards the upper part thereof. It
took its name no doubt from an adjacent fpiing, o
great repute for its clear and limpid water $ and
which, according to Jofephus, was by the natives calledr
Capernaum. As this fpring might be fome inducement
to the building the town in the place where it flood,
fo its being a convenient wafting place from Galilee to
any part on the other fide of the fea, might be fome
motive to our Lord for his moving from Nazareth, and
making this the place of his moft conftant refidence.
Upon this account Capernaum was highly honoured,
and faid by our Lord himfelf to be exalted unto heaven;
but becaufe it made no right ufe of this fignal favour,
it drew from him the fevere denunciation, that, it
fliould be brought down to hell (Matt. xi. 23.), whici
has certainly been verified : for, as Dr Wells obferves,
fo far is it from being the metropolis of all Galilee, as
it once was, that it confifted long fince of no more than
fix poor fiffiermen’s cottages, and may perhaps be now
totally defolate. . .
CAPERGLANS, a congregation of religious m
Italy, fo called from Peter Caperole their founder, m
the 15th century.
The Milanefe and Venetians being at war, the en¬
mity occafioned thereby fpread itfelf to the very cloii-
ters. The fuperiors of the province of Milan, ot mi¬
nor brothers, which extended itfelf as far. as the ter¬
ritories of the republic of Venice, carried it fo haug -
lily over the Venetians, that thofe of the convent ot
Brefcia refolved to ffiake off a yoke which was grown
infupportable to them. The fuperiors informed ot
this, expelled out of the province thofe whom they
eonfidered as the authors of this defign j the principal
of whom were Peter Caperole, Matthew de T harvillo,
and Bonaventure of Brefcia. Peter Caperole, a man
of an ehterprifing genius, found means to feparate the
convents of Brefcia, Bergamo, and Cremona, from the
province of Milan, and fubjea them to the conven¬
tuals. This occafioned a law-fuit between the vi¬
car-general and thefe convents, which was deter-
mined in favour of the latter ; and thefe convents,
in 147 by the authority of Pope Sixtus IV. were
erefted' into a diftina vicarate, under the title ot
that of Brefcia. This not fatisfying the ambition ot
Caperole, he obtained, by the interpofition of the. doge
of Venice, that this vicarate might be eroded into a
6 ) CAP
congregation, which was called from him Caperolatts. Saperolai
This congregation {till fubfifts in Italy, and is compofed
of 24 convents, fituated in Brefcia, Bergamo, and Cre- ■
mafeo.
CAPEQUIN, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Waterford, and province of Munfter, fituated on the
river Blackwater. W. Long. 7. 50. N. Lat. 52. 5.
CAPESTAN, a town of France, in Lower Lan¬
guedoc, in the diocefe of Narbonne, and near the royal
canal. E. Long. 3. 5* N. Lat. 43. 35*
CAPH, a Jewiffi meafure of capacity for things,
eftimated by Kimchi at the 30th part of the log, by>
Arbuthnot at the 16th part of the hin or 32.d of the
feah, amounting to five-eighths of an Englifh pint. Fhe
caph does not occur in Scripture as the name of any-
meafure.
CAPHAR, sc duty which the Turks raifed on the
Chriftians who carry or fend merehandifes from Aleppo
to Jerufalem and other places in Syria.
This duty of caphar was firft impofed by the Chri-
flians themfelves, when they were in poffeflion of the
Holy Land, for the maintenance of the troops which
were planted in difficult paffes to obferve the Arabs
and prevent their incurfions. It is ftill continued, and
much increafed by the i urks, under pretence of de*
fending the Chriftians againft the Arabs j with v horn,
neverthelefs, they keep a fecret intelligence, fa\ curing
their excurfions and plunders.
C A PHTOR, in Ancient Geography, a town or diftnCt
of Higher Egypt: and hence the people called Caph-
tori?n or Caphtorci.—Caphtor is an illand of Egypt,
Ai Caphtor, (Jeremiah) : probably one of thofe in the
Nile. Dr Wells fuppofes it to be Coptos, which flood
in a final 1 ifland. Thence came the Caphtorim or Caph-
torcei, in Paleftine •, who with the Philiftmes confpired
to extirpate the Hevaei ; and whofe name was {wal¬
lowed up in that of the Philiftines. .
CAPI-aga, or Cwx-AgaJJi, a Turkiffi officer who
is governor of the gates of the feraglio, or grand-mafter
of the feraglio. .
The capi-aga is the firft dignity among the white
eunuchs : he is always near the perfon of the grand
fignior : he introduces ambaffadors to their.audience t
nobody enters or goes out of the grand iignior’s apart¬
ment but by his means. His office gives him the pri¬
vilege of wearing the turban in the teraglio, and ol
going everywhere on horfeback. He accompanies-
the grand fignior to the apartment of the fultanas, but
flops at the‘door without entering. His appointment
is very moderate 5 the grand fignior bears the expence
of his table, and allows him at the rate of. about, fixty
French livres per day 5 but his office brings him. in
abundance of prefentsj no affair of confequence coming
to the emperor’s knowledge without paffing throug 1
his hand. The capi-aga cannot be baffiaw when he
quits his poll.
CAPIAS, in Law, a writ of two forts j one betore
judgement in an action, and the other after. That be¬
fore judgement is called capias ad refpondendum, where
an original is iffued m.t, to take the defendant, and
make him anfwer the plaintiff. That after judgement
is of divers kinds j as, . . ,
CAPIAS ad Satisfaciendum, a writ of execution tha*
iffues on a judgement obtained, and lies where any per¬
fon recovers in a perfonal adtion, as for debt, damages,
c A P [ I57 ] C A P
5cc. in 'vrliich cafes this writ iiTues to the ftieriff, com¬
manding him to take the body of him againft whom
the debt is recovered, who is to be kept in prifon till
he makes fatisfaftion.
CAPIAS Pro Fine is a writ lying where a perfon is
fined to the king, for fome offence committed againft
a llatute, and he does »ot difcharge the fine accord¬
ing to the judgement •, therefore his body fhall be taken
by this writ, and committed to gaol till the fine is
paid.
CAPIAS Utlegatum, a writ which lies againft any one
Outlawed, upon any action perfonal or criminal, by
which the fheriffi is ordered to apprehend the party
outlawed, for not appearing on the exigent, and keep
him in fafe cultody till the day of return, when he is
ordered to prefent him to the court, to be there farther
ordered for his contempt.
CAPIAS in Withernam, a writ that lies for cattle in-
withernam: that is, where a diftrefs taken is driven
out of the county, fo that the fheriff cannot make de¬
liverance upon a replevin ; then this writ ilfues, com¬
manding the Iheriff to take as many beafts of the dif-
trainer, &c.
CAPIGI, -a porter or doorkeeper of the Turkifn
feraglio. There are about five hundred capigis or por¬
ters in the feraglio, divided into two companies; one
confiding of three hundred, under a chief called Capigi-
Bn/Ja, who has a Itipend of three ducats per day j the
other confifts of two hundred, diftinguilhed by the
name of Cuccicapigi, and their chief Cuccicapigi-BaJJa,
who has two ducats. The capigis have from feven to
fifteen afpers per day •, fome move, others lefs. Their
bufinefs is to affift the janizaries in the guard of the
firft and fecond gates of the feraglio *, fometimes all
together *, as when the Turk holds a general council,
receives an ambaffador, or goes, to the mofque ; and
fometimes only in part; being ranged on either fide
to prevent people entering with arms; any tumults
being made, &c. The word, in its original, fignifies'
gate.
CAPILLAMENT, in a general fenfe, fignifies a-
hair : whence the word is applied to feveral things,
which on account of their length or their finenefs re-*
femble hairs: as,
CAPILLAMENTS of the Nerves, in Anatomy, the fine
fibres or filaments whereof the nerves are compofed.
CAPILLARY, in a general fenfe, an appellation
given to things on account of their extreme finenefs or
refembling hair.
CAPILLAR2' Tubes, in Phy ftcs, are fmall pipes of glafs,
whofe canals are extremely narrow, their diameter be¬
ing only a half, a third, or a fourth of a line.
The afeent of water, &c. in capillary tubes, is a-phe¬
nomenon that has long embarraffed the philofophers
for let one end of a glafs tube open at both extremities
be immerged in water, the liquor within the tube will
rife to a confiderable height above the external furfaee :
or if two or more tubes are immerged in the fame
fluid, one a capillary tube, and the other of a larger
bore, the fluid will afeend higher in the former than
in the latter ; and this will be in a reciprocal ratio of
the diameters of the tubes.
In order to account for this phenomenon, it will be
neceflary firft to premife, that the attraftion between
the particles of glafs and water is greater than the
attraction between the particles of water themfelves: Capillary
for if a glafs tube be placed in a pofition parallel to )J ,
the horizon, and a drop of water be applied to the . aP1 °P
under fide of the tube, it will adhere to it : nor will'
it fall from the glafs till its bulk and gravity are fir
far increaled, as to overcome the attraftion of the
glafs. Hence it is eafy to conceive how fenfibly fuch
a power mult aft on the furface of a fluid, not vifeid,
as water, contained within the fmall cavity or bore of
a glafs tube ; as alfo that it will be proportion ably,
ftronger as the diameter of the bore is fmaller ; for it
will be evident that the efficacy of the power is in the
inverfe proportion of the diameter, when it is confider-
ed, that fuch particles only as are in conta£t with the
fluid, and thofe immediately above the furface, cam
effedl it.
Now thefe particles form a periphery contiguous to
the furface, the upper part of which attrafts and raife*
the furface, while the lower part, which is in contadl
with it, fupports it: fo that neither the thick'nefs nor
length of the tube is of any confequence here ; the peri¬
phery of particles only, which is always proportionable
to the diameter of the bore, is the only adting power.
The quantity of the fluid raifed will therefore be-as the'
furface of the bore which it fills, that is, as the dia-'
meter ; for otherwife the effedt would not be propor¬
tional to the caufe, fince the quantities are always as
the ratio of the diameters ; the heights therefore to
which the-fluids will rife in different tubes, will be in-
verfely as the diameters.
Some doubt whether the law holds throughout, of
the alcent of the fluid being always higher as the tube
is fmaller : Dr Hook’s experiments, with tubes almoft
as fine as cobwebs, feem to ftiow the contrary. The
water in thefe, he obferves, did not rife fo high as one
would have expedted. The higheft he ever found
it, was at 21 inches above the level of the water
in the bafon *, which is much Ihort of what it ought
to have been by the law above mentioned. See Co¬
hesion.
CAPILLART Vejfels. Many fmall veffels of animal
bodies have been difeovered by the modern invention
of injedting the veffels of animals, with a coloured fluid,
which upon cooling grows hard. .Rut though molt
anatomifts know the manner of filling the large trunks,
few are acquainted with the art of filling the capillaries..
Dr Monro, in the Medical Effays, has given what
after many trials he has found molt fuccefsful. See
Injection.
CAPILLUS veneris. See Adiantum, Botany
Index.
CAPILUPI, or Caeilupus, Camillus, a native
of Mantua in the 16th century. He wrote a book,,
entitled; The Stratagem ; in which he relates not only
what was perpetrated at Paris during the maffacre on
St Bartholomew’s day, but alfo the artful preparations
which preceded that horrid maffacre. It is, however,
blended with a great number of faliities.
Capilupi, Lce/ius, an Italian poet, brother to th*
former, made himfelf famous by fome Centos of Virgil,
The manner in which he applied Virgil’s expreffions to
reprefent things which the poet never dreamt of, is
admired. His Cento againft women is very ingenious, ,
but too fatirical. The poems of Capilupi are inferted
in the Deiicice Poetarum Italorum,
CAPISCOLUS,.
CAP [ 158 ]
Capifcolus CAPISCOLUS, or CapiscHOLUS, in ecclefiaftical pato. and on th
II writers, denotes a dignitary in certain cathedrals, who
Capitanata. t^c fUperintendency of the choir, or band of mufic,
T anfwering to what in other churches is called chanter
or precentor. The word is alio written calnfcolus, and
caputfcholce, q. d. the head of the fchool, or band of
muiic. . .
The capifcolus is alfo called fcolq/licus, as having the
inftruflion of the young clerks and chorifters, how to
perform their duty.
CAPITA, Distribution by, in Law, fignifies the
appointing to every man an equal fhare of a perfonal
eitate •, when all the claimants claim in their own rights,
as in equal degrees of kindred, and not jure reprejenta-
tionis.
CAPITAL, of the Latin caput “ the head,” is
ufed, on various occaiions, to exprefs the relation of a
head, chief, or principal: thus, • • 1
CAPITAL C’ti/, in Geography, denotes the principal
city of a kingdom, date, or province.
CAPITAL Stock, among merchants, bankers, and
traders, fignifies the fum of money which individuals
bring to make up the common dock of a partnerlhip
when it is fird formed. It is alio laid of the dock
which a merchant at fird puts into trade for his account,
It likewife lignifies the fund of a trading company or
corporation, in which fenfe the word dock is generally
added to it. Thus we fay, the capital dock of the
bank, &c. The word capital is oppofed to that of
profit or gain, though the profit often increafes the
capital, and becomes of itfelf part of the capital, when
joined with the former. a • • 1
CAPITAL Crime, fuch a one as fubjefts the criminal
»See Crime t° capital punifhment, that is, to lofs of life *.
and Punijb- CAPITAL PiBure, in Painting, denotes one of the
fined and mod excellent pieces of any celebrated
CAPITAL Letters, in Printing, large or initial letters,
wdierein titles, &c. are compofed} with which all pe¬
riods, verfes, &c. commence; and wherewith alfo all
proper names of men$ kingdoms, nations, &c. begin.
The pra&ice which, for fome time, obtained among our
printers, of beginning every fubdantive with a capital,
is now judly fallen ‘into difrepute; being a manifed
perverfion of the defign of capitals, as well as an of-
fence againd beauty and didin£tnefs.
Capital, Succejjionby, where the claimants are next
in degree to the ancedor, in their own right, and not
by right of reprefentation.
Capital, in ArchiteBure, the uppermod part of a
column or pilader, ferving as the head or crowning,
and placed immediately over the fhaft, and under the
entablature. See Architecture.
CAPITANA, or Captain Galley, the chief or
principal galley of a date, not dignified with the title
of a kingdom. The capitana was anciently the deno¬
mination of the chief galley of France, which the com¬
mander went on board of. But fince the fuppredion
of the office of captain general of the galleys in 1669,
they have no capitana, but the fird galley is called reale,
and the {cconA parotie.
CAPITANATA, one of the 12 provinces of the
kingdom of Naples, in Italy, bounded on the north by
the gulf of Venice, on the ead by the Terra di Bari,
on the fouth by the Bafilicata and the Farther Prnici-
4
CAP
ment.
wed by the county di Moliie and a
fmall part of Hither Abruzzo. It is a level country,
without trees j the foil fandy, the air hot : the land,  
however, near the rivers, is fertile in padures. ilie
capital town is Manfredonia.
CAPITANEATE, in a general fenfe, the fame
with eapitania. Capitaneates, in Pruffia, are a kind of
noble feuds cr edates, which, befides their^ revenue,
raife their owners to the rank of nobility. I hey are
otherwife call JlaroJlies.
CAPITANEI, or Catanei, in Italy, was a deno¬
mination given to all the dukes, marquifes, and counts,
who were called capitanei regis. I he lame appellation
was alfo given to perfons of inferior rank who were
inveded with fees, formerly didinguilhed by the appel¬
lation valafores majores.
CAP1TANEU3, in ancient law writers, denotes a
tenant in capite or chief.
Capitaneus Eccljice, the fame with advocate.
CAPITANIA, in Geography, an appellation given
to the 1 2 governments edablilhed by the Portuguefe in
the Brafils.
CAPITATION, a tax or impofition raifed on each
perfon, in proportion to his labour, induitry, office,
rank, &c. It is a very ancient kind of tribute. The
Latins call it tributum, by which taxes on perfons are
didinguilhed from taxes on merchandne, which were
called veBigaiia*
Capitations are never praftifed among us but in exi¬
gencies of date. In France the capitation was intro¬
duced by Louis XIV. in 1695 j and is a tax very dif¬
ferent from the taille, being levied from all perfons,
whether they be fubjett to the taille or not. The cler¬
gy pay no capitation, but the princes ol the blood are
not exempted from it.
CAPITE, in Law, (from caput, i. e. rex; whence
tenere in capite is to hold of the king, the head or lord
paramount of all the lands in the kingdom) : An an¬
cient tenure of land, held immediately of the king, as
of the crown, either by knight’s fervice or by foccage.
It is now abolilhed. See 1 ENURE.
CAPITE Cenji, in antiquity, the lowed rank of Ro¬
man citizens, who in public taxes were rated the lead
of all, being fuch as never were worth above 365 afles.
They were fuppofed to have been thus called, becaufe
they were rather counted and mardialled by their heads
than by their edates. The capite cenfi made part of
the fixth clals of citizens, being below the proietarii,
who formed the other moiety of that clafs. They were
not enrolled in the army, as being judged not able to
fupport the expence of war ; for in thole days the fol-
diers maintained themfelves. It does not appear that
before Caius Marius any of the Roman generals lided
the capite cenfi in their armies.
CAPITOL, Cafitolium, in antiquity, a famous-
fort or cadle, on the Mons Capitolinus at Rome, where¬
in was a temple dedicated to Jupiter, thence alfo deno¬
minated Capitolinus, in which the fenate anciently af-
fembled and which dill ferves as the city-hall, or
townhoufe, for the meeting of the cOnfervators of the
Roman people.—It had its name capvol, from caput, “ a
man’s head,” faid to have been found frelh, and yet
bleeding, upon digging the foundation of the temple
built in honour of Jupiter. Arnobius adds, that the
man’s name was Tolus} caput tolium. I he firlt
foundations
Capitanstfl
II
Capitol.
CAP C 159 3 CAP
Capitol foundations of the capitol were laid by Tarquin the
.1! Elder, in the year of Rome 139. His fucceffor bervius
.-.apitou • railed the walls; and Tarquin the Proud finilhed it in
the year 221. But it was not confecrated till the third
year after the expullion of the kings, and eftabliihment
of the confulate. The ceremony of the dedication of
the temple was performed by the conful Horatius in
246.
The capitol confifted of three parts ; a nave facred
to Jupiter, and two wings, the one confecrated to Juno,
the other to Minerva : it was afcended to by if airs; the
frontifpiece and iideswere furrounded with ga'leries, in
which thofe who were honoured with triumphs enter¬
tained the lenate at a magnificent banquet, after the fa-
crifice had been oiTered to the gods.
Both the inlide and outfide were enriched with an
infinity of ornaments, the moil diitinguiihed of which
was the ifatue of Jupiter with his golden thunderbolt,
his fceptre, and crown. In the capitol alfo were a
temple to Jupiter the Guardian, and another to Juno,
with the mint; and on the defcent of the hill was the
temple of Concord. This beautiful edifice contained
the molt facred depofites of religion, fuchas the ancilia,
the books of the bibyls, &c.
The capitol was burnt under Vitellius, and rebuilt
under Vefpafian. It was burnt afecond time by light¬
ning under Titus, and reitored by Domitian.
Anciently the name capitol was likewife applied
to all the principal temples in moll of the colonies
throughout the Roman empire; as at Conllantinople,
Jerufalem, Carthage, Ravenna, Capua, &c.—That of
Thouloufe has given the name of capitouls to the eche-
vins or (heriffs.
CAPITOLINE games, annual games inffituted by
Camillus, in honour of Jupiter Capitolinus, and in com¬
memoration of the capitol’s not being taken by the
Gauls. Plutarch tells us that a part of the ceremony
confuted in the public criers putting up the Hetrurians
to fale by auction : they alfo took an old man, and ty-
ing a golden bulla about his neck, expofed him to the
I public derifion. Feltus fays they alfo dreffed him in a
pretexta.—There was another kind of Capitoline games,
inlfituted by Domitian, wherein there were rewards
and crowns beitowed on the poets, champions, orators,
hiitorians, and muficians. Thefe lait Capitoline games
w'ere celebrated every five years, and became fo famous,
that, inftead of calculating time by luitra, they began
to count by Capitoline games, as the Greeks did by
Olympiads. It appears, however, that this cuftom
was not of long continuance.
CAPITOL 1NUS, J(JLius, an hiftorian in the be¬
ginning of tiie fouith age, under Diocletian, to whom
he infcribed the Lives of Verus, Antoninus Pius, C lo-
dius Balbinus, Macrinus, the Maximins, and the Gor-
dians. He wrote other lives, which are moll of them
loll.
CAPITOUL, or Capitol, an appellation given
to the chief magiftrates of 'ihouloufe, who have the
administration of jultice and policy both civil and mer¬
cantile in the city. The capitouls at Thouloufe are
much the fame with the echevins at Paris, and with
the confuls, bailiffs, burgomallers, mayors, and aider-
men, &c. in other cities. In ancient acts they are cal¬
led confutes, capita:arn, or capnohni, and their body ca-
pitulum. From this lalt come the words capitularii and
capitouls. The appellative capitolini arofe hence, that CapheuI
they have the charge and cuilody of the townhoufe, H
which was anciently called capitol. tion
The office lafts only one year, and ennobles the bear-
ers. In fome ancient a£is they are called capitu/um no-
bilium Tolofce. Thofe who have borne it llyle them-
felves afterwards burgeffes. They are called to all ge¬
neral councils, and have the jus imaginum; that is,
when the year of their adminiilration is expired, their
pictures are drawn in the townhoufe; a cuilom which
they have retained from the ancient Romans, as may
be feen in Sigonius.
CAPITULATE, an appellation given to the feve-
ral quarters or diltricts of the city of Thouloufe, each
under the direction of a capitoul : much like the wards
of London, under their aldermen. Thouloufe is now
divided into eight cap touiates, or quarters, which are
fubdivided into moulansy each of which has its tithing-
man, whole bufinefs is to inform the capitoul of what
pafies in his tithing, and to inform the inhabitants of
the tithing of the orders of the capitoul.
CAPITULAR, or Cafitulare, denotes an a£l
palfed in a chapter, either of knights, canons, or reli¬
gious.
The capitularia or capitulars of Charlemagne, Charles
the Bald, &c. are the laws, ooth ecclefiallical and civil,
made by thofe emperors in the general councils or af-
femblies of the people ; which was the way in which
the conilitutions of molt of the ancient princes were
made ; each perfon prefent, though a plebeian, fetting
his hand to them.
Some diilinguifh thefe from laws; and fay, they were
only fupplements to laws. They had their name, capi¬
tulars^ becaufe divided into capitula, chapters, or lec¬
tions. In thefe capitulars did the whole French jurif-
prudence anciently confill. In procefs of time, the
name was changed for that of ordinances.
Some diitinguiih three kinds of capitulars, accord¬
ing to the difference of their fubjedl-matter ; thofe on
eccleliallical affairs are really canons, extrafted from
councils; thofe on fecular affairs, real laws ; thofe re¬
lating to particular perfons, or occafions, private regu¬
lations.
CAPITULATION, in military affairs, a treaty
made between the inhabitants or garrifon of a place
befieged and the befiegers, for the delivering up the
place on certain conditions. The moll honourable and
ordinary terms of capitulation are to march out at
the breach with arms and baggage, drums beating, co¬
lours Hying, a match lighted at both ends, and fome
pieces of cannon, waggons and convoys for their bag¬
gage, and for their lick and wounded.
Capitulation, in the German polity, a contradl
which the emperor makes with the electors, in the
name of all the princes and Hates in the empire, before
he is declared emperor, and which he ratifies before
he is railed to that fovereign dignity. The principal
points which the emperor undertakes to obferve are,
1. To defend the church and empire. 2. To obferve
the fundamental laws of the empire. And, 3. To
maintain and preferve the rights, privileges, and im¬
munities of the ele£tors, princes, and other Hates of
the empire, fpecified in the capitulation. Thefe arti¬
cles and capitulations are prefented to the emperor by
the electors only, without the concurrence of the other
ftatesj
GAP r ifc
Cflpituk- ftates, wlio have complained from time to time of fuch
tion proceedings j and in the time of the Weilphalian
i W treaty, in 1648, it was propofed to deliberate in the
'^apomcie. £o^0W£ng Up0n a way of making a perpetual ca¬
pitulation , but the eledtors have always found means
of eluding the execution of this article. In order, how¬
ever, to give fome fatisfadtion to their adverfaries,
they have inferted in the capitulations of the empe¬
rors, and in that of hrancis I. in particular, a promite
to ufe all their influence to bring the affair of a perpe¬
tual capitulation to a concluflon. Some German au¬
thors own, that this capitulation limits the emperor’s
power •, but maintain that it does not weaken his fo-
vereignty : though the moft part maintain that he is
not abfolute, becaufe he receives the empire under con¬
ditions which fet bound to abfolute authority.
CAPITULUM, in the ancient military art, was a
tranfverfe beam, wherein were holes through which
palled the firings whereby the arms of huge engines,
As baliffse, catapultae, and fcorpions, were played or
worked.
CapituluM, in ecclcliailical writers, denoted part
of a chapter of the Bible read and explained. In w hich
fenfe they faid, ire ad capitulum, “ to go to fuch a lec¬
ture.” Afterwards the place or apartment where fuch
theological exercifes were performed was denominated
donius capituh.
CAPNIGON, in antiquity, chimney money, or a
tax which the Roman emperors levied for fmoke, and
which of confequence w as due from all, even the
pooreft, who kept a fire. This was firft invented by
Nicephorus.
CAPNOMANCY, a kind of divination by means
of fmoke, ufed by the ancients in their facrificcs; The
•words come from xiCTFra;, fmoie, and ptccvrtist, divination.
Xhe general rule was, when the fmoke was thm and
light, and rofe ilraight up, it was a good omen $ if the
contrary, it was an ill one. There was alfo another
fpecies of capnomancy, confifting in the obfervatioir
of the fmoke fifing from poppy and jafmine feed caff
upon lighted coals.
CAPO FiNO, a large barren rock in the territory
@f the Genoefe, which has a callle on its eaftern peak.
Near it is. a fmall harbour of the fame name, 13 miles
eall by fouth of Genoa.
Capo d'Idria, a confiderable town of Italy, in Ulna,
®n the gulf of Trielle, with a bilhop’s fee, and fubjeft
to the Venetians. The air is wholefome and tempe¬
rate } its principal revenue confifts in wine and fait.
Long. 14. O. N. Lat. 45. 48.
CAPON, a cock chicken, gelded as foon as left by
the dam, or as foon as he begins to crow. They are
of ufe either to lead chickens, ducklings, pheafants,
&tc. and defend them from the kites and buzzards j
or to feed for the table, they being reckoned more de¬
licate than either a cock or a hen. .
CAPONIERE, or CappoNIERE, in Fortification, a
covered lodgement funk four or five feet into the
ground, encompaffed with a little parapet about two
feet high, ferving to fupport feveral planks covered
with earth. The caponiere is large enough to contain
j 5 or 20 foldiers *, and is ufually placed in the glacis
on the extremity of the counterfcarp, and in dry
moats •, having little embrafures for the foldiers to fire
-through. 4
, ] CAP
CAPPADOCIA, an ancient kingdom of Alia, CaPF*- j
comprehending all that country which lies beUvcen , —/—J ^
Mount Taurus and the Euxine lea. It was divided by
the Perfians into two fatrapies or governments; by the
•Macedonians into two kingdoms, the one called Cap¬
padocia ad Taurum; the other Cappadocia ad ionium,
and commonly Pont us ; for the hiltory, 8cc. of which
daft, fee the article Pontus.
CAPPADOCIA Magna,, or Cappadocia properly fo call¬
ed, lies between the 38th and 41ft degrees of north
latitude. It was bounded by Pontus on the north *
Lycaonia and part of Armenia Major on the fouth, Ga¬
latia on the weff, and by the Euphrates and p -rt of Ar¬
menia Minor on the eall. The firft king of Cappadocia
we read of in hiftory was Pharnaces, who was preferred
to the crown by Cyrus king of Pcrlja, who gave him
his filler Atofla in marriage. This, is all we find re¬
corded of him, except that he was killed in a war with
the Hyrcanians. After him came a fucceftion of eight
kings, of whom we know' fcarce any .thing but that
they continued faithful to the Periian intereft. In the
time of Alexander the Great, Cappadocia, was govtrn-
ed by Ariarathes II. who, notwithftanding tne \ail
conquefts and fame of the Macedonian monarchy, con¬
tinued unlhaken in his fidelity to the Perlians.. Alex¬
ander was prevented by death from invading his domi¬
nions; but Perdiccas, marching againft him with a
powerful and well-difeiplincd army, difperltd his for¬
ces, and having taken Ariarathes himfelf priloner, cru¬
cified him with all thofe of the royal blood whom he
could get into his power. Diodorus tells us that ha
was killed in the battle. He is faff to have reigned
82 years. His fon Ariarathes III. having cfcaped the
general daughter of the royal family, fled into Arme¬
nia, where he lay concealed till the civil diffenfions
which rofe among the Macedonians gave him a fair
opportunity of recovering his paternal kingdom. A-
myntas, at that time the governor of.Cappadocia, op-
pofed him : but being defeated in a pitched battle, th«
Macedonians were obliged to abandon all the ftrong-
holds. Ariarathes, after a long and peaceable reign,
left his kingdom to his fon Ariaramnes II. He applied
himfelf more to the arts of peace than war, in confe¬
quence of which Cappadocia flour.iftied greatly during
his reign. He was fucceeded by his fon Ariarathes IV.
who proved a very warlike prince, and, having over¬
come Arfaces, founder of the Parthian monarchy, con-
fiderably enlarged his own dominions.
He was fucceeded by Ariarathes V. who, marrying
the daughter of Antiochus the Great, entered into an
alliance with that prince againft the Romans; but An¬
tiochus being defeated, the. king of Cappadocia was
obliged to fue for peace, which he obtained, after ha¬
ving paid 200 talents by way of fine, for taking u]»
arms againft the people of Rome. He afterwards ai-
fifted the republic with men and money againft Perfeus
king of Macedon, on which account he w as by the fe-
nate honoured with the title of the friend and ailit of
the Roman people. He left the kingdom in a very flou-
riftiing condition to his fon Mithridates, who, on his
acceffion, took the name of Ariarathes VI.
This prince, (furnamed Philopater, from the filial re-
fpedl and love he ftiowed his father from hL very in¬
fancy) immediately renewed the alliance, with Rome.
Out of mere good nature, he reftored Mkhrobuzanes,
($ap5w<k>.
cia.
CAP [ ,
- fon to Ladriades, king of the Leffer Armenia, to his
father’s kingdom, though he forefaw that the Armeni-
^ ans would lay hold of that opportunity to join Arta-
xias, who was then on the point of invading Cappa¬
docia. Thefe differences, however, were fettled be¬
fore they came to an open rupture by the Roman le¬
gates ; and Ariarathes feeing himfelf thus delivered from
an impending war by the mediation of the republic,
prefented the fenate with a golden crown j and offered
his fervice in whatever they thought proper to employ
him. The fenate in return fent him a flaff, and chair
of ivory; which were prefents ufually bellowed on thofe
only whom they looked upon as attached to their in-
terefl. Not long before this, Demetrius Soter king of
Syria had offered Ariarathes his filler in marriage, the
widow of Perfeus king of Macedon : but this offer the
king of Cappadocia was obliged to decline for fear of
offending the Romans ; and his fo doing was in the
higheil degree acceptable to the republic, who rec¬
koned him among the chief of her allies. Demetrius,
however, being greatly incenfed at the flight put upon his
filler, fet up a pretender to the throne, one Oropherhes,
a fuppoiititious, or, as others call him, a natural fon
of the deceafed king. The Romans ordered Eu-
menes king of Pergamus to affifl Ariarathes with all
his forces : which he did, but to no purpofe ; for the
confederates were overthrown by Demetrius, and Ari¬
arathes was obliged to abandon the kingdom to his
rival. This happened about 159 years before Chrifl,
and the ufurper immediately difpatched ambaffadors
to Rome with a golden crown. The fenate declined
accepting the prefent, till they heard his pretenfions to
the kingdom j and this Orophernes, by fuborned wit-
neffes, made appear fe plain, that the fenate decreed
that Ariarathes and he fhould reign as partners j but next
year Orophernes was driven out by Attalus brother
to Eumenes, and his fucceffor to the kingdom of Per¬
gamus.
Ariarathes, being thus reflored, immediately de¬
manded of the Priennians 400 talents of gold which
Orophernes had depofited with them. They honellly
replied, that as they had been trufled with the money
by Orophernes, they could deliver it to none but him¬
felf, or fuch as came in his name. Upon this, the king
entered their territories with an army, deflroying all
with fire and fwrord. The Prienwians, however, flill
perfevered in their integrity; and though their city was
befieged by the united forces of Ariarathes and Atta¬
lus, not only made an obflinate defence, but found
means to rellore the fum to Orophernes. At lall they
applied to the Romans for affiftance, who enjoined the
two kings to raife the liege, under pain of being de¬
clared enemies to the republic. Ariarathes immediate¬
ly obeyed •, and marching his army into Affyria, joined
Alexander Epiphanes againfl Demetrius Soter, by
whom he had been formerly driven out of his kingdom.
In the very firfl engagement Demetrius wras flain, and
his army entirely dilperfed, Ariarathes having on that
occafion given uncommon proofs of his courage and
conduft. Some years after, a war breaking out be¬
tween the Romans and Ariflonicus who claimed the
kingdom of Pergamus in right of his father, Ariarathes
joined the former, and w'as flain in the fame battle in
which P. Craffus proconful of Afia w'as taken, and the
Roman army cut in pieces. lie left fix Tons by his
VOL. V. Pan I.
5i 1 CAP
wife Laodice, on whom the Romans bellowed Lycao- Cappado-
nia and Cilicia. But Laodice, fearing left her chil-, c‘a ,
dren, when they came to age, fhould take the govern-
ment out of her hands, poifbned five of them, the
youngefl only having efcaped her cruelty by being con¬
veyed out of the kingdom. The queen herfelf was foon
after put to death by her fubjefls, who could not bear
her cruel and tyrannical government.
Laodice was fucceeded by Ariarathes VII. who,
foon after his acceffion, married another Laodice,
daughter to Mithridates the Great, hoping to find in
that prince a powerful friend to fupport him againft Ni-
comedes king of Bithynia who laid claim to part of
Cappadocia. But Mithridates, mftead of afiifting, pro¬
cured one Gordius to poifon his unhappy fbn-in-lawr,
and on his death, feized the kingdom, under pretence
of maintaining the rights of the Cappadocians againfl
Nicomedes, till the children of Ariarathes were in a
condition to govern the kingdom. The Cappadocians
at firfl fancied themfelves obliged to their new pro-
te£lor : but, finding him unwilling to refign the king¬
dom to the lawful heir, they role up in arms, and driv¬
ing out all the garrifons placed by Mithridates, pla¬
ced on the throne Ariarathes VIII. eldeil fon of their
deceafed king.
The newr prince found himfelf immediately engaged
in a w ar with Nicomedes $ but, being aflifted by Mi¬
thridates, not only drove him out of Cappadocia, but
ftripped him of a great part of his hereditary domi¬
nions. On the conclufion of the peace, Mithridates,
feeking for fome pretence to quarrel with Ariarathes,
infilled upon his recalling Gordius, wjio had murdered
his father; w hich being rejected with abhorrence, a war
enfued. Mithridates took the field firfl, in hopes of
overrunning Cappadocia before Ariarathes could be in
a condition to make head againll him $ but, contrary
to his expeftation, he w as met on the frontiers by the
king of Cappadocia with an army no w ay inferior to
his own. Hereupon he invited Ariarathes to a con¬
ference ; and, in fight of both armies, ftabbed him w ith
a dagger, which he had concealed under his garment.
This llruck fuch terror into the Cappadocians, that
they immediately difperfed, and gave Mithridates an
opportunity of pofleffing himfelf of the kingdom with¬
out the leaft oppofition. The Cappadocians, however,
not able to endure the tyranny of his prefers, foon
flrook off the yoke j and recalling the king’s brother,
who had fled into the province of Afia, proclaimed him
king. He was fcarce feated on the throne, however,
before Mithridates invaded the kingdom at the head
of a very numerous army, and having drawn Ariara¬
thes to a battle, defeated his army with great daugh¬
ter, and obliged him to abandon the kingdom. The
unhappy prince foon after died of grief} and Mithri¬
dates bellowed the kingdom on his fon, who was then
but eight years old, giving him alfo the name of Aria-
rathes. But Nicomedes Philopater king of Bithynia,
fearing left Mithridates, having now got poffeftion of
the whole kingdom of Cappadocia, fhould invade his
territories, fuborned a youth -to pafs himfelf for the
third fon of Ariarathes, and to prefent to them a peti¬
tion in order to be reflored to his father’s kingdom.
With him he fent to Rome Laodice, filler of Mithri¬
dates, whom he had married after the death of her for¬
mer hufband Ariarathes. Laodice declared before the
X ferrate.
jr
C
A P
[
Cappado¬
cia.
fenate, that fhe had three fons by Ariarathes, and that
the petitioner was one of them} but that (he had
been obliged to keep him concealed, left he (hould un¬
dergo the fame fate with his brothers. The fenate af-
fured him that they would at all events reinftate him
in his kingdom. But in the mean time, Mithridates,
having notice of thefe tranfa£tions, difpatched Gordius
to Rome, to undeceive the fenate, and to penuade
them that the youth to whom he had refigned the king¬
dom of Cappadocia was the lawful fon the late king,
and grandfon to Ariarathes who had loft his hfe m the
fervice of the Romans againft Ariftomcus. _ ihis nn-
expefted embaffy put the fenate upon enquiring more
narrowly into the matter, whereby the whole plot was
difcovered j upon which Mithridates was ordered to
refign Cappadocia, and the kingdom was declared
frem The Cappadocians, however, in a ftiort time
fent ambaffadors to Rome, acquainting the fenate that
they could not live without a king. This greatly
furprifed the Romans, who had fuch an averfion to
royal authority; but they gave them leave to elect a
kino- of their own nation. As the family of Pharna-
ces was now exlin&, the Cappadocians chofe Ariobar-
zanes ; and their choice was approved by the fenate
he having on all occafions (hewn himfelf a fteady friend
to the Romans.
A.riobarzanes had fcarce taken poffeflion of his king-
dom when he was driven out by/Tigranes king of Ar¬
menia ; who refigned Cappadocia to the fon of Mithri¬
dates, in purfuance of an alliance previoufiy concluded
between the two parties. Ariobarzanes fled to Rome j
and, having engaged the fenate in his caufe, he re¬
turned into Alia with Sylla, who was enjoined to re-
ftore him to his kingdom. This was eafily performed
by Sylla, who, with a fmall body of troops, routed
Gordius who came to meet him on the borders of Cap¬
padocia at the head of a numerous army. Sylla, how-
ever, had fcarce turned his back, when Ariobarzanes
was again driven out by Ariarathes the fon of Mithri¬
dates, on whom Tigranes had beftowed the kingdom
of Cappadocia. This obliged Sylla to return into A-
fia where he w^as attended with his ufua^ lucceis, and
Ariobarzanes was again placed on the throne. After
the death of Sylla, he was the third time forced by
Mitbridates to abandon his kingdom j but Pompey,
having entirely defeated Mithridates near Mount Stel¬
la reftored Ariobarzanes to his throne, and rewarded
him for his fervices during the w ar, with the provinces
of Sophene, Gordiene, and great part of Cilicia. I he
king, however, being now advanced in years, and de-
firous of fpending the remainder of his life m eafe,
refigned the crown to his fon Ariobarzanes m pre¬
fence of Pompey ; and never afterwards troubled him¬
felf with affairs of ftate. , r r c
Ariobarzanes II. proved no lefs faithful to the Ro¬
mans than his father had been. On the breaking out
of the civil war betw een Caefar and Pompey, be fided
with the latter j but, after the death of Pompey, he
was received into favour by Caefar, who even beftowed
upon him great part of Armenia.. While Csefar was
engaged in a war with the Egyptians, Pharnaces king
©f Pontus invaded Cappadocia, and ftnpped Ariobar¬
zanes of all bis dominions but Caefar, having defea ed
Pharpaces, reftored the king of Cappadocia, and Lo-
162] CAP
noured him with new titles of friendfhip. After the
murder of Csefar, Ariobarzanes, having refufed to join 
Brutus and Caffius, was by them declared an enemy to
the republic, and foon after taken prifoner and put to
death. He was fucceeded by bis brother Ariobarza¬
nes III. who was by Mark Antony deprived both.of
his kingdom and his life : and in him ended the family
of Ariobarzanes. , r 1 r '
Archelaus, the grandfon of that general of the.fame
name who commanded againft Sylla in the Mithridatic
war, was by Mark Antony placed on the throne of
Cappadocia, though nowife related either to the fa¬
mily of Pharnaces or Ariobarzanes. His preferment
was entirely owing to his mother Glaphyra a woman
of great beauty, but of loofe behaviour, who, m re¬
turn for her compliance with the defires of Anton),
obtained thte kingdom of Cappadocia for her fon In
the war between Auguftus and Antony, ite joined the
latter ; but, at the interceffton of the Cappadocians,
was pardoned by the emperor. He afterwards.receiv¬
ed from him Armenia the leffer, and Cilicia Ira-
choea, for having aflifted the Romans in clearing the
feas of pirates, who greatly mfeft.ed the coafts of Afia.
He contra6Ied a ftridt friendfhip with Herod the Great,
king of Judea j and even married his daughter Gla¬
phyra to Alexander, Herod’s fon. In the reign of
Tiberius, Archelaus was fummoned to appear before
the fenate ; for he had always been hated by that em¬
peror, becaufe in his retirement at Rhodes he had paid
him no fort of refpedt. This had proceeded from no
averfion in him to Tiberius, but from the warning gi¬
ven by Archelaus to his friends at Rome. For Cams
Caefar, the prefumptive heir to the empire was then
alive, and had been fent to compofe the differences of
the eaft : whence the friendfhip of Tiberius was then
looked upon as dangerous. But when he came to the
empire, Tiberius, remembering the difrefpeft (liown
him by Archelaus, enticed the latter to. Rome by
means of letters from Livia, who promifed him her ion
Tiberius’s pardon, provided he came m perfon to im¬
plore it. Archelaus obeyed the fummons, and batten¬
ed to Rome •, where he was received by the emperor
with great wrath and contempt, and foon after accu-
fed as a criminal in the fenate. The crimes of which
he was accufed were mere fiftions $ but his concern at
feeing himfelf treated as a malefaftor was fo great that
he died foon after of grief, or as others fay, laid vio¬
lent hands on himfelf. He is faid to have reigned 50
Je On the death of Archelaus, the kingdom of Cappa¬
docia was reduced to a Roman province, and governed
by thofe of the equeftrian order. It continued fubjeft
to the Romans till the invafion of the eaftern empire
by the Turks, to whom it is now fubjert, but has
no diftinguifhing modern name. In what was an¬
ciently called Cappadocia, however the luiks have
four beglerbeglics, called Siwas, Irebixond, Maraifch,
^ In^tCtime of the Romans, the inhabitants of Cap¬
padocia bore fo bad a ebarafter, and were reputed fo
vicious and lewd, that, among the neighbouring na¬
tions, a wicked man was emphatically called a
docian. In after ages, however, their lewd diipofition
was fo correaed and reftrained by the pure doannes
Cappafa.
cia.
CAP
[ i(53 1
CAP
of CUriflianity, that no country whatever has produced
greater champions of the Chriftian religion, or given
to the church prelates of more unblemiftied charadters.
We have now no fyftem of the Cappadocian laws,
and fcarce wherewithal to form any particular idea of
them. As to their commerce, they carried on a con-
fiderable trade in horfes, great numbers of which were
produced in their country ; and we read of them in
Scripture as frequenting the fairs of Tyre with this
commodity. As Cappadocia abounded with mines of
filver, brafs, iron, and alum, and afforded great ftore of
alabalter, cryftal, andjafper, it is probable that they
might fupply the neighbouring countries with thefe
commodities.
The religion of the ancient Cappadocians was much
the fame with that of the Perfians. At Comana there
was a rich and {lately temple dedicated to Bellona $
whole battles the priefts and their attendants ufed to
reprefent on dated days, cutting and wounding each
other as if feized with an enthufiaftic fury. No lels
famous and magnificent were the temples of Apollo
Catanius, and of Jupiter : the lait of which had 3000
{acred fervants, or religious votaries. The chief prieit
was next in rank to that of Comana ; and, according
to Strabo, had a yearly revenue of 15 talents. Diana
Perfica Was wor(hipped in a city called Cajlaballa,
where women, devoted to the worfhip of that goddefs,
were reported to tread barefooted on burning coals,
•without receiving any hurt. The temples of Diana at
Diofpolis, and of Anias at Zela, were likewife held in
great veneration both by the Cappadocians and Arme¬
nians, who flocked to them from all parts. In the
latter were tendered all oaths in matters of confequence;
and the chief among the priefts was no way inferior in
dignity, power, and wealth, to any in the kingdom j
having a royal attendance, and an unlimited authority
over all the inferior fervants and officers of the temple.
The Romans, who willingly adopted all the fuperfti-
tions and fuperftitious rites of the nations they con¬
quered, greatly increafed the reyenues of this and
other temples; conferring ^he priefthood on fuch as
they thought molt fit for carrying on their defigns.—
We are told that human facrifices were offered at Co¬
mana ; and that this barbarous cuftom was brought by
Oreftes and his After Iphigenia from Taurica Scythica,
where men and women were immolated to Diana. But
this cuftom, if ever it obtained in Cappadocia, wasabo-
lifhed in the times of the Romans.
CAPPANUS, a name given by fome authors to a
worm that adheres to and gnaws the bottoms of (hips ,
to which it is extremely pernicious, efpecially in the
Eaft and Weft Indies ; to prevent this, feveral (hips
have lately been fheathed with copper j the firft trial
®f which was made on his majefty’s frigate the Alarm.
CAPPARIS. See Botany Index.
The buds of this plant pickled with vinegar, &c.
are brought to Britain annually from Italy and the
Mediterranean. They are fuppofed to excite appetite
and alfift digeftion ; and to be particularly uleful as
detergents and aperients in obftrudtions of the liver and
fpleen.
CAPRA, or Goat. See Mammalia Index.
Capra Saltans, in Meteorology, a fiery meteor or ex¬
halation fome times feen in the atmofphere. It forms
an infle&ed line, refembling in fome meafure the ca- Capra Sal*
perings of a goat 5 whence it has its name. ta‘is
.QAPRALA, an ille of Italy, in the Tufcan fea, to Capricorn,
the north-eafi; of Corfica, on which it depends. It is w—y—^
pretty populous, and has a ftrong caftle for its defence.
It is about 15 miles in circumference. E. Long. 11. 5,
N. Lat. 43. 15.
C APR ARIA. See Botany Index.
CAPRAROLA, one of the moft magnificent pa¬
laces in Italy, feated on a hill, in Ronciglione, whofe
foot is watered by the river Tircia. It was built by
Cardinal Farnefej and has five fronts, in the-middle of
which is a round court, though all the rooms are fquare,
and well proportioned. It is 27 miles north-weft of
Rome.
CAPRAL See Capri.
CAPREOLUS, Elias, an excellent civilian, and
learned hiftorian, born at Brefcia in Italy, wrote a
hiftory of Brefcia, and other works : died in 1319*
CAPRI, (anciently Caprcce), a city and ifland at the
entrance of the gulf of Naples, E. Long. 14. 50. N.
Lat. 40. 45.—The ifland is only four miles long and
one broad j the city is a bilhop’s fee, and lituated on a
high rock at the weft end of the ifland. Capreae was
anciently famous for the retreat of the emperor I ibe-
rius for feven years, during which he indulged himfelf
in the moft fcandalous debaucheries Before Tiberius * sce yy,,
came hither, Capri had attradled the notice of Auguf- berius.
tus, as a moft eligible retreat, though in fight of popu¬
lous cities, and almoft in the. centre of the empire. His
fucceflbr preferred it to every other refidence 3 and in
order to vary his pleafure, and enjoy the advantages
as well as avoid the inconveniences of each revolving
feafon, built 1 2 villas in dift'erent lituations, dedicated
to the 12 greater gods : the ruins of fome of them are
ftill to be feen : at Santa Maria are extenfive vaults
and refervoirs j and on an adjoining brow are the re¬
mains of a lighthoufe j two broken columns indicate
the entrance of the principal court. According to
Dion Caflius, this ifland was wild and barren before
the Csefars took it under their immediate protettion ;
• -at this day a large portion of its furface is unculti¬
vated and imprafticable; but every fpot that, will
admit the hoe is induftrioufly tilled, and richly laden
with the choiceft produflions of agriculture. 1 he
odium attached to the memory of liberius proved fa¬
tal to his favourite abode j fcarce was his death pro¬
claimed at Rome, when the fenate ifliied orders for the
demolition of every fabric he had raifed on the ifland,
which by way of punilhment was thenceforward de-
ftined to be a ftate prifon. The wife and fitter of
Commodus were banilhed to its inholpitable rocks,
which were foon ftained with their blood. In the mid¬
dle ages Capri became an appendage of the Amalfitan
republic, and after the downfal of that ftate, belonged
to the duchy of Naples. There flood a pharos on this
ifland, which, & few days before the death of Tiberius,
was overthrown by an earthquake.
CAPRIATA, Peter John, a civilian and hiftorian,
was born at Genoa. He wrote, in Italian, the hiftory
of the wars of Italy ; an Engliih tranflation of which
was printed in London in 1663.
CAPRICORN, in AJlronomy, one of the 12 figns
of the zodiac. See Astronomy Index.
X 2 The
Capricorn,
Caprifica-
tion.
CAP [
The ancients accounted Capricorn the tenth fign j
and when the fun arrived thereat, it made the winter
i folitice with regard to our hemifphere: but the ifcrs
having advanced a whole lign towards the eaft, Capri¬
corn is now rather the 11 th fign; and it is at the fun’s
entry into Sagittary that the folftice happens, though
the ancient manner of fpeaking is ftill retained.
This fign is reprefented on ancient monuments, me¬
dals, &c. as having the forepart of a goat and the hind-
part of a fiih, which is the form of an iTigipan j fome-
times limply under the form of a goat.
Tropic of Capricorn, a leffer circle of the fphere,
which is parallel to the equino&ial, and at 230 30' di-
ftance from it fouthwards j palling through the begin¬
ning of Capricorn.
CAPR1F1 CATION, a method ufed in the Levant,
for ripening the fruit of the domeftic fig tree, by means
of inl'efts bred in that of the wild fig tree.
The molt ample and fatisfadtory accounts of this
curious operation in gardening, are thofe of Tourne-
fort and Pontedra : the former, in his Voyage to the
Levant, and in a Memoir delivered to the Academy of
Sciences at Paris in 1705“, the latter, in his Anthologin.
The fubltance of Tournefort’s account folloivs : u Of
the thirty fpecies or varieties of the domeltic fig tree
which are cultivated in France, Spain, and Italy, there
are but two cultivated in the Archipelago. 'Ihe firft
fpecies is called ornos, from the old Greek ennos, which
anfwers to caprificus in Latin, and fignifies a wild fig-
tree. The fecond is the domellic or garden fig tree.
The former bears fuccelfively, in the fame year, three
forts of fruit, called formtes, cratitires. and orm ; which,
though not good to eat, are found abfolutely neceffary
towards ripening thofe of the garden fig. Phefe fruits
have a lleek even fldn •, are of a deep green colour j
and contain in their dry and mealy infide feveral male
and female flowers placed upon diftindt footftalks, the
former above the latter. The for nit es appear in Auguft,
and continue to November without ripening : in thefe
are bred fmall worms, which turn to a fort of gnats,
nowhere to be feen but about thefe trees. In Oftober
and November, thefe gnats of themfelves make a punc¬
ture into the fecond fruit, which is called cratitirex.
Thefe do not Ihow themfelves till towards the end of
September. The fornites gradually fall away after the
gnats are gone-, the cratitires, on the contrary, remain
on the tree till May, and enclofe the eggs depofited by
the gnats when they pricked them. In May, the third
fort of fruit, called orni, begins to be produced by the
wild fig-trees. This is much bigger than the. other
two and when it grows to a certain fize, and its bud
begins to open, it is pricked in that part by the gnats
of the cratitires, which are ftrong enough to go from
one fruit to another to depofite their eggs. It fome-
times happens that the gnats of the cratitiret are flow
to come forth in certain parts, while the orni in thofe
very parts are difpofed to receive them. In this cafe,
the hufbandman is obliged to look for the cratitires in
another part, and fix them at the ends of the branches
of thofe fig trees whofe orni are in a fit difpofition to
be pricked by the gnats. If they mifs the opportuni¬
ty, the orni fall, and the gnats of the cratitires fly away.
None but thofe that are well acquainted with the cul¬
ture know the critical moment of doing this } and in
order to know it, their eye is perpetually fixed on the
164 ] CAP
bud of the fig *, for that part not only indicates the Caprlfica-
time that the prickers are to iffue forth, but alfo when , tl°n- f
the fig is to be fuccefsfully pricked : if the bud is too
hard and compaft, the gnat cannot lay its eggs j and
the fig drops when the bud is too open.
“ The ufe of all thefe three forts of fruit is to ripen
the fruit of the garden fig-tree, in the following man¬
ner : During the months of June and July, the pea-
fants take the orni, at the time their gnats are ready
to break out, and carry them to the garden fig-trees j
if they do not nick the moment, the orm^ fall $ and the
fruit of the domeftic fig-tree, not ripening, will in a
very little time fall in like manner. The peafants are
fo well acquainted with thefe precious moments, that,
every morning, in making their infpedtion, they only
transfer to their garden fig-trees fuch orni as are well
conditioned, otherwife they lofe their crop. In this
cafe, however, they have one remedy, though an indif¬
ferent one 5 which is, to ftrew over the garden fig-trees
another plant in whofe fruit there is alfo a fpecies of
gnats which anfwer the purpofe in fome meafure.
The caprification of the ancient Greeks and Ro¬
mans, deferibed by 1 heophraftus, Plutarch, Pliny,
and other authors of antiquity, correfponds in every
circumftance with what is prattifed at this day in the
Archipelago and in Italy. Thefe all agree in declar¬
ing, that the wild fig-tree, caprificus, never ripened its
fruit j but was abfolutely neceffary for ripening that
of the garden or domeftic fig, over which the hufband-
men fufpended its branches. The reafon of this fuc-
cefs has been fuppofed to be, that by the pundures of
thefe infects the veffels of the fruit are lacerated, and
thereby a greater quantity of nutritious juice derived
thither. Perhaps, too, in depofiting their eggs, the
gnats leave behind them fome fort of liquor proper ta
ferment gently with the milk of the figs, and to make
their flelh tender. The figs in Provence, and even at
Paris, ripen much fooner for having their buds pricked
with a ftraw dipped in olive-oil. Plums and pears
likewife, pricked by fome infers, ripen much the faft-
er for it; and the flefh -round fuch pun&ure is better
taftad than the reft. It is not to be difputed, that
confiderable changes happen to the contexture of fruits
fo pricked, juft the fame as to parts of animals pierced
with any fharp inftrument. Others have fuppofed that
thefe infe&s penetrated the fruit of the tree to which
they were brought, and gave a more free admiflion to
the air, and to the fun. Linnaeus explained the ope¬
ration, by fuppofing that the infe&s brought the farina
from the wild fig, which contained male flowers only,
to the domeftic fig, which contained the female ones.
Haflelquift, from what he faw in Paleftine, feemed to %
doubt of this mode of fruftification. M. Bernard, in
the Memoirs of the Society of Agriculture, oppofes it
more decidedly. He couldvnever find the infe& in the
cultivated fig } and, in reality, it appeared to leave the
wild fig, after the ftamina were mature, and their pol¬
len diflipated : befides, he adds, what they may have
brought on their wings muft be rubbed away, in the
little aperture which they would form. for themfelves.
At Malta, where there are feven or eight varieties of
the domeftic fig, this operation is only performed on
thofe which ripen lateft : the former are of a proper
/"• 1    — ._ X- Lv - — — ^ 1 t T P 1 P *
fize, fine flavour, and in great abundance without itj
fo that he thinks the caprification only haftens the
ripening
Capfa.
C A p . c 16
flfepriftca- ripening. He examined the parts of fructification of
d”n the fig ; and he obferves, if this examination be made
previous to the ripening, that round the eye of the
fig, and in the fubftance of its covering, may be feen
triangular dentated leaves, prefled one againft an¬
other •, and under thefe leaves are the Itamina, whofe
pollen is deftined for the impregnation of the grains,
which fill the reft of the fruit. Thefe male organs are
much more numerous in the wild-fig than in the do-
meftic; and the ftamina are found to contain a yellow
duft, which may be collected \yhen it is ripe. The
wild figs, when ripe, are not fucculent, and have no
tafte, though the grains are difpofed in the fame man¬
ner as in the other kind. The pith of the grain of
the wild fruit ferves as food to a fpecies of the cynips,
whofe larva is white, till the moment of its transforma¬
tion ; and it is by an opening, in the direction of the
piftil, that the infeCt penetrates the grain. From this
account it is thought probable that the infeCt is only
communicated by accident to the domeftic fig, and
that the flowers of this genus are fometimes herma¬
phrodites. But the number of hermaphrodite flowers
being fewer on the cultivated than on the wild fig, the
feeds are fecundated more certainly and quickly by
the caprification; and every botanift knows, that when
the impregnation is completed, the flower foon withers •,
while, if by any accident it is delayed, it continues in
bloom much longer. This view of the fubjeCt, there¬
fore, explains very completely the reafon why, in Mal¬
ta, the caprification is praCtifed on the late kind of figs,
becaufe it haftens the formation and maturity of the
fruit.
CAPRIMULGUS, Goatsucker, or Fern-owl.
See Ornithology Index.
CAPRIOLES, in the manege, leaps that a horfe
makes in the fame place without advancing, in fuch a
manner, that, when he is at the height of the leap, he
jerks out with his hinder legs even and near. It is the
moft difficult of all the high manege. It differs from
a croupade, in this, that, in a croupade, a horfe does
not (how his ffioes ; and from a ballotade, becaufe in
this he does not jerk out. To make a horfe work
well at caprioles, he muft be put between two pillars,
and taught to raife firft his fore quarters, and then his
hind quarters while his fore ones are yet in the air j
for which reafon you muft give him the whip and the
poinfon.
CAPSA, in Ancient Geography, a large and ftrong
town of Numidia, fituated amidft vail deferts, wafte, un¬
cultivated, and full of ferpents, where Jugurtha kept
his treafure. . In his time it was taken and razed by
Marius the Roman general, who put to death all the
citizens capable of bearing arms, and fold the reft for
flaves. It was, however, afterwards rebuilt by the Ro¬
mans, and ftrongly fortified •, but, on the decline of
their empire, was taken and demolilhed a fecond time,
by Occuba a famous Arab general. The walls of the
citadel are ftill remaining, and are monuments of the
ancient glory and ftrength of Capfa. They are 24 fa¬
thoms in height, and five in thicknefs, built of large
fquare ftones, and have now acquired the folidity and
firmnefs of a rock. The walls of the town were rebuilt
by the inhabitants fince their firft demolition •, but were
afterwards deftroyed by Jacob Almanzor, who fent a
governor and troops into the province. In Mannol’s
s] C A P
time Capfa was very populous, and abounded with Capfa
ftately mofques and other ftru&ures of fuperb and ele- W
gant workmanlhip : but at prefent it is occupied by a ■ ‘ .
poor and indigent people, fleeced and opprefled by the
Tuniiian government. In the very centre of the city
Hands an enclofed fountain, which both fupplies the
people with drink, and affords them an agreeable bath.
The adjacent country is now cultivated, and produces
feveral kinds of fruits ; but the climate is unhealthy.
The inhabitants are remarkable for their peeviftmefs of
temper. Both men and women drefs handfomely, ex¬
cept their feet, which they cover with courfe Ihoes of
bungling workmanffiip, and made of the rough Ikins
of wild beafts, equally inconvenient and unbecoming,
E. Long. 9. 3. N. Lat. 33. 15.
CAPSARIUS, (from capfa, fatchel), in antiquity,
a fervant who attended the Roman youth to fchool,
carrying a fatchel with their books in it, fometimes''
alfo called librarius.
Capsarius was alfo an attendant at the baths, to
vffiom perfons committed the keeping of their clothes.
Capsarius (from capfa, “ a cheft,”) among the
Roman bankers, was he who had the care of the mo¬
ney cheft or coffer.
CAPSICUM, or Guinea-pepper. See Botany
Index.
The bell-pepper produces fruit fit for pickling j fof
which purpofe they muft be gathered before they ar¬
rive at their full fiz:e, while their rind is tender. They
muft be flit down on one fide to get out the feeds,
after which they fliould be foaked two or three days in
fait and water ; when they are taken out of this and
drained, boiling vinegar muft be poured on them in a
fufficient quantity to cover them, and clofely flopped
down for two months j then they Ihould be boiled in
the vinegar to make them green j but they want no
addition of any fpice, and are the wholefomeft and
belt pickle in the world. Another fpecies is ufed for
making what is called cayan-butter or pepper-pots, by
the inhabitants of America, and which they efteem
the belt of all the fpices. The following is a receipt
for making of a pepper-pot: “ Take of the ripe feeds
of this fort of capficum, and dry them w ell in the fun 5
then put them into an earthen or Hone pot, mixing
flour between every ftratum of podsj and put them in¬
to an oven after the baking of bread, that they may be
thoroughly dried : after which they muft be -well
cleanfed from the flour; and if any of the ftalks re¬
main adhering to the pods, they fhould be taken off,,
and the pods reduced to a fine powder j to every ounce
of this add a pound of wheat flour, and as much leaven
as is fufficient for the quantity intended. ^ After this
has been properly mixed and wrought, it ftiould be
made into fmall cakes, and baked in the fame manner
as common cakes of the fame fize : then cut them into
fmall parts, and bake them again, that they may be as
dry and hard as bifeuit*, which being powdered and lift--
ed, is to be kept for ufe.” This is prodigioufly hot and
acrimonious^ fetting the mouth as it were on fire. . It
is by fome recommended as a medicine for flatulencies j
but it is ■ greatly to be doubted -whether all thofe hot
irritating medicines are not productive of more haim
than good, in this country at leaft. If the ripe pods of
capficum are thrown into the fire, they will raife ftrong
and noifome vapours, which occafion vehement fnee*-
CAP [ 16
'Cipficum ing, cougliing, and often vomiting, in tliofe who are
II, near the place, or in the room where they are burnt.
. f^pltan. gome perfons have mixed the powder of the pods with
J fault, to give to others for diverfion: but where it is
in quantity, there may be danger in uling it *, for it
will occalion fuch violent fits of fneezing, as may break
the blood-veflels of the head.
CAPSQUARES, ftrong plates of iron which come
•ver the trunnions of a gun, and keep it in the car¬
riage. They are faftened by a hinge to the prize-
plate, that they may lift up and down, and form a
part of an arch in the middle to receive a third part of
the thicknefs of the trunnions : for two-thirds are let
into the carriage, and the other end is failened by two
iron wedges called xhe forelocks and keys.
CAPSTAN, or Capstern, a ftrong maffy column
of timber, formed like a truncated cone, and having
its upper extremity pierced with a number of holes to
receive the bars or levers. It is let perpendicularly
down through the decks of a Ihip} and is fixed in luch
a manner, that the men, by turning it horizontally
with their bars, may perform any work which requires
any extraordinary effort.
Plate A capftern is compofed of feveral parts, where A is
CXXXV. tp,e barrel, b the whelps, c the drumhead, and d the
fpindle. The whelps rife out from the main body of
the capftern like buttreffes, to enlarge the fweep, fo
that a greater quantity of cable, or whatever rope en¬
circles "the barrel, may be wound about it at one turn,
without adding much to the weight of the capftern.
The whelps reach downwards from the lower part of
the drumhead to the deck. The drumhead is a broad
cylindrical piece of wood refembling a millftone, and
fixed immediately above the barrel and whelps. On
the outlide of this piece are cut a number of fquare
holes parallel to the deck, to receive the bars. The
fpindle or pivot d, which is ftiod with iron, is the axis
or foot upon which the capftern refts, and turns round
in the faucer, which is a fort of iron focket let into a
wooden ftock or ftandard called the flep, retting upon
and bolted to the beams.
Betides the different parts of the capftern above ex¬
plained, it is furniihed with feveral appurtenances, as
the bars,) the />zW, the pawls, the fwifter, and fau¬
cer, already deferibed. The bars are long pieces pf
wood, or arms, thruft into a number of fquare holes in
•the drumhead all round, in which they are as the tadii
of a circle, or the fpokes in the nave of a wheel. They
are ufed to heave the capftern round, which is done by
the men fetting their breafts againft them, and walking
about, like the machinery of a horfe mill, till the opera¬
tion is fimlhed.— 1.he pins e, are little bolts of non
thruft: perpendicularly through the holes of the drum¬
head, and through a correfponding hole in the end of
the bar, made to receive the pins when the bars are
fixed. They are ufed to confine the bars, and to pre¬
vent them from working out as the men heave, or when
the {hip labours. Every pin is faftened to the drum¬
head with a fmall iron chain ; and that the bars may
exaftly fit their refpeftive holes, they are all numbered.
 The pawls f, N° I. are fituated on each fide the cap¬
ftern, being tvro ftiort bars of iron, bolted at one end
through the deck to the beams dole to the lower part
of the whelps ; the other end, which occafionally turns
round on the deck, being placed in the intervals of the
2
6 i : CAP
whelps, as the capftern turns round, prevents it front CapfUn,
recoiling or turning back by any fudden jerk ot tu^ , ^ -1
cable, as the (hip rifes on the fea, which might greatly
endanger the men who heave, ihere are ailo hanging
pawls gg) N° 3. ufed for the fame purpofe?, reaching
from the deck above to the drumhead immediately
below it. The fwifter is a rope paffed horizontally
through holes in the outer end of the bars, and drawn
very tight ; the intent of this is to keep the men fteady
as they walk round when the {hip rocks, and to giv e
room for a greater number to aflift by pulling upon the
fwifter itfelf.
The moft frequent ufe of the capftern is to heave m
the cable, and thereby remove the Ihip or draw up the
anchor. It is alfo ufed to wind up any weighty body,
as the mafts, artillery, &c. In merchant {hips it is
likewife frequently employed to difeharge or take m
the cargo, particularly when confifting of weighty ma¬
terials that require a great exertion of mechanical
powers to be removed.
There are commonly two capfterns m a man of war,
the main and the gear capftern •, the former of which
has two drumheads, and may be called a double one.
This is reprefented in N° 3. The latter is reprefent-
ed in N° 2.
Formerly the bars of the capftern went entirely
through the head of it, and confequently were more
than double the length of the prefent ones ; the holes
were therefore formed at different heights, as repre¬
fented in N° 1. But this machine had feveral incon¬
veniences, and has long been entirely difined in the
navy. Some of thefe iort of capfterns, however, are
ftill retained in merchant {hips, and are ufually deno¬
minated The fituation of the hars in a crab, as
ready for heaving, is reprefented in N 4. .
To rig the CA?STERN, is to fix the bars m their, re-
fpeftive holes, and thruft in the pins, in order to con¬
fine them.—Surge the CAPSTERN, is the order to llack-
en the rope heaved round upon it, of which there are
generally two turns and a hair about the barrel at
once, and fometimes three turns.—-2o Heave the CAP-
STERN, is to go round with it heaving on tlm bars, and
drawing in any rope of which the purchafe is created.
 To come-up the CAPSTERN, is to let go the rope up¬
on which they had been heaving.—To Pawl the LAP-
STERN, is to fix the pawls to prevent it from recoiling
during any paufe of heaving.
CAPSULE, in a general fenfe, denotes a recepta¬
cle or cover in form of a bag.
Capsule, among botanifts, a dry hollow {eed-veiiei
or pericarpium, that cleaves or fplits in fome determi¬
nate manner. See Pericarpium, Botaky Index.
This fpecies of feed-veffel is frequently flelhy and
fuccnlent, like a berry, before it has attained maturi¬
ty ; but, in ripening, becomes dry, and often lo ela-
ftic as to dart the feeds from their departments with
confiderable velocity. This elafticity is remarkably
confpicuous in wood forrel j balfam, tmpatiens ; Afri¬
can fpircea, dioftna ; fraxinella ; jujliaa; ruelha ; bar-
leria ; lathrcta ; and many others.—The general apti¬
tude or difpofition of this fpecies t>f feed-veffel to cleave
or feparate for the purpofe of difperfing its feeds, di-
ftinguifties it not lefs remarkably than its texture from
the pulpy or fucculent fruits of the apple, berry, anu
cherry kind. This opening of the capful® for dilchai-
CAP [ 167 ] CAP
Capful?, ging its feeds when the fruit is ripe, is either at the
Captain. as jn plants; at the bottom, as in triglo-
"J' y chin ; at the hde, through a pore or fmall hole, as in
campanula and orchis ; horizontally, as in plantain,
amaranthus, and anagallis } or longitudinally, as in
convolvulus. All fruit that is jointed, opens at every
one of the joints, each of which contains a lingle feed.
Capfules, in fplitting, are divided, externally, into one
or more pieces, called by Linnteus valves. The in¬
ternal divifions of the capfules are called cells, locula-
menta : thefe, in point of number, are exceedingly di-
verfified ; fome having only one cell, as the primrofe j
and others many, as the water lily. Hence a capfule
is termed unilocular, bilocular, trilocular, &c. accord¬
ing as it has one, two, three, &c. cells or cavities.
C.APSUL/E Atrabiliariee, called alfo glandules renalcs,
and renesfuccenturiati. See Anatomy Index.
CAPTAIN, a military officer, whereof there are
feveral kinds, according to their commands.
CAPTAIN of a Troop or Company, an inferior officer
who commands a troop of horfe or a company of foot,
under a colonel. The duty of this officer is to be
careful to keep his company full of able-bodied fol-
diers •, to vifit their tents and lodgings, to fee what is
Wanting •, to pay them well; to caufe them keep tliem-
felves neat and clean in their clothes, and their arms
bright. He has power in his own company of making
ferjeants, corporals, and lanfpefadcs.
In the horfe and foot guards, the captains have the
rank of colonels.
CAPTAIN-General, he who commands in chief.
CAPTAIN-Lieutenant, he who, with the rank of cap¬
tain, but the pay of lieutenant, commands a troop or
company in the name and place of fome other perfon
who is difpenfed with, on account of his quality, from
performing the fundtions of his poll.
Thus the colonel being ufually captain of the firft
company of his regiment, that company is commanded
by his deputy under the title of Captain-Lieutenant.
So in England, as well as in France, the king,
queen, dauphin, princes, Stc. have ufually the title of
captain of the guards, gens d'artnes, &c. the real du¬
ty of which offices is performed by captain-lieute¬
nants.
CAPTAIN Reformed, one who, upon the reduction of
the forces, has his commiffion and company fupprefled 5
yet is continued captain, either as fecond to another, or
without any pod or command at all.
Captain of a Ship of War, the officer w ho com¬
mands a {hip of the line of battle, or a frigate carry¬
ing 20 or more cannon. The charge of a captain in
his majefly’s navy is very comprehenlive, in as much
as he is not only anfwerable for any bad conduct in
the military government, navigation, and equipment
of the ffiip he commands, but alfo for any negleft of
duty or ill management in his inferior officers, whofe
feveral charges he is appointed to fuperintend and re¬
gulate.
On his firft receiving information of the condition
and quality of the ftiip he is appointed to command,
He muft attend her conftantly, and haften the neceffary
preparations to fit her for fea. So drift, indeed, are
the iniunftions laid on him by the lord high admiral,
or commiffioners of the admiralty, that he is ’forbid
ia lie out of his ftiip, from his arrival on board to
the day of his difeharge, unlefs by particular leave Captain,
from the admiralty or from his commander in chief.' *
He is enjoined to {how a laudable example of honour
and virtue to the officers and men 5 and to difeounte-
nance all diifolute, immoral, and diforderly praftices,
and fuch as are contrary to the rules of fubordination
and difeipline 5 as well as to correft thofe who are
guilty of fuch offences as are punifhable according to
the ufage of the fea. He is ordered particularly to
furvey all the military ftores which are fent on board,
and to return whatever is deemed unfit for fervice.
His diligence and application are required to procure
his complement of men : obferving carefully to enter
only fuch as are fit for the neceffary duty, that the go¬
vernment may not be put to unneceffary expence.
When his ftiip is fully manned, he is expefted to keep
the eftabliftred number of men complete, and fuperin¬
tend the mufter himfelf, if there is no clerk of the check
at the port. When his {hip is employed on a cruifing
ftation, he is expefted to keep the lea the whole length
of time previouily appointed \ but if he is compelled
by fome unexpefted accident to return to port fooner
than the time limited, he ought to be very cautious in
the choice of a good fituation for anchoring, ordering
the mafter or other careful officers to found and difeo-
ver the depths of -water and dangers of the coaft. Pre¬
vious to any poffibility of an engagement with the
enemy, he is to quarter the officers and men to the ne¬
ceffary ftations according to their office and abilities,
and to exercife them in the management of the artil¬
lery, that they may be more expert in time of battle.
His ftation in the time of an engagement is on the
quarter-deck : at which time he is expefted to take all
opportunities of annoying his enemy, and improving
every advantage over him \ to exhibit an example of
courage and fortitude to his officers and crew ; and to
place his ftiip oppofite to his adverfary in fuch a pofi-
tion as that every cannon {hall do cffeftual execution.
At the time of his arrival in port, after his return
from abroad, he is to affemble his officers, and draw
up a detail of the obfervations that have been made
during the voyage, of the qualities of the Ihip as to
her trim, ballaft, ftovage, manner of failing, for the
information and direftion of thofe who may fucceed
him in the command ; and this account is to be figned
by himfelf and officers, and to be returned to the refi-
dent commiffioner of the navy at the port where the
{hip is difeharged.
CAPTAIN of a Merchant-[hip, he w’ho has the direc¬
tion of the {hip, her crew, and lading, &.c. In fmall
{hips and fhort voyages, he is more ordinarily called the
mefler. In the Mediterranean, he is called the pa-
troon.—The proprietor of the veffel appoints the cap¬
tain or mafter : and he is to form the crew, and choofe
and hire the pilots, mates, aind feamen 5 though, when
the proprietor and mafter refide on the fame fpot, they
generally aft in concert together.
CAPTAIN Bafijaw, or Capondan Bafhavo, in the po¬
lity of the Turks, fignifies the Turkifh high admiral.
He poffeffes the third office of the empire, and is in-
vefted with the fame power at fea that the vizir has
on ftrore. Soliman II. inftituted this office in favour
of the famous Earbaroffa, with abfolute authority over
the officers of the marine and arfenal, whom he may
punilh, calhie.r, or put to death, as foon as he is with¬
out-
Optnift but the Dardanelles.  
_ I] maritime countries, cities, cattles, &.c. and, at Con-
’Gaptmty. - - - 1 - 7, m
A P [ 168 ] CAP
He commands in chief in all the vity pointed cut in a manner alraoft as clear as that of C»pti,«r
the tribes of Benjamin and Judah : fee Hoiea, x. JO. x t. ^ ';ua
Amos ix. 14. The captivities of Judah are generally
reckoned four ) the fourth and latt of which fell in the
year of the world $416, under Zedekiah j and from
this period begins the 70 yearS captivity foretold by
Jeremiah.
Since the deftruftion of the temple by the Romans,
the Hebrews boaft that they have always had their^
ftantinople, is the firft magiftrate of police m the vil¬
lages on the fide of the Porte, and the canal of the
Black fea. The mark of his authority is a large In¬
dian cane, which he carries in his hand, both in the
arfenal and with the army.—The captain bafliaw en¬
joys two forts of revenues ; the one fixed, the other
cafual. The firft arifes from a capitation of the iflands
i i . * _  — - A-AT 4- ^
camai, xne nnt anies irom a ciipnatimi 01 tuc, Ananvxa   , n f
in the Archipelago, and certain governments in Nato- heads or particular princes, whom they call princes oj
i*  1 /'''!• ..n -rvo-.r iVir* thp cnMrmtv. in the eaft and weft. ihe princes of the
lia and Galipoli. The latter conlifts in the pay of the
men who die during a campaign j in a fifth of all prizes
made by the begs j in the profits accruing from the la¬
bour of the flaves, whom he hires as rowers to the grand
fignior \ and in the contributions he exacts in all places
■where he paffes.
CAPTION, in Scots Low, a writ iffuing under
liis majefty’s figjjet, in his majefty’s name, obtained at
the inftance of a creditor in a civil debt, commanding
meffengers at arms and other officers of the law to. ap¬
prehend and imprifon the perfon of the debtor until he
pay the debt.—It is alfo the name of a writ iffued by
the court of feffion againft the agents of the court, to
Teturn papers belonging to proceffes or law fuits, or
othenvife to go to prifon.
6APT1VE, a flave or a perfon taken from the
enemy.
Formerly captives in war became the flaves of thofe
who took them j and though flavery, fuch as obtain-
•ed among the ancients, is now aboliffied, fome flia-
dow of it ftill remains in refpe£l of prifoners of war,
who are accounted the property of their captors, and
have no right to liberty but by conceffion from them.
—The Romans ufed their captives with great feveri-
ty } their necks were expofed to the foldiers to be
trampled on, and their perfons afterwards fold by pub¬
lic audlion. Captives were frequently burnt in the fu¬
neral piles of the ancient warriors, as a facrifice to the
infernal gods. Thofe of royal or noble blood had their
heads (haven, and their hair fent to Rome to ferve as
decorations for female toys, &.c. They were led in
triumph loaded with chains through Rome, in the em¬
peror’s train, at lead as far as the foot of the Capito-
line mount, for they were not permitted to afcend the
facred hill, but carried thence to prifon. Thofe. of
the prime quality were honoured with golden chains
on their hands and feet, and golden collars on their
necks. If they made their efcape, or killed them-
felves, to avoid the ignominy of being carried in tri¬
umph, their images or effigies were frequently carried
in their place.
CAPTIVITY, in a general fenfe, the ftate or con¬
dition of a captive.
Captivity, in facred hiftory, a puniffim«nt which
God inflifted upon his people for their vices and infi¬
delities. The firft of thefe captivities is that of. Egypt,
from which Mofes delivered them ; after, which, are
reckoned fix during the government of the judges ; but
the greateft and moft remarkable were thofe of Judah
and Ifrael, which happened under the kings of each of
thefe kingdoms. It is generally believed, that the
ten tribes of Ifrael never came back again after their dif-
perfion ; and Jofephus and St Jerome are of this opi¬
nion : neverthelefs, when we examine the writings of
the prophets, we find the return of Ifrael from capti-
the captivity, in the eaft and weft, ihe princes of the
captivity in the eaft governed the Jews that dwelt in
Babylon, AiTyria, and Perfia ; and the princes of the
captivity in the weft governed thofe who dwelt in Ju-
da;a, Egypt, Italy, and in other parts of the Roman
empire. He who refided in Judaea commonly took up
his abode at Tiberias, and aflumed the name of KoJ-
chobboth, “ head of the fathers or patriarchs.”. He
prefided in aiTemblies, decided in cafes of conicience,
levied taxes for the expences of his vifits, and had offi¬
cers under him who were defpatched through the pro¬
vinces for the execution of his orders. As to the prin¬
ces of the captivity at Babylon, or the eaft, we know
neither the original nor fucceffion of them. It only
appears that they w^ere not in being before the end of
the fecond century.
CAPTURE, a prize, or prey ; particularly that of
a (hip taken at fea. Captures made at lea were for¬
merly held to be the property of the captors after a
poffeffion of twenty-four hours ; but the modern
au-
can be
thorities require, that before the property,
changed, the goods muft have been brought into port,
and have continued a night intra prcejidia, in a place
of fafe cuftody, fo that all hope of recovering them
was loft.
Capture alfo denotes an arreft or feizure of a cri¬
minal, debtor, &c. at land.
CAPUA, in Ancient Geography, a very ancient city
of Italy, in Campania, and capital of that diftridf. . It
is famous for the abode of Hannibal the Carthaginian
general after the battle of Cannae, and where Livy ac-
cufes him, but unjuftly, of having enervated hi.mfelf
with pleafures *. It ftill retains the name, and is the * See Car
fee of an archbifhop. It is feated on the river Voltur-
no, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 41. 7. The hiftory
of Capua is thus fhortly deduced by Mr Swinburne.
“ It was a fettlement of the Ofci long before the
foundation of Rome. As the amazing fertility of the
land and a lucrative commerce poured immenfe wealth
upon its inhabitants, it became one of the moft exten-
five and magnificent cities in the world. Witn riches
exteflive luxury crept in, and the Capuans grew in(o-
lent j but by their effeminacy they foon loft the power ■
of repelling thofe neighbouring nations which their
infolence had exafperated. For this reafon Capua was
continually expofed to the neceffity of calling in fo¬
reign aid, and endangering its fafety by the uncom¬
mon temptations it oftered to needy auxiliaries. The
Roman foldiers fent to defend Capua were on the point
of making it their prey, and often the voice of the
Roman people was loud for a removal from the barren
unwholefome banks of the Tiber to the garden of
Italy, near thofe of the Volturno. Through well-
founded jealoufy of the ambition of Rome, or, as Livy
and other partial writers term it, natural inconftancy,
1 the
Capua,
puchins.
CAP f 1^9 ] € A 1
tfie Capuans warmly efpoufed the quarrel of Carthage:
Hannibal made Capua his winter quarters after the
campaign of Cannae ; and there, if we are to believe
hiitorians, his rough and hitherto invincible foldiers
Were enervated by pleafure and indolence.
Cl When through a failure of fupplies from Carthage
Hannibal was under a neceffity of remaining in Brut-
tium, and leaving the Capuans to defend themfelves,
this city, which had been long invefted, was furren-
dered at difcretion to the confuls Appius Claudius and
£). Fulvius Flaccus. The fenators were put to death,
the nobles imprxfoned for life, and all the citizens fold
and difperfed. \'ibius, the chief of Hannibal’s friends,
avoided this ignominous fate, and efcaped from the
Cruel vengeance of the Romans, by a voluntary death.
—When the mob infilled upon the gates being thrown
open to the enemy, Vibius aflfembled his Heady affo-
ciates, and fat down with them to a fuperb banquet,
after which each of the guefls fwallorved a poifonous
draught, and expired in full poffeflion of their free¬
dom. The buildings were fpared by the vi£tor; and
Capua was left to be merely a harbour for the hufband-
men of the plain, a warehoufe for goods, and a gra¬
nary for corn •, but fo advantageous a fituation could
not long be neglected •, colonies were fent to inhabit
it, and in procefs of time it regained a degree of im¬
portance.
“ Genferic the Vandal wras more cruel than the Ro¬
man conquerors had been j for he maffacred the inha¬
bitants, and burnt the town to the ground. Narfes
rebuilt it', but in 841 it was totally deflroyed by an
army of Saracens, and the inhabitants driven into the
mountains. Some time after the retreat of thefe fa-
vage invaders, the Lombards ventured down again in¬
to the plain } but not deeming their force adequate to
the defence of fo large a circuit as the old city, they
built themfelves a fmaller one on the river, and called
it Capua.— I hey chofe the fite of Cafilinum, famous
in the fecond Punic wrar, for the refinance made by
its garrifon againfl Hannibal. Since the foundation of
the new city, Old Capua has remained in ruins.
“ ln 8 ;6, Landulph formed here an independent
earldom difmembered from the duchy of Benevento,
and in the courfe of a few generations Capua acquired
the title of a principality. In the nth century, the
Normans of Averfa expelled the Lombard race of
princes, and Richard their chief became prince of Ca¬
pua , the grandfon of T anqred of Hauteville drove out
the defcendants of Richard, and united this Hate to
the reH of his pofleffions.
“ Capua Is at prefent a neat little city, fortified ac¬
cording to the rules of modern art, and may be confi-
dered as the key of the kingdom *, though far removed
from the frontier, it is the only fortification that really
covers the approach to Naples.”
CAPUCHINS, religious of the order of St Francis
in its ftriflefi obfervance j deriving their name from
capuce, or capuchon, a Huff cap, or cowl, wherewith
they cover their heads. They are clothed with brown
or gray j always barefooted j are never to go in a
♦oach, nor ever Hiave their beard.—The Capuchins
are a reform made from the order of Minors, com¬
monly called Cordeliers, fet on foot in the 16th cen¬
tury by Matthew Bafchi, a religious obfervant of the
monaftery of Montefiafcone ; who, bcine at Rome,
Vox.. V. Part I. *
was advertifed feveral times from heaven, to praftifif Capuch;;v>
the rule of St Francis to the letter. Upon this he made I!
application to Pope Clement in 1525 j W'ho gave him
permiflion to retire into a folitude, with as many others ¥
as chofe to embrace the flri£t obfervance. In 1528,
they obtained the pope’s bull. In 1529, the order
was brought into complete form : Matthew was eledt-
ed general, and the chapter made conffitutions. In
1543, the right of preaching was taken From the Ca¬
puchins by the pope: but in 1545 it was reffored to
them again with honour. In 1578, there were alrea¬
dy 1 7 general chapters in the order of Capuchins.
CAPUT, the head. See Head.
CAPUT baronice, the head of the barony, in ancient
cuffoms, denotes the ancient or chief feat or caffle of a
nobleman, where he made his ufual refidence, and held
his court ; fometimes alfo called caput honoris, or the
head of the honour. The caput baronise could not be
fettlcd in dowry j nor could it be divided among the
daughters, in cafe there was no fon to inherit; but
was to defcend entire to the eldeff daughter, Cceteriv
Ji/iabus aliunde fatisfaClis.
CAPUT Gailinaginis, in Anatomy, is a kind of fep-
turn, or fpongy border, at the extremities or apertures*
of each of the veftcu/ce feminales; ferving to prevent
the feed coming from one fide, from rufiiing upon, and
fo Hopping, the difcharge of the other.
CAPUT Lupinum. Anciently an outlaw ed felon was
faid to have caput lupinum, and might be knocked on
the head like a voolf, by any one that fliould meet
him •, becaufe, having renounced all law, he was to be
dealt with as in a Hate of nature, when every one that
Ihould find him might flay him j yet now, to avoid
fuch inhumanity, it is holden that no man is entitled
to kill him wantonly and wilfully j but in fo doing he
is guilty of murder, unlefs it is done in the endeavour !
to apprehend him.
CAPUT Mertuum, a Latin name given to fixed and
exhaufled refiduums remaining in retorts after diflilla.
tions. As thefe refiduums are very different, accord¬
ing to the fubffances diflilled, and the degree of heat
employed, they are by the more accurate modern che-
mills particularly fpecified by adding a term denoting
their qualities ; as earthy rejiduum, charry rejiduum,
faltne rejiduum, &c.
CARABINE, a fire arm fliorter than a mulket,
carrying a ball of 24 in the pound, borne by the light
horfe, hanging at a belt over the left flioulder. The
barrel is tw’o feet and a half long \ and is fometimes
furrowed fpirally within, which is faid to add to the
range of the piece.
CARABINEERS, regiments of light horfe, car¬
rying longer carabines than the reH, and fometimes
ufed on foot.
CARABUS. See Entomology Index.
CARACALLA, M. Antoninus Bassianus, em¬
peror after his father Severus in 211, put the phyficians
to death for not defpatching his father, as he would
have had them. He killed his brother Geta; and put
Papinianus to death, becaufe he would not defend nor
excufe his parricide. In Ihort, it is faid that 20,000
perfons were maffacred by his order. He married Ju¬
lia, his father’s widow. Going to Alexandria, he Hew
the inhabitants, and applied to the magicians and affro-
logers At laff, going from Edella to Mefopotamia,
Y
CAR
[ 17°
Caracalla one of his captains flew him, by order of Macrinus,
. who fucceeded him. He died after he had reigned
, Caracci. ^ fomewhat more than fix years. .
Car AC all A, in antiquity, a long garment, having
a fort of capuchin, or hood a-top, and reaching to the
heels •, worn equally among the Romans by the men
and the women, in the city and the camp. Spartian
and Xiphilian reprefent the emperor Caracalla as the
inventor of this garment, and hence, fuppofe the appel¬
lation Caracalla was firft given him. . Others, with
more probability, make the caracalla originally a Gal¬
lic habit, and only brought to Rome by the emperor
above mentioned, who firft enjoined the foldiery to
wear it. The people call it antoninicin, from the fame
prince, who had borrowed the name of Antoninus.
The caracalla was a fort of caflock, or furtout. Sal-
mafius, Scaligcr, and after them Du Cange, even take
the name cafaque to have been formed from that or ca-
raque, for caracalla. rihis is certain from ot Jerome,
that the earacalla, with a. retrenchment pf the capu¬
chin, became an ecclefiaftieal garment. It is deicrioed
as made of fcveral pieces cut and fewed together, and
hanging down to the feet j but it is more than probable
there were fome made ftiorter, efpeciaily out ot Rome,
otherwife we do not fee how it could have fitted tae
foldiers purpofes. . • c e
C ARACCAS, a diftria of Terra Firma m South
America, belonging to the Spaniards.. 1 he coaft is
rocky and mountainous, interfperfed with fmall fertile
valleys; fubjetted at certain feafons of the year to dry
north-weft winds, but blefied in general with a clear air
and wholefome climate. A very great illicit trace is
carried on by the Englilh and Dutch with this pro¬
vince, notwithftanding all the vigilance ox the Spa¬
niards, who have fcouts perpetually employed, and
breaftworks railed in all the valleys. A vail number
of cacao trees are cultivated in this province; and it
is reckoned that the crop of cacao produced here a-
amounts to more than 100,000 fanegas of no pounds
each. The country of Santa Fe confumes 20,000 j
Mexico a little more ■, the Canaries a fmall cargo; and
Europe from 50 to 60,000. The cultivation of the
plant employs 10 or 12,000 negroes. Such of them as
have obtained their liberty have built a little town cal¬
led Nlrva, into which they will not admit any white
people. The chief town is likewife called Caraccas,
and is fituated in N. Lat. 10. 10. Dampier. fays it
{lands at a confiderable diftance from the fea ; is large,
wealthy, and populous; and extremely difficult of ae-
cefs, by reafon of the deep and craggy hills over which
an enemy muft take his route. The commerce oi this
town, to which the bay of Gnaira at two leagues di¬
ftance ferves for a harbour, was for a long time open to
all tbe fubjefts of the Spanifti monarchy, and is ftill to
to the Americans; but the Europeans are not to well
treated. In 1728 a company was formed at St Seba-
ftian, which obtained an exclufive right of mainlin¬
ing connexions with this part of the new world. Four
•r five (hips which they difpatch every year, fail irom
thence, but they return to Cadiz.
CARACCI, Lewis, Augustine, and Hannibal,
three celebrated painters of the Lombard fchool, all of
Bologna. Lewis was born in I55j? and was coufin-
eerman to Auguftine and Hannibal, who were brothers,
the Ions of a tailor, who was yet careful to give them
3 CAR
a liberal education. They were both difciples of Caneeu
their coufin Lewis. Auguftine gained a knowledge of
mathematics, natural philofophy, muiic, poetry, and
moft of the liberal arts *, but, though painting was his
principal purfuit, he learned the art of engraving from
Cornelius Cort, and furpaffed all the mafters of his
time. Hannibal, again, never deviated from bis pencil.
—Thefe three painters, at length, having reaped all
the advantages they could by contemplation and prac¬
tice, formed a plan of affociation, continued always to¬
gether, and laid the foundation of that celebrated
Ichool which has ever fince been known by the name of
Caracci's academy. Hither all the young Undents, who
had a view’ of becoming mafters, reforted to be inftrucE
ed in the rudiments of painting ; and here the Caracci
taught freely, and without relerve, all that came.
Lewis’s charge was to make a collection of antique
ftatues and bafs reliefs. They had defigns of the belt
mafters, and a collection of curious books on. all fub-
jefts relating to their art; and they had a fkilful ana-
tomift always ready to teach what belonged to the
knitting and motions of the mufclcs, &c. There were
often difputations in the academy ; and not only paint¬
ers, but men of learned profeffions, propofed queftions,
which were always decided by Lewis. Every body
was well received; and though ftated hours were al¬
lotted to treat of different matters, yet improvements
might be made at all hours by the antiquities and the
defigns which were to be feen.
The fame of the Caracci reaching Rome, the cardi¬
nal Farnefe fent for Hannibal thither, to paint the gal¬
lery of his palace. Hannibal w as the more willing to go,,
beeaufe he had a great defire to fee Raphael s works,
with the antique ftatues and bafs reliefs. 1 he gufto
W’hich he took there from the ancient fculpture, made
him change his Bolognian manner for one more learned
but lefs natural in the defign and in the colouring.—
Auguftine followed Hannibal, to affift him in his under¬
taking of the Farnefe gallery ; but the brothers not
rightly agreeing, Farnele fent Auguftine to the couit
of the duke of Parma, where he died in the year 1602,
being only 45 years of age. His moft celebrated pieee-
of painting is that of the Communion of St Jerome, in
Bologna. . . . .
In the mean while, Hannibal continued working in
the Farnefe gallery at Rome ; and, after inconceivable
pains and care, finiffied the paintings in the perfection
in which they are now to be feen. He hoped that the
cardinal would have rewarded him in fome proportion
to the excellence of his work, and the time it took him
up, which was eight years ; but he was difappointed.
The cardinal, influenced by an ignorant Spaniard, his
domeftic, gave him but a little above 200I. though it
is certain he deferved more than twice as many thou-
fands. When the money was brought him, he was fo
furprifed at the injuftice done him, that, he could not
fpeak a word to the perfon who brought it. Ibis con¬
firmed him in a melancholy to which his temper natu¬
rally inclined, and made him refolve nevermore to touch
his pencil; which refolution he had undoubtedly kept
if bis neceffities bad not compelled him to break it. . It
is faid, that his melancholy gained fo much upon him,
that at certain times it deprived him of the.ufe of his
fenfes. It did not, however, put a Hop to his amours ;
and his debauches at Naples, whither he had retired for
the
CAR [ *71 ] CAR
Catacci die tecovery of his health, brought a diftemper upon
II him of which hfe died in 1609, when he was 49 years
^ara<^‘ of age. His veneration for Raphael was fo great, that
it was his deathbed requetl to be buried in the fame
tomb with him : which was accordingly done, in the
Pantheon or Rotunda at Rome. There are extant fe-
veral prints of the bleffed Virgin, and fome other fub-
jedb, etched by the hand of this incomparable artift.
He is faid to have been a friendly, plain, honeft, and
open-hearted man j very communicative to his fcho-
lars, and fo extremely kind to them, that he generally
kept his money in the fame box with his colours,
where they might have recourfe to either as they had
occafion.
While Hannibal Caracci worked at Rome, Lewis
\vas courted from all parts of Lombardy, especially by
the clergy, to make pidtures in their churches : and we
may judge of his capacity and facility, by the great
number of pictures he made, and by the preference
that wras given him to other painters. In the midlt
of thefe employments Hannibal folicited him to come
and a {lift him in the Farnefe gallery •, and fo ear-
zreftly, that he could not avoid complying with his
requeft. He went to Rome } corrected feveral things
in that gallery; painted a figure or two himfelf j and
then returned to Bologna, where he died in 1619,
aged 64.
CARACOL, in the manege, the half turn which a
Korfeman makes, either to the right or left.—In the
army, the horfe always makes a caracol after each dif-
eharge, in order to pafs the rear of the fquadron.
Caracol, in ArchiteElure, denotes a ftaircafe in a
helix or fpiral form.
CARACOLI, a kind of metal of which the Carib-
bees, or natives of the Leffer Antilles, make a fort of
ornament in the form of a crefcent, which they alfo call
caracoli.—This metal comes from the main land *, and
the common opinion is, that it is a compound of filver,
copper, and gold, fomething like the Corinthian brafs
among the ancients. Thefe metals are fo perfectly
mixed and incorporated together, that the compound
which refults from them, it is faid, has a colour that
never alters, how long foever it remains in the fea or
under ground. It is fomewhat brittle j and they who
wrork at it are obliged to mix a large proportion of
gold with it, to make the compound more tough and
malleable.
CARACT, or Carat, the name of that weight
which expreffes the degree of firtenefs that gold is of.
The word is alfo written garraB, carrat, karraci, and
iarrat. Its origin is contefted : but the moft proba¬
ble opinion is that of Kennet, who derives it from
careEla, a term which antiently denoted any weight,
and came not till of later days to be appropriated to
that which expreffes the finenefs of gold, and the gra¬
vity of diamonds.
Thefe carats are not real determinate weights, but
fcffly imaginary. The whole mafs, be the weight what
It will, is conceived to be divided into 24 carats j and
as many 24th parts as it contains of pure gold, it is
tailed gold of fo many carats, or fo many carats fine.
Thus, gold of 18 carats is a mixture, of which 18 parts
are pure gold, and the other lix an inferior metal, &c.
This is the common way of reckoning in Europe, and
at the gold mines in the Spaniih Weft Indies, but with
fome variation in the fubdivifion of the carat : among Caraft
us, it is divided into four grains j among the Germans, r
into 12 parts; and by the French, according to Mr. aia!te"
Helot, into 32. The Chinefe reckon by a different
divifion called touches, of which the higheft number, or
that which denotes pure gold, is 100; fo that 100
touches correfpond to our 24 carats, &c.
Caract is alfo a certain weight which goldfmiths
and jewellers ufe wherewith to weigh precious Hones and
pearls.—In this fenfe, the word is by fome fuppofed to
be derived from the Greek xi^xTtov, a fruit which the-
Latins call fili/jua, and we carob bean; each of which,
may weigh above four grains of w heat, whence the La¬
tin filiqua has been ufed for a weight of four grains.
This cara£t weighs four grains, but they are fometimes
lighter than the grains of other weights. Each of thefe
grains is fubdivided into T, |, &:c.
CAR ACT AC US, a renowned king of the ancient
Britiih people called Silures, inhabiting South Wales,
Having valiantly defended his country feven years
againft the Romans, he was at length defeated ; and
flying to Cartifmunda, queen of the Brigantes (inha¬
bitants of Yerkihire), was by her treaeheroully deli¬
vered up to the Romans, and led in triumph to the
emperor Claudius then at York ; where his noble be¬
haviour, and heroic but pathetic fpeech, obtained him
not only his liberty, but the efteem of the emperor,
A.D.jz.
CARAGROUTH, in commerce, a filver coin of
the empire, weighing nine drachms. It goes at
Conftantinople for 120 afpers. There are four forts
of them, which are all equally current and of the fame
value.
CARAITES, in the ecclefiaflical hiftory of the
Jews, a religious fefl among that people, whereof there
amftill fome fubfifting in Poland, Ruflia, Conflantino-
ple, Cairo, and other places of the Levant, whofe dL
flinguilhing tenet and pra&ice it is, to adhere elofely
to the words and letter of the Scripture, exeluilve of
allegories, traditions, and the like.
Leo of Modena, a rabbin of Venice, obferves, that
of all the herefies among that people, before the de-
flruflion of the temple, there is none now left but that
of the Caraim, a name derived from Micro, which fig-
nifies the pure text of the Bible, becaufe of their keep¬
ing to the Pentateuch, obferving it to the letter, and
rejefting all interpretations, paraphrafes, and contti-
tutions of the rabbins. Aben Ezra, and fome other
rabbins, treat the Caraites as Sadducees; but Leo de
Juda calls them, more accurately, Sadducees reformed;
becaufe they believe the immortality of the foul, para-
dife, hell, refurredlion, &c. which the ancient Saddu¬
cees denied. He adds, however, that they were doubt-
lefs originally real Saddueees, and fprung from among
them.
M. Simon, with more probability, foppofes them t@
have rifen hence ; that the more knowing among the
Jews oppofing the dreams and reveries of the rabbins,
and ufing the pure texts of Scripture to refute their
groundlefs traditions, had the name of Caraim given
them; which fignifies as.much as the barbarous Latin
Scripturarii; i. e. people attached to the text of Scrip¬
ture. The other Jews gave them the odious name Sad¬
ducees, from their agreement with thofe fe£laries on
the head of traditions. Scaligef, Voflius, and Span-
Y 2 heim,
CAR r 17
Caraites. Keim, rank tke Caraites among tlie Safceans, Magi,
’ Manichees, and Muffulmans, but by miftake : Wolf¬
gang, Fabricius, &c. fay the Sadducees and Efleni
were called Caraites, in oppolition to the Pharifees •,
others take them for the doctors of the law fo often
mentioned in the Gofpel : but tbefe are all conjectures,
Jofephus and Philo make no mention of them •, which
Ihows them to be more modern than either of thofe
authors. In all probability, this fe£t was not formed
till after the collection of the fecond part of the 1 al-
rnud, or the Gemera 5 perhaps not till after the com¬
piling of the Mifchna in the third century. The Ca¬
raites themielves pretend to be the remains of the ten
tribes led captive by Shalmanefer. Wolfius, from the
Memoirs of Mardacheus, a Caraite, refers their origin
to a mafiacre among the Jewith doCtors under Alex¬
ander J annaeus, their king, about 100 years before
Chrift : becaufe Simon, ion of Schetach, and the
queen’s brother, making his efcape into Egypt, there
forged his pretended traditions j and, at his return to
Jerufalem, publiihed his vifions 5 interpolating the law
after his own fancy, and fupporting his novelties on
the notices which God, he faid, had communicated by
the mouth of Mofes, whofe depoiitary he was : he gain¬
ed many followers ^ and was oppofed by others, who
maintained, that all which God had revealed to Mhfes
was written. Hence the Jews became divided into two
feds, the Caraites and Traditioners : among the firft,
Juda, fon of Tabbai, diftinguiihed himfelf •, among the
latter, Hillel. Wolfius reckons not only the Saddu¬
cees, but alfo the Scribes, in the number of Caraites.
But the addrefs of the Pharifees prevailed againft them
all • and the number of Caraites decreafed : Anan,^ in¬
deed, in the eighth century, retrieved their credit a
little •, and Rabbi Schalomon in the ninth. They fuc-
ceeded pretty well till the fourteenth j but fince tnat
time they have been declining.
The Caraites are but little known $ their works
coming only into very few hands, even among the
greateft Hebraifts. Buxtorf never law more than
©ne ; Selden two ; but Mr Trigland fays, he has re¬
covered enough to fpeak of them with afiurance.
He afierts, that foon after the prophets had ceafed,
the Jews became divided on the fubjeCt of works, and
fupererogation : fome maintaining their neceffity from
tradition 5 whilft others, keeping clofe to the written
law, fet them afide j and it was from thefe lalt that
Caraitifm commenced. He adds, that after the return
from the Babylonilh captivity, the obfervation of the
law being to be re-eftablifhed, there were feveral prac¬
tices found proper for that end *, and thefe once intro¬
duced, were looked upon as elfential, and appointed by
Mofes j which was the origin of Pharifaifm : fis a con¬
trary party, continuing to keep dole to the letter,
founded Caraitifm.
The modern Qaraites, Leo of IVXodena obferves, have
their fynagogues and ceremonies •, they pretend to be
the foie proper Jews, or obfervers of the laws of
Mofes ; calling the reft by the term Rabbanim, ov fo/-
lowers of the Rabbins: thefe hate the Caraites mortal¬
ly 3 refufing to ally or even to converie with them, and
treating them as matn’s&eiTn^ baftards 3 becaule of their
rejecting the conftitutions of the rabbins relating to
marriages, repudiations, purifications of women, &c.
rJ^his ♦iveriiop is io. great, that if a Caraite ihould be-
2 1 CAR
come a Rabbinift, be would never be received by the
other Jews.
The Caraites, however, do not abfolutely rejedt all u
kinds of traditions 3 but only fuch as do not appear
well grounded. Selden, who is very exprefs on this
point, in his Uxor Hebraica, obferves, that, befides the
mere text, they have certain interpretations, which
they call hereditary, and which are proper traditions.
Their theology only feems to differ from that of the
other JewTs, in that it is purer, and clearer of fuperfti-
tion 3 they give no credit to the explications of the
Cabbalifts, chimerical allegories, nor to any conftitu¬
tions of the Talmud, but what are conformable to the
Scripture, and may be drawn from it by juft and necef-
fary confequences.
Peringer obferves of the Caraites in Lithuania, that
they are very different, both in afpeft, language, and
manners, from the Rabbinifts, wherewith the country
abounds. Their mother tengue is the lurkifh 3 and
this they ufe in their Ichools and fynagogues. In vi-
fage they refemble the Mahometan lartars. Iheir
fynagogues are placed north and fouth 3 and the reafon
they give for it is, that Shalmanefer brought them north¬
ward : fo that, in praying, to look to Jerufalem, they
muft turn to the fouth. He adds, that they admit all
the books of the Old Teftament 3 contrary to the opi¬
nion of many of the learned, who hold that they rejed
all but the Pentateuch.
Caleb, a Caraite, reduces the difference between them
and the Rabbinifts to three points : 1. In that they de¬
ny the oral law to have come from Mofes, and rejed
the Cabbala. 2. In that they abhor the Talmud. 3. In
that they obferve the feafts, as the fabbaths, &c. much
more rigoroufly than the Rabbins do. 10 this may be
added, that they extend the degrees of affinity, where¬
in marriage is prohibited, almoft to infinity.
CARAMANIA, a confiderable province of Tur¬
key in Afia, in the fouth part of Natolia. Bajazet
united this province to his empire about the year 1488,
and fince that time it has continued in the polleffion oi
the Turks. Satalia was the capital city, but is now
much decayed.
CARAMANTA, a town of South America, and
capital of the province of the fame name in I erra Firma,
and in the audience of Santa Fe. W. Long. 72. 35.
N. Lat. 5. 18. The province of Caramanta is ex¬
tended on both fides the river Cauca 3 and is bounded
on the north by the diftrid of Carthagena, on the
eaft by New Grenada, on the fouth by Popayan, and
on the weft by Popayan and by the audience of Pana¬
ma. It is a valley furrounded on every fide by very
high mountains.
CARANGA, an inconfiderable ifland .near Bom¬
bay in the Eaft Indies. It affords nothing but fome
rice, fowls, and goats, for that market.
CARANNA, or KARANNA, a very fearce gum
which comes from New Spain. It is faid to poffefs
many extraordinary medical virtues, but the prefent
pradtice takes no notice of it.
CARANUS, the firft king of Macedon, and the
feventh of the race of the Heraclidae. See Mace-
Caraites
Carat.
DONIA.
CARARA, a weight at Leghorn, and in other parts
of Italy, ufed in the fale of wool and cod fiffi, equiva¬
lent to 60 pounds of that country.
,0
.0
CAK E173] CAK
CARAT. See Caract.
CARAVAGGIO, Michael Angelo. See An¬
gelo.
CARAVAN, or Karatanne, in the eaft, fignifies
a company or affembly of travellers and pilgrims, and
more particularly of merchants, who, for their greater
fecurity, and in order to aflift each other, march in a
body through the deferts, and other dangerous places,
which are infefted with Arabs or robbers.
There are four regular caravans which go yearly to
Mecca •, the fir ft from Damafcus, compofed of the
pilgrims from Europe and Afia j the fecond from
Cairo, from the Mahomedans of Barbary ; the third
from Zibith, a place near the mouth of the Red fea,
where thofe of Arabia and India meet; the fourth
from Babylon, where the Perfians afferuble. Moft of
the inland commerce of the call is carried on by ca¬
ravans. The late czar Peter the Great eftabliftred a
trade between Ruflia and China by means of a caravan.
M. Bougnon, geographer to the duke of Lorrain,
has given a treatife of the caravans of merchants in
Afia} wherein he ftiows of what they are compofed,
how many forts there are ; the feveral ufes of the dif¬
ferent forts of animals in them •, the prices given for
them, the officers and men appointed to conduct them,
and the pay of each, with their manner of marching,
halting, fighting, retreating, &c. Caravans of this
kind are large convoys of armed men, merchants, and
travellers, with divers forts of animals for the carriage
of their provifions. There are commonly four chief
officers of a caravan, viz. the caravan bachi, or chief;
the captain guide 5 captain of reft j and captain of
diftribution. The firft has abfolute command over all
the reft : the fecond is abfolute in the march : the of¬
fice of the third only commences when the caravan
flops and makes a ftay : to the fourth it belongs to
difpofe of every part of the corps, in cafe of an attack
or battle •, he has alfo the infpeftion over the diftribu¬
tion of provifions, which is made under him by feveral
diftributors, who give fecurity to the mafter of the
caravan, and have each of them a certain number of
perfons, elephants, dromedaries, &c. to take care of
at their own peril. The treafurer of the caravan
makes a fifth officer, who has under him feveral agents
and interpreters, who keep journals of all that paifes,
for the fatisfaftion of thofe concerned in fitting out the
caravan.
Any dealer is at liberty to form a company, in or¬
der to make a caravan. He in whofe name it is raifed,
is confidered as the caravan bachi, or chief of the cara¬
van, unlefs he appoint fome other in his place. If there
are feveral merchants equally concerned, they eleft a
caravan bachi; after which, they appoint officers to
conduct the caravan, and decide all controverfies that
may arife during the journey.
There are alfo fea caravans*, eftabliflred on the fame
footing, and for the fame purpofe : fuch is the caravan
of veffels from Conftantinople to Alexandria.
CARAVANSERA, or Karavansera, a place ap¬
pointed for receiving and loading the caravans.
It is commonly a large fquare building, in the
middle of which there is a very fpacious court 5 and
under the arches or piazzas that furround it there runs
a bank, raifed lome feet above the ground, where the
merchants, and thofe who travel w ith them in any ca¬
pacity, take up their lodgings as well as they can j the Caravan-
beafts of burden being tied to the foot of the bank. *era
Over the gates that lead into the court, there are fome- carbuncler
times little rooms, which the keepers of the caravan- • - v '
feras let out at a very high price to fuch as have a
mind to be private.
The caravanferas in the eaft are fomething of the
nature of the inns in Europe j only that you meet
wdth little accommodation either for man or beaft, but
are obliged to carry almoft every thing with you :
there is never a caravanfera without a well, or fpring
of water. Thefe buildings are chiefly owing to the
charity of the Mahometans : they are efteemed facred
dwellings, where it is not permitted to infult any per-
fon, or to pillage any of the effects that are depofited
there. There are alfo caravanferas where moft things
may be had for money j and as the profits of thefe are
confiderable, the magiftrates of the cities to whofe
jurifdiftion they belong, take care to ftore them well.
There is an infpe&or, who, at the departure of each
caravan, fixes the price of the night’s lodging, from
which there is no appeal.
CARAVANSERA SKIER, the fteward or keeper
of a Caravansera. He keeps an account of all the
merehandifes that are fold upon truft, and demands the
payments of the fums due to the merchants for what
has been fold in the caravanfera, on the feller’s paying
two per cent.
CARAVEL 5 thus they call a fmall veffel on the
coaft of France, which goes to fifh for herring on the
banks. They are commonly from 25 to 30 tons bur¬
den. Thofe which are defigned for the fame fiihery in
the Britifli channel are called by the French trin-
quarts-; thefe are from 12 to 15 tons burden.
CARAWAY. See Carum, Botany Index.
CARBONADE, or Carbonado, in cookery j
fleffi, fowl, or the like, feafoned and broiled on the
coals.
CARBUNCLE, in NaturalHi/lory^ a very elegant
gem, whofe colour is deep red, with an admixture of
fcarlet.
This gem was known among the ancients by the
name of anthrax. It is ufually found pure and fault-
lefs, and is of the fame degree of hardnefs with the
fapphire : it is naturally of an angular figure ; and is
found adhering by its bafe, to a heavy and ferrugi¬
nous ftone of the emery kind : its ufual fize is near a,
quarter of an inch in length, and two-thirds of that in
diameter in its thickeft parts : when held up againft
the fun, it lofes its deep tinge, and becomes exactly
of the colour of a burning charcoal, whence the pro¬
priety of the name which the ancients gave it. It bears
the fire unaltered, not parting with its colour, nor be¬
coming at all the paler by it. It is found only in the
Eaft Indies, fo far as is yet known j and there but very
rarely.
Carbuncle, or Anthrax, in Medicine, an inflamma¬
tion which arifes, in time of the plague, with a veficle
or blifter almoft like' that produced by burning.
Carbuncle, in Heraldry, a charge or bearing, con¬
fiding of eight radii, four whereof make a common
crofs, and the other four a laltier.
Some call thefe radii l uttons, or ftaves, becaufe round,
and enriched with buttons, or pearled like pilgrims
ftaves, and frequently tipped or terminated with flower-
‘ de-luces.-. ;
CAR
[ 174 1
CAR
CarcafTone.
'Carbuncle de-luces : others blazon them, royal fceptres, placed in
faltier, pale and feffe.
; CARCASSE, or Caucus, in the art of war, an
iron cafe, or hollow capacity, about the bignefs of a
bomb, of an oval figure, made of ribs of iron, filled
with combuftible matters, as meal powder, faltpetre,
fulphur, broken glafs, (havings of horn, turpentine,
tallow, &c. It has two or three apertures out of which
the fire is to blaze, and the defign of it is to be thrown
■ out of a mortar, to fet houfes on fire, and do other exe¬
cution. It has the name carcqfle, becaufe the circles
which pafs from one ring or plate to the other feem to
reprefent the ribs of a human carcafe.
CARCASSONE, an ancient city of France, in
Lower Languedoc, with a bifhop’s fee. It is divided
into the upper and lower town. I hey are both (ur-
rounded with walls: ancf though their fituations are
different, they are both watered by the river Aude. The
upper town is feated on a hill, with a caftle that com¬
mands it as well as the lower town. ^ It is ftrong, not
only by its fituation on a craggy rock, but alfo by fe-
veral large towers which are joined to its walls, and
which render it of difficult accels. 1 he cathedral
church is remarkable for nothing but its antiquity.
The lower town is large, and built after the modern
taffe. The ftreets are very ilraight, and lead to a large
fquare in the middle, from whence may be feen the four
gates of the town. There is here a manufa&ure of
cloth. The neighbouring country is full of olive-
trees ^ and in the mountains there is a fine marble,
commonly called marble of Languedoc. E. Long. 2. 25.
N. Lat. 43. n. „ . , , ,
This place bore a confiderable (hare m that celebra¬
ted crufade undertaken againft the Albigenfes in the
beginning of the 13 th century, and which forms one
of the moft aftonilhing inftances of fuperilition and of
atrocious barbarity to be found in the annals of the
world. When the royal power was nearly annihilated,
during the reigns of the laff kings of the Carlovingian
race in France, moft of the cities of Languedoc erect¬
ed themfelves int6 little independent Hates, governed
by their own princes. Carcaffone was then under the
dominion of vifeounts. At the time when P«pe Inno¬
cent III. patronized and commanded the profecution
of hoftilities againft the Albigenfes for the crime of
herefy, Raymond the reigning vifeount was included
in that profeription. Simon de Montfort, general of
the army of the church, invefted the city of Carcaffone
in 1209. The inhabitants, terrified at the fate of fe-
veral other places where the moft dreadful maffacres
had been committed, demanded leave to capitulate ;
but this aft of mercy was only extended to them under
' ~i condition equally cruel, incredible, and unparalleled
in hi ft or y, if we are not compelled to believe it by
the unanimous teftimony of all the cotemporary wri¬
ters. The people found in the place were all obliged,
^without diftinftion of rank or fex, to evacuate it in a
ftate of nudity ; and Agnes the vifeountefs was not ex¬
empted, though young and beautiful, from this igno¬
minious and (hocking puniffiment. “ On les fit tortir
tout nuds de la ville de Carcaffone (fays an ancient
author) afin qu’ils receuffent de la honte, en montrant
>Ces parties du corps que la pur eta de la langue n’ex-
,prime point, defquelles ils avoint abufe, et s’en etoient
ifervis dans des crimes execrables.” It feems by this
imputation that the Albigeois were acculed by their CaraaCae
enemies of fome enormities, probably unjuft, and ft- Ca’r^
milar to thofe which religious enmity and prejudice
have attributed to the followers of Zinzendorf in the
prefent century.
C ARCERES, in the ancient Circenfian games, were
inclofures in the circus, wherein the horfes were re-
ftrained till the fignal was given for ftarting, when by
an admirable contrivance, they all at once (lew open.
CARCHEMISH, in Ancient Geography, a town
lying upon the Euphrates, and belonging to the AL
fyrians. Necho king of Egypt took it from the king
of Affyria, 2 Chr. xxxv. 20- Necho left a garrifon
in it, which was taken and cut to pieces, in the
fourth year of Jehoiachin king of Judah, by Nebu¬
chadnezzar king of Babylon, 2 Kings xxiii. 29. Ifaiah
(x. 9.) fpeaks of Carchemiffi, and feems to fay, that
Tiglath-pilefer made a conqueft of it, perhaps from
the Egyptians. Rhis is thought to be the fame city
with that called Circefiutn by the Greeks and Latins.
CARCINOMA, in Medicine; the fame with Can¬
cer. See Medicine and Surgery Index.
CARD, among artificers, an inftrument confifting
•of a block of wood, befet with ffiarp teeth, ferving M
arrange the hairs of wool, flax, hemp, and the like :
there are different kinds of them, as hand-cards, ftock-
cards, &c. They are made as follows :
A piece of thick leather, of the fize intended for
the card, is {trained in a frame for that purpofe ; and
then pricked full of holes, into which the teeth or pieces
of iron wire are inferted. After which the leather is
nailed by the edges to a flat piece of wx>od, in the form
of an oblong fquare, about a foot in length, and. half
a foot in breadth, with a handle placed, in the middle
of one of the longer Tides.
The teeth are made in the following manner. The
wire being drawn of the fize intended, a Ikain or num¬
ber of wires are cut into proper lengths by means of a
gauge, and then doubled in a tool contrived for that
purpofe: after which they are bent into the proper
dire&ion by means of another tool; and then placed in
the leather, as mentioned above.
Cards, among gamefters, little pieces of fine thin
pafteboard of an oblong figure, of^feveral fizes j out
moft commonly in Britain, three inches and a. half
long and two and a half broad, on which are painted
feveral points and figures.
The moulds and blocks for making cards are exaflly
like tbofe that were ufed for the firft printed books.
They lay a (lieet of wet or moift paper on the block,
which is very flightly done over with a fort of ink made
of lamp-black diluted in water, and mixed with fome
ftarch to give it a body. They afterwards rub it oft
with a round lift. The court-cards are coloured by
means of feveral patterns, Viylz&fane-jjles. Thefe con-
fift of papers cut through with a penknife ; and in thefe
apertures they apply feverally the Various colours, as
red, black, &c. Thefe patterns are painted with oil-
colours, that the brulhes may not wear them out j
and when the pattern is laid on the pafteboard, they
flightly pafs over it a bruffi full of colour, which, leav¬
ing it within the openings, forms the face or figure of
the card.
Among (harpers, divers forts of falfe and fraudulent
cards have been contrived j as, 1. Markedczx&s, where
the
CAR [ 175 1 CAR
Cards, tlie aces, kings, queens, knaves, are marked on the cor-
J ners of the backs with fpot$ of different number and
order, either with clear water or water tinged with
pale Indian ink, that thofe in the fecret may diffinguifh
them. Aces are marked with lingle fpots on two cor¬
ners oppofite diagonally : kings with two fpots at the
fame borners : knaves with the fame number tranfver-
fed. 2. Breef cards, thofe which are longer or broader
than the reft : chiefly ufed at whift and piquet. The
broad cards are ufually for kings, queens, knaves, and
aces 3 the long for the reft. Their defign is to diretl the
cuttings, to enable him in the fecret to cut the cards dif-
advantageoufly to his adverfary, and draw the perfon
unacquainted with the fraud to cut them favourably
for the (harper. As the pack is placed either endwile
, or fidewife to him that is to cut, the long or broad
cards naturally lead him to cut them. Breef cards
are fometimes made thus by the, manufablurer 3 but, in
defebt of thefe, {harpers pare all but the breefs with a
penknife or razor. 3. Corner bend, denotes four cards
turned down finely at one corner, to ferve as a fignal
to cut by. 4. Middle bend, or Kingfton-bridge, is
where the tricks are bent two different ways, which
caufes an opening or arch in the middle, to direbt like-
wife the cutting.
Cards were invented about the year 13 90, to divert
Charles VI. of France, who had fallen into a melan¬
choly difpofition. The inventor propofed, by the fi¬
gures of the four fuits or colours, as the French call
them, to reprefent the four claffes of men in the king¬
dom. By the coeurs (hearts) are meant the gens de
choeur, choir-men, or ecclefiaftics 3 and therefore the
Spaniards, who certainly received the ufe of cards from
the French, have copas, or chalices, inftead of hearts.
The nobility, or prime military part of the kingdom,
are reprefeuted by the ends or points of lances or pikes 3
and our ignorance of the meaning or the refemblance
of the figure induced us to call them fpades: The Spa¬
niards have efpadas, fwords, in lieu of pikes, which are
of fimilar import. By diamonds are defigned the
order of citizens, merchants, or tradefmen, carreaux,
(fquare {tones, tiles, or the like) : The Spaniards have
a coin, dincros, which anfwers to it : and the Dutch
call the French word carreaux, “Jlreneen,'1'1 {tones and
diamonds, from the form. Trejle, the trefoil-leaf, or
clover-grafs (corruptly called clubs'), alludes to the
hulhandmen and peafants. But how this fuit came to
be called clubs is not eafily explained 3 unlefs borrowing
the game from the Spaniards, who have bajlos (ftaves
or clubs) inftead of the trefoil, we give the Spanifli
fignification to the French figure.
The hiftory of the four kings, which the French, in
drollery, fometimes call the cards, are David, Alex¬
ander, Csefar, and Charles 3 which names were then,
and {till are on the French cards. Thefe refpebtable
names reprefent the four celebrated monarchies of the
Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Franks under Charle¬
magne. By the queens are intended Argine, Ffther,
Judith, and Pallas (names retained in the French
cards), typical of birth, piety, fortitude, and wifdom,
the qualifications refiding in each perfon. Argine is an
anagram for regina, queen by defeent. By the knaves
were defigned the fervants to knights (for knave ori¬
ginally meant only fervant) ; but French pages and
valets, now indifcriminately ufed by various orders of
perfons, were formerly only allowed to perfons of qua- Cards
lity, efquires (e/cuires), ihield or armour bearers. O- c„r[!ar
thers fancy that the knights themfelves were de- ■ ‘
figned by thofe cards 3 becaufe Hogier and Lahire,
two names on the French cards, were famous knights
at the time cards were fuppofed to have been in¬
vented.
Deceptions with CARDS. See Legerdemain, febt. i.
CARDAMINE, in Botany, a genus of the fill-
quofa order, belonging to the tetradynamia clafs of
plants 3 and in the natural method ranking under the
39th order Siliyuofce. The liliqua parts afundcr with'
a fpring, and the valves roll fpirally backward 3 the
ftigma is entire, and the calyx a little gaping. Of this
there are 15 {pecks 3 but the moft remarkable is the
pratenfis, with a large purplilh flower. This grows
naturally in many parts of Britain, and is alfo called
cuckowflower. There are four varieties, viz. the {ingle,
with purple and white flowers, which are frequently in¬
termixed in the meadows ; and the double, of both co¬
lours. The Angle forts are not admitted into gardens 3
but the double deferve a place, as making a pretty ap¬
pearance during the time they are in flower. They
will thrive in a moift lhady border 3 and are propagated
by parting their roots, which is beft performed in au¬
tumn. They delight in a Toft loamy Toil, not too ftilL
By fome the plant is reckoned antifcorbutic.
CARDAMOM, in the Materia Medica. See Amo-
MUM.
CARDAN, Jerom, one of the moft extraordinary-
geniufes of his age, was born at Pavia on the 24th of
September 1501. As his mother was not married, {he
tried every method to procure an abortion, but without
effebl. She was three days in labour, and they were
at laft obliged to cut the child from her. He was born
with his head covered with black curled hair. \V hen
he was four years old, he was carried to Milan 3 his fa¬
ther being an advocate in that city. At the age of
20, he went to ftudy at the univerfity of that 6ity 3 and
two years afterwards he explained Euclid. In 1524,
he went to Padua 3 and the fame year he was admitted
to the degree of mailer of arts : in the end of the fol¬
lowing year, he took the degree of dobtor of phylic.
He married about the year 1531. For ten years before,
his impotency had hindered him from having know¬
ledge of a woman 3 which was a great mortification to
him. He attributed it to the evil influences of his
planet under which he was born. When he enume¬
rates, as he frequently does, the greateft misfortunes
of his life, this ten years impotency is always one. At
the age of 32, he became profellbr of mathematics at
Milan. In 1539, he was admitted a member of the
college of phyficians at Milan 3 in 1543, he read
public lebtures of medicine in that city, and at Pavia
the year following 3 but difeontinued them becaufe he
could not get payment of his falary, and returned to
Milan. In 1352, he went into Scotland, having been
fent for by the archbilhop of St Andrew’s, who had
in vain applied to the French king’s phyficians, and
afterwards to thofe of the emperor of Germany. This
prelate, then 40 years old, had for ten years been af-
flibted with a {hortnefs of breath, which returned every
eight days for the laft two years. He began to reco- '
ver from the moment that Cardan preferibed for him.
Cardan took his leave of him at the end of fix weeks
and
CAR [ 175 1 CAR
Cardan, anct three days, leaving him preferiptiwis which in two do, as avill appear by the follow ing proois.
“"*^V "' years wrought a complete cure,
r. *. H o va ’q i I o-n
Cardan’s journey to Scotland gave him an oppor¬
tunity of vihting feveral countries. He croffed Fiance
in going thither 5 and returned through Germany, and
the Low Countries, along the banks of the Rhine. It
was on this occafion he went to London, and calculated
King Edward’s nativity. This tour took up about
four months : after which, coming back to Milan, he
continued there till the beginning of 03ober 15 525
and then went to Pavia, from whence he was invited
to Bologna in 1562. He taught in this lait city till
the year 15705 at which time he was thrown into
prifon 5 but fome months after he was fent home to
his own houfe. He left Bologna in 1571 i an<^ 'vent
to Rome, where he lived for fome time without any
public employment. He wras, however, admitted a
member of the college of phyficians, and received a
penfion from the pope. He died at Rome on the 2lit
of September 1575, according to Thuanus. ihis ac¬
count might be fufficient to ftrow the reader that Car¬
dan was of a very fickle temper 5 but he will have a
much better idea of his fingular and odd turn of mind
by examining what he himfelf has written concerning
his own good and bad qualities. He paid himfelf con¬
gratulatory compliments for not having a friend in this
world 5 but that in requittal, he was attended by an
aerial fpirit, emaned partly from Saturn and partly
from Mercury, who was the conilant guide of his ac¬
tions, and teacher of every duty to w'hich he was bound.
He declared, too, that he was fo irregular in his man¬
ner of walking the ftreets, as induced all beholders to
point at him as a fool. Sometimes he walked very
(lowly, like a man abforbed in profound meditation 5
then all on a fudden quickened his fteps, accompanying
them with very abfurd attitudes. In Bologna his de¬
light w'as to be drawn about in a mean vehicle with
three wheels. When nature did not vifit him with any
pain, he would procure to himfelf that difagreeable
ienfation by biting his lips fo w-antonly, or pulling his
fingers to fuch a vehement degree, as fometimes to
force the tears from his eyes: and the reafon he affign-
cd for fo doing, w'as to moderate certain impetuous
fallies of the mind, the violence of which was to him
by far more infupportable than pain itfelf 5 and that
the fure confequence of iuch a fevere difeipline was the
enjoying the pleafure of health. He fays elfewhere,
that, in the greateft tortures of foul, he ufed to whip
his legs with rods, and bite his left arm 5 that it wras a
great relief to him to weep, but that very often he
could not 5 that nothing gave him more pleafure than
to talk of things which made the whole company un-
eafy 5 that he fpoke on all fubjefts, in feafon and out
of ieafon 5 and he was fo fond of games of chance, as
to fpend whole days in them, to the great prejudice of
his family and reputation, for he even ilaked his furni¬
ture and his w ife’s jewels.
Cardanus makes no fcruple of owning that he was
revengeful, envious, treacherous, a dealer in the black-
art, a backbiter, a calumniator, and addifted to all the
foul and deteftable excefifes that can be imagined : yet
notwithftanding (as one would think) fo humbling a
declaration, there w'as never perhaps a vainer mortal,
or one that with lefs ceremony expreffed the high opi¬
nion he had of himfelf, than Cardanus was known to
, ___ _ ^ ^ <c I have
been admired by many nations; an infinite number of
panegyrics, both in profe and verfe, have oeen compo-
fed to celebrate my fame. I was born to relcafe the
world from the manifold errors under which it groaned.
What I have found out could not be difcovered either
by my predeceffors or ray cotexnporaries 5 and that is
the realon why thofe authors w ho write any thing wor¬
thy of being remembered, feruple not to own that they
are indebted to me for it. 1 have compofed a book
on the dialectic art, in which there is neither one fu-
periluous letter nor one deficient. 1 fimflied it in feven
days, which feems a prodigy. Yet where is there a
perfon to be found, that can boaft of his having become
mailer of its doctrine in a year ? And he that ihall have
comprehended it in that time, mult appear to have been
inftru&ed by a familiar daemon.”
The fame capricioulhefs obfervable in his outward
conduft is to be obferved in the compofition of his
works. We have a multitude of his treatifes in which
the reader is Hopped almoft every moment by the ob-
feurity of his text, or his digreffions from the point in
hand/ In his arithmetical performances there are feve¬
ral difeourfes on the motions of the planets, on the
creation, and on the tower of Babel. In his dialectic
work, wre find his judgement on the hiftorians and the
w riters of epiftles. The only apology which he makes
for the frequency of his digreflions is, that they were
purpofely dene for the fooner filling up of his flieet, his
bargain w ith the bookfeller being at fo much per (heet:
and that he worked as much for his daily iupport as
for the acquifition of glory. The Lyons edition pf
his works, printed in 1663, confifts of ten volumes in
folio.
It was Cardanus wbo revived in latter times all the
fecret philofophy of the Cabbala or Cabbalifts, which
filled the w'orld with fpirits 5 a likenefs to whom, he
afferted, we might attain by purifying ourfelves with
philofophy. He chofe for himfelf, however, notwith-
ftanding fuch reveries, this fine device, Tewpus mea pof-
fejio, tewpus meus ager : “Time is my foie poffeflion,
and the only fund I have to improve.”
In fadl, wrhen w^e confider the tranfeendent qualities
of Cardan’s mind, we cannot deny his having cultiva¬
ted it with every fpecies of knowledge, and his having
made a greater progrefs in philofophy, in the medical
art, in aftronomy, in mathematics, &c. than the great-
eft part of his cotemporaries who had applied their
minds but to one of thofe fciences.
Scaliger affirms, that Cardan, having fixed the time
of his death, abftained from food, that this predi&ion
might be fulfilled, and that his continuance to live
might not diferedit his art. Cardan’s father, who was
a doftor of medicine, and a profeftbr of civil and ca¬
non law, died in the fame manner in the year 1524,
having abftained from all fuftenance for nine days. His
fon tells us that he had white eyes, and could fee in
the night time.
CARD ASS, a fort of card proper for carding flocks
of filk, to make cappadine of it. It is alfo the name
which the French give to thofe flocks of filk.
Cardass, is alfo the name which, in the cloth
manufadlories of Languedoc, they give to a fort of large
card, which is ufed for carding the dyed wool, defigned
for making cloth of mixed colours.
6 CARDERS,
Cankn,
Cardafs.
'Cardigan.
C A K [ r
Carder* CARDERS, in the woollen manufaftory, are per-
Tons who prepare wool, &c. for fpinning, See.
^ Carders, fpinners, weavers, fullers, Iheermen, and
dyers, not performing their duty in their occupations,
(hall yield to the party grieved double damages j to be
committed until payment. One juftice to'hear and
determine complaints.
Carders, combers, forters, fpinners, or weavers,
conveying away, embezzling, or detaining any wool
or yarn, delivered by the clothier, or any other perfon,
fhall give the party grieved fuch fatisfaftion, as two
juftices, mayor, &c. (hall think fit: if not able or will¬
ing to make fatisfa&ion, for the firft offence te be
whipped, or fet in the flocks in fome market-town, or
in any other town where the offence is committed: the
fecond offence to incur the like, or fuch further puniflr-
ment by whipping, &c. as juftices fhall think proper.
Convi&ion by one witnefs on oath, or confeflion.
CARDI, Ludovico. See Civoli.
_ CARDIAC, in a general fenfe, fignifies all medi¬
cines beneficial to the heart, whether internally or ex¬
ternally applied. The word comes from the Greek
word xcifiioi, cor ; the heart being reputed the imme¬
diate feat of their operation.
_ Cardiacs, in a more particular fenfe, denote medi¬
cines which raife the fpirittf and give prefent ftrength
and cheerfulnefs j thefe amount to the fame with what
are properly called cordials. Cardiacs are medicines
anciently fuppofed to ex'ert themfelves immediately in
comforting and ftrengthening the heart : but the mo¬
dern phyficians rather fuppofe them to produce the ef-
fedl by putting the blood into a gentle fermentation,
whereby the fprings, before decayed, are repaired and
invigorated, and the tone and elafticity of the fibres of
the veffels reftored 5 the confequence of which is a
more eafy and brifk circulation.
CARDIALGIA, in Medicine, a violent fenfation
of heat or acrimony felt towards the upper or left ori¬
fice of the ftomach, though feemingly at the heart j
fometimes accompanied with palpitations of the heart,
fainting, and a propenfity to vomit: better known by
the name of cardiac pajjion, or heart-burn. See Me¬
dicine Index.
CARDIFF, a town of Glamorganfhire, in South
Wales, feated on the river Tave, in a rich and fruitful
foil. It is a large, compadl, well built town, having a
caftle, a wall, and four gates, built by Robert Fitz-
Hamon, a Norman, about the year 1100. It is go¬
verned by the conftable of the caftle, 12 aldermen, 1 2
burgefles, &c. and fends one member to parliament.
Here the aflizes and feflions are held, befides feveral
courts. There is a handfome bridge over the river, to
which fmall veflels come to take in their lading. It has
now only one church) St Mary’s having been long fince
thrown down by the undermining of the river. The
caftle, though much decayed, makes a grand appear¬
ance even at this time; and the walls of the town are
very ftrong and thick. The church has a fine tower-
fteeple, and the town-hall is a good ftru£ture. The
magiftrates are elefted every year by the majority of
the burgeftes. W. Long. 3. 20. N. Lat. 51. 30.
Cardiff gives the title of a Eritifh baron to the family
of Bute in Scotland.
. CARDIGAN, the capital towm of Cardiganfhire,
in South Wales, is feated near the mouth of the river
Vol. V. Part I.
77 . 3 CAR
Teivy, on the Irifh channel. It is indifferently large Cardigan
and well-built, containing three wards, one church, and II
the county-gaol. It is governed by a mayor, 13 alder- ,Cardma1'.
men, 13 common council men, &.e. Here are the ruins %
of a caftle which was built by Gilbert de Clare, about
the year 1100. It fends one member to parliament^
and has two markets, held on Tuefdays and Saturdays.
W. Long. 4. 38. N. Lat. 52. 15.
CARDIGANSHIRE, a county of South Wales,,
bounded on the north by Merionethfhire and Mont-
gomeryfhire, on the eaft by Radnorfhire and Breck-
nockfhire, on the weft by the Irifh fea, and on the
fouth by Caermarthenfhire. Its length from north-
w^eft to fouth-eaft is about 44 miles, and its breadth
near 20. 'I he air, as in other parts of Wales, varies-
with the foil, which in the fouthern and weftern parts
is more upon a level than this principality generally is,
which renders the air mild and temperate. But as
the northern and eaftern parts are mountainous, they
are confequently more barren and bleak. However,
there are cattle bred in all parts; but they have nei¬
ther wood nor coals of their own for fuel: they have
rich lead mines, and fifh in plenty, with fowls both
tame and wild. The principal rivers are the Teivy,
the Ridol, and the Iftwith. This county hath five
market-towns, viz. Cardigan, Aberiftwith, Llanbad-
arnvawn, Llanbedar, and Tregaron, with 77 parifhesj
and was formerly computed to have upwards of 3000
houfes, and 20,000 acres of land. It fends two mem¬
bers to parliament j one for the county, and one for
Cardigan.
CARDINA L, in a general fenfe, an appellation
given to things on account of their pre-eminence. The
word is formed of the Latin ca' do, a hinge $ it being
on thefe fundamental points that all the reft of the
fame kind are fuppofed to turn. Thus, juftice, pru¬
dence, temperance, and fortitude, are called the four
cardinal virtues, as being the bafis of all the reft.
Cardinal Flower. See Lobelia, Botany In¬
dex.
CARDINAL Points, in Cofmoyraphy, are the four in-
terfedftions of the horizon with the meridian, and the
prime vertical circle. Of thefe, two, viz. the inter-
feftions of the horizon and meridian, are called North
and South, with regard to the poles they are direfted
to. The other two, viz. the interfeftions of the hori¬
zon and firft vertical, are called Eaji and Wejl.
The cardinal points, therefore, coincide with the
four cardinal regions of the heavens j and are 90° di-
ftant from each other. The intermediate points are
called collateral points.
CARDINAL Points, in dlftrology, are the riling and
fetting of the fun, the zenith, and nadir.
CARDINAL Signs, in AJlronamy, are Aries, Libra,
Cancer, and Capricorn.
CARDINAL Winds are thofe that blow from the car-
dinal points.
CARDINAL Numbers, in Grammar, are the numbers
one, two, three, &e. which are indeclinable ; in oppo-
fition to the ordinal numbers, firft, fecond, third,
fourth, &c.
Cardinal, an ecclefiaftical prince in the Romifti
church, being one who has a voice in the conclave at
the election of a pope. Some fay the cardinals were
fo called from the Latin incardinatio, which fignifies
Z the
4
CAR [ 1
Cardinal, the adoption in any church made of a pneft of a fo-
    reign church, driven thence by misfortune •, and add,
that the ufe of the word commenced at Rome and
Ravenna ; the revenues of the churches of which cities
being very great, they became the common refuge of
the unhappy priefts of all other churches. f
The cardinals compofe the pope s council or knate .
in the Vatican is a conftitution of Pope John, which
regulates the rights and titles of the ; and
•which declares, that as the pope reprefonts Mofes fo
the cardinals reprefent the feventy elders, who under
the pontifical authority, decide private and particular
differences. . . , .1
Cardinals, in their firft mftitution, were only the
principal priefts, or incumbents of the panfties of Rome.
In the primitive church, the chief pneft of a parifh,
who immediately followed the bilhop, was called pref-
byter cardinalis, to diftinguifh him from the other pet y
priefts, who had no church nor preferment 5 the term
was fik applied to them in the year 150 pothers fay,
under Pope Silvefter, m the year 300. Ihefe caidi-
nal priefts were alone allowed to baptize, and admmi-
fter the eucharift. When the cardinal priefts became
bifhops, their cardinalate became vacant j they being
then fuppofed to be raifed to a higher dignity .—Under
Pope Gregory, cardinal priefts, and cardinal deacons,
were only fuch priefts and deacons as had a church o
chapel under their particular care: and thrs was the
original ufe of the word. Leo IV m the council of
Rome, held in 853, calls them prefbyteros fin car aims ,
and their churches, parochas cardinal
The cardinals continued on this footing till t
eleventh century *, but as the grandeur and ftate of his
holinefs became then exceedingly augmented he would
have his council of cardinals make a better figure than
the ancient priefts had done It is true, they ftil
preferved their ancient title •, but the thing expreffed
by it was no more. It was a good while, however
before they had the precedence over the b^0Ps^r |°“^
eleftion of the pope into their hands : but when they
were once poffeffedof thofe privileges, they foon had the
red hat and purple 5 and growing ftill m authonty, they
became at length fupenor to the biftiops, by the file
^Di^Cange obferves, that originally there were three
kinds of churches : the firft or genuine churches were
properly called parijhes ; the fecond deaconnes which
were chapels joined to hefpitals, and ferved by dea¬
cons • the third were Ample oratories, where private
maffes were faid, and were difeharged by local and re¬
sident chaplains. He adds, that to diftinguifh the
principal or parifti churches from the chapels and ora¬
tories the name cardinales was given to them Accor¬
dingly, parifh churches gave titles to cardinal priefts ,
and lome chapels alfo, at length, gave the title of ^r-
^^OtheTobferve, that the term cardinal^ given not
only to priefts, but alfo to bifhops and deacons who
were attached to certain churches, te diftinguifh them
from thofe who only ferved them en pajfant, and by
commiflion. Titular churches, or benefices, were a
kind of parifhes, i. e. churches, affigned each to a cardi¬
nal prieft ; with fome ftated diftrift depending on it,
andPa font for adminiftering of baptifm m cafes wher
the bilhep himfelf could not adnumfter it. Thtie car-
7 8 ] C A 11
^ dinals were fubordinate to the bifhops j and according- ^Cim.wal
ly, in councils, particularly that held at Rome m 868,
fubferibed after them. . „ . n=
It was not, however, only at Rome, that pi lefts
bore this name •, for we find there were cardinal priefts
in France : thus, the curate of the parifli of bt John de
Vignes is called m old charters the cardinal pnejl of
that panflije ^ cardina/ js alf() given to fome bifhops,
quatenus bifnops j e. g. to thofe of Mentz and Milan :
the archbiftiop of Bourges is alfo, m ancient writing,
called cardinal; and the church of Bourges a cardinal
church. The abbot of Vendome calls cardmahs
"^The cardinals are divided into three claffes or orders
containing fix bifhops, fifty priefts, and fourteen dea¬
cons 5 making in all feventy : which conftitute what
they call the /acred college. I he cardinal bifhops, wh®
are, as it w ere, the pope’s vicars, bear the titles ot the
bifhopricks afligned to them •, the reft take fuch tit c*
as are given them : the number of cardinal bifhops
has been fixed j but that of cardinal priefts and dea¬
cons, and confequently the facred college itfeli, is al¬
ways fluauating. Till the year 1125, the college on¬
ly confifted of fifty-two or fifty-three : the council of
Con fiance reduced them to twenty-four j but bixtus
IV.^without any regard to that reftnclicn, rafted them
again to fifty-three, and Leo to fixty-fiye. ihus as
the number of cardinal priefts was anciently fixed to
twenty-eight, new titles were to be eftabhfhed, m pro¬
portion as new cardinals were created. As or
cardinal deacons, they were originally no more than
feven for the fourteen quarters of Rome ; but they
were afterwards increafed to nineteen, and aftei that
were again diminiftied. ,
According to Onuphrius, it was Pope Pius IV who
firft enafted, in 1562, that the pope fhould be chofen
only by the fenate of cardinals 5 whereas, till that ame,
the eleftion was by all the clergy of Rome, borne ia>,
the ele&ion of the pope relied m the cardinals, exclu-
five of the clergy, in the time of Alexander III. m
1160. Others go higher ftill, and fay, that Nicholas
II. having been elefted at Sienna, m 1058, by the
cardinals alone, occafioned the right of election to be
taken from the clergy and people of Rome j only It -
ving them that of confirming him by their confent ,
which was at length, however, taken from them, bee
his decree for this purpofe, iffued m the Roman coun¬
cil of 1059, in Hardouin’s A&a Conciliorum, tom. vi.
pt. i. p. 1165. Whence it appears that the cardinals
^vho had the right of fuffrage m the ekaion of his
fucceffors, were divided by this pontiff into cardinal
bifhops and cardinal clerks ; meaning by tbe former tha
feven biftiops who belonged to the city and territoiy of
Rome; and by the latter, the cardinal prejbytem, or
minifters of the twenty-eight Roman parfthes, or princi¬
pal churches. To thefe were added, in procefs of time,
under Alexander III. and other pontiffs, new members,
in order to appeafe the tumults occafioned by the edift
of Nicholas II. ,
At the creation of a new cardinal, the pope per¬
forms the ceremony of opening ftwi ftiuftmghis mouth j
which is done in a private confiftory. I he flnit g
his mouth implies the depriving him of the liberty of
giving his opinion in congregations, and the opening
iSafdinal
I!
Career.
CAR [ 179 J CAR
his mouth, which is performed 15 days after, fignifies
the taking off his reftraint. However, if the pope hap-
pens to die during the time a cardinal’s mouth is fhut,
he can neither give his voice in the eleftion of a new
pope, nor be himfelf advanced to that dignity.
The drefs of a cardinal is a red foutanne, a rocket,
a fliort purple mantle, and a red hat.
The cardinals began to wear the red hat at the
council of Lyons, in 1243. The decree of Pope Ur¬
ban VIII. whereby it is appointed, that the cardinals
be addreffed under the title of eminence, is of the year
1630-, till then, they were called illuftrijfimi.
When cardinals arc lent to the courts of princes, it
is in quality of legates a latere ; and when they are ap¬
pointed governors of towns, their government is called
by the name of legation.
Cardinal has alfo been applied to fecular officers.
Thus, the prime minifters in the court of the emperor
Theodolius, are called cardinales. Caffiodorus, lib. vii.
formul. 31. makes mention of the cardinal prince -of
the city of Rome and in the lift of officers of the
duke of Bretagne, in 1447, we meet with one Raoul
de Thorel, cardinal of Quillart, chancellor, and fervant
of the viicount de Rohan : which (hows it to have been
an inferior quality.
CARDIOID, in the higher geometry, an algebrai¬
cal curve, fo called from its refemblance to a h*art.
CARDIOSPERMUM. See Botany Index.
CARDIUM, or Cockle, in Zoology, a genus of
infects belonging to the order of vermes tejlacea. I he
Ihell confifts of two equal valves, and the iides are equal.
There are 21 fpecies of this genus. Common on all
fandy coafts, lodged a little beneath the fand j their
place is marked by a depreffed fpot. They are whole-
ibme and delicious food
CARDONA, a handfome town of Spain, in Cata¬
lonia, with a ftrong caftle, and the title of a duchy.
Near it is an inexhauftiblc mountain of fait of feveral
colours, as red, white, carnation, and green : but when
Waffied, it becomes white. There are alfo vineyards
which produce excellent wane, and very lofty pine-
trees. It is fcated on an eminence, near the river Car-
denero. E. Long. 1. 26. N. I.at. 41. 42.
CARDUUS. See Botany Index.
CARDUUS Beliedi&us, BleJ/cd thijlle. See CNlCUS,
Totany Index.
CAREENING, in the fea-language, the bringing
a {hip to lie down on one fide, in order to trim and
■fcaulk the other fide.
A {hip is faid to be brought to the careen, when the
Jnoft of her lading being taken out, {he is hulled down
bn one fide, by a fmall veffel, as low as neceffary •, and
there kept by the Weight of the ballaft, ordnance, &c.
hs well as by ropes, left her mails fiiould be {trained
too much j in order that her fides and bottom may be
trimmed, feams caulked, or any thing that is faulty
under w'ater mended. Hence, when a fliip lies on one
fide when fhe fails, ihe is faid to fail on the careen.
CAREER, in the manege, a place inclofed with a
barrier, wherein they run the ring.
The word is alfo ufed for the race or courfe of the
horfe itfelf, provided it do not exceed 2co paces.
In the ancient circus, the career was the fpace the
blgae, or quadrigae, -were to run at full fpeed, to gain
the prize. See Circus.
Career, in falconry, is a flight or tour of the bird, Car
about 120 yards. If ihe mount more, it is called a ^ J
double career ; if lefs, a femi-career. -
CARELIA, the eaftern province of Finland j di¬
vided into Swedilh Carelia, and Mufcovite Carelia,
The capital of the latter is Povenza, and of the for¬
mer Weiburg.
CARELSCROON, a fea-port town of Sw-eden, iri
Blekingia, or Bleking, on the Baltic fea, with a very
good harbour defended by twn forts* It was built
in 1679 ’, and is very populous, with arfenals for the
marine: the houfe of the direftor-general of the admi¬
ralty is in this town, and here the Swedes lay up their
royal navy. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 56. 15.
CARENTAN, a town of France in Lower Nor¬
mandy, and in the Contentin, with an ancient caftle.
W, Long. 1. 14. N. Lat. 49. 20.
CARETj among grammarians, a character marked
thus a, fignifying that fomething is added on the
margin, or interlined, which ought to come in where
the caret Hands.
CAREW, George, born in Devonfliire in 1557,
an eminent commander in Ireland, wras made prelident
of Munfter by Queen Elizabeth j when, joining his
forces with the earl of Thomond, he reduced the Irifh
infurgents, and brought the earl of Defmond to hhs
trial. King James made him governor of Guernfey,
and created him a baron* As he was a valiant com¬
mander, he was no lefs a polite fcholar ; and wrote
Paccata Hibernia, a hillory of the late wars in Ireland,
printed after his death, in 1633* He made feveral
collections for a Hiftory of Henry V. which are digeft-
ed into Speed’s Hiftory of Great Britain. Befides
thefe, he collefted materials of Irilh hiftory in four
large MSS. volumes, now in the Bodleian library, Ox-
ford.
Carew, Thomas, defeended from the family ot
Carew in Gloucefterfhire, was gentleman of the privy
chamber to Charles I. who always efteemed him one
of the molt celebrated wits of his court. He was much
refpefted by the poets of his time, particularly by Ben
Johnfon and Sir William Davenant •, and left behind
him feveral poems, and a mafque called Cesium Britan-
nicum, performed at Whitehall on Shrove Tuefday
night, 1633, by the king, and feveral of his nobles
with their fons. Carew was affifted in the contrivance
by Inigo Jones, and the mufic -was fet by Mr Henry
Lawes of the king’s chapel. He died in the prime of
life, about the year 1639.
Carew, Richard, author of the “ Survey of Corn¬
wall,” was the eldeft fon of Thomas Carew of Eaft
Anthony, and was born in 1555. When very young,
he became a gentleman commoner of Chrift-church
college, Oxford 5 and at 14 years of age had the ho¬
nour of difputing, extempore, with the afterwards fa¬
mous Sir Philip Sydney, in the prefence of the earls
of Leicefter, Warwick, and other nobility. After
fpending three years at the univerfity, he removed to
the Middle Temple, where he refided the fame length
of time, and then travelled into foreign parts. Not
long after his return to England, he married, in 1577,
Juliana Arundel, of Trerice. In 1681, Mr Carew was
made juftice of the peace, and in 1586 was appointed
high iheriff of the county of Cornwall j about which
time he was likewife queen’s deputy for the militia.
Z 2 Ift
GAR [ i8q ] CAR
C'arew. In t ^89, lie vas elefted a member of tbe college of
—v- Antiquaries, a diitinftion to ivhich he was entitled by
his literary abilities and purfuits. What particularly
engaged his attention was his native county, his “ Sur¬
vey” of which was publilhed, in qto, at London, in
1602. It hath been twice reprinted, firft in 1723,
and next in 1769. Of this work Camden hath fpo-
ken in high terms, and acknowledges his obligations
to the author. In the prefent improved hate of topo¬
graphical knowledge, and fince Dr Borlafe’s excellent
publications relative to the county of Cornwall, the
value of Carew’s “ Survey” mull have been greatly di-
minilhed. Mr Gough remarks, that the hiltory and
monuments of this country were faintly touched by
Carew ; but it is added, that he was a perfon extreme¬
ly capable of defcribing them, if the infancy of thofe
Iludies at that time had afforded light and materials.
Another work of our author was a tranflation from the
Italian, entitled, “ The examination of Men’s Wits.
In which, by difcovering the variety of natures, is
flrowed for what profeflion each one is apt, and how
far he fhall profit therein.” • This was publilhed at
London in 1594, and afterwards in 1604 j and though
Richard Carew’s name is prefixed to it, hath been
principally afcribed by fome perfons to his father. Ac¬
cording to Wood, Carew wrote alfo, “ The true and
ready Way to learn the Latin Tongue,” in anfwer to
a query, whether the ordinary method of teaching the
Latin by the rules of grammar be the belt mode of
inftrudting youths in that language ? This tratt is in¬
volved in Mr Hartlib’s book upon the fame fubjedt,
and with the fame title. It is certain that Carew was
a gentleman of confiderable abilities and literature,
and that he was held in great eftimation by fome of
the moft eminent feholars of his time. He was parti¬
cularly intimate with Sir Henry Spelman, who extols
him for his ingenuity, virtue, and learning.
Carew, George, brother to the fubjeft of the laft
article, was educated in the univerfity of Oxford, after
which he fludied the law in the inns of court, and then
travelled to foreign countries for farther improvement.
On his return to his native country, he was called to
the bar, and after fome time was appointed fecretary
to Sir Chriftopher Hatton, lord chancellor of England.
This was by the fpecial recommendation of (^ueen
Elizabeth herfelf, who gave him a prothonotaryihip in
the chancery, and conferred upon him the honour of
knighthood. In 1597, Sir George Carew, who was
then a mailer in chancery, was fent ambaffador to the
king of Poland. In the next reign, he was one of the
commiffioners for treating with the Scotch concerning
an union between the two kingdoms , after which he
was appointed anxbaflador to the court of France, where
he continued from the latter end of the year 1605 till
1609. During his relidence in that country, he form¬
ed an intimacy with Thuanus, to whom he commu¬
nicated an account of the tranfadlions in Poland whilfl
he was employed there, which was of great fervice to
*hat admirable author in drawing up the 12ill book
of his hiilory. After Sir George Cfitew’s return from
France, he was advanced to the important poll of ma¬
iler of the court of .wards, which honourable fituation
he did not long live to enjoy *, for it appears from a
letter written by Thuanus to Camden in the fpring
5613, that he was then lately deceafed. Sir George
Carew married Thomafine, daughter of Sir Francis Carew
Godolphin, great grandfather of the lord treafurer Go- ( M r
dolphin, and had by her two fons and three daughters. <■
When Sir George Carew returned, in 1609, from his
French embaffy, he drew up, and addreffed to James I.
“ A Relation of the State of France, with the cha-
radfers of Henry IV. and the principal perfons of that
Ccf.vt.” The characters are drawn from perfonal
knowledge and clofe obfervation, and might be of fer¬
vice to a general hiltorian of that period. The com-
pofition is perfpicuous and manly, and entirely free
from the pedantry which prevailed in the reign of
James I.} Put this is the leis furprifing, as Sir George
Carew’s tafte had been formed in a better aera, that of
(dueen Elizabeth. The valuable trad! we are fpeaking
of lay for a long time in MS. j till happily falling into
the hands of the earl of Hardwicke, it was communi¬
cated by him to Dr Birch, who publifhed it, in 1749,
at the end of his “ Hiftorical View of the Negotia¬
tions between the Courts of England, France, and
Bruffels, from 1592 to 1617.” That intelligent and
induftrious writer lullly obferves, that it is a model
upon which ambaffadors may form and digeft their no¬
tions and reprefentations ; and the late celebrated poet
Mr Gray hath fpoken of it as an excellent perform¬
ance.
CAREX, Sedge-grass. See Botany Index.
CAREY, Harry, a man diftinguilhed by both,
poetry and mufic, but perhaps more fo by a certain
facetioufnefs, which made him agreeable to every bo¬
dy. He publilhed in 1720 a little colledlion of poems j
and in 1732, fix cantatas, written and compofed by
himfelf. He alfo compofed fundry fongs for modern t
comedies, particularly thofe in the “ Provoked Huf-
band he wrote a farce called “ The Contrivances,”
in which were feveral little fongs to very pretty airs of
his own compofition : he alfo made two or three little
dramas for Goodman’s-fields theatre, which were very
favourably received. In 1729, he publiflied by fub-
feription his poems much enlarged ; with the addition
of one entitled “ Namby Pamby,” in which Am-
brofe Philips is ridiculed. Carey’s talent, fays his hi-
ftorian, lay in humour and unmalevolent fatire : to ri¬
dicule the rant and bombaft of modern tragedies he
wrote one, to which he gave the ftrangp title of
“ Chrononhotonthologos,” a6led in 1734. He alfb
wrote a farce called “ The Honeft Yorklhireman.”
Carey was a thorough Englifhman, and had an unfur-
mountable averlion to the Italian opera and the lingers
in it: he wrote a burlefque opera on the fubjedt of
the “ Dragon of Wantley j” and afterwards a fequel
to it, entitled, “ The Dragonefs j” both which ■tfere
efteemed a true burlefque upon the Italian opera. His
qualities being of the entertaining kind, he was led in¬
to more expences than his finances could bear, and
thus was frequently in diftrefs. His friends, however,
were always ready to aflilt him by their little fubferip-
tions to his works : and encouraged by thefe, he re--
publilhed, in 1740, all the fongs he had ever compo¬
fed, in a collection, entitled, “ The Mufical Century,
in 100 Englilh Ballads, &c.” and, in 1743, his drama¬
tic works, in a fmall volume, 4to. With all his mirth’
and good humour, he feems to have been at times deep¬
ly affected with the malevolence of fome of his own
profeflion, who, for reaforrs that no one can guefs at,
were-
CAR fi8i] CAR
Carey were his enemies ; and this, with the preiTure of his
1! circumftances, is fuppofed to have occaiioned his un-
en(^ ? for5 about 1744, in a fit of defperation,
he laid violent hands on himielf, and, at his houfe in
Warner-ftreet, Cold-Bath Fields, put a period to a
life, which, fays Sir John Hawkins, had been led with¬
out reproach. It is to be noted, and it is fomewhat
fingular in fuch a character, that in all his fongs and
poems on wine, love, and fuch kind of fubjedts, he
feems to have manifefted an inviolable regard for de¬
cency and good manners.
CARGADORS, a name which the Dutch give to
thofe brokers whofe bufinefs is to find freight for fhips
outward bound, and to give notice to the merchants,
who have commodities to fend by fea, of the fhips that
are ready to fail, and of the places for 'which they are
bound.
CARGAPOL, or KaRGAPOL, the capital of a ter¬
ritory of the fame name, in the province of Dwina, in
Mufcovy. E. Long. 36. N. Lat. 63.
CARGO denotes all the merchandifes and effedls
which are laden on board a fliip.
Sufier-CARGO, a perfon employed by merchants to
go a voyage, overfee the cargo, and diipofe of it to the
belt advantage.
CARIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of the
Blither Afia; whofe limits a*-e extended by fome, while
they are contradled by others. Mela and Pliny extend
the maritime Caria from Jafus and Halicarnafl'us, to
Calynda, and the borders of Lycia. The inland Caria
Ptolemy extends to the Meander and beyond. Car^
Caviates, Cariatis, Carijja, and Carls, and Cairo, are
the gentilitious names; Carius and Cancus the epithets.
In Care periculum, was a proverbial faying on a thing
expofed to danger, but of no great value. The Care?
being the Swifs of thofe days, w'ere hired and placed
in the front of the battle, (Cicero). Cum Care Cariffa,
denoted the behaviour of clowns. The Cares came
originally from Ihe iflands to the continent, being for¬
merly fubjeft to Minos, and called Leleges: this the
Cretans affirm, and the Cares deny, making themfelves
aborigines. They are of a common original with the
Myfi and Lydi, having a common temple, of a very
ancient Handing, at Melaffa, a town of Caria, called
Jovls Carii Delubrum, (Herodotus). Homer calls the
Carians, barbarians in language.
CARIATI, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
NapI es, and province of Hither Calabria, with a bi-
fhop’s fee, and the title of a principality. It is two
miles from the gulf of Taranto, and 37 north-eaft of
Cofenza. E. Long. 17. 19. N. Lat. 30. 38.
CARIBBEE islands, a duller of illands fituated
in the Atlantic ocean betiveen 59 and 63 degrees of
weft longitude, and between 11 and 18 degrees of north
latitude. They lie in the form of a bow or femicircle,
liretching aim oil from the coall of Florida north, to
near the river Oroonoque. Thofe that lie neareft .the
call have been called the WindwardIjiands, the others
the Leeward, on account of the winds bloving gene¬
rally from the eallern point in thofe quarters. Abbe
Raynal conjectures them to be Ore tops of very high
mountains formerly belonging to tlie continent, which
have been changed into illands by fome revolution that
has laid the flat country under water, i he direction
of the Caribboe iflar.ds, beginning from Tobago, is
nearly north and N. N. W. This direction is conti- Caribbe*
nued, forming a line fomewhat curved towards the ^apc^s'
north-weft, and ending at Antigua. In this place the v
line becomes at once curved j and extending itfelf in a
ftraight direction to the weft and north-well, meets in
its courfe with Porto-Rico, St Domingo, and Cuba,
known by the name of the Leeward Ijiands, which are
feparated from each other by channels of various
breadths. Some of thefe are 6, others 15 or 20 leagues
broad j but in all of them the foundings are from 100
to 1 20 or 150 fathoms. Between Grenada and St Vin¬
cent’s there is alfo a fmall archipelago of 30 leagues, in
which the foundings are not above ten fathoms. The
mountains in the Caribbee iflands run in the fame di-
rection as the iflands themfelves. The diredlion is fo
regular, that if we were to confider the tops of thefe
mountains only, independent of their bafes, they might
be looked upon as a chain of hills belonging to the
continent, of rvhich Martinico would be the moll north-
wefterly promontory. The fprings of water which flow
from the mountains in the Windward iflands, run all
in the weftern parts of thefe iflands. The whole eaftern
coaft is without any running water. No fprings come
down there from the mountains: and indeed they wrould
have there been ufelefs; for after having run over a very
fliort trad! of land, and with great rapidity, they w ould
have fallen into the fea. In Porto Rico, St Domingo,
and Cuba, there are a few river's that difeharge them¬
felves on the northern fide, and vffiofe fources rife in the
mountains running from eaft to w'eft, that is, through
the w hole length of thefe iflands. From the other fide
of the mountains facing the fouth, where the fea, flow¬
ing with great impetuofity, leaves behind it marks of
its inundations, feveral rivers flow down, the mouths of
which are capable of receiving the largeft (hips. The
foil of the Caribbees confifts moftly of a layer of clay
or gravel of different thicknefs : under which is a bed
of ftone or rock. The nature of fome of thofe foils is
better adapted to vegetables than others. In thofe
places where the clay is drier and more friable, and
mixes with the leaves and remains of plants, a layer of
earth is formed of greater depth than where the cHy
is moifter. The fand or gravel has different properties
according to its peculiar nature j wherever it is lefs
hard, lefs compaft, and lefs porous, fmall pieces fe-
parate themfelves from It, which, though dry, preferve
a certain degree of coolnefs ufeful to vegetation. This
foil is called in America a pumice-Jione foil. Where-
ever the clay and gravel do not go through fuch modi¬
fications, the foil becomes barren, as foon as the layer
formed by the decompofition of the original plants is
deftroyed.—By a treaty concluded in January 1660,
between the French and Englifti, the Caribs were
confined to the iflands of St Vincent’s and Dominica,
where all the fcattered body of this people were united,
and at that time did not exceed in number 6000 men.
See St Vincent’s and Dominica.
As the Caribbee iflands are all between the tropics,
their inhabitants are expofed, allowing for the varieties
refulting from difference of fituation and foilj to a per¬
petual heat, which generally increafes from the rifing ,
of the fun till an hour after noon, and then declines in
proportion as the fun declines. The variations of the
temperature of the air feem to depend rather on the
wind than on the changes of the fcafons. In thofe.
daces “
C A
r
Caribbee places wKere the wind does not blow, tne air is excef-
IkilcLnCl*'* ** 1 1 & -- J    a. 1 4- /-.rt «r Al»1 n C Kilt (
lively hot, and none but the eafterly winds contribute
to temper and refrelh it: thole that blow from the
fouth and weft afford little relief; but they are much
lefs frequent and lefs regular than that which blows
from the eaft. The branches of the trees expofed to
the influence of the latter afe forced round towards the
Weft : but their roots are ftronger, and more extended
under the ground, towards the eaft than towards the
weft ; and hence they are eaffly thrown down by ftrong
weft winds or hurricanes from that^quarter. Ihe eafl>
<?rly wind is fcarce felt in the Caribbee iilands before
nine or ten o’clock in the morning, increafes in propor¬
tion as the fun rifes above the horizon, and decreales
as it declines. Towards the evening it ceafes entirely
to blow on the coafts, but not on the open fea. It has
alfo been obferved, that it blows with more force
and more regularity in the dog-days than at any other
time of the year.
The rain alfo contributes to the temperature ot the
Caribbee iflands, though not equally in them all. Itt
thofe places where the eafterly Wind meets with no¬
thing to oppofc its progrefs, it difpels the clouds as
they begin to rife, and caufes ftiem to break either m
the wroods or upon the mountains. . But whenever the
{forms are too violent, or the blowing of the eafterly
wind is interrupted by the changeable and temporary
effeiS! of the foutherly or wefterly ones, it then begins
to rain. In the other Caribbec iflands, where this
wind does not generally blow, the rains are fp fre¬
quent and plentiful, efpecially in the winter feafon,
which lafts from the middle of July to the middle of
Oftober, that, according to the moft accurate obfer-
vations, as much rain falls in one week as in our cli¬
mates in a year. Inftead of thofe mild refielhing
fhowers which fall in the European climates, the rains
of the Caribbee iflartds are torrents, the found of which
might be miftaken for hail, were not that almoft to¬
tally unknown under fo burning a fky. Ihefe {bowers
Indeed refrefh the air ; but they occafion a dattipnefs,
the effects of which are not lefs difagreeablc than fatal.
The dead muff be interred within a few hours after
they have -expired. Meat will not keep fweet above
24 hours. The fruits decay, whether they are gathered
ripe or before their maturity. The bread ffiuft be
made up into bifeuits, to prevent its growing mouldy.
Common wines turn four, and iron turns rufty, m a
day’s time. The feeds can only be preferved by con-
ftant attention and care, till the proper feaion returns
for fowing them. When the Caribbee iflands were
ftrft difeovered, the cotn that was conveyed there for the
ftipport of the Europeans, was fo form damaged that it
became neceffary to fend it out in the ears. This ne-
ceffary precaution fo much enhanced the price of it,
that few were able to purchafe it. Flour, was then
fubftituted in lieu of corn ; which lowered indeed the
expences of tranfport, but had this inconvenience, that
it was fooUer damaged. It was imagined by a mer¬
chant, that if the flour were entirely feparated from
the bran, it would have the double advantage of being
cheaper and keeping longer. He caufed it therefore
to be lifted, and put the fineft flout into ftrong calks,
and beat it clofe together with iron hammers, till it
became fo clofe a body that the air could fcarcely pe¬
netrate it. This method was found to anfwer the pur-
%
] CAR
pofe ; and if, by it, the flour cannot be preferVed as Caimec*
long as in our dry and temperate climates, it may be ^ts
kept for fix months, a year, or longer, according to Carignan*
the degree of care taken in the preparation. . ‘—»
However troublefome thefe effects of the rain may
be, it is attended with feme others ftill more formi¬
dable j namely, frequent and dreadful earthquakes.
Thefe happening generally during the time or towards
the end of the rainy feafon, and when the tides are
higheft, fome ingenious naturalifts have fuppofed that
there might be a connexion between them.. ’Ihe wa¬
ters of the fky and of the fea undermine, dig up, and
ravage the earth in feveral different vays. Among
the Various fliocks to which the Caribbee iflands are
expofed from the fury of the boifterous ocean, there is
one diftinguifhed by the name of ra<z de maree, or <ivhtrh
pool. It conftantly happens once, twice, or thrice,
from July to Oftober, and always on the weftern coafts,
becaufe it takes place after the time of the wefterly or
foutherly winds, or while they blow. Ihe waves,
which at a diftanee feem to advance gently within 4®Pj
or 5S0 yards, fuddenly fwell againft the fhore, as. if
afted upon in an oblique direction by fome fuperior
force, and break with the greateft impetuofity. The
fhips which are then upon the coaft, or in the roads
beyond it, unable either to keep their anchors or to
put out to fea, are daflred fo pieces againft the land,
and all on board moft commonly perifb. The. hurri¬
cane is another terrible phenomenon in thefe iiianos,
by which incredible damage is occafioned j, but happily
it occurs not often. ^
The produce of the Caribbee iflands is exceedingly
valuable to the Europeans, confifting of fugar, rufn,
inolaffes, indigo, &c. a particular account of which is
given under the names of the refpeftive iflands as they
occur in the order of the alphabet.
CARIBBIANA, or CarIBIana, the north-eaft
coaft of Terra Firma, in South America, otherwiie
called AVm ANDALUSIA.
CARICA, the Pap aw. See Botany 7wAr.
Xhe fruit of one fpecies is by the inhabitants of the
Caribbee iflands eaten with pepper and. fugar as me¬
lons, but is much inferior to a melon in its native coun¬
try l but thofe which have ripened in Britain were de-
teftable : the only ufe to which Mr Miller fays he has
known them put was, when they were about half
grown, to foak them in fait water to get out^fhe acrid
juice, and then pickle them for onangos, to which they
are a good fubftitute. j .
CARICATURA, in Painting, denotes the conceal¬
ment of real beauties, and the exaggeration of ble-
mifhes, but ftill fo as to preferve a refemblance of the
objeft. The word is Italian ; formed of caries, a loadf
burden, or the like.
CARICOUS, an epithet given to fuch tumours as
referable the figure of a fig. rI hey are frequently found
in the piles.
CARIES, the corruption or mortification ox a bone.
See Medicine and Surgery Index.
CARIGNAN, a fortified town of Piedmont, fitua-
ted on the river Po, about feven miles fouth of Turin.
E. Long. 7. 25. N. Lat. 44. 30. It was taken in
1544 by the French j who demolifhed the fortifica*
tions, but fpared the caftle. It was alfo taken, and re¬
taken, m CARILLONS,
GAR [ 183 ] CAR
Carillons CARILLONS, a fpecies of chimes frequent in the
.11 . Low Countries, particularly at Ghent, and Antwerp,
ICarinthia. an^ p}ayecl on a number of bells in a belfrey, forming
a complete feries or fcale of tones and femitones, like
thofe on the harpfichord and organ. There are pedals
communicating with the great bells, upon which the
carilloneur with his feet plays the bals to fprxghtly airs,
performed with the two hands upon the upper fpecies
of keys. Thefe keys are projefting flicks, wide enough
afunder to be flruck with violence and velocity by
either of the hands edgewife, without the danger of hit¬
ting the neighbouring key. The player is provided
with a thick leather covering for the little finger of
each hand, to guard againft the violence of the ftroke.
Thefe carillons are heard through a large town.
CARINA, a Latin term, properly Signifying the
keel of a fliip ; or that long piece of timber running
along the bottom of the fhip from head to flern, upon
which the whole ftru&ure is built or framed.
Carina is alfo frequently ufed for the whole capa¬
city or bulk of a (hip j containing the hull or all the
fpace below the deck. Hence the w'ord is alfo fome-
times ufed by a figure for the whole flap.
Carina is alfo ufed in the ancient archite&ure.
The Romans gave the name carina to all buildings in
form of a fliip, as we ftill give the name nave to the
middle or principal vault df our Gothic churches j be-
caufe it has that figure.
Carina, among anatomifts, is ufed to denote the
fpina dorji; as likewife for the fibrous rudiments or em¬
bryo of a chick appearing in an incubated egg. ihe
cariua confifts of the entire vertebree, as they appear
after ten or twelve days incubation. It is thus called,
becaufe crooked in form of the keel of a {hip.—Bota-
nifts alfo, for the like reafon, ufe the word carina to ex-
prefs the lower petalum of a papilionaceous flower.
Carina were alfo weepers or women hired among
the ancient Romans to wreep at funerals : they were
thus called from Caria} the country whence moft of
them came.
CARINOLA, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and Terra di Lavoro. E. Long.
15. 5. N. Lat. 41. ij.
CARINTHIA, a duchy of Germany, in the circle
of Auftria, bounded by the archbilhopric of Saltzburg
on the north, and by Carniola and the \ enetian terri¬
tories on the fouth, on the weft by lyrol, and on the
eaft by Stiria. A part of this country was anciently
called Carnia, and the inhabitants Carm; but the for¬
mer afterwards obtained the name of Carlnthia, and the
latter Carantani or Corinth:. The air of this country
is cold, and the foil in general mountainous and bar¬
ren } but there are fome fruitful dales and valleys in it,
which produce wheat and other grain. The lakes,
brooks, and rivers, which are very numerous, abound
with fiih; and the mountains yield lead and iron, and
in many places are covered with woods, ine river
Drave, which runs acrofs the country, is the moft con-
fiderable in Carinthia. The inhabitants are partly de-
feendants of the ancient Germans, and partly of the
Sclavortians or Wends. The ftates are conftituted as
in Auftria, and their aflemblies are held at Clagenfurt.
The archbiftiop of Saltzburg and the biftiop of Bam¬
berg have conftderable territories in this country. Chn—
ftianity was planted here in the 7th century. Ihe
only profeflion tolerated at prefent is the Roman Ca- Carinthia
tholic. The biftiops are thole of Gurk and Lavant,
who are fubjeft to the archbilhop of Saltzburg. This fon!’0
duchy was formerly a part of Bavaria. In the year
1282, the emperor Rodolph I. gave it to Maynard
count of Tyrol, on condition that when his male ifl'ue
failed, it fhould revert to the houfe of Auftria \ which
happened in 1331. Carinthia has its particular go¬
vernor or land-captain, as he is called } and contributes
annually towards the cxpence of the military eftabliih-
ment 637,695 florins. Only one regiment of foot is
ufually quartered in it.
CAR 1 PI, a kind of cavalry in the Turkilh army.
The caripi to the number of about 1000 are not {laves,
nor bred up in the feraglio, like the reft ; but are gene¬
rally Moors or renegado Chriftians, who having followed
adventures, being poor, and having their fortune tu
feek by their dexterity and courage, have arrived at
the rank of horfe guards to the Grand Signior.
CARISSA. See Botany Index.
CARTTAS.—The poculum caritatis, or grace cup,
was an extraordinary allowance of wine or other liquors,
wherein the religious at feftivals drank in commemora¬
tion of their founders and benefactors.
CARISBROOK castle, a caitle fituated in the
middle of the Me of Wight, -where King Charles I. was
imprifoned. W. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 50. 40.
CARISTO, an epifcopal city of Greece, in the
eaftern part of the ifland of Negropont, near Cape
Loro. E. Long. 24. 15. N. Lat. 38. 6.
CARKE, denotes the 30th part of a sarplar of
wool.
CARLE. See Churl.
CARLETON, Sir Dudley, was born in Oxford-
{hire, 1573, and bred in Chrift-church college. He
went as fecretary to Sir Ralph Winwood into the Low
Countries, when King James reiigned the cautionary-
towns to the States 5 and was afterwards employed for
20 years as ambaflador to Venice, Savoy, and the
United Provinces. King Charles created him Vifcount
Dorchefter, and appointed him one of his principal fe-
cretaries of ftate j in which office he died in 1651. He
was efteemed a good ftatefman, though an honeft man y
and publifhed feveral political works.
CARLINA, the Carline thistle. See Botany
Index.
CARLINE, or Caroline thistle. See Car-
LlNA. It is faid to have been difeovered by an angel
to Charlemagne, to cure his army of the plague j whence
its denomination.
Carline, or Caroline, a filver coin current in the ,
Neapolitan dominions, and worth about 4d. of our
money.
Carlines, or Carlings, in a {hip, two pieces
of timber lying fore and aft, along from one beam to
another, directly over the keel j ferving as a founda¬
tion for the whole body of the Ihip. On thefe the
ledges reft, whereon the planks of the deck and other
matters of carpentry are made faft. The carlines
have their ends let into the beams called culver-tail-
ways.
CARLINE Knees, are timbers going athwart the {hip,
from the fides to the hatchway, lerving to fuftain the
deck on both fides.
CARLINGEORD, a port town of Ireland, featsd
on.
CAR [ 184 ] CAR
Carling- on Carllngfbrd bay, in the county of Louth, and pro-
ford, vince -of Leinfter, 22 miles north of Drogheda. W.
"ar''1 Long. 6. 24. N. Lat. 24. £.
CARLISLE, the capital city of the county of Cum¬
berland, feated on the fouth of the river Eden, and be¬
tween the Petterel on the call, and the Caude. en the
-weft. It is furrounded by a ftrong ftone wall, and has
a pretty large caftle in the weftern part of it, as alfof a
citadel in the eaftern part, built by Henry VIII. It
flourithed in the time of the Romans, as appears from
••the antiquities that are to be met with here, and the
Roman coins that have been dug up. At the departure
of the Romans this city was ruined by the Scots and
Pidls •, and was not rebuilt till the year 680, by Eg-
frid, who cncompafled it with a wall, and repaired the
church. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the whole coun¬
try was again ruined, and the city laid defolate by the
incurftons of the Norwegians and Danes. In this con¬
dition it remained till the time of William Rufus j who
repaired the walls and the caftle, and caufed the houfes
to be rebuilt. It was fortified by Henry I. as a^ bar¬
rier againft Scotland ; he alfo placed a garrifon in it,
and made it an epifcopal fee. It was twice taken by
the Scots, and afterwards burnt accidentally in the
reign of Richard II. The cathedral, the fuburbs,. and
1500 houfes, were deftroyed at that time. It is at
prefent in a good condition} and has three gates, the
Englifh on the fouth, the Scotch on the north, and
the Irith on the weft. It has two parifties, and as many
churches, St Cuthbert’s and St Mary’s, the laft of
which is the cathedral, and is feparated from the^toun
by a wall of its own. The eaftern part, which is the
neweft, is a curious piece t)f workmanftiip. The choir
with the aides is 71 feet broad } and has a (lately eaft-
window 48 feet high and 30 broad, adorned with cu¬
rious pillars. rJ he roof is elegantly vaulted with wood 5
and is embellifhed with the arms of England and
France quartered j as alfo with Percy’s, Lucy’s, War¬
ren’s, Mowbray’s, and many others. In tlm choir are
the monuments of three bifhops who are buried th«re.
This fee was erefled in 1133 Kan§ Henry I. and
made fuffragan to the archbifhop of York. Ehe ca¬
thedral church here had been founded a ftiort time be¬
fore by Walter, deputy in thefe parts for King William
Rufus, and by him dedicated to the Virgin Mary. He
likewife built a monaftery, and filled it with canons
regular of St Auguftine. This foundation continued
till the diffblution of monafteries, when its lands were
added to the fee, and the maintenance of a dean, &c.
placed here in their room. The church was almoft
ruined by the ufurper Cromwell and his foldiers *, and
has never fince recovered its former beauty, although
repaired after the Reftoration. This diocefe contains
the greateft part of the counties of Cumberland and
Weftmorland, in which are only 93 parifties*, but
thefe (as all the northern are) exceeding large *, and of
them 18 are impropriations. Here is one archdeacon,
viz. of Carlifte. The fee is valued in the king’s books
at ?3ol. 4s. 1 lid. but is computed to be worth an¬
nually 2800I. The clergy’s tenth amounts only to
16il. is. 7id. To this cathedral belong a bilhop,
a dean, a chancellor, an archdeacon, four prebendaries,
eight minor canons, &c. and other inferior officers and
fervants. A
The Pi&s wall, which was built acrofs the country
I
from Newcaftlc, terminates near this place. Carlifie Carliftf
was a fortified place, and ftill has its governor and c.r,!-l'rona
lieutenant-governor, but no garrifon. It was taken by J
the rebels, Nov. 15. 1745 j and was retaken by the
duke of Cumberland on the loth of December follow*
ing, and deprived of its gates. It is governed by a
mayor, twelve aldermen, two bailiffs, &c. and has a
confiderable market on Saturdays. The manufa&ures
of Carliffe are chiefly of printed linens, for which near
3000!. per annum is paid in duties. It is alio noted
for a great manufabturc of whips, in which a great
number of children are employed.—Salmons appear in
the Eden in numbers, fo early as the months of De¬
cember and January ; and the London and even New-
caftle markets are fupplied with early fiftr from this
river : but it is remarkable, that they do not vifit the
Elk in any quantity till April} notwithftanding the
mouths of the two rivers are at a fmall diftance from
each other.—Carlifie fends two members to parliament,
and gives title of earl to a branch of the Howard fa-
mily.
CARLOCK, in commerce, a fort of ifinglafs, made
with the fturgeon’s bladder, imported from Arch¬
angel. The chief ufe of it is for clarifying wine,
but is alfo ufed by the dyers. The bell carlock comes
from Aflracan, where a great quantity of fturgeon is
caught.
CARLO ST AD, or ‘Carlstad, a town of Sweden,
in Wermeland, feated on the lake Wermer, in E. Long.
14. 4. N. Lat. 59. 16.
Carlostad, or CarJJladt, a town of Hungary, ca¬
pital of Croatia, and the ufual refidence of the gover¬
nors of the province. It is feated on the river Kulph,
in E. Long. 16. 5. N. Lat. 45. 34.
C ARLOWITZ, a fmall town of Hungary, in Scla-
vonia, remarkable for a peace concluded here between
the Turks and Chriftians in 1669. It is feated on the
weft fide of the Danube, in E. Long. 19. 5. N. Lat.
45. 25.
CARLSCRONA, of Carlscroon, a fea-port town
in the Baltic, belonging to Sweden. It derives its
origin and name from Charles XI. who firft laid the
foundation of a new town in t68o, and removed the
fleet from Stockholm to this place, on account of its
advantageous fituation in the centre of the Swedilh
feas, and the fuperior feeurity of its harbour. The
greateft part of Carlfcrona Hands upon a fmall rocky
ifland, which rifes gently in a bay of the Baltic 5 the
fuburbs extend over another fmall rock, and along the
mole clofe to the bafon where the fleet is moored. The
way into the town from the mainland is carried over
a dyke to an ifland, and from thence along two long
w ooden bridges joined by a barren rock. X he town is
fpacious, and contains about 18,000 inhabitants. It is
adorned with one or two handfome churches, and a few
tolerable houfes of brick *, but the generality of the
buildings are of wood. The fuburbs are fortified towards
the land by a ftone wall. The entrance into the har¬
bour, which by nature is extremely difficult from a
number of ftioals and rocky iflands, is ftill further fe-
cured from the attack of an enemy’s fleet by two ftfong
forts built on two iflands, under the batteries of which
all veflels muft pafs.
* Formerly veffels in this port when careened and
repaired, were laid upon their fides in the open har^
# hour,
t
CAR l 1
ICarlforona hour, until a dock, according to a plan given by Pol-
11 heim, was hollowed in the folid rock: it was begun
iCarnie. ^ -n anci in 1724J but as it was too
{mail for the admiflion of men of war, it has lately
been enlarged, and is now capable of receiving a Ihip
of the firit rate. But new docks have been begun
upon a ftupendous plan, worthy of the ancient Romans.
According to the original fcheme, it was intended to
eonftru6l 30 docks, for building and laying up the
largeft (hips, at the extremity of the harbour. A
large bafon, capable of admitting two men of war, is
defigned to communicate, by fluices, with two fmaller
bafons, from each of which are to extend, like the
radii of a circle, five rows of covered docks : each row
is to be feparated by walls of Hone ; and each dock to
be-provided with fluice gates, fo as to be filled or
emptied by means of pumps. Clofe to the docks,
magazines for naval ftores are to be conftrufted, and
the whole to be enclofed with a done wall. The pro-
jed: was begun in 1757 j but was much negle&ed until
the accefiion of his prefent majefty, who warmly pa¬
tronized the arduous undertaking. At the commence¬
ment of the works, 25,000!. were annually expended
upon them 5 which fum has been leflened to about
6000I. per annum, and the number of docks reduced
to 20. The firft dock was finilhed in 1779, and it
was computed that the whole number would be execut¬
ed in 20 years.
CARLSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, and bilhopric of Wurtfburg, feated on the
the river Maine, in E. Long. 9. N. Lat. 50. o,
CARLTON, a town in Norfolk held by this te¬
nure, that they lhall prefent 1000 herrings baked in 14
pyes to the king, wherever he ftiall be when they firft
come in feafon.
CARMAGNIOLA, a fortified town of Italy, in
Piedmont, with a good caftle. It was taken by the
French in 1691, and retaken by Prince Eugene the
fame year. It is feated in a country abounding in corn,
flax, and filk, near the river Po, in E. Long. 7. 32. N.
Lat. 44. 43.
C ARMANI A, in Ancient Geography, a country of
Afia, to the eaft of Perfia, having Parthia to the north,
Gedrofia to the eaft, to the fouth the Perfian gulf or
fea in part, and in part the Indian, called the Carma-
nianfea: diftinguilhed into Carmania Deferta, and Car-
mania Propria, the former lying to the fouth of Par¬
thia ; and to the fouth of that, the Propria, quite to
the fea. Its name is from the Syriac, Carma, figni-
fying a “ vine,” for which that country was famous,
yielding clufters three feet long. Now Kerman, or
Carimania, a province of modern Perfia.
CARMEL, a high mountain of Paleftine, Handing
an the fkirts of the fea, and forming the moft remark¬
able headland on all that coaft. It extends eaftward
from the fea as far as the plain of Jezreel, and from
the city of that name quite to Cmfarea on the fouth.
it feems to have had the name of Carmel from its great
fertility ; this word, according to the Hebrew import,
fignifying the vine of God, and is ufed in Scripture to
denote any fruitful fpot, or any place planted with
fruit trees. This mountain, we are allured, was very
fertile. Mr Sandys acquaints us, that, when well cul¬
tivated, it abounds with olives, vines, and variety of
fruits and herbs, both medicinal and aromatic. Others,
Yol. V. Pa*t
?5 1 CAR
however, reprefent it as rather dry and barren j which Carmel,
perhaps may have happened from the negleft of agri-Carmelltes-
culture fo common in all parts of the Turkilh empire, v—
efpecially where they are expofed to tha incurfions of
the Arabs. Carmel is the name of the mountain, and
of a city built on it : as well as of a heathen deity
v'orfhipped in it, but without either temple or ftatue*:
though anciently there muft have been a temple, as
we are told that this mountain wras a favourite retreat
of Pythagoras, who fpent a good deal of time in the
temple, without any perfon with him. But what'hath
rendered Mount Carmel moft celebrated and revered
both by Jew's and Chriftians, is its having been the re-
fidence of the prophet Elijah, w'ho is fuppofed to have
lived there in a cave (which is there ihown), before he
was taken up into heaven.
CARMELITES, an order of religious, making-
one of the four tribes of mendicants or begging friars j
and taking its name from Mount Carmel, formerly in¬
habited by Elias, Elifha, and the children of the pro¬
phets : from whom this order pretends to defeend in
an uninterrupted fucceflion. The manner in w hich they
make out their antiquity has fomething in it too ridi¬
culous to be rehearfed. Some among them pretend
they are defeendants of Jefus Chrift : others go fur¬
ther, and make Pythagoras a Carmelite, and the an¬
cient druids regular branches of their order. Phocos, a
Greek monk, fpeaks the moft reafonably. He fays,
that in his time 1185, Elias’s cave was ftill extant on
the mountain 5 near vrhich were the remains of a build¬
ing which intimated that there had been anciently a
monaftery j that, fome years before, an old monk, a
prieft of Calabria, by revelation, as he pretended, from
the prophet Elias, fixed there, and aflembled ten bro¬
thers. In 1209, Albert, patriarch of Jerufalem, gave
the folitaries a rigid rule, which Papebroch has lince
printed. In 1217, or, according to others, 1226,
Pope Honorius III. approved and confirmed it. This
rule contained 16 articles; one of which confined them
to their cells, and enjoined them to continue day and
night in prayer ; another prohibited the- brethren hav^
ing any property; another enjoined fafting from the
feaft of the holy crofs till Eafter, except on Sundays;
abftinence at all times from flefli w as enjoined by ano¬
ther article ; one obliged them to manual labour; an¬
other impofed a ftrict filence on them from vefpers till
the tierce the next day.
The peace concluded by the errrperor Frederic II.
with the Saracens, in the year 1229, fo difadvantage-
ous to Chriftendom, and fo beneficial to the infidels,
occafioned the Carmelites to quit the Holy Land, un¬
der Alan the fifth general of the Order. He firft font
fome of the religious to Cyprus, w'ho landed there in
the year 1328, and founded a monaftery in the foreft
of Fortania. Some Sicilians, at the fame time, leav¬
ing Mount Carmel, returned to their own country,
wliere they founded a monaftery in the fuburbs of
Meffina. Some Englilh departed out of Syria, in the
year 1240, to found others in England. Others of
Provence, in the year 1244, founded a monaftcry in
the defert of Aigualates, a league from Marfeilles;
and thus, the number of their monafteries increafing,
they held their European general chapter in the year
1245, at their monaftery of Aylesford in England.—.
This order is fo much increafed, that it has, at prefent,
A a 38
CAR [ i
Carmelites 1$ provinces, betides the congregation of Mantua, m
II which are cu monafteries, under a vicar-general •, and
Garmma. the congregations Gf Barefooted Carmelites m Italy
and Spain, which have their peculiar general.
After the eftabliihment of the Carmelites in Burope,
their rule was in fome refpeas altered *, the fir ft time,
by Pope Innocent IV. who added to the firft article a
precept of chaftity, and relaxed the i ith, which en-
ioins abftinence at all times from fldh, permitting them,
when they travelled, to eat boiled tkth . t ns pope
like wife gave them leave to eat in a common reieetory,
and to keep affes or mules for their ule. _ f heir rule
was again mitigated by the popes Eugenius lV. and
Pius 1L Hence the order is divided into two branch¬
es, viz. the Carm.htes of the ancient objervance called
the moderate, or m tigated; and thofe of the Jlrtcl ob-
fervance, who are the bar footed Carmelites; a reform
feton foot in 1548, by S. Therefa, a nun of tne con¬
vent of Avila, in Caftile : thefe laft are dmaed in¬
to two congregations, that of Spain and that 01
II Idle habit of the Carmelites was at firft white, and
the cloak laced at the . ottom with feveral lifts. But
Pope Honorius IV. commanded them to change it lor
that of the Minims. Their fcapulary is a imall woo ¬
len habit of a brown colour, thrown oyer their Omul
fters. They wear no linen fhirts j but inftead of them
linfey-woolfey, which they change twice a-week m the
fummer, and once a-week in the winter. .
If a monk of this order lies with a woman, he is
prohibited faying mafs for three or four years, ts de¬
clared infamous, and obliged to difciplme himklf pub¬
licly once a-week. If he is again guilty of the lame
fault, his penance is doubled-, and it a third time, he
is expelled the order. t, r +•
CARMEN, an ancient term among the Batins,
ufed in a general fenfe to fignify a verie 5 but more
particularly to fignify a fpell, charm, form of expia¬
tion, or execration, couched m a few words placed m
a my flic order, on which its efficacy depended. Pez-
ron derives the word carmen from the Celtic ca/va, the
ihout of ioy, or the verfes which the ancient bards lung
to encourage the foldiers before the combat.
■was anciently a denomination given aim to precepts,
laws, prayers, imprecations, and all folemn /ormuhe
couched in a few words placed in a certain order,
though, written in profe. In which fenfe it was that
the elder Cato wrote a Carmen de monbus, which was
not in verfe but in profe. • t r?
C ARMENTALIA, a feaft among the ancient Ko-
mansf celebrated annually upon thellth of January
in honour of Carmenta, or Carmentis, a prophetefs of
Arcadia, mother of Evander, with whom ftie came in¬
to Italy 60 years before the Trojan war. The folem-
xiity was alfo repeated on the 15th of January, which
is marked in the old calendar of Carmentaha reiata.
This feaft was eftablifhed on occafion of a great fecun¬
dity among the Roman dames,_ after a general reconci¬
liation with their huftands, with whom they had been
at variance, in regard of the ufe of coaches being
prohibited them by an edift of the fenate l hls ^
was celebrated by the women : he who otiered the ia-
erifices was calledearn,entahs. _
CARMINATIVES, medicines ufed m colics, or
•ther flatulent diferders, to difpel the wind.
B6 ] C A K
The word comes from the Latin carminarc, to card Ca™,ns‘
or teaze wool, and figuratively to attenuate and dif- ^
cufs wind or vapouis, and promote their dilcharge b} caVneades,
perfpiration. Though Dr Quincy makes it more my- y—k
iterious : He fays it comes from the word carmen, tak¬
ing it in the itnfe of an invocation or charm -, and
makes it to have been a general name for all medicines
which operated like charms, i. e. in an extraordinary
manner. Hence, as the moft violent pams were fre¬
quently thofe arifing from pent-up wind, which imme¬
diately ceafe upon difperfion \ the term tarminanvehe-
came in a peculiar fenfe applied to medicines which
gave relief in windy cafes, as if they cured by enchant-
m -mt: but this interpretation feems a little too far
ftrained. ,
CARMINE, a powder of a very beautiful red co¬
lour bordering upon purple j and ufed by painters m
miniature, though rarely, on account of its great F-ce.
The manner of preparing it is kept a fecret by the co¬
lour-makers j neither do any of thole receipts v Inch
have for a long time been publifficd concerning the pre¬
paration of this and other colours at all aniwer the
purpofe. See COLOLR-mahng. _ . .
CARMONA, a town of Italy in Friuli, and m the
county of Goritz, feated on a mountain near the river
Indri. It belongs to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long.
c. 37. N. Lat. 46. 15. . • * j i r
Carmona, an ancient town of Spam, m Andamfia.
The gate towards Seville is one of the moft extraor¬
dinary pieces of antiquity in all Spam. It ^ Icated m
a fertile country, 15 miles eaft of Seville, w . eng.
r o-, N Lat. 37. 34. j ,
* CARNATION. See Dianthus, Botany Wov.
Carnation Colour, among painters, is underitcod
of all the parts of a picture, in general, which repre-
fent flefh, or which are naked and without drapery.
Titian and Corregio in Italy, and Rubens and Van¬
dyke in Flanders, excelled in car nations.-Tn col our-
ing for flefn, there is io great a variety, that it is hard
to lay down any general rules for inftrunions therein j
neither are there any regarded by thofe who have ac¬
quired a fkill this way j the various colouring for car¬
nations may be eafily produced, by taking more or
lefs red, blue, yellow, or biftre, whether for the firft
colouring, or for the finfthing-, the colour for women
fliould be bluifh, for children a little red, both frelh
and gay and for men it ftrould incline to yellow, elpe-
ciallv if they are old.
Carnation, among dyers. To dye a carnation, or
red rofe colour, it is direded to take liquor of wheat
bran a fufficient quantity, alum three pounds tartar-:
two ounces j boil them, and enter 20 yards of broad
cloth • after it has boiled three hours, cool ana walh
if take frefh clear, bran liquor a fufficient quantity,,
madder five pounds boil and fodden according to art
 'p]ie J]ow dyers know that the folution of tin, bung
put in a kettle to the alum and tartar, in another pro-
cefs makes the cloth, &c. attract the colour into it,
fo that none of the cochineal is left, but.the whole is
^ CAENEADES, a celebrated Greek philofcpher,
was a native of Gyrene in Africa, and founder ol the
third academy. He was fo fond of fluey that he not
only avoided all entertainments, but forgoteven to ea
at hi? own table > his maid-iervant Mellila was obh- ,
CAR , [ 187 ] 'CAR
ged to put the victuals into his hand. He was an an-
tagoniil of the Stoics j and applied himfelf with great
eagernefs to refute the works of Chryfippus, one of the
molt celebrated philofophers of their fe£t. The power
of his eloquence was dreaded even by a Roman fenate.
The Athenians being condemned by the Romans to
pay a fine of 500 talents for plundering the city of O-
ropus, fent ambaffadors to Rome, who got the fine mi¬
tigated to 100 talbnts. Carneades the Academic,
Diogenes the Stoic, and Critolaits the Peripatetic,
were charged with this embaffy. Before they had an
audience of the fenate, they harangued to great multi¬
tudes in different parts of the city. Carneades’s elo¬
quence was diftinguilhed from that of the others by its
ftrength and rapidity. Cato the Elder made a motion
in the fenate that thefe ambaffadors fhould be immedi¬
ately fent back, becaufe it was very difficult to difeern
the truth through the arguments of Carneades. The
Athenian ambaifadors (faid many of the fenators) were
fent rather to force us to comply with their demands,
than to folicit them by perfuafion ; meaning, that it
was impolfible to refill the power of that eloquence
with which Carneades addrefled himl'elf to them. Ac¬
cording to Plutarch, the youth at Rome were fo
charmed by the orations of this philofopher, that they
forfook their exercifes and other diverlions, and were
carried with a kind of madnefs to philofbphy; the hu¬
mour of philofophizing fpreading like enthufiafm. This
grieved Cato, who was particularly afraid of the fub-
tility of wit and ilrength of argument with which Car¬
neades maintained either fide of a queltion. Carneades
harangued in favour of juftice one day, and the next
day againft it, to the admiration of all who heard him,
among whom were Galba and Cato, the greateft ora¬
tors of Rome. This was his element 5 he delighted in
demolifhing his own work \ becaufe it ferved in the
end to confirm his grand principle, that there are only
probabilities or refemblances of truth in the mind of
man ; fo that of two things direftly oppofite, either
ma37 be chofen indifferently. Quintilian remarks, that
though Carneades argued in favour of injuftiee, yet he
himfelf afled according to the ftridl rules of iuftice.
The following was a maxim of Carneades : “ If a man
privately knew that his enemy, or any other peri’on
whofe death might be of advantage to him, would
come to fit down on grafs in which there lurked an
afp, he ought to give him notice of it, though it were
in the power of no perfon whatever to blame him for
being blent.” Carneades, according to fome, lived
to be 85 years old : others make him to be 90 : his
death is placed in the 4th year of the 162d Olym¬
piad.
CARNEDDE, in Britiih antiquity, denotes heaps
of (tones, fuppofed to be druidical remains, and thrown
together on occafion of confirming and commemorat¬
ing a covenant, Gen. xxxi. 46. They are very com¬
mon in the ifle of Anglefey, and were alfo ufed as fe-
pulchral monuments, in the manner of tumuh ; for Mr
Rowland found a curious urn in one of thefe carnedde.
Whence it may be inferred, that the Britons had the
cuftom of throwing (tones on the deceafed. From this
cuftom is derived the.WeKh proverb, Karn archjbcn,
“ 111 betide thee.”
CARNEIA, in antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Apollo, furnamed Carneus, held in mod cities of
Greece, but efpecially at Sparta, where it was (irff in- Carneia
ftituted. 11
The reafon of the name, as well as the occafion of <-’ar“'r~cx'
the inftitution is controverted. It laded nine days, be-
ginning on the 13th of the month Carneus. The ce¬
remonies were an imitation of the method of living and
difeipline ufed in camps.
CARNEL.—The building of (hips firft with their
timber and beams, and after bringing on their planks,
is called camel work, to diilinguiih it from clinch
work.
Veffels alfo which go with mizen fails inftead of
main fails are by fome called camels.
CARNELIAN, in NaturalHi/iory, a precious (lone,
of which there are three kinds, diftinguilhed by three
colours, a red, a yellow, and a white. The red is
very well known among us ; is found in roundifti or
oval maffes, much like our common pebbles ; and is
generally met with between an inch and two or three
inches in diameter j it is of a fine, compadt, and clofe
texture \ of a glofl'y furface j and, in the feveral fpe-
cimens, is of all the degrees of red, from the paleft
flefh.colour to the deepeft blood-red. It is generally
free from fpots, clouds, or variegations : but fometimes
it is veined very beautifully witli an extremely pale
red, or with white 5 the veins forming concentric cir¬
cles, or other lefs regular figures, about a nucleus, in
the manner of thofe of agates. The pieces of earne-
lian, which are all one colour, and perfectly free from
veins, are thofe which our jewellers generally make
ufe of for feals, though the variegated ones are much
more beautiful. The carnelian is tolerably hard, and
capable of a very good polilh: it is not at all affe&ed
by acid menftruums : the fire divefts it of a part of
its colour, and leaves it of a pale red ; and a ftrong
and long-continued heat will reduce it to a pale dirty
gray,
The fined carnelians are thofe of the Eaft Indies 5
but there are very beautiful ones found in the rivers of
Silefia and Bohemia ; and we have fome not dofpicablc
ones in England.
Though the ancients have recommended the carne¬
lian as aitringent, and attributed a number of fanciful
virtues to it, we know of no otEer uie of the (tone
than the cutting feals on it to which purpofe it is
excellently adapted, as being not too hard for cutting,
and yet hard enough not to be liable to accidents, to
take a good polilh, and to feparate eaiily from the
wax.
CARNERO, h\ Geographij, a name given to that
part of the gulf of Venice which extends from the
weftern coaft of Iftria to the ifiands of Groffa and the
coaft of Morlachia.
C iRNERO is likewife the name of the cape to the
weft of the m tilth of the bay of Gibraltar.
C ARNIFEX, among the Romans, the common ex¬
ecutioner. By reafon of the odioufnefs of his office, the
carnifex was exprefsly prohibited by the law's from ha¬
ving his duelling houfe within the city. In middle-
age writers-carnifex alfo denotes a butcher.
Under the Anglo-Danith kings, the carnifex was an
officer of great dignity ; being ranked wdth the archbi-
(hopofYork, Earl Goodwin, and the lord fteward.
Flor. Wigorn. ann. 1040, Rex Hardecanutus, Alfricum
Ebor. Archiep. Goodwinum comitem, Edricum difpenfa-
A a 2 iorem,
Cwnifex
It
Carnival.
There are fe-
fprings and in-
ave very hardy,
the fnow, with
CAR r 188
torem, Thrond fiium carnificem, et ahos magnce dignita¬
tis vittor Load mum mijit.
, CARNIOLA, 'a duchy of Germany, bounded on
the fouth by the Adriatic lea, and that part of Illria
poffeffed by the republic of Venice *, on the north, by
Carinthia and Stiria •, on the eaft, by Sclavonia and
Croatia } on the weft, by Friuli, the county of Gorz or
Goritz, and a part of the gulf of Venice ; extending
in length about no miles, and in breadth about 50.
It had its ancient name Carma, as well as the modern
one Carnioia, from its ancient inhabitants, the Carni, a
tribe of Scythians, otherwife called Japides, whence
this and the adjacent countries were alfo called Japi-
Carniola is full of mountains, fome of which are cul¬
tivated and inhabited, fome covered with wood, others
naked and barren, and others continually buried m
fnow. The valleys are very fruitful. Here are hke-
wife mines of iron, lead, and copper } but^falt muft be
had from the fovereign’s magazines,
veral rivers, belides many medical
land lakes. The common people
going barefooted in winter through .
open breads, and fleeping on a hard bench without
bed or bolder. Their food is alfo very coarfe and
mean. In winter, when the fnow lies deep on the
ground, the mountaineers bind either fmall balkets, or
long thin narrow boards, like the Laplanders, to then-
feet, on which, with the help of a ftout ftaff or pole,
they defcend with great velocity from the mountains.
When the fnow is frozen, they make ufe of a fort of
irons or Ikaits. In different parts of the country the
inhabitants, efpecially the common fort, differ greatly
in their drefs, language, and manner of living. In
Upper and Lower Carnioia they wear long beards.
The languages chiefly in ufe are the Sclavonian or
Wendilh, and German ; the firft by the commonalty,
and the latter by people of faftiion. The duchy is di¬
vided into the Upper, Lower, Middle, and Inner
Carnioia. The principal commodities exported hence
are, iron, fteel, lead, quickfilver, white and red wine
oil of olives, cattle, ftieep, cheefe, linen, and a kind
of woollen ftuff called tnaha/an, Spanish leather, ho-
ney walnuts, and timber together with all manner
of woodwork, as boxes, diflies, &c. Chriftiamty was
firft planted here in the eighth century. Lutheramlm
made a confiderable progrefs in it 5 but, excepting the
Walachians or Ufkokes, who are of the Greek church,
and ftyle themfelves StaraverKt, i. e. old believers, all
the inhabitants at prefent are Roman Catholics.. Car¬
nioia was long a marquifate or margravatebut in the
year 1231 was erefted into a duchy. As its propor¬
tion towards the maintenance of the army, it pays an¬
nually 363,171florins: but onlytwo re§iments oi toot
are quartered in it. . ... .
CARNIVAL, or Carkaval, a time of rejoicing,
a feafon of mirth, obferved with great folemmty by the
Italians, particularly at Venice, holding from the
twelfth day till Lent. , _ v /> // .
The word is formed from the Italian Carnavaile ;
wh-ch M. Du Cange derives from Carn-a-val, by rea-
fi,n the flefh then goes to pot, to make amends for the
feafon of abflinence then enfuing. Accordingly, in
the corrupt Latin, he obferves, it was called Carnele-
]
CAR
vamen and Carnifpriviuni; as the Spaniards ftill deno¬
minate it carnes tollendas.
Feafts, balls, operas, concerts of mufic, intrigues, _
marriages, &c. are chiefly held in carnival time. 1 he
carnival begins at Venice the lecond holiday in Chrift-
mas : Then it is they begin to wear malks, and open
their playhoufes and gaming houfes \ the place of St
Mark is filled with mountebanks, jack-puddings, ped¬
lars, whores, and fuch like mobs, who flock thither
from all parts. There have been no lefs then feven fo-
vereign princes and 30,000 foreigners here to partake
of thefe diverfions.
CARNIVOROUS, an epithet applied to thofe ani¬
mals which naturally feek and feed on fltfh.
It has been a diipute among naturahlts^ whether
man is naturally carnivorous. Thofe who take the ne¬
gative fide of the queftion, infill chiefly on the ftruc-
ture of our teeth, which are moftly incifoies or mola-
res 5 not fuch as carnivorous animals aie furnnhed
with, and which are proper to tear flefh in pieces . to
which it may be added, that, even when we do feed
on flefh, it is not without a preparatory,alteration by
boiling, roafting, &c. and even then that it is the
hardeft of digeftion of all foods, d o thefe arguments
Dr Wallis fubjoins another, which is, that all quadru¬
peds which feed on herbs or plants have a long colon,
with a caecum at the upper end of it, or fomew hat equi¬
valent, which conveys the food by a long and large
progrefs, from the ftomach downwards,, in order to its
flower paffage and longer flay in the inteftines } .but
that, in carnivoi ous animals, fuch caecum is w anting,
and inftead thereof there is a more fhort and flender
gut, and a quicker paffage through the inteftines.
Now in man, the caecum is very. vifible : a ftrong
prefumption that nature, who is ftill confiftent with
herfelf, did not intend him for a carnivorous animal.—
It is true, the caecum is but fmall in adults, and feems
of little or no ufe •, but in a foetus it is much larger in
proportion : And it is probable, our cuftomary change
of diet, as we grow up, may occafion this ftninking.
But to thefe arguments Dr Tyfon replies, that if man
had been by nature defigned not to be carnivorous^
there w'ould doubtlefs have been found, fomew here on
the globe, people who do not feed on flefti} which is-
not the cafe. Neither are carnivorous animals always
without a colon and ceecum j nor are all animals car¬
nivorous which have thefe parts : the opoflum, for in-
ftance, hath both a colon and caecum, and yet feeds
on poultry and other flefti *, whereas the hedgehog,
which has neither colon nor caecum, and fo ought to
be carnivorous, feeds only on vegetables. Add to
this, that hogs which have both, will feed upon flefti
when they can get it j and rats and mice, which have
large caecums, will feed on bacon as well as .bread and.
cheefe. Laftly, the human race are fu.rnilhed with
teeth neceflary for the preparation of all kinds of foods j
from whence it w'ould feem that nature intended we
ftiould live on all. And as the alimentary du£t in the-
human body is fitted for digefting all kinds of.foods,
ought we not rather to conclude that nature did not
intend to deny us any ?
It is not lefs difputed whether mankind were carni¬
vorous before the flood. St Jerome, Chryfoftome, The¬
odore, and other ancients, maintain, that all animal
feud
Carnival,
Carnivo¬
rous.
CAR [ 189 1 CAR
amivorous food was then forbidden ■, which opinion is alfo ftrc-
I,!. nuoufly fupported among the moderns by Curcellceus,
aroiina', and refuted by Heidegger, Danzius, Bochart, &c.
See Antediluvians.
CARNOSITY is ufed by fome authors for a little
flefhy excrefcence, tubercle, or wen, formed in the
urethra, the neck of the bladder, or yard, which flops
the paffage of the urine.—Carnoflties are very difficult
of cure : they are not eafily known but by introducing
a probe into the paffage, which there meets with re-
fiflance. They ufually arife from fome venereal mala¬
dy ill managed.
CARO, Annibal, a celebrated Italian poet, was
born at Civita Nuovo in 1507. He became fecretary
to the duke of Parma, and afterwards to Cardinal
Farnefe. He was alfb made a knight of Malta. He
tranflated Virgil’s iEneid into his own language, with
fuch propriety and elegance of expreffion, that he was
allowed by the beft judges to have equalled the origi¬
nal. He alfo tranflated Ariftotle’s rhetoric, two ora¬
tories of Gregory Nazianzen, with a difcourfe of Cy¬
prian. He wrote a comedy 5 and a mifcellany of his
poems was printed at Venice in 1584. He died at
Rome in 1566.
CAROLINA, a province of North America, com¬
prehending the moft wefterly part of Florida, and ly¬
ing between 29 and 36 degrees of N. Lat. It is
bounded on the eaft by the Atlantic, and on the weft
by the river Miffiffippi, on the north by Virginia, on
the fouth by Georgia, and to the fouth of Georgia by
the Floridas.
This country is feated between the extremities of
heat and cold, though the heat is more troublefome in
fummer than the cold in winter; their winters being
very fliort, and the frofty mornings frequently fue-
ceeded by W'arm days. The air is generally ferene
and clear the greateft part of the year; but in Fe¬
bruary and March the inhabitants have a cuftom of
burning the uroods, which caufes fuch a fmoke as to
ftrangers w'ould feem to proceed from a fog or thick-
nefs in the air. The fmoke of the tar-kilns likewife
deceives ftrangers, and gives them an ill opinion of the
air of Carolina \ to which alfo conduces a cuftom of
the Indians of fetting fire to the woods in their hunt¬
ings, for many miles round. The great rains are in
winter, though they are not without heavy fhowers at
midfummer ; add to thefe the conftant devrs that fall
in the night, which refreffi the ground and fupply the
plants with moiiture. In North Carolina, the north-
weft winds in the winter occafion very pinching wea¬
ther ; but they are not of long continuance. Wefter¬
ly winds bring very pleafant weather 5 but the fouth-
erly are hot and unwholefome, occafioning fevers and
other diforders. But this muft be underitood of fum¬
mer, for in winter they are very comfortable. rIhe
depth of winter is towards the latter end of February,
and then the ice is not ftrong enough to bear a man’s
weight. In Auguft and September there are fome-
times great florins and fqualls of wdnd, which are fo
violent as to make lanes of 100 feet wide, more or lefs,
through the woods, tearing up the trees by the roots.
Thefe ftorms generally happen once in about feven
years ; and are attended with dreadful thunder, light¬
ning, and heavy rains. They commonly happen about
the time of the hurricanes which rage fo fatally among
the iflands between the tropics $ and feem to be occa- Carolina*,
fioned by them, or to proceed from the fame caufe : 1
but by the time they reach Carolina, their force is
much abated 5 and the farther north they proceed, fo
much the more do they decreafe in fury. The foil on
the coaft is fandy •, but farther up, the country is fo
fruitful that they have not yet been at the trouble to
manure the land. The grains moft cultivated are In¬
dian corn and rice, though any fort will thrive well
enough •, they have alfo pulfe of feveral forts, little
known in England. All kinds of garden fluff ufual in
England are cultivated here, and may be had in great
plenty. They export large quantities yearly of rice,
pitch, tar, turpentine, deer-fleins, and timber for
building j cyprefs, cedar, faffafras, oak, walnut, and
pine. Befides thefe, they alfo fend out beef, pork,
tallow, hides, furs, wheat, peafe, potatoes, honey,
bees-wax, myrtle-vrax, tobacco, fnakeroot, cotton,
feveral forts of gum and medicinal drugs. Indigo is
alfo cultivated in this province, but of an inferior qua¬
lity to that which comes from the Caribbee iflands. It
hath been attempted in vain to cultivate vines, and
produce lilk, in this country ; for though the frofts
here do not continue long without intervals of warmer
weather, they are fufficient to check the growth of the
vine, as well as olives, dates, oranges, &c. The Univ. Hijfc
furs are bought of the Indians with vermilion, lead, xxvi-88,
gunpowder, coarfe cloth, iron, and fpirituous liquors*
As yet they have not a fufficient number of handicrafts¬
men \ which renders labour very dear, and a fupply of
clothes from Europe neceffary. The afpeft of the
country is very fine, being adorned w ith beautiful ri¬
vers and creeks, and the woods with lofty timber,
which afford delightful and pleafant feats for the plan¬
ters, and render the fencing their lands very eafy.
And as they have plenty of fifli, wild-fowl, and veni-
fon, befides other neceffaries which this country pro¬
duces naturally, they live eafy and luxurioufly.
Their rivers are large, and navigable a great many
miles up the country. They rife near the moun¬
tains, and abound with delicate fith, befide water-fowl
of different kinds. In fome there are iflands which
yield good pafture, without the annoyance of wild
beafts. The chief mountains are the Cherokee or Al¬
legany mountains, which are fituated north and north-
weft, five or fix hundred miles diftant from the fea.
They are very high j and abound with trees, plants,
ftones, and minerals, of different kinds.
This country is divided into North and South Ca¬
rolina, and Georgia ; each of which, before the late
revolution, was under a particular governor. The
North is fubdivided into four counties, Granville, Col-
liton, Berkley, and Craven ; and South Carolina into
two, Clarendon and Albemarle. This laft is alfo di¬
vided into 14 parifties or townftiips, each of which has
a brick or timber church. The former likewife has
the fame number of pariffies. Charleftovn is the ca¬
pital of the w hole country.
Carolina was difeovered by Sebaftian Cabot about
the year 1500, in the reign of Henry VII. but the
fettling of it being neglected by the Engliffi, a colony
of French Proteftants, by the encouragement of Ad¬
miral Coligni, were tranfported thither 5 and named
the place of their firft fettlement Arx Carolina, in ho*,
nour of their prince, Charles IX. of France ; but in
SH
C A R [ 19° 1
Carolina, a fhort time that colony was deflroyed by tbe Spa- Lord Granville,
' nlards j and no other attempt was made by any Euro¬
pean power to fettle there till the year 1664, when
800 Englrfh landed at Cape Fear in North Carolina,
and took pofieflion of the country. In 1670, Cha. II.
of Britain granted Carolina to the lords Berkeley, Cla¬
rendon, Albemarle, Craven, and Aihly, Sir George
Carteret, Sir William Berkeley, and Sir John Colhton.
The plan of government for this new colony was drawn
up by the famous Mr Locke, who very wifely propo-
fed a univerfal toleration in religious matters. The
Only reirruftion in this refpedf was, that every per Ion
claiming the protection of that iettlement, ftiould, at
the age of 17, regiiler himfelf in fome particular com¬
munion. To civil liberty, however, our philofopher
was not fo favourable } the code of Carolina gave to
the eight proprietors who founded the colony, and to
their heirs, not only all the rights of a monarch, but
all the powers of legiflation. The court, which was
compofed of this fovereign body, and called the / o/u-
tinate Court, was inverted with the right of nominating
to all employments and dignities, and even of confer¬
ring nobility ; but with new and unprecedented titles.
They were, for inftanee, to create in. each county two
caciques, each of whom was to be pollefied of 24,000
acres of land j and a landgrave, who was to hare
80 000. The perfons on whom theie honours ftiould
be’bellowed were to compofe the upper houfe, and
their poffellions were made unalienable. I hey had
only the right of farming or letting out a third part of
them at the moft for three lives. I he lower noufe
was compofed of the deputies from tne feveral counties
and towns. The number of this reprefentative body
was to be increafed as the colony grew more populous.
No tenant was to pay more than about a Hulling per
acre, and even this rent was redeemable. All the in¬
habitants, however, both Haves and freemen, were un¬
der an obligation to take up arms upon the firft order
from the Palatine court.
It was not long before the defeats of tins conrcitu-
lion became apparent. The proprietary lords uied
every endeavour to eftablilh an arbitrary government ;
and," on the other hand, the colonifts exerted them-
felves with great zeal to avoid fervitude. In confe-
quence of this ftruggle, the whole province, diftraaed
with tumults and diffenfions, became incapable ot
making any progrefs, though great things had been
expeaed from its particular advantages of fituation.
Though a toleration in religious matters was a part of
the original conftitution, diffenfions arofe likewife on
that account. In 1705, Carteret, now Lord Gran¬
ville who, as the oldert of the proprietors, was role
governor of the colony, formed a defign of obliging
all the non-conformifts to embrace the ceremonies ot
the church of England •, and this aa ot violence,
thou<rh difavowed and rejeaed by the mother-country,
intlamed ihe minds of the people. In 17 20, while this
animofity was ftill fubfifting, the province was attacked
bv feveral bands of lavages, driven to defpair by a
continued courfe of the moll atrocious violence and
iniuftice. Thefe unfortunate wretches were all put to
the fword : but, in 1728, the lords proprietors having
refufed to contribute towards the expences of an ex¬
pedition, of which they were to lhare the immediate
benefits, were deprived of their prerogative, except
Carp,
CAR
  ^ who (till retained his eighth paft. Catclls*
The reft received a recompenfe of about 24,000!. The
colony was taken under the immediate protedlion of,
the crown, and from that time began to flourilh. The
divifion into North and South Carolina now took place,
and the fettlement of Georgia commenced in 1732,
See Georgia.
CAROLINE. See Carline.
CAHOLINE-Books, the name of four books, eompofed
by order of Charlemagne, to refute the fecond council
of Nice. Thefe books are couched in very harfti and
fevere terms, containing 1 20 heads of aecufation againft
the council of Nice, and condemning the worlhip of
images.
CAROLOSTADIANS, or Carlostadians, an
ancient fe£l or branch of Lutherans, who denied the
real prefence of Chrift in the eucharift.
They were thus denominated from their leader An¬
drew Caroloftadius, who having originally been arch¬
deacon of Wittemberg, was converted by Luther, and
was the firft of all the reformed clergy who took a
wife } but difagreeing afterwards with Luther, chiefly
in the point of the facrament, founded a fe£t apart.
The Caroloftadians are the lame with what are^ other-
wife denominated Saeramentarians, and agree in moft
things with the Zuinglians.
CAROLUS, an ancient Englifti broad piece of gold
ftruck under Charles I. Its value has of late been at
23s. tterling, though at the time it was coined it is
faid to have been rated at 20s.
Carolus, a fmall copper coin, with a little filver
mixed with it, ftruck under Charles VIII. of I ranee.
The carolus was worth 12 deniers when it ceafed to
be current. Thofe which are ftill current in trade in
Lorrain, or In fome neighbouring provinces, go under
the name of French fols.
CAROTIDS, in Anatomy, two arteries of the
neck, which convey the blood from the aorta to the
brain $ one called the right, and the other the left,
carotid.
CARP, in Ichthyology, the Englifti name of a fpe-
cies of cyprinus. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology
Index.
The carp is the moft valuable of all kinds of fifti for
flocking of ponds. It is very quick in its grovtn,
and brings forth the fpawn three times a year, fo that
the increafe is very great. The female does not begin
to breed till eight or nine years old fo that in breed-
ing-ponds a fupply muft be kept of carp of that age.
The beft judges allow, that, in flocking a breed-
pond, four males ftiould be allowed to twelve females.
The ufual growth of a carp is two or three inches in
length in a year •, but, in ponds which receive the fat¬
tening of common-fevers, they have been known to
grow from five inches to 18 in one year. A feeding-
pond of one acre extent will very well feed 3°^ carp
of three years old, 300 of two years, and 400 of
one year old. Carp delight greatly in ponds that have
marley fides 5 they love alfo clay-ponds well ftieltered
from the winds and grown with vreeds and long grafs
at the edges, which they feed on in the hot months.
Carp and tench thrive very faft in ponds and rivers near
the lea, where the water is a little brackilh ; but they
are not fo well tailed as thofe which live in frefli wa¬
ter, Grains, blood, chicken-guts, and the like, may at
times
c A R C 191 ] CAR
Car|) times be thrown into carp-ponds, to help to fatten the
II fiih. To make them grow large and fat, the growth
of gras under the water Ihould by all means poflible
be encouraged. For this purpofe, as the water de-
creafes in the fummer, the Tides of the pond left naked
and dry ihould be well raked with an iron rake, to de-
ftroy all the weeds, and cut up the furface of the
earth j hay-feed Ihould then be fown plentifully in
thefe places 5 and more ground prepared in the fame
manner, as the water falls more and more away. Ey
this means there will be a fine and plentiful growth of
young grafs along the lides of the pond to the water’s
edge 5 and when the rains fill up the pond again, this
will be all buried under the water, and will make a
feeding-place for the fifli where they will come early
in the morning, and will fatten greatly upon what they
find there.
CARFAXES, or Alpes Bastarnic^e, in Ancient
Geography, a range of mountains, running out between
Poland, Hungary, and Tranfylvania. Now called the
Carpathian Mountains.
C ARP AT HI UM MARE, (Horace, Ovid) 3 the
fea that walhes the ifland Carpathus.
CAliPATHUS, an ifiand on the coal!: of Afia, two
hundred ftadia in compafs, and an hundred in length.
Its name is faid to be from its fituation on the coalt of
Caria. It Res between Rhodes and Crete, in the fea
which, from this ifland, is called the Carpathian fea,
and has to the north the Ionian, to the fouth the
Egyptian, to the w^eft the Cretan and African feas.
It is tw’o hundred furlongs in compafs, and a hundred
in length. It had anciently, according to Strabo, four
cities 3 according to Scylax, only three. Ptolemy
mentions but one, which he calls Pofidium. This
ifland is now called Scarpanto.
CARPiEA, a kind of dance anciently in ufe among
the Athenians and Magnelians, performed by two
perfons, the one acting a labourer, the other a robber.
The labourer, laying by his arms, goes to ploughing
and fowing, Hill looking warily about him as if afraid
of being furprifed : the robber at length appears 3 and
the labourer, quitting his plough, betakes himfelf to
his arms, and fights in defence of his oxen. The
whole was performed to the found of flutes, and in
Cadence. Sometimes the robber was overcome and
fometimes the labourer ; the vidlor’s reward being the
oxen and plough. The defign of the exercife was to
teach and aecuftom the peafants to defend themfelves
againfl: the attacks of ruffians.
CARPENTER, a perfon who praflifes Carpen¬
try. The word is formed from the French char pen-
tier, which lignifies the fame, formed of charpente,
which denotes timber 3 or rather from the Latin car-
pentanus, a make* of carpenia, or carriages.
CARPENTER of a Ship, an officer appointed to exa¬
mine and keep in order the frame of a fhip, together
with her malls, yards, boats, and all other wooden
machinery. It is his duty in particular* to keep the
Ihip tight ; for which purpofe he ought frequently to
review the decks and fides, and to caulk them when it
is neceflary. In the time of battle, he is to examine
up and down, with all poffible attention, in the lower
apartments of the Ihip, to Hop any holes that may
have been made by Ihot, with wooden plugs provided
feveral lizes,.
CARPENTRAS, an epifeopal town of France, in Carpentras
the department oi Vauclufe, and capital of Venaiflin. , H .
It is fubjebt to the pope 3 and is feated on the river ' ^iJ'‘ .
Aufon, at the foot of a mountain. E. Long. 5. 6.
N. Lat. 44. 4.
CARPENTRY, the art of cutting, framing, and
joining large pieces of wood, for the nies of building.
It is one of the arts fubfervient to architecture, and is
divided into houfe-carpentry and fnip-carpentry : the
firit is employed in railing, roofing, flooring of houfes,
Stc. and the fecond in the building of Ihips f, barges,! See SL/p*
&e. The rules in carpentry are much the fame with
thoie of Joinery 3 the only difference is, that carpen¬
try is uled in the larger and coaxfer work, and joinery
in the fmaller and curious. See Centre, Roof, and
Strength of Materials.
CARPENEUM, '\w Antiquity, a name common to
divers forts of vehicles, anfwering to coaches as well
as waggons, or even carts, among us. The carpentum
was originally a kind of car or vehicle in which the
Roman ladies were carried 3 though in after times it
w'as alio ufed in war. Some derive the word from
carro; others from Carmenta the mother of Evander,
by a converlion of the m into p.
CARPET, a fort of covering of Huff, or other ma¬
terials, wrought with the needle or on a loom, which
is part of the furniture of a houfe, and commonly
fpread over tables, or laid on the floor.
Perfian and Turkey carpets are thofe molt elteem-
ed ; though at Paris there is a manufaftory after the
manner of Perfia, where they make them little inferior,
not to fay finer, than the true Perfian carpets. They
are velvety, and perfectly imitate the carpets which
come from the Levant. There are alfo carpets of
Germany, fome of which are made of woollen fluffs,
as ferges, &e. and called fquare carpets: others are
made of wool alfo, but wrought with the needle, and
pretty often embellilhed with filk 3 and, laftly, there
are fome made of dogs hair. We have likewife car¬
pets made in Britain, which are ufed either as floor-
carpets, or to cover chairs, &c. It is true, we are not
arrived at the like perfection in this manufacture with
our neighbours the French 3 but may not this be owing
to the want of a like public encouragement ?
CARPET-Knights, a denomination given to gown-men
and others, of peaceable profeffions, who, on account
of their birth, office, or merits to the public, or the
like, are, by the prince, railed to the dignity of knight¬
hood.
They take the appellation frfryw, becaufe they ufual-
ly receive their honours from the king’s hands in the
court, kneeling on a carpet. By which they are di-
Itinguilhed from knights created in the camp, or field
of battle, on account of their military prowefs. Car-
pet-knights poffefs a medium between thofe called
truck or dunghill knights, who only purchafe or mi rit
the honour by their wealth, and knights-bathekrs, who
are created for their fervices in the war..
CARPI, a principality of Modena in Italy, lying
about four leagues from that city. It formerly be¬
longed to the houfe of Pio 3 the elder fons of which
bore the title of Piinces of St Gregory. In the be¬
ginning of the 14th century, Manfroy was the firft
prince of Carpi 3 but in the 16th, the emperor Charles V.
gave the principality to Alfonzo duke of Ferrara. ,
This-'
Carpi
Carpocra-
• tiaus.
CAR [i92]
This noblsmnn, in recompenfe, gave to Albert Pio, was unknown,
to whom the principality of Carpi belonged of right,
the town of Saffuola and fome other lands. Albert
was, however, at laft obliged to retire to Paris ; where,
being ftripped of all his eftates, he died in I33^» with
the reputation of being one of the belt and brayed men
of his age. Xhe family of Pio is yet in being, and
continues attached to the French court. Some of
them have even been raifed to the purple, and dill make
a figure in Europe.
Carpi, a town of Italy in the duchy of Modena,
and capital of the lad mentioned principality. It has
a drong cadle, and is fituated in E. Long. 11. 12. N.
Lat. 44. 4?.
Carpi, a town of the Veronefe in Italy, memorable
for a viftory gained by the Imperialids over the French
in 1701. It is fubjeft to the Venetians: and is fitu¬
ated on the river Adige, in E. Long. 11. 39. N. Lat.
45* I0*
Carpi, Ugo da, an Italian painter, of no very con-
fiderable talents in that art, but remarkable for be¬
ing the inventor of that fpecies of engraving on wood,
didinguilhed by the name of chiaro-fcuro, in imitation
of drawing. This is performed by ufing more blocks
than one j and Ugo da Carpi ufually had three} the
fird for the outline and dark fliadows, the fecond for
the lighter fliadows, and the third for the half tint. In
that manner he flruck off prints after feveral defigns,
and cartoons of Raphael-, particularly one of the Sibyl,
a Defcent from the Crofs, and the Hidory of Simon
the Sorcerer. He died in 1300. J his ait w’as brought
to a dill higher degree of perfe&ion by Balthafar Pe-
ruzzi of Siena, and Parmigiano, who publiflied feveral
excellent defigns in that manner.
Carpi, Girolamo da, hidory and portrait painter,
was born at Ferrara in 1501, and became a difciple of
Garofala. When he quitted that mader, he devoted
his whole time, thoughts, and attention, to dudy the
works of Correggio, and to copy them with a mod
critical care and obfervation} in which labour he fpent
feveral years at Parma, Modena, and other cities* of
Italy, where the bed works of that exquifite painter
were preferved. He acquired fuch an excellence in
the imitation of Correggio’s flyle, and copying his
pi&ures, that many paintings finithed by him were ta¬
ken for originals, and not only admired, but were ea¬
gerly purchafed by the connoiffeurs of that time. ISior
is it improbable that feveral of the paintings of Giro¬
lamo de Carpi pafs at this day for the genuine work of
Correggio himfelf. He died in 155^*
CARPINUS, the Hornbeam. See Botany Index.
C ARP O B A L S AM, in the Materia Medico, the
fiuit of the tree which yields the true oriental balfam.
The carpobalfam is ufed in Egypt, according to Prof-
pet Alpinus, in all the intentions in w hich the balfam
itfelf is applied : but the only ufe the Europeans make
of it is in Venice treacle and mithridate : and in thefe
not a great deal, for cubebs and juniper-berries are ge¬
nerally fubffituted in its place.
C ARPOCRATIANS, a branch of the ancient
Gnodics, fo called from Carpocrates, who in the fe¬
cond century revived and improved upon the errors
of Simon Magus, Menander, Saturinos, and. other
Gnodics. He owned, with them, one foie principle
and father of all things, whofe name as well as nature
CAR
The word, he taught, was created by CarPoc*tt«
angels, vadly inferior to the fird principle. He op- tlj|ns
poled the divinity of Jefus Chridj making him a meie f;arravejTJ
man, begotten carnally on the body of. Maiy by Jo- •« ...-.y
feph, though pofleffed of uncommon gifts which let
him above other creatures. He inculcated a commu¬
nity of women j and taught, that the foul could not
be purified, till it had committed all kinds of abomi¬
nations, making that a neceffary condition of perfec¬
tion.
CARPOLITI, or Fruit-stone Rocks of the
Germans, are compofed of a kind of jafper, of the
nature of the amygdaloides, or almond-dones. Ber-.
trand afferts that the latter are thofe which appear
to be compofed of elliptical pieces like petrified al¬
monds, though, in truth, they are only 4m.all oblong
pieces of calcareous done rounded by attrition, and
fometimes fmall muffel-lhells connected by a dony con¬
cretion. The name of Carpolithi, however, is given
in general by writers on foflils to all forts of dony
concretions that have any refemblance to fruit of what¬
ever kind.
CARPUS, the Wrist. See Anatomy Index.
CARR, a kind of rolling throne, ufed in tri¬
umphs, and at the fplendid entries of princes. See
Chariot. _
The word is from the ancient Gaulilh, or . Celtic,
Carr ; mentioned by Ciefar, in his Commentaries, un¬
der the name Carrus. Plutarch relates, that Camillus
having entered Rome in triumph, mounted on a carr
drawn by four white horfes, it was looked on as too
haughty an innovation.
Carr is alfo ufed for a kind of light open chariot.
The carr, on medals, drawn either by horfes, lions,
or elephants, ufually fignifies either a triumph or an
apotheofis : fometimes a proceflion of the images ot
the gods at folemn fupplication, and fometimes ot
thofe of fome illudrious family at a funeral. The carr
covered, and drawn by mules, only fignifies a. conle-
cration, and the honour done any one of having his
image carried at the gates of the circus. See Conse¬
cration, &C. . , 1 T>
CARR AC, or Carraca, a name given by the Por-
tuguefe to the veflels they fend to Brafil and the Lad
Indies j being very large, round built, and fitted for
fight as well as burden. Their capacity lies in thtir
depth, which is very extraordinary. They are nar¬
rower above than underneath, and have fometimes
feven or eight floors \ they carry about 2000 tons, and
are capable ©f lodging 2000 men -, but of late they are
little ufed. Formerly they were alfo m ufe among
the knights of Rhodes, as well as among the Ge-
noefe, and other Italians. It is a cuflom among the
Portuguefe, when the carracs returned from India, not
to bring any boat or Hoop for the fervice of the fhip
beyond the illand of St Helena -, at w hich place they
fink them on purpofe •, in order to take from the crew-,
all hopes or poflibility of faving themfelves, in caie ot
fliipwreck. ,
CARRARA marble, among our artificers, the
name of a fpeeies of white marble, which is called wm’-
mor iunenfe, and iigujlrium by the ancients: it is didm-
guilhed from the Parian, now called the datuary mar¬
ble, by being harder and lels bright.
CARRAVEIRA a town of Turkey in Europe,
with
te’ra
C i
E. Long. 22. 25. N.
[larrick-
Feigus.
C A R
tfitli a Greek archbifhop’s fee.
Lat. 40. 27.
CARRIAGE, a vehicle ferving to convey perfons,
goods, merchandifes, and other things, from one place
to another.
For the conftru&ion and mechanical principles of
wheel-carriages, fee Mechanics.
CARRIAGE of a Cannon, the frame or timber-work on
which it is mounted, ferving to point it for {hooting,
or to carry it from one place to another. It is made of
two planks of wood, commonly of one-half the length
of the gun, called the cheeks, and joined by three
wooden tranfums, ftrengthened with three bolts of iron.
It is mounted on two wheels, but on a march has two
fore-wheels with limbers added. The principal parts
of a carriage are the cheeks, tranfum, bolts, plates,
trainbands, bridges, bed, hooks, trunnion holes, and
capfquare.
B ock-CARBI AGE, a cart made on purpqfe for carry¬
ing mortars and their beds from place to place.
Truck-CARRIAGE, two fliort planks of wood, fup-
ported on two axletrees, having four trucks of folid
wood for carrying mortars or guns upon battery, where
their own carriages cannot go. They are drawm by
men.
GARRICK, the fouthern divilion of the (hire of
Ayr in Scotland. It borders on Galloway 5 ftretches
32 miles in length •, and is a hilly country fit for pa-
fturage. The chief rivers are the Stinchar and Gir-
van, both abounding with falmon. Here are alfo feve-
ral lakes and forefts 5 and the people on the coaft em¬
ploy themfelves in the herririg-filhery, though they
have no harbour of any confequence. The only towns
of this diltrift are Girvan and Ballantrae •, the former
at the mouth of the river of the fame name, and the
latter at the mouth of the Stinchar j and Maybole, an
inland town. The prince of Wales, as prince of Scot¬
land, is earl of Carrick.
Carrick on the Sure, a town of Ireland, in the coun¬
ty of Tipperary and province of Munfter. W. Long.
7. 14. N. Lat. 52. 16.
CARRICK-Feryu r, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Antrim and province of Ulller. It is a town and
county in itfelf, and fends two members to parliament.
It is very rich and populous, with a good harbour j
and is governed by a mayor, recorder, and fheriffs.—It
has, however, been of far greater confequence than at
prefent, as appears from the mayor having been admi¬
ral of a conliderable extent of coaft in the counties of
Down and Antrim, and the corporation enjoying the
cuftoms paid by all veflels within thefe bounds, the
creeks of Belfaft and Bangor excepted. This grant
was repurchafed, and the cuftomhoufe transferred to
Belfaft.—Here is the fkeleton of a fine houfe built by
Lord Chichefter in the reign of James I. an old Go¬
thic church with many family monuments, and a very
large old eaftle. The town was formerly walled round,
and fume part of the walls is ftill remaining entire.—
Carrick-fergus is feated on a bay of the fame name in
the Irifli channel j and is noted for being the landing
place of King William in 1690. Here alfo Thurot
made a defeent in 1759, took poffeffion of the caftle,
2nd carried away hoftages for the ranfom of the town ;
but being foon after purfued by Commodore Elliot, his
three {hips were taken, and he himfelf was killed,
Vol, Y. Part I.
93 1 CAR
CARRIER, is a perfon that carries goods for others Carrier,
for hire. A common carrier, having the charge and parr‘“'
carriage of goods, is to anfwer for the fame, or the ■ 1^° - «
value, to the owner. And where goods are deli¬
vered to a carrier, and he is robbed of them, he
Hi all be charged and anfwer for them, becaufe of th&
hire. If a common carrier, who is offered his hire,
and who has convenience, refufes to carry goods, he
is liable to an action, in the fame manner as an inn¬
keeper who refufes to entertain a gueft. See As¬
sumpsit.
One brought a box to a carrier, with a large fum Jacob's
money, and the carrier demanded of the owner what
was in it j he anfwered, that it was filled w ith filks,
and fuch like goods : upon which the carrier took it,
and was robbed, and adjudged to make it good j but
a fpecial acceptance, as, provided there is no charge <f
money, would have excufed the carrier.—A perfon de¬
livered to a carrier’s book-keeper two bags of money
fealed up, to be carried from London to Exeter, and
told him that it was 2col. and took his receipt for
the fame, writh promife of delivery for 10s. per cent,
carriage and rilk : though it be proved that there w'as
400I. in the bags, if the carrier be robbed, he {hall
anfwer only for 200I. becaufe there was a particu¬
lar undertaking for that fum and no more •, and his re¬
ward, w hich makes him anfwerable, extends no farther.
If a common carrier lofes goods which he is intruded
to carry, a fpecial aflion on the cafe lies againft him,
on the cuftom of the realm, and not trover; and fo of
a common carrier by boat. An a&ion will lie againft
a porter, carrier, or barge-man, upon his bare receipt of
the goods, if they are loft through negligence. Alfo
a lighter-man fpoiling goods he is to carry, by letting
water come to them, aftion of the cafe lies againft him,
on the common cuftom.
CARRIER-Pigeon, or Courier-pigeon, a fort of pigeon
ufed, when properly trained, to be font with letters
from one place to another. See Columba.
Though you carry thefe birds hood-winked, 20,
30, nay, 60 or 100 miles, they will find their way in
a very little time to the place where they were bred.
They are trained to this ferviee in Turkey and Perfia :
and are carried firft, while young, Ihort flights of half
a mile, afterwards more, till at length they will re¬
turn from the far theft part of the kingdom. Every
bafhaw has a balket of thefe pigeons bred in the fera-
glio, w'hich, upon any emergent occafion, as an infur-
reftion, or the like, he difpatches, with letters braced
under the wings, to the feraglio j which proves a more
fpeedy method, as well as a more fafe one, than any
other 5 he fends out more than one pigeon, however,
for fear of accidents. Lithgow affures us, that one of
thefe birds wdll carry a letter from Babylon to Aleppo,
which is 30 days journey, in 48 hours. This is alfo a
very ancient practice : Elirtius and Brutus, at the fiege
of Modena, held a correfpondence with one another by
means of pigeons. And Ovid tells us, that Taurof-
thenes, by a pigeon ftained with purple, gave notice to
his father of his vidlory at the Olympic games, fend¬
ing it to him at AEgina.
In modern times, the moft noted were the pigeons of
Aleppo, which ferved as couriers at Alexandretta and
Bagdad. But this ufe of them has been laid afide for
the laft 30 or 40 years, becaufe the Curd robbers kill-
B b ed
Carrier-
Pigeon,
Carron.
CAR t i94 1
td the pigeons. The manner of fending advice by Caracalla
them was this : they took pairs which had young ones,
and carried them on horfeback to the place from whence
y ~ J they v'ifhed them to return, taking care to let them
have a full view. When the news arrived, the eor-
refpondent tied a billet to the pigeon’s foot, and let
her loofe. The bird, impatient to fee its young, flew
off like lightning, and arrived at Aleppo in ten houis
from Alexandretta, and in two days from Bagdad. It
was not difficult for them to find their way back, fince
Aleppo may be difeovered at an immenfe diftanee.
This pigeon has nothing peculiar in its form, except its
noftrils, which, inftead of being fmooth and even, are
fwelled and rough. ■ . .
CARRON, a fmall but remarkable river in bcot-
land, rifing about the middle of the ifthmus between
the friths of Forth and Clyde. Both its fource, and
the place where it emptieth itfelf into the fea, are
within the ftiire of Stirling, which it divides into two
nearly equal parts. rl he wdiole length of its courfe,
which is from weft to eaft, is not above 14 miles.
It falls into the frith of Forth about thie miles to the
north-eaft of Falkirk. The ftream thereof is but
fmall, and fcarcely deferves the notice of a traveller ;
yet there is no river in Scotland, and few in the
whole ifland of Britain, whofe banks have been the
feene of fo many memorable tranfa&ions. When the
Roman empire was in all its glory, and had its eaftern
frontiers upon the Euphrates, the banks of Carron
were its boundaries upon the north-weft } for the
* See An- wall of Antoninus*, which was raifed to rflark the
toninus's limits of that mighty empire, flood in the neighbour¬
hood of this river, and ran parallel to it for ieveral
Near the middle of its courfe, in a pleafant valley,
Hand two beautiful mounts, called the Hitts of Dum-
pace, which are taken notice of by moft of the Scot-
tifli hiftorians as monuments of great antiquity. Ihe
whole ftruAure of thefe mounts is of earth j but they
are not both of the fame form and dimenfions. Ihe
more eafterly one is perfe&ly round, refemblmg an
oven, and about fifty feet in height: And that this is
an artificial work does not admit of the leaft doubt 'T
but we cannot affirm the fame, with equal certainty,
of the other, though it has been generally fuppoled
to be fo too. It bears no refemblance to the eaftern
one either in ftiape or fize. At the foundation it is
nearly of a triangular form •, but the fuperftrufture is
quite irregular •, nor does the height thereof bear any
proportion to the extent of its. bafe. . T hefe mounts
are now planted with firs, which, with the pariflr-
church of Dunipace Handing in the middle between
them, and the river running hard by, give this valley
a very romantic appearance. Ihe common account
oiven of thofe mounts is, that they were ere&ed as
monuments of a peace concluded m that place be¬
tween the Romans and the Caledonians, and that their
Wall.
CAR
 7 and the third, by the ufurper Caraufius, Carrss,
about the year 2805 but of which of thefe treaties
Dunipace is a monument, we do not pretend to deter¬
mine. If the concurring teftimony of hiftorians and
antiquaries did not agree in giving this original to thefe
mounts, we would be tempted to conjecture that they
are fepulchral monuments. Human bones and urns
have been difeovered in earthen fabrics of this kind
in many parts of this ifland, and the little mounts or
barrows which are fcattered in great numbers about
Stonhenge in Saliibury plain are generally fuppofed ta
have been the fepulchres of the ancient Britons. See
Barrows.
From the valley of Dunipace, the river runs for
fome time in a deep and hollow' channel, with fteep
banks on both tides} here it paffes by the foundations
of the ancient Roman bridge ; not far from which,,
as is generally thought, Was the feene of . the memo¬
rable conference betwixt the Scotifh patriot W iliiam
Wallace and Robert Bruce, father to the king of that
name, which firit opened the eyes of the latter to a
juft view both of his own true intereft and that of his
country. ..
After the river has left the village and bridge or
Larbert, it foon comes up to another fmallcr vahey,
through the midft of which it has now worn out to
itfelf a ftraight channel, whereas, in former ages,
it had taken°a confiderable compafs, as appears by
the track of the old bed which is ftill vifible. . The
high and circling banks upon the fouth fide give to
this valley the appearance of a fpacious bay 5 and,
according to the tradition of the country, there was
once an harbour here j nor does the tradition feem
altogether groundlefs, pieces of broken anchors having
been found here, and fome of them within the me¬
mory of people yet alive. The ftream tides would
ftill flow near the place, if they were not kept back
by the dam-head built acrofs the river at Stenhoufe ;
and there is reafon to believe, that the frith flowed
confiderably higher in former ages than it does at
prefent. In the near neighbourhood of this valley,
upon the fouth, Hand the ruins of ancient Camelon :
which, after it was abandoned by the Romans, was
probably inhabited, for fome ages, by the natives of the
Another ancient monument, called Arthur's Oven
once flood upon the banks of the Carron: but was, with
a fpirit truly Gothic, entirely demoliftied about 40
years ago. The corner of a fmall inclofure. between
Stenhoufe and the Carron iron-works, is pointed out
as the place of its fituation. This is generally .fuppo¬
fed to have been a Roman work .: though it is not
eafy to conceive what could be their motive for ereft-
ing fuch a fabric, at fo great a diftance from any other
of°their works, and in a fpot which at that time muft
have been very remote and unfrequented, 'ihe form
of it is faid to have been perfeftly round, and rifing
tween the Romans and the Caledonians, ana mat men 01 it « — r ' , afterwards
Fox “ peace” in the language of Rome, 'ihe com¬
pound word, Dunipace, fignifies “ the hills of peace.”
And we find in hiftory, that no lefs than three treaties
of peace w'ere at different periods entered into between
the Romans and Caledonians •, the firft by Seyerus
about the year 210 *, the fecond foon after, by his fon
fice at the top. Antiquaries are not agreed whether
it had been a temple, or a trophy, or a maufoleum •, but
the moft common opinion is, that it had been a temp e,
and Buchanan thinks, a temple of Terminus. Hettor
Boetius fays, that there were benches of ftone all around
it upon the infide 3 and that there had been a large
CAR r 195 ] CAR
i barren,
Duron*
’Works.
^ See the
nick Ca¬
ll*
itone. for facrificing upon, or an altar, upon the fouth
fide.
As the Carron extends over the half of the ifthmus,
and runs fo near the ancient boundaries of the Ro¬
man empire, the adjacent country fell naturally to
be the fcene of many battles and rencounters. Hif-
torians mention a bloody battle fought near the river
between the Romans and the confederate army of the
Scots and Pifts in the beginning of the 5th century.
The fcencs of fome of Oilian’s poems were, in the opi¬
nion of the tranflator, upon the banks of this river.
Here Fingal fought with Caracal, the fon of the king
of the world, fuppofed to have been the fame with
Caracalla, the Ion of the Roman emperor Severus.
Here alfo young Ofcar the fon of Olfian, performed
fome of his heroic exploits. Hereabout Was the
ftream of Crona, celebrated in the ancient compoli-
tions of the Gaelic bard j poffibly that now called
the water of Bonny, which runs in the neighbour¬
hood of the Roman wall, and difehargeth itlelf into
the Carron at Dunipace. In thofe poems, mention is
made of a green vale upon the banks of this river,
with a tomb Handing in the middle of it, where
young Ofcar’s party and the warriors of Caros met.
We only take notice of this as it ftrengthens the
conjecture hazarded above, that the mounts of Du-
nipace, efpecially the more eaiterly of them, were fe-
pulchral monuments.—About the diltance of half a
tnile from the river, and near the town of Falkirk,
lies the field of that battle which was fought by Wil¬
liam Wallace and the Engliih in the beginning of the
14th century. It goes by the name of Graham's muir,
from the valiant John Graham, who fell there, and
whofe grave-ftone is itill to be feen in the church-yard
of Falkirk.
The river Carron, though it has long fince ccafed
to roll its llream amidlt the din of arms, Hill preferves
its fame, by lending its aid to trade and manufactures ;
(fee the next article.)—-The river is navigable for fome
miles near its mouth, and a confiderable trade is carried
on upon it by fmall craft; for the convenience of which,
its channel has of late years been itraightened and
much Ihortened, and the great Canal * has its entrance
from it.
CARRON-Works, a large iron-foundery, two miles
north from Falkirk in Scotland. They are conveni¬
ently fituated on the banks of the Carron, three miles
above its entry into the frith of Forth. Above 100
acres of land have been converted into refervoirs and
pools, for water diverted from'the river, by magnifi¬
cent dams built above two miles above the works, which,
after turning 18 large wheels for thefeveral purpofes of
the manufacture, falls into a tide-navigation that con¬
veys their callings to the fea.
Thefe works are the greateft of the kind in Europe,
and were eltablifhed in 1760. At prefent, the build¬
ings are of vail extent} and the machinery, conltruc-
ted by Mr Smeaton, is the firft in Britain, both in
elegance and correftnefs : there are 1600 men em¬
ployed, to whom is paid weekly above 650I. flerling ;
which has greatly enriched the adjoining country ;
6500 tons of iron are fmelted annually from the
mineral with pit-coal, and call into cannon, cylin¬
ders, &c.—In the founding of cannon, thefe works
itave lately arrived at fuch perfection, that they make
above 5000 pieces a year, many of which are exported
to foreign Hates j and their guns of new conJirnEtion are
the lightefl and neatell now in ufe, not excepting brafs
guns $ the 32 pounder Ihip-gun weighing 42 hundred
weight, the 6 pounder 8 hundred-weight and one-half,
and the other calibers in proportion.
The prefent proprietors are a chartered company,
with a capital of 150,000!. flerling, a common Hal,
&c. but their Hock is confined to a very few indivi¬
duals.
CARRONADE, a Ihort kind of ordnance, capa¬
ble of carrying a large ball, and ufeful in dole engage¬
ments at fea. It takes its name from Carron, the place
where this fort of ordnance was firfl made, or the prin-»
ciple applied to an improved conllruClion. See the ar¬
ticle Gunnery.
CARROT. See Daucus, Botany Index.
Deadly Carrot. See Thapsia, Botany Index.
CARROUSAL, a courfe of horfes and chariots,
or a magnificent entertainment exhibited by princes
on fome public rejoicing. It confills in a cavalcade of
feveral gentlemen, richly drelfed and equipped after
the manner of ancient cavaliers, divided into fqua-
drons, meeting in fome public place, and pradliiing
jults, tournaments, &c.—The lafl caroufals were in
the reign of Louis XIV.—The word comes from tire
Italian word carofello, a diminutive of can o, “ chariot.”
Tertullian aferibes the invention of carroufalsto Circe $
and will have them inflituted in honour of the Sun, her
father ; whence fome derive the word from can us, or
carrus fo/is* The Moors introduced ciphers, liveries,
and other ornaments of their arms, with trappings, &,c.
for their horfes. The Goths added crefls, plumes, &c»
CARRUCA, Antiquity) a fplendid kind of carr, or
chariot, mounted on four wheels, richly decorated with
gold, filver, ivory, &c. in which the emperors, fenators
and people of condition, were carried. The word comes
from the Latin carrus, or Britifli carr, which is Hill the
Irilh name for any wheel-carriage.
Carruca, or Caruca, is alfoufed in middle-age writ¬
ers for a plough.
Carruca, or Caruca-, alfo was fometimes ufed for
carrucata. See Carrucate.
CARRUCAGE (carucagium), a kind of tax an¬
ciently impofed on every plough, for the public ferviee.
See Carrucate and Hidage.
Carrucage, Carucaae, or Carnage, in hufbandry,
denotes the ploughing of ground, either ordinary, as for
grain, hemp, and flax j or extraordinary, as for woad,
dyers weed, rape, and the like.
CARRUCATE, (carrucata), in our ancient laws
and hiflory, denotes a plough land, or as much arable
ground as can be tilled in one year with one plough.
In Doomfday Inquifition, the arable land is eflima-
ted in carrucates, the paflure in hides, and meadow in
acres. Skene makes the carrucata the fame with hi/da,
or hi da terra-; Littleton the fame with foe.
The meafure of a carrucate appears to have differed
in refpefl of place as well as time. In the reign of
Richard I. it was eflimated at 60 acres, and in another
charter of the fame reign at 100 acres : in the time of
Edward I. at 180 acres 5 and in the 23d of Edward
III. a carrucate of land in Burcelter contained 112
acres, and in Middleton 150 acres.
By a flatute under William III. for charging per¬
il b 2 fons
Carroti-
Vv orks
II
Carrucate.
 v—'
CAR
r
Carftairs.
ilarrufate fons to tlie repair of the highways, a plough-land is lat-
ed at fifty pounds per annum, and may contain houfes,
mills, wood, patture, &c.
CARRYING, in falconry, fignifies a hawk’s flying
away with the quarry. Carrying is one of the ill quali¬
ties of a hawk, which {he acquires either by a diflike of
the falconer, or not being fufficiently broke to the lure.
Carrying, among huntfmen. When a hare runs
on rotten ground (or even fometimes in a froilj, and
it Ricks to her feet, they fay the carries. _
Carrying, among riding-mafters. A horfe is faid
to carry low, when having naturally an ill-fhaped neck,
he low'ers his head too much. All horfes that arm
themfelves carry low, but a horfe may carry low with¬
out arming. A French branch or gigot is prefcribed
as a remedy againft carrying low\ . .
A horfe is iaid to carry well, when his neck is rai-
fexl or arched, and he holds his head high and firm,
without conftraint.
CARR TING Wind, a term ufed by our dealers m
horfes to exprefs fuch a one as frequently toffeshis nofe
as high as his ears, and does not carry handfomely.
This ' is called carrying wind; and the difference be¬
tween carrying in the wind, and beating upon the
hand, is this : that the horfe who beats upon the hand,
ihakes the bridle and refills it, while he (hakes his
head *, but the horfe that carries in the wind puts up his
head without {baking, and fometimes beats upon the
hand. The oppofite to carrying in the wind, is arm¬
ing and carrying low : and even between thefe two
there is a difference in wind.
CARS, or Kars, a confiderable and ftrong town of
Afia, in Armenia, feated on a river of the fame name,
-with? a caftle almoft impregnable. E. Long. 43. 50.
N. Lat. 41. 3°.
CAUSE, or Carfe of Cowry, a diftria of Perthftnre
in Scotland. It lies on the north fide of the Tay, and
extends 14 miles in length from Dundee to Perth, and
is from two to four in breadth. It is a riett. plain
country, cultivated like a garden, and producing as
o-ood harvefts of wheat as any in Gieat Britain. It
abounds with- all the neceffaries of life : but, from its
low damp Situation, the inhabitants are fubjefl io agues,
and the commonalty are in great want of firing. In
this diftri£l, not far from the Tay, Hands the houfe of
Errol, which formerly belonged to the earls of that
name, the chiefs of the ancient family, of Hay, heredi¬
tary conftables of Scotland. ^ .
CARST AIRS, William, an eminent Scots divine,
vhofe merit and good fortune called him to aft in
great feenes, and to affociate with men to vhofe fo-
ciety and intereourfe his birth gave him ferv preten-
fions to afpire. A fmall village in the neighbourhood
of Glafgow was the place of his nativity. His father,
of whom little is known, exercifed the funflions of a
clergyman. c .
Young Carftairs turned his thoughts to the profel-
fion of theology j and the_ perfecutions _ and oppref-
fions of government, both in regard to civil and reli¬
gious liberty, having excited his ftrongeit indignation,
ft became a matter of prudence that he fhould profe-
cute his ftudies in a foreign univerfity. Fie went ac¬
cordingly to Utrecht ■, and his induftry and attention
being direaed with {kill, opened up and unfolded thefe
196 ] CAR
faculties which he was about to employ with equal ho¬
nour to his country and himfclf.
During his refidence abroad, he became acquainted
with Penlionary Fagel, and entered with wrarmth in¬
to the intereft of the prince of Orange. On his re¬
turn to Scotland to produce a licenfe to teach doc¬
trines which he had ftudied with the greateft care, he
became difguited with the proud and infolent conduft
Ca
„ Arehbifliop Sharp, and prepared to revifit Holland j
where he knew that religious liberty was refpefted, and
■where he hoped he might better his condition by the
connexions he had formed.
His expeXations were not vain. His prudence, hia
referve, and his political addrefs, were ftrong recom¬
mendations of him to the prince of Orangey and he
was employed in perfonal negotiations, in Holland,
England, and Scotland. Upon, the elevation of his
mailer to the Englifti throne, he was appointed the
king’s chaplain for Scotland, and employed in fet¬
tling the affairs of that kingdom. William, who car¬
ried politics into religion, was folicitous that epifeo-
pacy ftiould prevail there as univerfally as in England.
Carilairs, more verfant in the affairs of his native
country, faw all the impropriety, of this projeX,. and the
danger that would arife from, the enforcing of it. His
reafonings, his remonftrances, his intreaties, overcama
the firmnels of King William. Fie yielded to con-
fiderations. founded alike in policy and in prudence ^
and to Carftairs Scotland is indebted for the full
eftabliftiment of its church in the Prefbyterian form 01
government..
The death of King William was a feyere affliXion
to him and it happened before, that prince had pro¬
vided for him with the liberality he deferved.^ He
was continued, however, in the office of chaplain for
Scotland by Queen Anne ; and he was invited to ac¬
cept the principality of the Univerfity of Edinburgls.
He was one of the minifters of the city, and four times
moderator of the general affembly. . Placed at the
head of the church, he profecuted its mtereft with
zeal and with integrity. Nor were his influence and
aXivity confined to matters of religion. I hey were
exerted with fuccefs in promoting the culture of the
arts and fciences. The univerfities of Scotland owe
him obligations of the higheft kind. He procured, in
particular, an augmentation of the falaries of their
profeffors; a circumftance to which may be aferibed
their reputation, as it enabled them to cultivate with
fpirk the different branches of know ledge.
A zeal for truth, a love of moderation and order,
prudence, and humility, diftinguilhed Principal Car¬
ftairs in an uncommon degree. His religion had no
mixture of aufterity •, his iecular tranfaXions were at¬
tended with no imputation of artifice ■, and the verla-
tility of his talents made him pafs with eafe from a
court to a college. He was among the laft w,ho fuK
fered torture before the privy council, in order to make
him divulge the fecrets intruded te him, which he
firmly refilled ; and after the revolution, that inhu¬
man inftrument the thumb-ferew was given to him
in a prefent by the council.—This excellent perlon
died in 1715; and in 1774 his State papers and Letters^
with an account of his life, were publifhed in one vok
Ct0’ ^ RCT' Di CARSUCA*
CAR [i97
CARSUCAI, Rainier, a Jefuit, born at Citerna
in Tufcany, in 1647, was ^ie author of a Latin poem,
entitled Arj bene fcribcndi^ which is eiteemed both for
the elegance of the ftyle and for the excellent precepts
it contains. He alfo wrote fame good epigrams. He
died in 1709.
CART AM A, a town of Spain in the kingdom of
Grenada, formerly very conliderable. It is fcated at
the foot of a mountain, near the river Guadala-Medina,
in W. Long. 4. 28. N. Lat. 36. 40.
CART, a land carriage with two wheels, drawn
commonly by horfes, to carry heavy goods, &c. from
one place to another. The word teems formed from
the French charrettei which fignifies the fame, or
rather the Latin carrela, a diminutive of carrus. See
Carr.
In London and Wefhninfter carts thall not carry
more than tw'elve facks of meal, feven hundred and
fifty bricks, one chaldron of coals, &c. on pain of for¬
feiting one of the horfes, (6 Geo. I. cap. 6.). By the
laws of the city, carr-men are forbidden to ride either on
their carts or horfes. They are to lead or drive them
on foot through the ftreets, on the forfeiture of ten
{hillings. (Stat. 1. Geo. I. cap. 57.). Criminals ufed
to be drawn to execution on a cart. Bawds and other
malefactors are whipped at the cart’s -tail.
Scripture makes mention, of a fort of carts or drags
ufed by the Jews to do the office of threihing. Ihey
were fupported on low thick wheels, bound with iron,
which were rolled up and down on the ffieaves, to
break them, and force out the corn. Something of
the like kind alfo obtained among the Romans, under
the denomination of plaujlra, of which Virgil makes
mention, ('Georg. I.)
Tardaque Eleufuue matris volventia plaujlra,
Tribulaque, trahecvque. 
On which Scrvius obferves, that trahea denotes a cart
without wheels, and tribula a fort of cart armed on all
iides with teeth, chiefly ufed in Africa for threihing
corn. The Septuagint and St Jerome reprefent thefe
carts as furniffied with faws, infomuch that their furface
was befet with teeth. David having taken Rabbah,
the capital of the Ammonites, ordered all the inhabi¬
tants to be cruffied to pieces under fuch carts, moving
on wheels fet with iron teeth \ and the king of Damaf-
cus is faid to have treated the Ifraelites of the land of
Gilead in the fame manner.
CART-Bote, in Law, fignifies wood to be employed in
making and repairing inftruments of hufbandry.
CARTS of War, a peculiar kind of artillery anciently
in ufe among the Scots. They are thus deferibed in
an aft of parliament, A. D. 1456 : It is thought
fpeidfull, that the king may requeift to certain of the
great burrous of the land that are of ony myght, to
mak carts of weir, and in ilk cart twa gunnis, and ilk
ane to have two chalmers; with the remnant of the
graith that effeirs thereto, and an cunnand man to
flmt thame.” By another aft, A. D. 1471» ^ Pre"
lates and barons are commanded to prov:de iuch carts
of war againft their old enemies the Enghlh.
CARTE, Thomas, the hiftorian, was the fon of
Mr Samuel Carte prebendary of Lichfield, and born
in 1686. When he was reader in the abbey-church
at Bath, he took ocealion in a 30th of January fer-
] ‘ CAR
mon, 1714, to vindicate Charles I. with refpeft to Carte
the Irifh maffacre, which drew him into a con trover-
fy with Mr Chandler the diffenting minifter j and on
the acceffion of the prefent royal family he refufed
to take the oaths to government, and put on a lay
habit. He is faid to have afted. as a kind of fecreta-
ry to Bilhop Atterbury before his troubles : and in
the year 1722, being accused of high treafon, a re¬
ward of 1000I. was offered for apprehending him :
but Queen Caroline, the great patronefs of learned
men, obtained leave for him to return home in fecu-
rity. He publilhed, 1. An edition of Thuanus, in
feven volumes, folio. 2. The life of the firft Duke
of Ormond, three volumes, folio. 3. The Hiltory of
England, four volumes, folio. 4. A Collection of origi¬
nal Letters and Papers concerning the affairs of Eng¬
land, two volumes oftavo; and feme other works*
He died in April 1754. His Hiftory of England ends
in 1654. His defign was to have brought it down
to the Revolution 5 for which purpofe he had taken
great pains in copying every thing valuable that could -
be met with in England, Scotland, France, Ireland,
&c.—He had (as he himfelf fays, p. 43. of his Vindi¬
cation of a full anfwer to a letter from a byftander),
u read abundance of colleftions relating to the time of
King Charles II. and had in his power a feries of me¬
moirs from the beginning to the end of that reign, in
which all thofe intrigues and turns at court, at the
latter end of that king’s life, which Bilhop Burnet,..
with all his gout for tales of fecret hiftory, and alb his
genius for conjectures, does not pretend to account for,
are laid open in the cleareft and molt convincing man¬
ner bv the perfon who was molt aftefted by them,
and had the belt reafon to know them.”—At his
death, all his papers came into the hands of his widow,
who afterwards married Mr Jernegan, a member of the
church of Rome. They are now depofited in the Bod¬
leian library, having, been delivered by Mr Jernegan to
the univerfity*.! 7 7 8, for a valuable eon Adoration. W hilft
they were in this gentleman’s pofleffion, the earl of
Hardwick paid 200I. for the perufal of them. For a
eonfideration of 300I. Mr Maepherfon had the ufe of
them ; and from thefe and other materials compiled
his hiftory and ftate-papers. Mr Carte was a.man of
a ftron«- conftitution and indefatigable application. -
When the ftudies of the day were over, he would eat
heartily 5 and in converfation ivas cheerful and enter¬
taining.
Ca R TE B lane he, a fort of white paper, figned at
the bottom with a perfon’s name, and fometimes alfo
fealed with his feal, giving another perfon power to
fuperferibe what conditions he pleafes. Much like
this is the French blancfgne, a paper without writ¬
ing, except a fignature at the bottom, given by con- -
tending parties to arbitrators or friends, to fill up with
the conditions they judge reafonable, in order to end
the difference.
CARTEL, an agreement between two ftates for
the exchange of their prifoners of war.
Cartel fignifies alio* a letter of defiance or a chal¬
lenge to decide a controverfy either in a tournament or
in a lingle combat. See Duel.
CARTEL Ship, a Ihip commiffioned in time of war to
exchange the prifoners of any two hoftile powers 5 alio
to carry any particular requeft or propofal from one. to
another;-
GAR [ 19$ ]
Cartel Ship, another : for this reafon the officer who commands of vortices.
Cartes. ]ier jg particularly ordered to carry no cargo, ammuni¬
tion, or implements of war, except a fmgle gun for the
purpofe of firing fignals.
CARTES, Rene des, defcended of an ancient fa¬
mily in Touraine in France, wras one of the moft
eminent philofophers and mathematicians in the 17 th
century. At the Jefuitr* College at La Fleche, he
made a very great progrefs in the learned languages
and polite literature, and became acquainted with
Father Marfenne. His father defigned him for the
army •, but his tender conftitution then not permitting
him to expofe hitnfelf to fuch fatigues, he wTas fent
to Paris, where he launched into gaming, in which he
had prodigious fuccefs. Here Marfenne perfuaded
him to return to itudy ‘7 which he purlued till he went
to Holland, in May 1616, where he engaged as a vo¬
lunteer among the Prince of Orange’s troops. While
he lay in garrifon at Breda, he wrote a treatife on mufic,
and laid the foundation of feveral of his works. He
was at the fiege of Rochelle in 1628 j returned to
Paris ; and, a few days after his return, at an affembly
of men of learning in the houfe of Monfignor Bagni,
the pope’s nuncio, was prevailed upon to explain his
fentiments with regard to philofophy, when the nuncio
Urged him to publith his fyftem. Upon this he vent
to Amfterdam, and from thence to Franeker, where
he began his metaphysical meditations, and drew up his
difeourfe on meteors. He made a ftiort tour to England ;
and not far from London, made fome obfervations con¬
cerning the declination of the magnet. He returned to
Holland, where he finilhed his treatife on the world.
His books made a great noife in France j and Hol¬
land thought of nothing but difearding the old philo¬
fophy, and following his. Voetius being chofen rec¬
tor of the univerlity of Utrecht, procured his philo¬
fophy to be prohibited, and wrote againft him •, but
he immediately publilhed a vindication of himfelf. In
1647, he took a journey into France, where the king
fettled a penfion of 3000 livres upon him. Chriflina,
queen of Sweden, having invited him into that king¬
dom, he went thither, where he was received with the
greateft civility by her majefty, Avho engaged him to
attend her every morning at five o’clock, to inftruft
her in philofophy, and defired him to revife and digeft
all his writings which Were unpublilhed, and to form
a complete body of philofophy from them. She like-
wife propofed to allow him a revenue, and to form an
academy, of which he was to be the direftor. But
thefe defigns were broken off by his death in 1650.
His body was interred at Stockholm, and 17 years af¬
terwards removed to Paris, where a magnificent monu¬
ment was ere&ed to him in the church of St Gene-
vive du Mont. The great Dr Halley, in a paper
concerning optics, obferves, that though fome of the
ancients mention refraftion as an effeft of tranfpa-
rent mediums, Des Cartes was the firit ivho difeovered
the laws of refra&ion, and reduced dioptrics to a fei-
ence. As to his philofophy, Dr Keill, in his introduc¬
tion to his examination of Dr Burnet’s theory of the
earth, fays, that Des Cartes was fo far from applying
geometry to natural philofophy, that his whole fyftem
is one continued blunder on account of his negligence
hi that point •, the laws obferved by the planets in their
revolutions round the fun not agreeing with bis theory
4
Carte*
Carthage,
CAR
His philofophy has accordingly given "Way
to the more accurate dii'coveries and demonftrations of
the Newtonian fyftem. _ ^
CARTESIANS, a feet of philofophers, who ad¬
hered to the fyftem of Des Cartes, founded on the
two following principle?, the one metaphyfical, the
other phyfical. The metaphyfical one is, 1 th nk, there¬
fore I am : the phyfical principle is, that nothing exi/fs
but fubftance. Subftances he makes of two kinds j the
one a fubftance that thinks, the other a fubftance ex¬
tended •, whence actual thought, and actual extenfion,
arc the effence of fubftance.
The effence of matter being thus fixed in extenfion,
the Cartefians conclude that there is no vacuum nor
any poflibility thereof in nature y but that the univerfe
is abfolutely full : mere fpace is excluded by this prin¬
ciple j becaufe extenfion being implied in the idea of
fpace, matter is fo.too. ‘-Upon thefe principles the
C.'artefians explained mechanically how the world was
formed, and how the prefent eeleltiai phenomena came
to take place, bee Astronomy Inaex.
CARTHAGE, a famed city of antiquity, the capi¬
tal of Africa Propria, and which for many years,
difputed with Rome the fovereignty of the world. t
According to Velleius Paterculus, this city was built When
65, according to Juftin and Trogus 72, according to*0111'116'1'-
others too or 140 years before the foundations of
Rome were laid. It is on all hands agreed that the
Phoenicians were the founders.
The beginning of the Carthaginian hiftory, like
that of all other nations, is obfeure and uncertain. In
the 7th year of Pygmalion king of "lyre, his fitter Eliia or
Elifa, or Dido, is faid to have fled, with fome of her
companions and vaffals, from the cruelty and avarice he^ro.
of her brother, who had put to death her hufband Si- ther.
chaeus in order to get poffeftion of his wealth.
She firft touched at the illand of Cyprus, where the
met with a prieft of Jupiter, who was defirous of
attending her ; to which the readily confented, and
fixed the prietlhood in his family. At that time it
was a cuftom in the ifland of Cyprus, for the young
women to go on certain ftated days, before marriage,
to the fea tide, there to look for grangers, that might
pofiibly arrive on their coafts, in order to proftitute
themfeives for gain, that they might thereby acquire a
dowry. Out of thefe the Tyrians felefted 80, whom
they carried along with them. From Cyprus they
failed direblly for the coaft of Africa j and at laft
fafely landed in the province called Africa Propria, not
far from Utica, a Phoenician city of great antiquity.
The inhabitants received their countrymen with great
demonftrations of joy, and invited them to fettle among
them. The common fable is, that the Phoenicians
impofed upon the Africans m the following manner :
They defired, for their intended fettlement, only as
much ground as an ox’s hide would encompafs. X his
requeft the Africans laughed at: but were furprifed,
when, upon their granting it, they faw Elifa cut the
hide into the fmalleft Ihreds, by which means it lur-
rounded a large territory •, in which (he built the cita- 3
del called Byrfa. The learned, however, are now un- Puilds th
animous in exploding this fable : and it is certain that citadel A
the Carthaginians for many years paid an annual tribute l“’
to the Africans for the ground they poffeffed.
The new city foon became populous and flouriihing,
*>7
'tarthatje.
4„
lie kills
u§Mt
5
aoiih
:nes of
It fervicc
the Car-
aginians.
6
ft treaty
.ween
< thage
?i l K-ome.
CAR [i
by the accdfion of the neighbouring Africans, who
came thither at firit with a view of traffic. In a fhort
time it became fo confiderable, that Jarbas, a neigh¬
bouring prince, thought of making himfelf mafter of
it without any effufion of blood. In order to this, he
delired that an embaffy of ten of the moft noble Car¬
thaginians might be fent him j and, upon their arrival,
propofed to them a marriage with Dido, threatening
war in cafe of a refufal. The ambaffadors, being
afraid to deliver this meffage, told the queen that
Jarbas defired fome perfon might be fent him who
was capable of civilizing his Africans •, but that there
was no poffibility of finding any of her fubjefts who
would leave his relations for the converfation of fuch
barbarians. For this they were reprimanded by the
queen •, who told them that they ought to be affiamed
of refilling to live in any manner for the benefit of
their country. Upon this, they informed her of the
true nature of their melfage from Jarbas j and thst,
according to her own decilion, Ihe ought to facrifiee
herfelf for the good of her country. The unhappy
queen, rather than fubmit to be the wife of fuch a
barbarian, caufed a funeral pile to be eretted, and put
an end to her life with a dagger.
This is Juftin’s account of the death of Queen Di¬
do, and is the moft probable ; Virgil’s ftory of her
amour with iEneas being looked upon as fabulous,
even in the days of Macrobius, as we are informed
by that hiftorian. How long monarchical government
conunued in Carthage, or what happened to this ftate
in its infancy, we are altogether ignorant, by reafon
of the Punic archives being deftroyed by the Romans;
fo that there is a chafm in the Carthaginian hifiory
■for above 300 years. It however appears, that from
the very beginning the Carthaginians applied them-
felves to maritime affairs, and were formidable by fea
in the time of Cyrus and Cambyfes. From Diodorus
Siculus and Juftin, it appears that the principal fup-
port of the Carthaginians were the mines of Spain, in
which country they feem to have eftablifiied themfelves
very early. By means of the riches drawn from thefe
mines, they were enabled to equip fuoh formidable
fleets as we are told they fitted out in the time of
Cyrus or Cambyfes. Juftin infinuates, that the firfi:
Carthaginian fettlement in Spain happened when the
city of Gades, now Cadiz, was but of late Handing, or
even its infancy. The Spaniards finding this new’
colony begin to flouriffi, attacked it with a numerous
army, infomuch that the inhabitants were obliged to call
in the Carthaginians to their aid. The latter very readily
granted their requeft, and not only repulfed the Spa¬
niards, but made themfelves mailers of almoft the whole
province in which their new city Hood. By this fuc-
cefs, they were encouraged to attempt the conqueft of
the whole country : but having to do with very war¬
like nations, they could not pulh their conquefts to
any great length at fir ft ; and it appears, from the ac¬
counts of Livy and Polybius, that the greatelf part of
Spain remained unfubdued till the time of Hamilcar,
Aldrubal, and Hannibal.
^ About ;c>3 years before the birth of Chrift, the
Carthaginians entered into a treaty with the Romans.
It related chiefly to matters of navigation and com¬
merce. From it we learn that the whole iiland of
Sardinia, and part of Sicily, were then fubjedt to
99 1 CAR
Carthage ; that they were very well acquainted with Carthage,
the coaits of Italy, and had made fome attempts up-
on them before this time: and that, even at this early
period, a fpirit of jealoufy had taken place between
the two republics. Some time near this period, the
Carthaginians had a mind to difeontinue the tribute
they had hitherto paid the Africans for the ground on
which their city Hood. But, notwithftanding all their
power, they were at prefent unfuccefsful ; and at
laif were obliged to conclude a peace, one of the ar¬
ticles of which was, that the tribute Ihould be conti¬
nued.
By degrees, the Carthaginians extended their power Sicil/inva-
over all the iflands in the Mediterranean, Sicily ex-dedby the
cepted ; and for the entire conqueff of this, they made Carthagini*
vaft preparations, about 480 years before Chritt. TheiriinS*
army confifted of 300,000 men ; their fleet was com-
pofed of upwards of 2000 men of vrar, and 3000 tranf-
ports ; and with fuch an immenfe armament, they
made no doubt of conquering the whole ifland in a
Angle campaign. In this, however, they found them-
felves miferably deceived. Hamilcar their general
having landed his numerous forces, invefted Himera,
a city of confiderable importance. He carried on his
attacks with the greateft affiduity ; but was at lafl: at¬
tacked in his trenches by Gelon and Theron,. the ty¬
rants of Syracufe and Agrigentum, who gave the
Carthaginians one of the greatefl: overthrows mention- §
ed in hifiory. An hundred and fifty thoufand were They are
killed in the battle and purfuit, and all the reft taken lltterly dc“
priforters ; fo that of fo mighty an army not a Angle ^r0^'
perfon efcaped. Of the 2000 fliips of war and 3000
tranfports, of which the Carthaginian fleet confifted,
eight ffiips only, which then happened to be out at
fea, made their efcape : thefe immediately fet fail for
Carthage ; but w ere all caft away, and every foul
periffied, except a few who w’ere faved in a fmall boat,
and at laft reached Carthage with the difmal new’s of
the total lofs of the fleet and army. No w'ords can
exprefs the confternation of the Carthaginians upon
receiving the news of fo terrible a difafter. Ambaf-
fadors were immediately difpatehed to Sicily, with
orders to conclude a peace upon any terms. They
put to fea wdthout delay ; and landing at Syracufe,
threw themfelves at the conqueror’s feet. They beg-peacfconu
ged Gclon, with many tears, to receive their city into eluded,
favour, and grant them a peace on whatever terms he
fhould choofe to preferibe. He granted their requeft,
upon condition that Carthage fhould pay him 2000
talents of filver to defray the expences of the war; that
they Ihould build tivo temples, where the articles oF
the treaty fhould be lodged and kept as facred ; and
that for the future they fliould abftain from human fa-
crifices. This was not thought a dear purchafe of a
peace for which there was fuch occafion ; and to fhow
their gratitude for Gelon’s moderation, the. Carthagi¬
nians complimented his w ife Demeiata with a crown of
gold worth 100 talents.
From this time we find little mention of'the Car¬
thaginians for 70 years. Some time during this pe¬
riod, however, they had greatly extended their do¬
minions in Africa, and likewife ffiaken off the tribute I0
which gave them fo much uneafinefs. They had D;fpu e
warm difputes with the inhabitants of Cyrene the ca-with the
pital of Cyrenaica, about a regulation of the limitsCyreneacs,
of
CAR
♦arthage, of their refpective territories.
IT
Story of
t)ie Phi-
l*ni.
t 200 ]
The eonfequence of it by Gelon.
OI UlCir A 1 . -
thefe difputes was a war, which reduced both nations
fo low-, that they agreed firft to a ceflfation of arms,
and then to a peace. At laft it was agreed, that
each date ihould appoint two commiffaries, who
fliould fet out from their refpeaive cities on the ia me
day, and that the fpot on which they met fliould be
the boundary of both ftates. In confequence oi this,
two brothers called Phi'lxni were fent_ out from^,Car¬
thage, who advanced with great celerity, while thole
from Gyrene were much more flow- in their motions.
Whether this proceeded from accident or defign, or
perfidy, we are not certainly informed} but, be this
as it will, the Cyreneans, finding themfelves great y
outftripped by the Phibeni, accufed them of breach
of faith, afferting that they had fet out before the
time appointed, and confequently that the convention
between their principals was broken. The Philaem
CAR
u oy wrciun. His troops, fluflied with their late fuc- Cartha^
cefs, behaved with undaunted courage: but finding his —
battering engines not to anfwer his purpofe lufficient-
]y, he undermined the wall, fupporting it with large
beams of timber, to which he afterwards fet fire, and
thus laid part of it flat on the ground. Notwithitand-
ing this advantage, however, the Carthaginians were
feveral times repulfed with great daughter j but at lalt
they became mailers of the place, and treated it in th«
fame manner as they had done Selinis. After this,
Hannibal, difmifling his Sicilian and Italian ■allies, re¬
turned to Africa. , , .
The Carthaginians were now fo much elated, that
they meditated the redudlion of the whole ifland. But
as the age and infirmities of Hannibabrendered him
incapable of commanding the forces alone, ‘they join¬
ed in commiflion with him Imilcar, the fen of Hanno,
one of the fame famify. On the landing of the Car-
¥
iK
i,tS
between their principal, was broken, ihe ^il^ni «ne m rue ^ ^ ^ alafmed,°and the prin-
defted tlx-toto ciil cities put themfelves into the bell.ftate ot fc
II
Sicily inva¬
ded anew.
differences might "be accommodated •, -promifing to
fubmit to it whatever it might be. The Cyreneans
then propofed, either that the Phikem fliould retire
from the place where they were, or that they ftiould be
buried alive upon the fpot. With this laft condition
the brothers immediately complied, and by their death
gained a large extent of territory to their country.
The Carthaginians ever after celebrated this as a molt
brave and heroic aftion •, paid them divine honours j
and endeavoured to immortalize their names, by erect¬
ing two altars there, with fuitable infcnptions upon
th<About the year before Chrift 412, fome difputes
happening between the Egeftjnes and Selinuntines
inhabitants of two cities m Sicily, the foimer called
in the Carthaginians to their afliftancej. and occa¬
sioned a new invaflon of Sicily by that nation. Great
preparations were made for this war : Hanniba , w 0
1 i j  • was emnowered to raile
cipal cities put themfelves into the beft.ftate of de- ^
fence they were able. The Carthaginians immediately Agrigen.
marched to Agrigentum^ and began to batter the wallstum bc-
vith great fury. The bdieged, however defended • S »
themfelves with incredible refolution, m a Tally burnt
all the machines raifed againft their city, and repuUed
the enemy with great flaughter. The Syracufans, m
the mean time, being alarmed at the danger of Agri-
gentum, fent an army to its relief. On their approach
they were immediately attacked by the Carthaginians >
but after a iharp difpute the latter were defeated and
forced to fly to the very walls of Agngentum, with the
lofs of 6000 men. Had the Agrigentme commanders
now fallied out, and fallen upon the fugitives, m all
probability the Carthpginhn army muft have been de-
ftroyed 1 but, either through fear or corruption, they
refufed to ftir out of the place, and this occafioned tlie j(
lofs of it. Immenfe booty was found in the city j and an(j
• • 1 1 i nrupltv. nut-
preparations were made for this war : Hannibal, w orn o s £ 1 * behaved with their ufual cruelty, put-
IhcJ had e^e^d «o to the Wd. not excepting
13
Emporium
and Selinis
i?ake»;
«s like v if
Himera.
tney naa appumteu x . . .
an army equal to the undertaking, and equip a iuit-
able fleet. They alfo appointed certain funds for de¬
fraying all the expences of the war, intending to ex-
rert their whole force to reduce the ifland under their
Carthaginian general having landed his forces
immediately marched for Selinis. In bis way he took
Emporium, a town fituated on the river Mazara ; and
having arrived at Selinis, he immediately mve e .
The befieged made a very vigorous defence •, but at
laft the city was taken by ftorm, and the inhabitants
were treated with the utmoft cruelty. All were maf-
facred by the favage conqueror, except the women who
fled to the temples > and thefe efcaped, .not through
the merciful difpofition of the Carthaginians but be-
caufe they were afraid, that if driven to defpair they
would fet fire to the temples, and by that means con-
fume the treafure they expefted to find m thofe places.
Sixteen thoufand were maffacred; 2250 efcaped to
Agrigentumand the women and children, about
cooo in number, were carried away captives. At the
fame time the temples were plundered, and the city
13 Afer the redu£U*en of Selims, Hannibal laid liege
to Hirnera j that city he defired above all things to be-
ting all their inhabitants to the fword, not excepting
even thofe who had fled to the temples.
The next attempt of the Carthaginians was defign-
ed againft the city of Gela *, but the Geleans, being
greatly alarmed, implored the protedion of Syracufe :
and, at their requeft, Dienyfius was lent to aflift them
with 2000 foot and 400 horfe. The Geleans were
fo well fatisfied with his conduift, that they treated
him with the higheft marks of diftinftion 5 they even
fent ambaffadors to Syracufe to return thanks for the
important fervices done them by fending him thi¬
ther ; and foon after he was appointed general if hmo
of the Syracufan forces and thofe of their allies againft
the Carthaginians. In the mean time Imilcar, having
razed the city of Agrigentum, made an incurfion
into the territories of Gela and Comarina-,
having ravaged in a dreadful manner, he carried oft
fuch immenfe quantity of plunder, as filled his whole 1?
camn He then marched againft the city $ but though Gelabe-
it was but indifferently fortified, be met with a yeryfiegei
vigorous reflftance-, and the place held out for a long
time without receiving any afliftance from its allies.
At laft Dionylius came to its afliftance with an army
of 50,000 foot and 1000 horfe. With thefe he at¬
tacked the Carthaginian camp, but was repulfed with
to Himera ; that city he dehred above alUh^e^- tacKea^e ; counci,of the
who Sbeen flair, before refuh of whofe deliberations rvas, that frnce the enemy
6 4
vthage.
i3
^Jindoned
inha-
l) <>ts.
: ip
P*:e con-
c .ed.
20
D iy (ius
bi: ks the
tr y.
C .A R |; 201
was To much fupcrior to them in flrength, it would be
highly imprudent to put all to the iflue of a battle j
and therefore that the inhabitants Ihould be perfuaded
to abandon the country, as the only means of faving
their lives. In confequence of this, a trumpet was
fent to Imilcar to delire a ceffation of arms till the next
day, in order, as was pretended, to bury the dead, but
in reality to give the people of Gela an opportunity of
making their efeape. Towards the beginning of the
night the bulk of the citizens left the place j and he
himfelf with the army followed them about midnight.
To amufe the enemy, he left 2000 of his light-arm¬
ed troops behind him, commanding them to make
fires all night, and fet up loud fhouts as though the
army Hill remained in the town. At day-break thefe
took the fame route as their companions, and purfued
their march with great celerity. The Carthaginians,
finding the city deferted by the greateft part of its
inhabitants, immediately entered it, putting to death
all wdio had remained; after which, Imilcar having
thoroughly plundered it, moved towards Camarina.
The inhabitants of this city had been likewife drawn
off by Dionyfius, and it underwent the fame fate with
Gela.
Notwithflanding thefe fucceffes, however, Imilcar
finding his army greatly weakened, partly by the ca-
Tualties of war, and partly by a plague, which broke
out in it, fent a herald to SyracuTe to offer terms of
peace. His unexpected arrival v'as very agreeable
to the Syracufans, and a peace was immediately con¬
cluded upon the following terms, viz. That the Car¬
thaginians, befides their ancient acquifitions in Sicily,
fhould Itill poffefs the countries of the Silicani, the Se-
linuntines, the Himereans, and Agrigentincs ; that
the people of Gela and Camarina fhould be permitted
to refide in their refpeCtive cities, which yet fhould
be difmantled, upon their paying an annual tribute to
the Carthaginians ; that all the other Sicilians fhould
preferve their independency except the Syracufans, who
fhould continue in fubjeftion to Dionyfius.
The tyrant of Syracufe, however, had concluded
this peace with no*other view than to gain time, and
to put himfelf in a condition to attack the Cartha¬
ginian territories with greater force. Having ac-
complifhed this, he acquainted the Syracufans with
his defign, and they immediately approved of it; upon
which he gave up to the fury of the populace the per-
fons and polfefTions of the Carthaginians who refided
in Syracufe, and traded there on the faith of treaties.
As there were many of their fliips at that time in the
harbour, laden with cargoes of great value, the people
immediately plundered tjiem ; and, not content with
this, ranfackcd all their houfes in a moil outrageous
manner. This example was followed throughout the
whole ifland •, and in the mean time Dionyfius dif-
1 d a herald to Carthage, with a letter to the fe-
iuue 'id people, telling them, that if they did not im-
r.ifv ; . ely withdraw' their garfifons from all the Greek
" ;t n Sicily, the people of Syracufe would treat them
one nies. With this demand, however, he did not al¬
ii: om to comply'; for without waiting for any an-
‘ ' «’om Carthage, he advanced with his army to
i.: Eryx, near which flood the city of Motya, a
Cai-<haginian colony of great importance; and this he
iiT1V: ately invefted. But foon after, leaving his bro-
‘ i . V. Part I,
] CAR
ther Leptincs to carry on the attack, he himfelf went Cartilage.^
with the greateft part of his forces to reduce the cities
in alliance with the Carthaginians. He deftroyed
their territories with fire and fword, cut down all their
trees; and then fat down before Egeita and Entella,
molt of the other towns having opened their gates at
his approach : but thefe baffling his utmoft efforts, he'
returned to Motya, and puflicd on the liege of that
place with the utmoff vigour. "
The Carthaginians, in the mean time, though alarm¬
ed at the meflage fent them by Dionyffus, and though
reduced to a miferable fituation by the plague which had
broke out in their city, did not defpond, but font offi¬
cers to Europe, with conliderable fums, to raife troops si
with the utmoft diligence. Ten galleys w ere alfo fent Syraaifan.
from Carthage to deftroy all the fhips that were found (|,e"
in the harbour of Syracufe. The admiral, according L
to his orders, entered the harbour in the night, with¬
out being difeerned by the enemy ; and having funk
molt of the fhips he found there, returned without the
lofs of a man. 22
All this w'hile the Motyans defendod themfelves with ta-'
incredible vigour; while their enemies, defirous °f Greks
revenging the cruelties exercifed upon their country¬
men by the Carthaginians, fought like lions. At lafi:
the place was taken by ftorm, and the Greek foldiers
began a general maffacre. For fome time Dionyfius
was not able to reftrain their fury : but at laft he
proclaimed that the Motyans fhould fly to the Greek
temples ; which they accordingly did, and a flop was
p‘ut to the flaughter ; but the foldiers took care tho¬
roughly to plunder the town, in which they found a
great treafure.
The following fpring, Dionyfius invaded the Cartha¬
ginian territories, and made an attempt upon Egerta :
but here be was again difappointed. The Carthagi¬
nians were greatly alarmed at his progrefs ; but, next
year, notwithftanding a confiderable lofs fuftained in
a fea-fight with Leptines, Himilco their general land¬
ed a powerful army at Panormus, feized upon Eryx,
and then advancing towards Motya, made himfelf ma¬
iler of it before Dionyfius could fend any forces to its
relief. He next advanced to Meffana, which he like-
wife befieged and took ; after which moll of the Siculi
revolted from Dionyfius. 2»
Notwithftanding this defection, Dionyfius, finding Greeks de*.
his forces Hill amount to 30,000 foot and 3000 horfe, t5ate£l at
advanced again!! the enemy. At the fame time Lep- carthaeik
tines was fent with the Syracufan fleet againft that ofn;ans.
the Carthaginians, but with pofitive orders not to
break the line of battle upon any account whatever.
But, notwithftanding thefe orders, he thought proper
to divide his fleet, and the confequence of this was a
total defeat ; above icc of the Syracufan galleys being
funk or taken, and 20,000 of their men killed in the 24
battle or in the purfuit. Dionyfius, diffleartened by this Syracufe
misfortune, returned with his army to Syracufe,- beinghefieged by
afraid that the Carthaginian fleet might become ma-
tiers of that city, if he fhould advance to fight the land''1
army. Himilco did not fail immediately to inveil the
capital; and had certainly become mailer of it, and
confequently of the whole ifland, had not a moil ma¬
lignant peftilence obliged him to defifl from all further
operations. This dreadful m. lady made great havock
among his forces both by fea- and land ; and, to com.
C c plete
CAR [ 202 ] CAR
Cmliage. plete his misfortunes, Dionyfms attacked him unex- fuch a ftormy feafou, left his ftation at Thurium, and Csnhiw
’   peaedly, totally ruined his fleet, and made himfelf •rdering his feamen to crown themieives^vith gadands.
, . ?5
Mimiko
ebliged to
return.
Another
mafter of his camp.
Himilco, finding himfelf altogether unable to fuftain
another attack, was obliged to come to a private
agreement with Dionyfius} who for 300 talents con-
fented to let him efcape to Africa with the (battered
remains of his fleet and army. The unfortunate ge¬
neral arrived at Carthage, clad in mean and fordid
attire, where he was met by a great number of peo¬
ple bewailing tbeir fad and inauipiftious fortune. Hi-
jnilco joined them io their lamentations •, and, being
unable to furvive his misfortunes, put an end to his
own life. He had left Mago in Sicily, to take care
of the Carthaginian interefts in the bed manner he
could. In order to this, Mago treated all the Sicilians
fubjedt to Carthage with the greateft humanity ; and,
having received a confiderable number of foldiers from
Africa, he at laft formed an army with which he ven¬
tured a battle ; in this he was defeated, and driven
out of the field, with the lofs of 800 men j which
obliged him to defift from farther attempts of that
nature.
.*x.,v,w.v, Notwithftanding all thefe terrible difaflers, the Car-
invafxon of thaginians could not forbear making new attempts up-
Sicfiy. on the ifland of Sicily •, and about the year before
Chrift 392, Mago landed in it with an army of 80,000
men. This attempt, however, was attended with no
better fuccels than before : Dionyfius found means to
reduce him to fuch (traits for want of provifions, that
he was obliged to fue for peace. This continued tor
nine years, at the end of which the war vas.ienewed
with various fuccefs. It continued with little interrup¬
tion till the year before Chrilt 376, when the Syra-
cufan (late being rent by civil diflenfions, the Car¬
thaginians thought it a proper time to exert them-
felves, in order to become mailers of the whole ifland.
They5 fit ted out a great fleet, and entered-into alliance
with Icetas, tyrant of Leontini, wrho pretended to have
taken Syracufe under his protection. By this treaty,
the two powers engaged to aflift each other, in order to
expel Dionyfius II. after which they were to divide
the ifland between them. The Syracufans applied for
fuccours to the Corinthians: and they readily ^fcnt
them a body of troops under the command of Timo-
leon an experienced general. By a ftratagem, he got
his forces landed at Taurominium. The whole of
them did not exceed 1200 in number : yet with thefe
he marched againft Icetas, who was at the beau of
<000 men: his army he furprifed at fupper, put 300
of them to the Tword, and took 600 prifoners. He
then marched to Syracufe, and broke into one part of
the town before the enemy had any notice of his ap-
proach : here he took port* and defended himfelf'uith
fuch refolution, that he could not be diflodged by the
united power of Icetas and the Cai thaginians.
and adorn their veflels with bucklers both of the Greek
and Carthaginian form, failed to Syracufe in a triumph¬
ant manner. Upon his arrival there, he gave the troops
in the citadel to underhand that he had taken the fuc¬
cours Timoleon expe&ed, thinking by this means to
intimidate them to furrender. But, while he thus
trifled aivay his time, the Corinthians marched -with
great expedition, to Rhegium, and, taking the advan¬
tage of a gentle breeze, were eafily wafted over into ^
Sicily. Mago, the Carthaginian general, wTas nofooner Cowardite
informed of the arrival of this reinforcement, than lie of Mago.
(truck with terror, though the whole Corinthian
was
27
Syracufans
affilted by
the Corin¬
thians.
fooHih con- In this place he remained for fome time, in expec
iroonui cun- ah cmo *   . , i •
«Iu& of the tation of a reinforcement from Corinth j till tne arri-
Carthagini- val Qf which he did not judge it prafticable to extend
»n admiral. hls conquefts._The Carthaginians, being apprifed that
the Corinthian fuccours were detained by tempeftuous
weather at Thurium, polled a ftrong fquadron, under
Hanno their admiral, to intercept them in their pal-
fage to Sicily. But that commander, not imagining
the Corinthians would attempt a paffage to Sicily m
army did not exceed ^ooo men *, and foon after, fear¬
ing a revolt of his mercenaries, he weighed anchor, in
fpite of all the remonftrances of Icetas, and fet fail for
Africa. Here he no fooner arrived, than, overcome
with grief and (hame for his unparalleled cowardice, he
laid violent hands on himfelf. His body was hung up¬
on a gallows or crofs, in order to deter fucceeding ge¬
nerals from forfeiting their honour in fo flagrant a
manner. 3s
After the flight of Mago, Timoleon carried all be-Exploits 0!
fore him. He obliged Icetas to renounce his alliance timekov
with the date of Carthage, and even depofed him, and
continued his military preparations with the greateft
vigour. On the other hand, the Carthaginians pre¬
pared for the enfuing campaign with the greateft ala¬
crity. An army of 70,000 men was fent over, with a
fleet of 200 (hips of war, and 1 boo tranfports laden
with warlike engines, armed chariots, horfes, and all
other forts of provifions. This immenfe multitude,
however, was overthrown on the banks of the Crime-
fus by Timoleon : 10,000 were left dead on the field
of battle ; and of thefe above 3000 were native Car¬
thaginians of the heft families in the city. Above
15,000 were taken prifoners j all their baggage and
provifions, with 2C0 chariots, 1000 coats of mail, and
10,000 (hields, fell into 1 imoleon’s hands. Thefpoil,
which confided chiefly of gold and filver, was fo im¬
menfe, that the whole Sicilian army was three days in
collefting it and (tripping the (lain. After this fignal
victory, he left his mercenary forces upon the frontiers
of the enemy, to plunder and ravage the country;
while he himfelf returned to Syracufe w ith the reft of
his army, where he was received with the greateft de-
monftrations of joy. Soon after, Icetas, grown weary
of his private ftation, concluded a new peace with the
Carthaginians; and, having affembled an army, ven¬
tured an engagement with iimoleon: but in this he
was utterly defeated; and himfelf, with Eupolemu*
his fon, and Euthymus, general of his horfe, were
brought bound to Timoleon by their own foldiers.
The two firft were immediately executed as. tyrants
and traitors, and the laft murdered in cold blood ; Ice-
tas’s wives and daughters were likewife cruelly put to
death after a public trial. In a (hort time after, Ma-
mercus, another of the Carthaginian confederates, was
overthrown by Timoleon, with the lofs of 2000 men.
Thefe misfortunes induced the Carthaginians to con-^3^
elude a peace on the following terms: That all theclud#i
Greek cities (hould be fet free ; that the river Halycus
(hould be the boundary between the territories of both
parties; that the natives of the cities fubject to the
1 Carthaginians
b A R
.arthUg*-
3*
'ar re-
:wed.
33 ,
gathocles
s ifes him-
’ f to the
rone of
' rracufe.
feated
the Car-
aginians,
d behe¬
ld in Sy-
ufe.
Carthaginians thould be allowed to withdraw, if they
plea fed, to Syracufe, or its dependencies, with their
families and effects} and, laftly, that Carthage fhould
not, for the future, give any afliitance to the remaining
tyrants againft Syracufe,
About 316 years before Chrift, we find the Car¬
thaginians engaged in another bloody war with the
Sicilians, on the following occafion $ Sofiitratus, who
had ufurped the fupreme authority at Syracufe, having
been forced by Agathocles to raife the fiege of Rhe-
gium, returned with his fhattered troops to Sicily,
But icon after this unfuccefsful expedition he was ob¬
liged to abdicate the fovereignty and quit Syracufe.
With him were expelled above 600 of the principal
citizens, who were fufpefted of having formed a de-
fign to overturn the plan of government which then
prevailed in the city. As Sofiifratus and the exiles
thought themfelv s ill treated, they had recourfe to
the Carthaginians, who readily efpoufed their caufe.
Hereupon the Syracufans, having recalled Agathocles,
who had before been banithcd by Sofiitratus, appointed
him commander in chief of all their forces, principally
on account of the known averfion he bore that tyrant.
The war, however, did not then continue long 5 for
Sofiftratus and the exiles were quickly received again
into the city, and peace ivas concluded with Carthage :
The people of Syracufe, however, finding that Aga¬
thocles wanted to make himfelf abfolute, exa&ed an
oath from him, that he would do nothing to the pre¬
judice of the democracy. But, notwithftanding this
oath, Agathoeles purfued his purpofe, and by a ge¬
neral mafiaere of the principal citizens of Syracufe,
I'aifed himfelf to the throne. For feme time he was
obliged to keep the peace he had concluded with Car¬
thage •, but at laft, finding his authority eftablifhed,
and that his fubje&s were ready to feeond his ambi¬
tious defigns, he paid no regard to his treaties, but im¬
mediately made war on the neighbouring Hates, which
he had exprcfsly agreed not to do, and then carried
his arms into the very heart of the iiland. In thefe
expeditions he was attended with fuch fuccefs, that in
two years time he brought into fubjeftion all the
Greek part of Sicily. This being accoraplifhed, he
committed great devaftations in the Carthaginian ter¬
ritories, their general Hamilcar not offering to give
him the leaf! difturbance. This perfidious conduct
greatly ineenfed the people of thofe diftri&s againft
Hamilcar, whom they accufed before the fenate. He
died, however, in Sicily *, and Hamilcar the fon of
Gifco was appointed to fucceed him in the command
of the forces. The laft place that held out againft
Agathocles was Meffana,, whither all the Syracufan
exiles had retired. Pafiphilus, AgathoclesTs general,
found means to cajole the inhabitants into a treaty:
which Agathocles, according to cuftom, paid no re¬
gard to, but, us foon as he was in poffeffion of the
town, cut off all thofe who had oppofed his govern¬
ment. For, as he intended to profecute the war with
the utmoft vigour againft Carthage, he thought it a
point of good policy to deftroy as many of his Sicilian
enemies as poffible.
The Carthaginians in the meantime having landed
a powerful army in Sicily, an engagement foon enfued,
in which Agathocles was defeated with the lofs of
7000 men. After this defeat he was obliged t* fhut
t 203 ]
CAR
himfelf up in Syracufe, which the Carthaginians imme- Cwthaga*
diately invefted, and moft of the Greek ftates m me '
ifland fubmitted to them.
Agathocles, feeing himfelf ftripped of almoft all his
dominions, and his capital itfelf in danger of falling
into the hands of the enemy, formed a defign, which,
were it not attefted by writers of undoubted authority, 35
would feem abfolutely incredible. This w as no leis He invades
than to transfer the war into Africa, and lay fiege to^11108*
the enemy’s capital, at a time when he himfelf was
befieged, and only one city left to him in all Sicily.
Before he departed, however, he made all the necef-
fary preparations for the defence of the place, and ap¬
pointed his brother Antandrus governor of it. He alfo
gave permiffion to all who were not willing to ftand
the fatigues of a fiege to retire out of the city, Many
of the principal citizens, Juftin fays 1600, accepted
of this offer : but they were no fooner got out of the
place, than they were cut off by parties polled on the
road for that purpofe. Having feized upon their eftates,
Agathocles raifed a confiderable fum, which was in¬
tended in fome meafure to defray the expence of the
expedition : howrever, he carried with him only 50 ta¬
lents to fupply his prefent wants, being well affured that
he Ihould find in the enemy’s country whatever was ne-
ceffary for his fubfiftance. As the Carthaginians had
a much fuperior fleet, they for fome time kept the
mouth of the harbour blocked up ; but at laft a fair op¬
portunity offered j and Agathocles hoifting fail, by the
adlivity of his rowers foon got clear both of the port
and city of Syracufe. The Carthaginians purfued him
with all poflible expedition j but, notwithftanding their
utmoft efforts, Agathocles got his troops landed with
very little oppofition, 35
Soon after his forces wrere landed, Agathocles burnt He burns>
his fleet, probably that his foldiers might behave with h*s ^eet*
the greater refolution, as they faw no poflibility of fly¬
ing from their danger. He firlt advanced to a place
called the Great City. This, after a feeble refiftance,
he took and plundered. From hence he marched to
Tunis, which furrendered on the firft fummons $ and
Agathocles levelled both places with the ground.
The Carthaginians W'ere at firft thrown into the
greateft confternation j but, foon recovering themfelves,
the citizens took Up arms with fo much alacrity, that
in a few days they had on foot an army of 40,000
foot and 1000 horfe, with 2000 armed chariots. The
command of this army they entrufted to Hanno and
Bomilcar, two generals between whom there fubfifted 37
a great animofity. This Occafioned the defeat of their Cart*iag‘n1*'
whole army, wdth the lofs of their camp, though leilt'
the forces of Agathocles did not exceed 14,000 in
number. Among other rich fpoils the conqueror found
many chariots of curious workmanlhip, which carried
20,000 pair of fetters and manacles that the ene'my 38
had provided for the Sicilian prifoners. After this de- ^^jir ™e"
feat, the Carthaginians, fuppofing themfelves to have^°fir°g ap"
fallen under the difpleafure of their deities on account their dei-
of their neglefting to facrifice children of noble fami-ties.
lies to them, refolved to expiate this guilt. Accord-
ingly '200 children of the firft rank were facrificed to
their bloody gods, befides 300 other perfons who vo¬
luntarily offered themfelves to pacify the wrath of thefe
deities.
After thefe expiations, Hamilcar was recalled from
C c 2 Sicily.
/
CAK [204] CAR
Carthage. Sicily. When the xneflengers arrived, Hamilcar com-
" manded them not once, to mention the victory of Aga-
Ilarmicar Rhodes 5 ,but, on the contrary, to give out among the
makes an troops that he had been entirely defeated, his forces
•a(fault on all cut off, and his fleet deftroyed by the Carthagini-
gyracufe. ans. This threw the Syracufans into the utmoit dc-
fpair j however, one Eurymnon, an Etolian, prevailed
upon Antandrus not to confent to a capitulation, but
to Hand a general alfault. Hamilcar being informed
1 .of this, prepared his battering engines, and made all
the neceflary preparations to Itorm the town without
delay. But while matters remained in this fituation,
a galley, which Agathocles had caufed to be built im¬
mediately after the battle, got into the ktirbour of Sy-
jracufe, and acquainted the inhabitants with the cer¬
tainty of Agathocles’s vidlory. Hamilcar, obferving
that the garrifon flocked down to the port on this oc-
* calion, and expecting to find the walls unguarded, or¬
dered his foldiers to ereft fealing ladders, and begin
the iatended affault. The enemy having left the ram¬
parts quite expofed, the Carthaginians mounted them
without being difeerned, and had almofi: poffeffed them-
felves of an entire part lying between two towers, when
the patrole difeovered them. Upon this, a warm difpute
enfued j but at laid the Carthaginians were repulfed
He raifes with lofiv Hamilcar, therefore, finding it in vain to
the liege, continue the fiege after fuch glad tidings had rellored
life and foul to the Syracufans, drew off his forces,
and font a detachment of 5000 men to reinforce the
troops in Africa. He ftill entertained hopes, how¬
ever, that he might oblige Agathocles to quit Africa,
and return to the defence of his own dominions. He
ipent fome time in making himfelf mailer of fuch ci¬
ties as fided with the Syracufans ; and, after having
brought all their allies under fubjedtion, returned again
to Syracufe, hoping to furprife it by an attack in the
Js defeated night-time. But being attacked while advancing
and taken ' through narrow paffes, where his numerous army had
prifoner, not room to aft, he was defeated with great daughter,
and put to an£j himfelf taken prifoner, carried into Syracufe, and
ll'“lJl' put to death.
Agritren- In the mean time the Agrigenlines, finding that the
tines at- Carthaginians and Syracufans had greatly weakened
tempt the each other by this war, thought it a proper opportu-
fbvereignty attempt the fovereignty of the whole liland.
^ ^ therefore commenced & war againft both parties $
and profecuted it with fuch fuccefs, that in a fliort time
they wrefled many places of note both out of the hands
of the Syracufans and Carthaginians.
SuoS of In Africa the tyrant carried every thing before him.
Agathocles He reduced moft of the places of any note m the ter-
i.n Africa, ritorv of Carthage j and hearing that Elymas king of
Libya had declared againft him, he immediately en¬
tered Libya Superior, and in a great battle overthrew
that prince, putting to the fword a good part of his
troops, and the general who commanded them j after
which he advanced againil the Carthaginians with fuch
expedition, that he lurprifed and defeated them with
the lofs of 2000 killed, and a great number taken
prifoners. He next prepared for the fiege of Carthage
itfelf*, and in order thereto advanced to a poll within
five miles of that city. On the other hand, notwith-
ftanding the great Ioffes they had already iuilained, the
Carthaginians, with a powerful army, encamped be¬
tween him and then* capital. In this fituation Aga¬
thocles received advice of the defeat of the Carthagi- CartEq- {
nian forces before Syracufe, and the head of Hamilcar ^
their general. Upon this he immediately rode up to
the enemy’s camp, and ihowing them the head, gave
them an account of the total deilruftion of their army
before Syracufe. This threw them into fuch confler-
nation, that in all human probability Agathocles would
have made himfelf mailer 01 Carthage, had not an un-
expefted mutiny arifen in his camp, which gave the
Carthaginians an opportunity of recovering from then-
terror.
The year following an engagement happened, inHe maker)
which neither party gained any great advantage : but an allian Jl
foon after, the tyrant, notwithilanding all his vifto-with Ophe
ries, found himfelf unable to carry on the war alone } bs;
and therefore endeavoured to gain over to his intereil
Ophelias, one of the captains of Alexander the Great.
In this he perfcftly lucceeded 5 and to fuccour his
new ally the more effeftually, Ophelias fent to Athens
for a body of troops. Having finilhed his military
preparations, Ophelias found his army to confifl of
10,000 foot and 600 horfe, all regular troops, be-
fides 100 chariots, and a body of 10,000 men, at¬
tended by their wives and children, as though he had
been going to plant a newr colony. At the head of
thefe forces he continued his march towards Agatho¬
cles for 18 days; and then encamped at Automale,
a city about 3000 iladia dillant from the capital of his
dominions. From thence he advanced through the
Regio Syrtica; but found himfelf reduced to fuch ex¬
tremities, that his army was in danger of perilhing for
want of bread, water, and other provifions. They
were alfo greatly annoyed by ferpents and wild bealls,
with which that defert region abounded. The ferpents
made the greateil havock among the troops; for, be¬
ing of the fame colour with the earth, and extremely
venomous, many foldiers, who trod upon them with¬
out feeing them, were Hung to death. At lall, after
a very fatiguing march of two months, he approached
Agathqcles, and encamped at a fmall dillance from
him, to the no linall terror of the Carthaginians, who
apprehended the moll fatal confequences from this
junction. Agathocles at firft carefled him, and ad-
vifed him to take all poflible care of his troops thattreacher-
had undergone fo many fatigues j but foon after cut ouifi mu&;
him off by treachery, and then by fair words and pro- ders.
miles perluaded his troops to ferve under himfelf.
Agathocles, now finding himfelf at the head of a
numerous army, affumed the title of King of Africa,
intending foon to complete his conqueits by the re-
duftion of Carthage. He began with the fiege of
Utica, which was taken by afiault. After this he
marched againil Hippo Diarrhytus, the Biferta of the
moderns, which was alfo taken by ilorm } and after j
this moft of the people bordering upon the fea coafts,
and even thofe who inhabited the inland parts of the ^
country, fubmitted to him. But in the midft of this is 0yigea
career of fuccefs, the Sicilians formed an aflociation in to return
favour of liberty j which obliged the tyrant to return home,
home, leaving his fon Archagathus to carry on the
war in Africa. ^
Archagathus, after his father’s departure, greatly guccefs q£
extended the African conquefts. He fent Eumachus Archag.**
at the head of a large detachment to invade fome of thus,
the- neighbouring provinces, while he himfelf, wfith
the
CAR
C 2°5 1
CAR
■48J
[e is redu-
J-d to the
moft dtf-
i'rs.
arthaje. tlic greateft part of his army, obferved the motions
Y——' {)£ Carthaginians. Eumachus falling into Numi-
dia, firlt took the great city of Tocas, and conquer¬
ed feveral of the Numidian cantons. Afterwards he
befieged and took Phellina } which was attended with
the lubmiffion of the Afphodelodians, a nation, accor¬
ding to Diodorus, as black as the Ethiopians. He
then reduced feveral cities ; and being at laid elated
with fuch a run of good fortune, refolved to penetrate
into the more remote parts of Africa. Here he at
tirft met with fuccefs 5 but hearing that the barbarous
nations were advancing in a formidable body to give
him battle, he abandoned his conquefts, and retreated
with the utmoft precipitation towards the fea coalts,
after having loft abundance of men.
This unfortunate expedition made a great altera¬
tion for the worfe in the affairs of Archagathus. The
Carthaginians being informed of Eumachus’s bad fuc-
defs, refolved to exert themfelves in an extraordinary
manner to repair their former Ioffes. They divided
their forces into three bodies : one of thefe they fent
to the fea coafts, to keep the towns there in awe j
another they difpatched into the mediterranean parts,
to preferve the allegiance of the inhabitants there j
and the laid body they ordered to the Upper Africa,
to fupport their confederates in that country. Archa¬
gathus, being apprifed of the motions of the Cartha¬
ginians, divided his forces likewife into three bodies.
One of thefe he fent to obferve the Carthaginian
troops on the fea coafts, with orders to advance af¬
terwards into the Upper Africa ; another under the
command of Atfchrion, one of his generals, he polled
at a proper diftance in the heart of the country, to
have an eye both on the enemy there and the barba¬
rous nations 5 and with the laid, which he led in per-
fon, he kept near Carthage, preferving a commu¬
nication with the other two, in order to fend them
fuecours, or recal them, as the exigency of affairs
ftiould require.—The Carthaginian troops fent into
the heart of the country, were commanded by Han-
no, a general of great experience, who being inform¬
ed of the approach of .ZEfchrion, laid an ambufeade
for him, into which he was drawn, and cut off with 4000
foot and 200 horfe. Himilco, who commanded the
Carthaginian forces in upper Africa, having advice
of Eumachus’s march, immediately advanced againft
him. An engagement enfued, in which the Greeks
were almoft totally cut off, or perifhed with thirft af¬
ter the battle •, out of 8000 foot only 30, and of 800
horfe only 40, having the good fortune to make their
efcape.
Archagathus receiving the melancholy news of
thefe two defeats, immediately called in the detach¬
ments he had fent out to harafs the enemy, which
■would otherwife have been inftantly cut off. He was,
however, in a ftiort time hemmed in on all Tides, in
fuch a manner as to be reduced to the laft extremity
for want of provifions, and ready every moment to
be fwallowed up by the numerous forces which fur-
rounded him. In this deplorable fituation Agathocles
received an exprefs from Archagathus, acquainting
him of the Ioffes he had fuftained, and the fcarcity of
provifions he laboured under. Upon this the tyrant,
leaving the care of the Sicilian war to one Leptines,
by a ftratagem got 18 Etrufcan ftiips that came to
his afliftance out of the harbour 5 and then engaging Carthage,
the Carthaginian fquadron which lay in its neighbour-
hood, took five of their ftiips, and made all their
men prifoners. By this means he became mafter of
the port, and fecured a paffage into it for the mer¬
chants of all nations, which foon reftored plenty to
that city, where the famine before had begun to make
great havock. Supplying himfelf, therefore, with a
fufticicnt quantity of neceffaries for the voyage he
was going to undertake, he immediately fet lail for
Africa* .... 49 ’
Upon his arrival in this country, Agathocles re-AgathocIes
viewed his forces, and found them to confift of 6coo arrives in
Greeks, as many Samnites, Celtes, and Etrufcans j Africa,
befides x0,000 Africans, and 1500 horfe. As he
found his troops almoft in a ftate of defpair, he thought
this a proper time for offering the enemy battle. The
Carthaginians, however, did not think proper to ac¬
cept the challenge ; especially as, by keeping clofe in
their camp, where they had plenty of every thing,
they could ftarve the Greeks to a furrender without
ftriking a ftroke. Upon this Agathocles attacked the Attacks the
Carthaginian camp with great bravery, made a confi-enemy
derable impreflion upon it, and might perhaps have without
carried it, had not his mercenaries deferted him almoft ucce s*
at the firft onfet. By this piece of cowardice he was
forced to retire with precipitation to his camp, whither
the Carthaginians purfued him very clofely, doing
great execution in the purfuit. ^
The next night, the Carthaginians facrificed all the Qifa(ter ;n
prifoners of diitinftion as a grateful acknowledgment the Cartha*
to the gods for the victory they had gained. Whilp ginian
they were employed in this inhuman work, the wind,cairiP*
fuddenly rifing, carried the flames to the facred ta¬
bernacle near the altar, which was entirely confumed,
as well as the general’s tent, and thofe of the princi¬
pal officers adjoining to it. A dreadful alarm took
place through the whole camp, which was heightened
by the great progrefs the fire made. For the loldiers
tents confifting of very combuftible materials, and the
wind blowing in a moft violent manner, the whole
camp was almoft entirely reduced to allies j and many of
the loldiers, endeavouring to carry off their arms, and
the rich baggage of their officers, perilhed in the
flames. Some of thofe who made their efcape met
with a fate equally unhappy : For, after Agathocles
had received the laft blow, the Africans deferted him,
and were in that inftant,coming over in a body to the
Carthaginians. Thefe, the perfons who were flying
from the flames took to be the whole Syracufan ar¬
my advancing ip order of battle to attack their camp.
Upon this a dreadful confufion enfued. Some took
to their heels ; others fell down in heaps one upon
another j and others engaged their comrades, mif-
taking them for the enemy. Five thoufand men loft
their lives in this tumult, and the reft thought proper
to take refuge within the walls of Carthage 5 nor
could the appearance of daylight, for fome time, dif- ^ ^ ^
fipate their terrible apprehenlions. In the mean that of
time the African deferters, obferving the great con-gathocks,
fulion the Carthaginians were in, and not knowing
the meaning of it, were fo terrified, that they thought
proper to return to the place from whence they came.
The Syracufans, feeing a body of troops advancing to¬
wards them in good order, concluded that the enemy
wet®..
C A K
[ 206 1
CAR
S3
He eicapes
privately.
Carthage, were tnarching to attack them, and therefore imme-
diately cried out, “ To arms.” The flames afeend-
ing out of the Carthaginian camp into the air, and
the lamentable outcries proceeding from thence, con¬
firmed them in this opinion, and greatly heightened
their confufion. The confequence was much the fame
as in the Carthaginian camp •, for coming to blows
with one another inftead of the enemy, they fcarce re¬
covered their fenfes upon the return of light, and the
inteftine fray was fo bloody that it coif Agathocles
4000 men.
The laif difailer fo diflieartened the tyrant, that he
immediately fet about contriving means for making
his efcape privately ; and this he at lafly though with
great difliculty, effe£ted. After his departure, his
two fons were immediately put to death by the fol-
diers, who, choofmg a leader from among themfelyes,
made peace with the Carthaginians upon the following
conditions : 1. That the Greeks ihould deliver up all
the places they held in Africa, receiving from them
300 talents: 2. That fuch of them as were willing to
ferve in the Carthaginian army fhould be kindly treat¬
ed, and receive the ufual pay $ and, 3. lhat the reft
fhould be tranfported to Sicily, and have the city of
Selinus for their habitation.
From this time, to that of their firft war with the
  Romans, we find nothing remarkable in the hiftory
f unic war. ^ Carthaginians. The firft Punic war, as it is
commonly called, happened about 256 years before
Chrift. At that time the Carthaginians were poffef-
fed of extenfive dominions in Africa •, they had made
confiderable progrefs in S^ain $ were mailers of Sardi¬
nia, Corfica, and all the iflands on the coaft of Italy ;
and had extended their conquefts to a great part of
Sicily. The occafion of the firft rupture between the
two republics was as follows t The Mamertines be¬
ing vanquiihed in battle, and reduced to great ftraits
by Hiero king of Syracufe, had refolved to deliver up
Meflina, the only city they now poffeffed, to that
prince, with whofe mild government and drift pro¬
bity they were ■well acquainted. Accordingly, Hiero
was advancing at the head of his troops to take pof-
feflion of the city, when Hannibal, wlw at that time
commanded the Carthaginian army in Sicily, prevent¬
ed him by a ftratagem. He came to meet Hiero,
as it were, to congratulate him on his viftory *, and
amufed him, while fome of the Carthaginian troops
filed off towards Meflina. Hereupon the Mamer
54 r
Caufes of
the firft
madnefs to attempt at that time to tranfport forces t» Carthage
Sicily. Fie crofled the ftraits, however, and had a
conference with the Mamertines, in which he prevail¬
ed upon them all to accept of the proteftion of. Rome $
and on this he made the neceffary preparations for
tranfporting his forces. The Carthaginians, being in¬
formed of the refolution of the Romans, fent a ftrong
fquadron of galleys under the command of Hanno to ^
intercept the Roman fleet 5 and accordingly the Car-Hanno in.
thaginian admiral, coming up with them near the coaft te'cepts tlw
of Sicily, attacked them with great fury. During the
engagement, a violent fterm arofe, which dafhed many
of the Roman veffels againft the rocks, and did a vaft
deal of damage to their fquadron •, by which means
Claudius was forced to retire to Rhegium, and this he
accomplifhed with great difficulty. Hanno reftored
all the veffels he had taken } but ordered the deputies
fent with them to expoftulate with the Roman general
upon the infraftion of the treaties fubfifting between
the two republics. This expoftulation, however juft,
produced an open rupture ; Claudius foon after poll ef¬
fing himfelf of Meflina. 56 (
Such was the beginning of the firft Punic war, Carthagim.
which is faid to have lafted 24 years.. The firft year,“^
the Carthaginians and Syracufans laid fiege to Mefli- ^efeate(j
na but not afting in concert as they ought to have t},e k0.
done, were overthrown by the conful Appius Claudi- mans,
us; and this defeat fo much difgufted Hiero with the
Carthaginians, that he foon after concluded an alliance
with the Romans. After this treaty, having no enemy
to contend with but the Carthaginians, the Romans
made themfelves mailers of all the cities on the weftern
coaft of Sicily, and at the end of the campaign carried
back moft of their troops with them to take up their
winter quarters in Italy. # 57
Thefecond year, Hanno the Carthaginian general Agnge^
fixed his principal magazine at Agrigentum. ^ ^ by the Re¬
place was very ftrong by nature, had been rendered manj,
almoft impregnable by the new fortifications raifed by
the Carthaginians during the preceding winter, and
was defended by a numerous garrifon commanded by
one Hannibal, a general of great experience in war.
For five months the Romans attempted to reduce the
place by famine, and had aftually brought the inhabi¬
tants to great diftrefs, when a Carthaginian army of
50,000 foot, 6000 horfe, and 60 elephants, landed at
Lilybasum, and from thence marched to Heraclea,
wfithin 20 miles of Agrigentum. I here the general
filed off towards Medina. Hereupon me mamer- wiuun ^ . 1, nf
tines feeing their city fupported by a new reinforce- received a deputation from feme of. the inhabitants of
lines, leemg ui / ir'   ^ F.rfipffa. where the Romans had their magazines, offer-
ment, were divided into" feveral opinions. Some
were for accepting the proteftion of Carthage } others
were for furrendering to the king of Syracufe 5 but
the greater part were for calling in the Romans to
their afliftance. Deputies were accordingly difpatch-
«d to Rome, offering the poffeffion of the city to the
Romans, and in the moft moving terms imploring
proteftion. This, after fome debate, was agreed to ^
and the conful Appius Claudius received orders to at¬
tempt a paffage to Sicily at the head of a powerful
army. Being obliged to ftay fome time at Rome,
however, one Cains Claudius, a perfon of great intre¬
pidity and refolution, was difpatched with a few vef¬
fels to Rhegium. On his arrival there, he obferved
the Carthaginian fquadron to be fo much fuperior to
hh own, that he thought it would be little better than
Erbeffa, where the Romans had their magazines, offer-
ing to put the town into his hands. It was accordingly
delivered up; and by this means the Romans be¬
came fo much diftreffed, that they had certainly been
obliged to abandon their enterprife, had not Hiero
fupplied them with provifions. But all the afliftance
he was able to give could not long have fupportea
them, as their army was fo much weakened by difor-
ders occafioned by famine, that, out of ioo,oco men,
of whom it originally cenfifted, fcarce a fourth part
remained fit for fervice, and could no longer fubfift oft
fuch parfimonious fupplies. But in the mean time
Hannibal acquainted Hanno that the city was reduced
to the utmoft diftrefs; upon which be refolved t0 vt”“’
lure an engagement, which he had before declined.
In this the Romans were viftorioue, and the city lur-
rendered
CAR [ 207 ] CAR
ittinhap#. rendered at dlfcretwn, though Hannibal with the
v—^ greateft part of the garrifon made their efcape. This
ended the campaign j and the Carthaginians being
greatly chagrined at their bad fuccefs, fined Hanno
of an hnmenfe fum of money, and deprived him of his
command, appointing Hamilcar to fucceed him in the
command of the land army, and Hannibal in that of
the fleet.
’hey build The third year, Hannibal received orders to ravage
fleet, the coaft of Italy 5 but the Romans had taken care
to poft detachments in fuch places as were molt pro¬
per to prevent his landing, fo that the Carthaginian
found it impoflible to execute his orders. At the fame
time, the Romans, perceiving the advantages of being
matters of the fea, fet about building 120 galleys.
While this was doing, they made themfelves mailers
©f moll of the inland cities, but the Carthaginians re¬
duced or kept Ready in their interefl mofi of the mari¬
time ones ; fo that both parties were equally fuccefsful
during this campaign.
The fourth year, Hannibal by a Rratagem made
himfelf mafler of 17 Roman galleys j after which he
committed great ravages on the eoaR of Italy, whither
£9 he had advanced to take a view of the Roman fleet.
Imd defeat But he was afterwards attacked in his turn, lofl the
KCariha- greatefl part of his flaps, and with great difficulty
mians at ma(je own efcape. Soon after he was totally de¬
feated by the conful Duillius, with the lofs of 80 flaps
taken, 13 funk, 7000 men killed, and as many taken
prifoners. After this victory Duillius landed in Sici¬
ly, put himfelf art the head of the land forces, relieved
Segelta, befieged by Hamilcar, and made himfelf ma¬
iler of Macella, though defended by a numerous gar-
do rifon.
Sicilians de- The fifth year a difference arofe between the Ro-
Ue'” Garth a mans and their Sicilian allies, which came to fuch a
.flans ’ height, that they encamped feparately. Of this Ha-
milcar availed himfelf, and attacking the Sicilians in
their entrenchments, put 4000 of them to the fword.
He then drove the Romans from their poffs, took fe-
veral cities from them, and overran the greateft part
of the country. In the mean time, Hannibal, after
his defeat, failed with the lhattered remains of his fleet
to Carthage; but, in order to fecure himfelf from pu-
nifhment, he fent one of his friends with all fpeed, be¬
fore the event of the battle was known there, to ac¬
quaint the fenate, that the Romans had put to fea
with a good number of heavy ill-built velftls, each
of them carrying fome machine, the ufe of which
the Carthaginians did not underfland j and afked whe¬
ther it was the opinion of the fenate that Hannibal
Ihould attack them i* Thefe machines were the co^vi,
which were then newly invented, and by means of
which, chiefly, Duillius had gained the viftory. The
fenate were unanimous in their opinion that the Ro¬
mans fliould be attacked ; upon which the meffenger
acquainted them with the unfortunate event of the bat¬
tle. As the fenators had already declared themfelves
for the engagement, they fpared their general’s life,
and, according to Polybius, even continued him in
the command of the fleet. In a flrort time, being re¬
inforced by a good number of galleys, and attended by
fome officers of great merit, he failed for the coaft of
■Sardinia. He had not been long here, before he was
furprifed by the Romans, who carried off many of his
fliips, and took great numbers of his men prifoners. Carthage.^
This fo incenfed the reft, that they feized their unfor-
tunate admiral, and crucified him) but who was his
immediate fucceffwr does not appear. Cx
The fixth year, the Romans made themfelves ma- Corfica and
fters of the iflands of Corfica and Sardinia. Hanno, re"
who commanded the Carthaginian forces in the latter,
defended himfelf at a city called Olbia with incredible mans.
bravery ; but being at laft killed in one of the attacks,
the place was furrendered, and the Romans foon be¬
came mafters of the whole ifland. 62,
The feventh year, the Romans took the town of The R.o-
Myteftratum, in Sicily, from whence they marched'man army
towards Camarina, but in their way were fur rounded
in a deep valley, and in the moft imminent danger of ^
being cut off by the Carthaginian army. In this ex-Refcued by
tremity, a legionary tribune, by name M. Caipurnius bravery
Flamma, defired the general to give him 300 chofen^J11^1®"
men ; promifing, with this finall company, to find
the enemy fuch employment as Ihould oblige them to
leave a paffage open for the Roman army. He per¬
formed his promife with a bravery truly heroic j fur,
having feized, in fpite of all oppofition, an eminence,
and entrenched himfelf on it, the Carthaginians, jea¬
lous of his defign, flocked from all quarters to drive
him from his poft. But the brave tribune kept their
whole army in play, till the conful, taking advantage
of the diverfion, drew his army out of the bad fitua-
tion into which he had imprudently brought it. The
legions were no fooner out of danger, than they ha-
ftened to the relief of their brave companions : but all
they could do was to fave their bodies from the infults
of their enemies \ for they found them all dead on the
fpot, except Calpurnius, who lay under a heap of dead
bodies all covered with wounds, but Hill breathing.
His wounds were immediately dreffed, and it fortu¬
nately happened that none of them proved mortal 5 and
for this glorious enterprife he received a crown of gi'a-
men. After this the Romans reduced feveral cities,
and drove the enemy quite out of the territory of the
Agrigentines $ but were repulfed with great lofs be¬
fore Lipara. <54
The eighth year, Regulus, who commanded the Cartha, ini-
Roman fleet, obferving that of the Carthaginians lying an!> defeat-
along the coaft in diforder, failed with a fquadron of^
ten galleys, to obferve their number and ftrength, or- myang>
dering the reft of the fleet to follow him with all ex¬
pedition. But as he drew too near the enemy, he was
furrounded by a great number of Carthaginian galleys.
The Romans fought with their ufual bravery j but be¬
ing overpowered with numbers, were obliged to yield.
The conful, however, found means to make his efcape,
and joined the reft of the fleet; and then had his full
revenge of the enemy, 18 of their Ihips being taken,
and eight funk. ^
The ninth year, the Romans made preparations for RCgu]us la.
invading Africa. Their fleet for this purpofe confift-vades A-
ed of 330 galleys, each of them having on board i20trka*
foldiers and 3 00 rowers. The Carthaginian fleet con-
flfted of 360 fail, and was much better manned than
that of the Romans. The two fleets met near Ecno-
mus, a promontory in Sicily) where, after a bloody
engagement, which lafted the greater part of the day,
the Carthaginians were entirely defeated, with the
Jofs of 30 galleys funk, and 63 taken with all their
men*
CAR [20
The Romans loft only 24 galleys, which were
]
CAR
Cartliag«. tnen. j.     j , „ , .
an fUnk.—After this viftory, the Romans haying re¬
fitted their fleet, fet fail for the coaft of Afiica with
all expedition. The firft land they got light of was
Cape Hermea, where the fleet lay at anchor for feme
time, waiting till the galleys and tranfports came up.
From thence they coafted along till they anived be¬
fore Clupea, a city to the call of Carthage, where
66 they made their firft defeent. _
Carthagini- No words can exprefs the confternaHon of the Car-
and took 5000 prifoners, and 18 elephants. Upon Cartilage,
the fame of this vidfory, deputations came from all
quarters, infomuch that the conqueror in a few days
became mailer of 80 towns : among which were the
— - > —— o 70
city and port of Utica. This increafed the alarm atail4re(|u.
ans in great thaginians on the arrival of the Romans in Atrica.
i #■»  - _ « - • r* t s <  —      rV* 4- **i Tt ‘i' o "f" sj _
confterna-
tion.
67
Succefs of
Regulus.
<rs
He kills a
monftrous
ferpent.
Lllctki “X. ^ -
The inhabitants of Clupea were fo terrified, that, ac
cording to Zonaras, they abandoned the place, which
the Romans immediately took poffeflion of. Haying
left there a ftrong garrifon to fecure their fhippmg,
and keep the adjacent territory in awe, they moved
nearer Carthage, taking a great number of towns*,
they likewife plundered a prodigious number of vil-
laaes laid vaft numbers of noblemen’s feats m afhes,
and took above 20,000 prifoners. In fhort, having
plundered and ravaged the whole country, aim oft to
the gates of Carthage, they returned to Clupea loaded
with the immenfe booty they had acquired in the ex-
? The tenth year, Regulus pufhed on his coAquefts
with great rapidity. To oppofe his piwgrefs, Hami1"
car was recalled from Sicily, and with him Boftar and
Afdrubal were joined in command. Hamilcar com¬
manded an army juft equal to that of Regulus ihe
other two commanded feparate bodies, which were
to join him or aft apart as oecafion required. But,
before they were in a condition to take the held, ne-
gulus, purfuing his conquefts, arrived on the banks of
the Bagrada, a river which empties itfelf into the fea
at a fin all diftance from Carthage. Here he had a
monftrous ferpent to contend with, which, according
to the accounts of thofe days, infe£ted the waters of
the river, poifoned the air, and killed all other ani¬
mals with its breath alone. When the Romans went
to draw water, this huge dragon attacked them ', and
twilling itfelf round their bodies, either fqueezed them
to death, or fwallowed them alive. As its hard and
thick feales were proof againft their darts and arrows,
they were forced to have recourfe to the baliitse, which
they made ufe of in lieges to throw great ilones, and
to beat down the walls of befieged cities. W ith thefe
they difeharged {bowers of huge Hopes againft this
new enemy, and had the good luck with one of them,
to break his back-bone *, _ which difabled him from
Cltj allCA jyun t       
Carthage 5 which was reduced to defpair, when Rer ces them tss
gulus laid fiegc to Tunis, a great city about nine miles the utmoft
from the capital. The place was taken in fight of the v
Carthaginians, who, from their walls, beheld all the
operations of the liege, without mskmg the^ leaft at¬
tempt to relieve it. And to complete their misfor¬
tunes, the Numidians, their neighbours, and impla¬
cable enemies, entered their territories, committing
everywhere the moft dreadful devaluations, which foon
occafioned a great fearcity of provifions in the city.
The public magazines were loon exhauiled : and, as
the city was full of felfilh merchants, who took ad¬
vantage of the public diftrefs, to fell provifions at an
exorbitant price, a famine enfued, with all the evils
which attend it. 71
In this extremity Regulus advanced to the very Hjs prop*
gates of Carthage *, and/having encamped under thej-^ot^
walls, font deputies to treat of a peace with the ie-
nate. The deputies were received w ith inexpreliible
twilling and winding his immenfe body, and by that
means gave the Romans an opportunity of approach¬
ing and difpatching him with their darts. But his
dead body corrupted the air and the water of the n-
and fnread fo great an mfeaion over the whole
ver , ctiiu. iuicavA • 1 j
country, that the Romans were obliged to decamp.
We are told that Regulus fent to Rome the Ikin oi
this monfter, which was 120 feet long*, and that it
was hung up in a temple, where it was preferved to
, the time of the Numantihe war.
r,' ti P Having paffed this river, he befieged Adis, or Adda
Carthaginb not far fnnn Carthage, which the enemy attempted
ans; to relieve *, but as they lay encamped among lulls and
rocks, where their elephants, m which the mam ftrength
of their army confifted, could be of no'ufe, Regulus
attacked them in their camp, killed 17,000 of them
icy : but the conditions they propofed were fueh that
the fenate could not hear them without the greateft
indignation. They were, 1. That the Carthaginians
fhould relinquifh all claims to Sardinia, Corfica, and
Sicily. 2. That they fhould reftore to the Romans
all the prifoners they had taken from them fince the
beginning of the war. 3-.That if they cared to re¬
deem any of their own prifoners, they fliould pay fo
much a head for them as Rome fhould judge reafon-
able 4. That they fhould for ever pay the Romans
an annual tribute. 5. That for the future they fhould
fit out but one man of war for their own ule, and 50
triremes to ferve in the Roman fleet, at the expence
of Carthage, when required by any of the future con-
fuls. Thefe extravagant demands provoked the fe-
nators, who loudly and unanimoufly rejected them j
the Roman deputies, however, told them that Regu¬
lus would not alter a _ fingle letter of the propofals,
and that they mull either conquer the Romans or
obey them. . . , 72 1
In this extreme diftrefs, feme mercenaries arrived xanthippt
from Greece, among whom was a Lacedemonian, by appointed |
name Xanthippus, a man of great valour and Carth:
enceinwar. This man, having informed himfelf of
the circumftances of the late battle, declared public y, ariT1y#
that their Overthrow was more owing Vo their own
mifeonduft than to the fuperiority of the enemy. 1 his
difeourfe being fpread abroad, came at laft to the
knowledge of the fenate *, and by them, and even by
the defire of the Carthaginian generals themielves,
Xanthippus was appointed commander m chief ot their
forces His firft care was to difeipline his troops m a
proper manner. He taught them how to march, en¬
camp, widen and clofe their ranks, and rally after the
Lacedemonian manner under their proper colours.
He then took the field with 1 2,000 foot, 4000 boric,
and 100 elephants. The Romans were furpriitd at
the hidden alteration they obferved in the enemy s
conduct : but Regulus, elated with his laft iucceis,
came and encamped at a fmall diftance from the ~ar*
thaginian army in a vaft plain, where their elephants
GAR [
'Sirtliage. and horfe had room to aft. The two armies were
parted by a river, which Regulus boldly paffed, by
which means he left no room for a retreat in cafe of
73 any misfortune. The engagement began with great
"he Ro. fury ; but ended in the total defeat of the Romans,
rdefeated w^10» except 2000 that efcaped to Clupea, were all
nd Kegu- hilled or taken prifoners, and among the latter was
:i$ taken. Regulus himfelf. The lofs of the Carthaginians fcarce
exceeded 800 men.
The Carthaginians remained on the field of battle
till they had ftripped the flain j and then entered their
He is cruel- metr0P°^s» which was almoft the only place left them,
Vufed. in great triumph. They treated all their prifoners
with great humanity, except Regulus ; but as for him,
he had fo infulted them in his profperity, that they
could not forbear fhowing the higheit marks of their
refentment. According to Zonaras and others, he
was thrown into a dungeon, where he had only fufte-
nance allowed him barely fufficient to keep him alive.
Nay, his cruel mafters, to heighten his other torments,
ordered a huge elephant (at the fight of W'hich ani¬
mal, it feems, he was greatly terrified) to be contlantly
placed near him ; which prevented him from enjoying
75 any tranquillity or repofe.
Carthagini- The eleventh year of this war, the Carthaginians,
^eafeaanjd elated with their viftory over Regulus, began to talk in
fiird. a vei7 drain, threatening Italy itfelf with an in
vafion. To prevent this, the Romans took care to
garrifon all their maritime towns, and fitted out a new
fleet. In the mean time, the Carthaginians befieged
Clupea and Utica in vain, being obliged to abandon
their enterprife, upon hearing that the Romans were
equipping a fleet of 350 fail. The Carthaginians ha¬
ving with incredible expedition refitted their old vef-
fels, and built a good number of new ones, met the
Roman fleet off Cape Hermea. An engagement en-
fued, in which the Carthaginians w ere utterly defeated;
J04of their fhips being funk, 30 taken, and 15,000
of their foldiers and rowers killed in the aftion. The
Romans purfued their courfe to Clupca, where they
were no fooner landed, than they found themfelves at¬
tacked by the Carthaginian army, under the two
Hannos, father and fon. But, as the brave Xanthip-
pus no longer commanded their army, notwithftanding
the Lacedemonian difcipline he had introduced among
them, they were routed at the very firit onfet, with
the lofs of 9000 men, and among them many of their
chief lords.
Notwithftanding all their viftories, however, the
Romans found themfelves now obliged, for w'ant of
provifions, to evacuate both Clupea and Utica, and
abandon Africa altogether. Being deflrous of figna-
lizing the end of their confulate by fome important
conqueft in Sicily, the confuls fleered for that ifland,
contrary to the advice of their pilots, who reprefented
their danger, on account of the feafon being fo far ad¬
vanced. Their obftinacy proved the deftruftion of
ueei ^5e W^°^e ^eet ? f°r a violent ftorm arifing, out of
Nallyde- 37° Ve^s ordy So efcaped fhipwreck, the reft being
royed by (wallowed up by the fea, or daftied againft the rocks,
ftorm. This was by far the greateft lofs that Rome had ever
fuftained •, for befides the fhips that were caft away
with their crews, a numerous army was deftroyed,
with all the riches of Africa, which had been by’Re-
gulus amafled and depofited in Clupea, and were now
Vol. V. Part I.
1<S
lomans
bliged to
bandon
dried.
L .77
heir fleet
209 ] GAR
from thence tranfporting to Rome. The whole coaft Carthage,
from Pachinum to Camerina wras covered with dead
bodies and wrecks of fhips ; fo that hiftory can fcarce
afford an example of fuch a dreadful difafter.
The twelfth year, the Carthaginians hearing of this
misfortune of the Romans, renewed the war in Sicily
with frefh fury, hoping the whole ifland, which was
now left defencelefs, would fall into their hands. Car-
thalo, a Carthaginian commander, befieged and took 78
Agrigentum. The town he laid in allies, and demo- Agrigen-
lifhed the walls, obliging the inhabitants to fiy to
lympium. Upon the news of this fucccfs, Afdrubal ftr0ytd b
was fent to Sicily with a large reinforcement of troops, the Cartha-
and 150 elephants. They likewife fitted out a fqua-
dron, with which they retook the ifland of Corcyra,
and marched a ftrong body of forces into Mauritania
and Numidia, to punifh the people of thofe countries
for fhowing a difpofition to join the Romans. In Si¬
cily the Romans poffeffed themfelves of Cephalodium
and Panormus, but were obliged by Carthalo to raife
the liege of Drepanum with great lofs. . 79
The 13th year, the Romans fent out a fleet of 260 ^0"
galleys, vTich appeared off Lilybaeum in Sicily : but
finding this place too ftrong, they fleered from thence
to the eaftern coaft of Africa, vrhere they made feve-
ral defeents, furprifed fome cities, and plundered feve-
ral towns and villages. They arrived fafe at Panormus, s»
and in a few days let fail for Italy, having a fair wind Which is
till they came off Cape Palinurus, where fo violent a aga‘n clc“
ftorm overtook them, that 160 of their galleys and alu°}e<k
great number of their tranfports were loft j upon which
the Roman fenate made a decree, that for the future
no more than 50 veflels ftiould be equipped j and that
thefe fhould be employed only in guarding the coaft of
Italy, and tranfporting the troops into Sicily.
The 14th year, the Romans made themfelves ma¬
fters of Himera and Lipara in Sicily ; and the Car¬
thaginians conceiving new hopes of conquering that
illand, began to make frefh levies in Gaul and Spain,
and to equip a new fleet. But their treafures being
exhaufted, they applied to Ptolemy king of Egypt,
intreating him to lend them 2000 talents 5 but he, be¬
ing refolved to ftand neuter, refufed to comply with
their requeft ; telling them that he could not, with¬
out breach of fidelity, aflift one friend againft another.
However, the republic of Carthage making an effort,
equipped a fleet of 200 fail, and raifed an army of
30,000 men, horfe and foot, and 140 elephants, ap- 81
pointing Afdrubal commander in chief both of the They fit
fleet and army. The Romans, then, finding the great °^t ano"
advantages of a fleet, refolved to equip one, notwith- ier*
Handing all former difafters 5 and while the veffels
were building, two confuls Avere chofen, men of va¬
lour and experience, to fuperfede the afting ones in
Sicily. Metellus, however, one of the former con¬
fuls, being continued with the title of proconful, found
means to draw Afdrubal into a battle on difadvan-
tageous terms near Panormus, and then fallying out 82
upon him, gave him a moft terrible overthrow. Canhagici-
Twenty thoufand of the enemy were killed, and
many elephants. A hundred and four elephants
were taken Avith their leaders, and fent to Rome,
Avhere they Avere hunted, and put to death in the
circus.
The 15th year the Romans befteged Lilybaeum 3
D d and
CAR [21
Cartlia^e. and the fiege continued during the reft of the firft
Punic war, and was the only thing remarkable that
rq ^ happened during that time *. The Carthaginians,
bcfic *dby on the firft news of its being befieged, fent Regulus
tht. Ro- with feme deputies to Rome to treat of a peace j but,
mans inftead of forwarding the negotiation, he hindered it :
bee Lily~ and notwithftanding he knew the torments prepared
for him at Carthage, could not be prevailed upon to
ftay at Rome, but' returning to his enemies country,
94 was put to a moft cruel death. During this fiege,
They are the Roman fleet under Claudius Pulcher was utterly de-
defeated at feated by Adherbal the Carthaginian admiral. Ninety
fea by the fj£ ^ ]|oman galleys were loft in the adlion, 8ogo of
mans.agU their men either killed or drowned, and 20,000 taken
and fent prifoners to Carthage ; and the Carthaginians
gained this fignal viftory without the lols of a tingle
A Roman fhip, or even a tingle man. Another Roman fleet met
fleet utterly with a ft ill feverer fate. It confifted of 120 galleys,
deftroyed 800 tranfports, and was laden with all fort of military
by a ftorm. ftores ancj provifions. Every one of thefe veffels was
loft by a ftorm, with all they contained, not a Angle
plank being faved that could be ufed again j to that
the Romans found themfelves once more deprived of
35 their whole naval force.
Hamdcar In the mean time, the Carthaginian folciery having
Barcas fent fhown a difpofition to mutiny, the fenate font over
into Sicily. Hamilcar Barcas, father of the famous Hannibal, to
Sicily. He received a charte blanch from the fenate
to a£I as he thought proper *, and, by his excellent
conduct and refolution, fhowed himfelf the greateft
general of his age. He defended Eryx, which he had
taken by furprile, with fuch vigour, that the Romans
would never have been able to make themfoives matters
of it, had they not fitted out a new fleet at the ex¬
pence of private citizens, which, having utterly defeat¬
ed that of the Carthaginians, Hamilcar, notwithftand-
87 ing all his valour, was obliged to yield up the place
Peace with which he had fo long and fo bravely defended. The
the Ro- following articles of peace were immediately drawn
*lianS' up between the two commanders. I. The Carthagi¬
nians ftiall evacuate all the places which they have in
Sicily, and entirely quit that ifland. 2. They ftiall,
in 20 years, pay the Romans, at equal payments every
vear, 2200 talents of filver, that is, 4375250^' ^-er_
ling. 3. They ftiall reftore the Roman captives and
deferters without ranfom, and redeem their own pri¬
foners with mosey. 4. They ftiall not make war up¬
on Hiero king of Syracufe, or his allies. Ihefe ar¬
ticles being agreed to, Hamilcar furrendered Eryx up¬
on condition that all his fiddlers ftiould march out with
him, upon his paying for each of them 18 Roman denarii.
Hoftages were given on both fides, and deputies were
fent to Rome to procure a ratification of the treaty
by the fenate. After the fenators had thoroughly
informed themfelves of the ftate of affairs, two more
articles were added, viz. 1. I hat 1000 talents fhould
be paid immediately, and the 2200 in the fpace of 10
years at equal payments. 2. That the Carthaginians
fliould quit all the little iflands about Italy and Sicily,
and never more come near them with ftiips of war, or
raife mercenaries in thofe places. Neceffity obliged
Hamilcar to confent to thefe terms 5 but he returned
to Carthage with a hatred to the Romans which he
did not even fuffer to die with him, but tranfmitted to
his fon the great Hannibal.
]
CAR
The Carthaginians w ere no fooner got out of this Cartbag*
bloody and expenfiv e war, than they found themfelves
engaged in another, which was like to have proved fa; Caufes of
tal to them. It is called by ancient hiftorians the Li- the war
by an war, or the war with the mercenaries. The prin- with the
cipal occafion of it was, that when Hamilcar returned mercena.
to Carthage, he found the republic fo much impover-ries'
idled, that, far from being able to give thefe troops
the largeffes and rewards promifed them, it could not
pay them their arrears. He had committed the care
of tranfporting them to one Gifco, who, being an of¬
ficer of great penetration, as though he had forefeen
w'hat would happen, did not ftiip them off all at once,
but in fmall and feparate parties, that thofe who came
firfl: might be paid off and fent home before the arrival
of the reft. The Carthaginians at home, however, did
not aft with the fame prudence. As the ftate was al-
moft entirely exhaufted by the late w ar, and the im-
menfe fum of money, in confequence of the peace, paid
to the Romans, they judged it would be a laudable ac¬
tion to fave fomething to the public. They did not
therefore pay off the mercenaries in proportion as they
arrived, thinking it more proper to wait till they
all came together, with a view of obtaining fome
remiflion of their arrears. But, being foon made fen-
fible of their wrong conduft on this occafion, by
the frequent diforders thefe barbarians committed in
the city, they with fome difficulty prevailed upon
the officers to take up their quarters at Sicca, and
canton their troops in that neighbourhood. To in¬
duce them to this, however, they gave them a fum
of money for their prefent fubfiftence, and promifed
to comply with their pretenfions when the remainder
of their troops arrived from Sicily. Here, being w hol¬
ly immerfed in idlenefs, to which they had long been
ftrangers, a negleft of dilcipline enfued, and of courle
a petulant and licentious fpirit immediately took place.
They were now determined not to acquiefce in recei¬
ving their bare pay, but to infift upon the rewards Ha¬
milcar had promifed them, and even to compel the
ftate of Carthage to comply with their demands by g9
force of arms. The fenate being informed of the imprudent
mutinous difpofition of the foldiery, difpatched Han- conduct of
no, one of the fuffetes, to pacify them. Upon hisHanno.
arrival at Sicca, he expatiated largely upon the po¬
verty of the ftate, and the heavy taxes with which
the citizens of Carthage w:ere loaded ; and therefore,
inftead of anfwering their high expeftations, he dc-
fired them to be fatisfied wfith receiving part of their
pay, and remit the remainder to ferve the prefljng
exigencies of the republic. The mercenaries being
highly provoked, that neither Hamilear, nor any
other of the principal officers, vTho commanded them,
in Sicily, and were the bed: judges of their merit,
made their appearance on this oceafion, but only
Hanno, a perfon utterly unknown, and above all
others utterly difagreeable to them, immediately had
recourfe to arms. Affembling therefore in a body,, to
the number of 20,000, they advanced to Tunis, and im¬
mediately encamped before that city.
The Carthaginians, being greatly alarmed at the
approach of fo formidable a body to T unis, made
large conceflions to the mercenaries, in order to bring
them back to their duty •, but, far from being foften-
ed, they grew more infolent upon thefe conceffions,
1 taking
CAR {21
ICafthag*. taking tlicm fur the effcfts of fear : and therefore
were altogether averfe to thoughts of accomxnoda*
tion. The Carthaginians, making a virtue of ne-
ceflity, Ihowed a difpofition to fatisfy them in all
points, and agreed to refer themfelves to the opinion
of fome general in Sicily, which they had all along
defired j leaving the choice of fuch commander entire¬
ly to them. Gifco was accordingly pitched upon to
mediate this affair, the mercenaries believing Hamilcar
to have been a principal caufe of the ill treatment they
met with, fince he never appeared among them, and,
according to the general opinion, had voluntarily re-
figncd his commiffion. Gifco foon arrived at Tunis
with money to pay the troops j and, after conferring
With the officers of the feveral nations apart, he ha¬
rangued them in fuch a manner, that a treaty was
Upon the point of being concluded, when Spendius and
Mathos, two of the principal mutineers, occalioned a
tumult in every part of the camp. Spendius was by
nation a Campanian, who had been a Have at Rome,
and had tied to the Carthaginians. The apprehen-
fions he was under of being delivered to his old mailer,
by whom he was hire to be hanged or crucified,
prompted him to break off the accommodation. Ma¬
thos was an African, and free born j but as he had
been aflive in railing the rebellion, and v’as well ac¬
quainted with the implacable difpofition of the Car¬
thaginians, he knew that a peace muff infallibly prove
his ruin. He therefore joined with Spendius, and in-
finuated to the Africans the danger of concluding a
treaty at that juncture, wffiich could not but leave them
fingly expofed to the f&ge of the Carthaginians. This
fo incenfed the Africans, who were much more nu¬
merous than the troops of any other nation, that they
immediately affembled in a tumultuous manner. The
foreigners foon joined them, being infpired by Spen¬
dius with an equal degree of fury. Nothing was now
to be heard but the molt horrid oaths and impre¬
cations againft Gifco and the Carthaginians. Who¬
ever offered to make any remonftrance, or lend an ear
to temperate counfels, W'as Honed to death by the en¬
raged multitude. Nay, many perfons loti their lives
barely for attempting to fpeak, before it could be
known whether they were in the intereft of Spendius
or the Carthaginians.
In the midft of thefe commotions, Gifco behaved
with great firmnefs and intrepidity. He left no me¬
thods untried to foften the officers and calm the
minds of the foldiery *, but the torrent of feditioli was
now-fo ftrong, that there was no poffibility of keeping
it within bounds. They therefore feized upon the
military cheft, dividing the money among themfelves
in part of their arrears, put the perfon of Gifco un¬
der an arreft, and treated him as well as his attend¬
ants with the utmoft indignity. Mathos and Spen-
« dius, to deftroy the remote!! hopes of an accommo¬
dation with Carthage, applauded the courage and refo-
30 lution of their men, loaded the unhappy Gifco and
! he merce- his followers with irons, and formally declared war
ines de- againft the Carthaginians. All the cities of Africa,
to whom they had fent deputies to exhort them to
recover their liberty, foon came over to them, ex¬
cept Utica and Hippo Diarrhytus. By this means
their army being greatly xncreafed, they divided it
into two parts, with one ef which they moved to-
1 ] -CAR
wards Utica, wliilft the other marched to Hippo, in Carthage,
order to befiege both places. The Carthaginians, in  
the mean time, found themfelves ready to fink under
the preffure of their misfortunes. After they had
been haraffed 24 years by a moft cruel and deitruc-
tive foreign war, they entertained fome hopes of en¬
joying repofe. The citizens of Carthage drew their
particular fubftftence from the rents or revenues of
their lands, and the public expences from the tribute
paid from Africa j all which they were not only de¬
prived of at once, but, what was worfe, had it dire&ly
turned againft them. They were deftitute of arms
and forces either by fea or land j had made ho prepa¬
rations for the fuftaining of a liege, or the equip¬
ping of a fleet. They fuffered all the calamities inci¬
dent to the moft ruinous civil war 5 and, to complete
their mifery, had not the leaft profpeft of receiving
affiftance from any foreign friend or ally. Notwith-
ftanding their deplorable fituation, however, they did
not delpond, but purfued all the meafures neceffary to
put themfelves into a pofture of defence. Hanno was
appointed commander in chief of all their forces 5 and
the moft ftrenuous efforts were made, not *rnjy to repel
all the attempts of the mutineers, but even to reduce
them by force of arms.
In the mean time Mathos and Spendius laid liege
to Utica and Hippacra at once j but as they were
carried on by detachments drawn from the army for
that purpofe, .they remained with the main body of
their forces at**!' unis, and thereby cut off all commu¬
nication betudxt Carthage and the continent of Afri¬
ca. By this means the capital was kept in a kind of
blockade. The Africans likewife haraffed them by
perpetual alarms, advancing to the very walls of Car¬
thage by day as well as by night, and treating with
the utmoft cruelty every Carthaginian that fell into
their hands. pr
Hanno was defpatched to the relief of Utica with Uiey are
a good body of forces, 100 elephants, and a large ^eatec^^
train of battering engines. Having taken a view of ‘u‘no*
the enemy, he immediately attacked their intrench-
ments, and after an obftinate difpute forced them.
The mercenaries loft a vaft number of men ; and con-
fequently the advantages gained by Hanno were fo
great, that they might have proved decifive, had he
made a proper ufe of them : But becoming fecure af- ^
ter his victory, and his troops being everyv here off"He is in his
their duty, the mercenaries, having rallied their for- turn defeat*
ces, fell upon him, cut off many of his men, forced the cc*'
reft to fly into the town, retook and plundered the
camp, and feized all the provifions, military ftores, &c.
brought to the relief of the befieged. Nor was this
the only inftance of Hanno’s military incapacity.
Notwithftanding he lay encamped in the moft advan¬
tageous manner near a town called Gorza, at which
place he twice overthrew the enemy, and had it in his
power to have totally ruined them, he yet neglefled to
improve thofe advantages, and even fuffered the merce¬
naries to poffefs themfelvcs of the ifthmus which join¬
ed the peninfula on which Carthage Hood, to the con¬
tinent of Africa. 93
Thefe repeated miftakes induced the Carthaginians ^
once more to place Hamilcar Barcas at the head of p0inteciato
their forces. He marched againft the enemy with command
10,000 men, horfe, and foot, being all the troops the agamft
^ • 1 • • them.
D d 2
Canhaginians
94
He defeats
them.
CAR [21
Carthage. Carthaginians could then aflemble for their defence j a
 v full proof of the low date to which they were at that
time reduced. As Mathos, after he had poffefled
himfelf of the ifthmus, had polled proper detachments
in two paflfes on two hills facing the continent, and
guarded the bridge over the Bagrada, which through
Hanno’s negleft he had taken, Hamilcar faw little
probability of engaging him upon equal terms, or in¬
deed of coming at him. Obferving, however, that
on the blowing of certain winds, the mouth of the ri¬
ver was choked up with fand, fo as to become paf-
fable, though with no fmall difficulty, as long as thefe
winds continued ; he halted for fome time at the
river’s mouth, without communicating his defign to
any perfon. As foon as the wind favoured his intend¬
ed projeft, he paffed the river privately by night, and
immediately after his paffage, he drew up the troops
in order of battle } and advancing into the plain vhere
his elephants were capable of afting, moved towards
Mathos who was polled at the village near the bridge.
This daring aftion greatly furpriled and intimidated
the Africans. However, Spendius receiving intelli¬
gence of tlie enemy’s motions, drew a body of 10,000
men out of Mathos’s camp, with which he attended
Hamilcar on one fide, and ordered 15,000 from Utica
to obferve him on the other, thinking by this means to
farround the Carthaginians, and cut them all off at one
ffroke. By feigning a retreat, Hamilcar found means
to engage them at a difadvantage, and gave them a
total overthrow, with the lofs of 6000 killed and
2000 taken prifoners. The reft fled, fome to the
town at the bridge, and others to the camp at Utica.
He did not give them time to recover from their de¬
feat, but purfued them to the town near the bridge
before mentioned 5 v'hich he entered without oppoli-
tion, the mercenaries flying in great confufion to Tu¬
nis and upon this many towns lubmitted of their own
accord to the Carthaginians, whilft others w’ere redu¬
ced by force.
Notwithftanding thefe difafters, Mathos puffied on
the fiege of Hippo with great vigour, and appointed
Spendius and Autaritus, commanders of the Gauls, with
a ftrong body to obferve the motions of Hamilcar.
Thefe two commanders, therefore, at the head of a
choice detachment of 6000 men drawn out of the
camp at funis, and 2000 Gallic horfe, attended the
Carthaginian general, approaching him as near . as
they could with fafety, and keeping clofe to the fldrts
of the mountains. At laft Spendius, having received
a ftrong reinforcement of Africans and Numidians,
and poffeffing himfelf of all the heights furrounding
the plain in which Hamilcar lay encamped, refolved
not to let flip fo favourable an opportunity of attack¬
ing him. Had a battle now enfued, Hamilcar and
his army mull' in all probability have been cut off 5
but, by the defertion of one Naravafus a young Nu-
midian nobleman, with 2000 men, he found himfelf
enabled to offer his enemies battle, ihe fight was
ob ft mate and bloody j but at laft the mercenaries were
entirely overthrown, with the lofs of 10,000 men kilt¬
ed and 4000 taken priloners. All the prifoners that
were willing to enliil in the Carthaginian fervice Ha¬
milcar received among his troops, fiipplying them with
the arms of the foldiers who had fallen in the engage¬
ment, To the reft he gave full liberty to go where
95
Mercena¬
ries again
defeated.
2 ] CAR
they pleafed, upon condition that they (hould never Carthagr
for the future bear arms againft the Carthaginians j 'r‘*‘
informing them, at the fame time, however, that as
many violators of this agreement as fell into his hands
mull expert to find no mercy.
Mathos and his affoeiates, fearing that this affefted They pui
lenity of Hamilcar might occafion a defection among
the troops, thought that the belt expedient would be
to put them upon fome adlion, fo execrable in its na- foners.
ture that no hopes of reconciliation might remain. By
their advice, therefore, Gifco, and all the Carthagi¬
nian prifoners were put to death *, and when Hamil¬
car fent to demand the remains of his countrymen, he
received for anfwer, that whoever prefumed hereafter
to come upon that errand, ffiould meet with Gifco’s
fate : after which they came to a refolution to treat
with the fame barbarity all fueh Carthaginians as
fhould fall into their hands. In return for this enor¬
mity, Hamilcar threw all the prifoners that fell into
his hands to be devoured by wild beafts j being con¬
vinced that compaffion ferved only to make his enemies
more fierce and untraiftable.
The war wras nowr carried on generally to the ad¬
vantage of the Carthaginians ; neverthtleis, the male-
contents Hill found themfelves in a capacity to take
the field with an army of 50,000 men. They watch¬
ed Hamilcar’s motions, but kept on the hills, care¬
fully avoiding to come dowrn into the plains, on ac¬
count of the Numidian horfe and Carthaginian ele¬
phants. Hamilcar, being much fuperior in fkill to
any of their generals, at laft ftiu-t them up in a poll,
fo fituated, that it was impoflible to get out of it. Here
he kept them ftridtly befieged : and the mercenaries,
not daring to venture a battle, began to fortify their
camp, and furround it with ditches and intrenchments.
They were foon preffed by famine ft) forely, that they They are
were obliged to eat one another : but they were driven believed
defperate by the confcioufnefs of their guilt, and there¬
fore did not defire any terms of accommodation. At
laft being reduced to the utmoft extremity of mifery,
they infilled that Spendius, Autaritus, and Zarxas
their leaders, ftiould in perfon have a conference with
Hamilcar, and make propofals to him. Peace was ac¬
cordingly concluded upon the following terms, viz.
That ten of the ringleaders of the malecontents ftiould
be left entirely to the mercy of the Carthaginians, and
that the troops ftiould all be difarmed, every man re¬
tiring only in a fingle coat. 1 he treaty was no fooner
concluded, than Hamilcar, by virtue of the firft article,
feized upon the negociators themfelves j and the army
being informed that their chiefs were under arreft, had
immediately recourfe to arms, as fufpecling they w'ere
betrayed but Hamilcar, drawing out his army in or¬
der of battle, furrounded them, and either cut them to
pieces, or trod them to death with his elephants. The40,000 0!
number of ivretches who periftied on this occafion
mounted to above 40,000.
After the deftruttion of the army, Hamilcar in-
vefted Tunis, whither Mathos had retired with all
his remaining forces. Hamilcar had another general,.
named Honniha/, joined in the command with him.
Hannibal’s quarters was on the road leading to Car¬
thage, and Hamilcar’s on the oppoftte fide. Ihe
army was no fooner encamped, than Hamilcar caufed
Spendius, and the reft ©f the prifoners, to be led out
ia
Teated and
:aken pri-
foner.
CAR [2
Carthage, in tke view of the befieged, and crucified near the
walls. Mathos, hov/ever, obferving that Hannibal did
not keep fo good a guard as he ought to have done,
Hannibal made a fally, attacked his quarters, killed many of his
:aken and men, took feveral prifoners, among whom was Hanni-
rrucified by {jai himfelf, and plundered his camp. Taking the
Mathos. bocly 0f Spendius from the crofs, Mathos immediately
lubllituted Hannibal in its room •, and 30 Carthagi¬
nian prifoners of diftin£lion were crucified around him.
Upon this difafter, Hamilcar immediately decamped,
and polled himfelf along the lea coalt, near the mouth
of the river Bagrada.
The fenate, though greatly terrified by this unex-
pe£led blow, omitted no means neceffary for their
prefervation. They fent 30 fenators, with Hanno
at their head, to confult with Hamilcar about the
proper meafures for putting an end to this unnatural
war, conjuring, in the molt prelling manner, Hanno
to be reconciled to Hamilcar, and to facrifice his pri¬
vate refentment to the public benefit. This, with
fome difficulty, was effected j and the two generals
came to a full refolution to act in concert for the
good of the public. The fenate at the fame time,
ordered all the youth capable of bearing arms to be
prefled into the fcrvice : by which means a llrong rein-
100 forcement being fent to Hamilcar, he foon found him-
Mathos en- felf in a condition to aft offenfively. He now defeat-
nrdy dc- ^ ecj ^ enemy in aq rencounters, drew Mathos into fre¬
quent ambufcades, and gave him one notable overthrow
near Leptis. This reduced the rebels to the neceffity
of hazarding a decilive battle, which proved fatal to
them. The mercenaries fled almolt at the firlt onfetj
moll of their army fell in the field of battle, and in the
purfuit. Mathos, with a few, efcaped to a neighbour¬
ing town, where he was taken alive, carried to Car¬
thage, and executed ; and then by the reduflion of the
revolted cities an end was put to this war, which, from
the exceffes of cruelty committed in it, according to
Polybius, went among the Greeks by the name of the
inexpiable war.
During the Libyan war, the Romans, upon fome
abfurd pretences, wrelled the illand of Sardinia from
the Caithaginians ; which the latter, not being able to
refill, were obliged to fubmit to. Hamilcar, finding
his country not in a condition to enter into an imme¬
diate war with Rome, formed a fcheme to put it on a
Lume Wlt^ ^evel with that haughty republic. This was by making
an entire conqueit of Spain, by which means the Car¬
thaginians might have troops capable of coping with
the Romans. In order to facilitate the execution of
tins fcheme, he infpired both his fon-in-law Afdrubal,
and his fon Hannibal, with an implacable averlion to
the Romans, as the great oppofers of his country’s
grandeur. Having completed all the neceflary prepa¬
rations, Hamilcar, after having greatly enlarged the
Carthaginian dominions in Africa, entered Spain,
where he commanded nine years, during which time
he fubdued many warlike nations, and amafled an im-
menfe quantity of treafure, which he diltributed partly
amongll his troops, and partly amonglt the great men
at Carthage •, by which means he fupported his inte-
reils with thefe two powerful bodies. At lall, he was
killed in a battle, and was fucceedcd by his fon-in-law
Afdrubal. This general fully anfwered the expefla-
tions of his countrymen } greatly enlarged their domi-
jlamilcar’s
theme to
tqual Car-
b death.
13 ] C A. R
nions in Spain j and built the city of New Carthage, Carthage;
now Carthagena. He made fuch progrefs in his con- ' ^ ‘ *
quells, that the Romans began to grow jealous. They
did not, however, choofe at prefent to come to an open
rupture, on account of the apprehenfions they were
under of an invafion from the Gauls. They judged
it moll proper, therefore, to have recourfe to milder
methods; and prevailed upon Afdrubal to conclude a ro3
new treaty with them. The articles of it were, ^at^with
1. That the Carthaginians Ihould not pafs the Iberus. the Ro-
2. That the Saguntines, a colony of Zacynthians, and mans,
a city fituated between the Iberus and that part of
Spain fubjeift to the Carthaginians, as well as the other
Greek colonies there, Ihould enjoy their ancient rights
and privileges. i0^
Afdrubal, after having governed the Carthaginian He is mur-
dominions in Spain for eight years, was treacheroufly ^erec^,>
murdered by a Gaul, whole mailer he had put to death.
Three years before this happened, he had written to
Carthage, to defire that young Hannibal, then twenty-
two years of age, might be fent to him. This requell
was complied with, notwithllanding the oppofition of
Hanno ; and, from the firlt arrival of the young man
in the camp, he became the darling of the whole army.
The great refemblance he bore to Hamilcar rendered
him extremely agreeable to the troops. Every ta¬
lent and qualification he feemed to poffefs, that con¬
tribute towards forming a great man. After the death
of Afdrubal, he was faluted general by the army with 1Q-
the highelt demonllration of joy. He immediately Succeeded
put himfelf in motion *, and in the firlt campaign con- ky Hawni-
quered the Olcades, a nation feated near the Iberus. ^
The next year he fubdued the Vaccaei, another nation col,K,^eus
in that neighbourhood. Soon after, the Carptetani, in Spain,
one of the moll powerful nations in Spain, declared
againll the Carthaginians. Their army confilled of
ioo,coo men, with which they propofed to attack Han¬
nibal on his return from the Vaccaei j but by a llra-
tagem they were utterly defeated, and the whole na¬
tion obliged to fubmit.
Nothing now remained to oppofe the progrefs of
the Carthaginian arms but the city of Saguntum.
Hannibal, however, for fome time, did not think pro¬
per to come to a rupture with the Romans by attack¬
ing that place. At lalt he found means to embroil 1Qg
fome of the neighbouring cantons, efpceially the Tur-He attacks
detani, or, as Appian calls them, the Torboietce^ with Sagunuim,
the Saguntines, and thus furniffied himfelf w ith a pre¬
tence to attack their city. Upon the commencement
of the liege, the Roman fenate defpatched two am-
bafladors to Hannibal, with orders to proceed to Car¬
thage, in cafe the general refufed to give them fatisfac-
tion. They were fcarcely landed, when Hannibal, who
was carrying on the fiege of Saguntum with great
vigour, fent them w ord that he had fomething elfe to
do than to give audience to ambafladors. At lall,
however, he admitted them ; and, in anfwer to their
remonllrances, told them, that the Saguntines had
drawn their misfortunes-upon themfelves, by commit¬
ting hollilities againll the allies of Carthage; and at
the fame time deli red the deputies, if they had any
complaints to make of him, to carry them to the fe¬
nate of Carthage. On their arrival in that capital,
they demanded that Hannibal might be delivered up-
to the Romans to be punilhed according to his deferts y
and-
Carthage
icS
He fets out
for Italy.
CAR [2i
and tins not being complied with, war was immediately
declared between the two nations.
The ■ Saguntines are faid to have defended them-
felves for eight months with incredible bravery. At
laft, however, the city was taken, and the inhabitants
were treated with the utmoft cruelty. After this con*
queft, Hannibal put his African troops into winter
quarters at New Carthage; but in order to gain their
affection, he permitted the Spaniards to retire to their
refpeftive homes.
The next campaign, having taken the neceffary
meafures for fecuring Africa and Spain, he paffed the
Iberus, fubdued all the nations betwixt that river and
the Pyrenees, appointed Hanno commander of all the
new conquered diftritt, and immediately began his
march for Italy. Upon muftering his forces, after
they had been weakened by lieges, defertion, morta¬
lity, and a detachment of 10,000 foot and 1000 horfe,
left with Hanno to fupport him in his new port, he
found them to amount to 50,000 foot and 9000 horfe,
all veteran troops, and the beft in the world. As
they had left their heavy baggage with Hanno, and
•were all light-armed, Hannibal eafily croffed the Py¬
renees •, pafled by Rufcino, a frontier town of the
Gauls, and arrived on the banks of the Rhone with¬
out oppofition. This river he paffed, notwithftand*
ing of fome oppolition from the Gauls ; and was for
fome time in doubt whether he fhould advance to en¬
gage the Romans, who, under Scipio, were bending
their march that way, or continue his march for Italy.
But to the latter he was foon determined by the ar¬
rival of Magilus, prince of the Boii, who brought rich
prefents with him, and offered to conduct the Cartha¬
ginian army over the Alps. Nothing could have hap¬
pened more favourable to Hannibal’s affairs than the
arrival of this prince, iince there was no room to doubt
the fmcerity of his intentions. For the Boii bore an
implacable enmity to the Romans, and had even come
to an open rupture with them, upon the firft news that
Italy was threatened with an invafion from the Car-
109 thaginians.
He croffes jt is not known with certainty where Hannibal
the Alps. kegan t0 afCend the Alps. As foon as he began his
march, the petty kings of the country affembled their
forces in great numbers ; and, taking poffeflion of the
eminences over which the Carthaginians muff neceffa-
rily pafs, they continued haraffmg them, and were no
fooner driven from one eminence than they feized on
another, difputing every fopt of land with the enemy,
and deftroyed great numbers of them by the advan¬
tage they had of the ground. Hannibal, however,
having found means to poffefs himfelf of an advanta¬
geous poft, defeated and difperied the enemy ; and
foon after took their capital city, where he found the
prifoners, horfes, &c. that had before fallen into the
hands of the enemy, and likewife corn fufficient to
ferve the army for three days. At laft, after a moft
fatiguing march of nine days, he arrived at the top of
the mountains. Here he encamped, and halted two
days, to give his wearied troops fome repofe, and to
waft For the ftragglers. As the fnow had lately fallen
great plenty, and covered the ground, this fight ter¬
rified the Africans and Spaniards, who were much af-
fe&ed with the cold. In order, therefore, to encourage
*fceiu, the Carthaginian general led them to the top of
2
4 ] CAR
the higheft rock on the fide of Italy, and thence gave Carthage,
them a view of the large and fruitful plains of Infu-
bria, acquainting them that the Gauls, whofe country
they faw, were ready to join them. He alfo pointed
out to them the place whereabout Rome flood, telling
them, that by climbing the Alps they had fealed the
walls of that rich metropolis ; and, having thus anima¬
ted his troops, he decamped, and began to defeend the
mountains. The difficulties they met with in their
defeent were much greater than thofe that had occur¬
red while they afeended. They had indeed no enemy
to contend with, except fome fcattered parties that
came to fteal rather than to fight; but the deep fnows,
the mountains of ice, craggy rocks, and frightful pre¬
cipices, proved more terrible than any enemy. After
they had for fome days marched through narrow, fteep,
and flippery ways, they came at laft to a place which
neither elephants, horfes, nor men, could pafs. The
way, which lay between two precipices, \ras exceeding
narrow ; and the declivity, which was very fteep, had
become more dangerous by the falling away of the
earth. Here the guides flopped ; and the whole ar¬
my being terrified, Hannibal propofed at firft to march
round about, and attempt fome other way : but all
places round him being covered with fnow, he found
himfelf reduced to the neceffity of cutting a way into
the rock itfelf, through which his men, horfes, and
elephants, might defeend. This work was accom-
pliffied with incredible labour ; and then Hannibal,
having fpent nine days in afeending, and fix in de¬
fending, the Alps, gained at length Infubria ; and,
notwithftanding all the difafters he had met with by
the way, entered the country with all the boldncfs of
a conqueror.
Hannibal, on his entry into Infubria, reviewed his
army ; when he found that of. the ^o^oco foot, with
whom he fet out from New Carthage five months and
15 days before, he had now but 20,000, and that his
9000 horfe w-ere reduced to 6000. His firft care,
after he entered Italy, was to refrefh his troops ; who,
after fo long a march, and fuch inexpreflible hard-
fhips, looked like as many fkeletons raifed from the
dead, or favages born in a defert. He did not, how'-
ever, fuffer them to languiffi long in idlenefs ; but,
joining the Infubrians, who were at war with the n0
Taurinians, laid fiege to Taurinum, the only city in raurinum
the country, and in three days time became mailer oftaken>
it, putting all who refilled to the fword. This flruck
the neighbouring barbarians with fuch terror, that of
their own accord they fubmitted to the conqueror, and
fupplied his army with all forts of provifions.
Scipio, the Roman general, in the mean time, who
had gone in queft of Hannibal on the banks of the
Rhone, was furprifed to find his antagonift had crof¬
fed the Alps and entered Italy. He therefore return¬
ed with the utmoft expedition. An engagement en- in
fued near the river Ticinus, in which the Romans 016
were defeated. The immediate confequence was, that
Scipio repaffed that river, and Hannibal continued his the xniiiu!
march to the banks of the Po. Here he flaid two
days, before he could crofs that river over a bridge of
boats. He then fent Mago in purfuit of the enemy,
who, having rallied their fcattered forces, and repafied
the Po, were encamped at Placentia. Afteiwards
having concluded a treaty with feveral of the Gallic
cantons,
CAR
(Jarthas;*. cantons, he joined his brother with the reft of the ar-
'— v '' my, and again offered battle to the Romans : but this
they thought proper to decline ; and at laft the conful
being intimidated by the defertion of ** body of Gauls,
abandoned his camp, paffed the Trebia, and polled him-
felf on an eminence near that river. Here he drew
lines round his camp, and waited the arrival of his col¬
league with the forces from Sicily.
Hannibal being apprifed of the conful’s departure,
fent out the Numidian horfe to harafs him on his
march} himfelf moving with the main body to fup-
port them in cafe of need. The Numidians arriving
rrj before the rear of the Roman army had quite pal-
^ain de ^ t^le f'rebia, put to the fword or made prifoners
la ted. e" t^ie ftraggiers they found there. Soon after, Han¬
nibal coming up, encamped in light of the Roman
army on the oppolite bank. Here having learned the
charafler of the conful Sempronius lately arrived, he
foon brought him to an engagement, and entirely de¬
feated him. Ten thoufand of the enemy retired to
Placentia j but the reft were either killed or taken pri¬
foners. T he Carthaginians purfued the flying Romans
as far as the Trebia, but did not think proper to repafs
that river on account of the exceffive cold.
Hannibal, after this a£tion upon the Trebia, or¬
dered the Numidians, Celtiberians, and Lufitanians,
to make incurfions into the Roman territories, where
they committed great devaftations. During his ftate
of inaiflion, he endeavoured to win the affections of
the Gauls, and likewife of the allies of the Romans j
declaring to the Gallic and Italian prifoners, that he
had no intention of making war upon them, being de¬
termined to reftore them to their liberty, and proteCl
them again!! the Romans : 'and to confirm them in
their good opinion of him, he difmiffed them all wuth-
113 out ranfom.
he are *
terly de- Next year having croffed the Appcnines, and pe-
ptea near netrated into Etruria, Hannibal received intelligence
e lake that the new conful Flaminius lay encamped with
rcafyme- Roman army under the walls of Aretium. Hav¬
ing learned the true charafter of this general, that
he was of a haughty, fierce, and rafh dilpofition,
he doubted not of being foon able to bring him to a
battle. To inflame the impetuous fpirit of Flami¬
nius, the Carthaginian general took the road to Rome,
and, leaving the Roman army behind him, deftroyed
all the country through which he palled with fire and
Iword $ and as that part of Italy abounded with all
the elegancies as well as neceffaries of life, the Ro¬
mans and their allies fuffered an incredible lofs on
this occafion. The rafli conful was inflamed with
the utmoft rage on feeing the ravages committed by
the Carthaginians •, and therefore immediately ap¬
proached them with great temerity, as if certain of
victory. Hannibal in the mean time kept on, Hill
advancing towards Rome, having Crotona on the
left hand, and the lake Thrafymenus on the right;
and at laft, having drawn Flaminius into an ambuf-
cade, entirely defeated him. The general himfelf,
with 15,000 of his men, fell on the field of battle.
A great number w ere likewife taken prifoners 5 and
a body of 6000 men, who had fled to a town in Etru¬
ria, furrendered to Maherbal the next day. Han¬
nibal loft only 1500 men on this occafion, molt of
whom were Gauls j though great numbers, both of
CAR
his foldiers and of the Romans, died of their wounds. CanTias-*.
Being foon after informed that the conful Servilius had
detached a body of 4000, or, according to Apian, A f
8000 horfe from Ariminum, to reinforce his colleague detachment
in Etruria, Hannibal fent out Maherbal, with all the cut to
cavalry, and fome of the infantry, to attack him. pieces or
The Roman detachment conlifted of chofcn men, andtaken*
was commanded by Centenius a patrician. Maherbal
had the good fortune to meet with him, and after a fliort
difpute entirely defeated him. Two thoufand of the
Romans were laid dead on the fpot; the reft, retiring
to a neighbouring eminence, were furrounded by Ma-
herbal’s forces, and obliged next day to furrender at
diferetion j and this difaiter, happening within a few
days after the defeat at the lake Thrafymenus, almoft
gave the finiftiing ftroke to the Roman affairs,
The Carthaginian army was now fo much troubled
with a fcorbutic diforder, owing to the unwholefome
encampments they had been obliged to make, and
the moraffes they had paffed through, that Hannibal
found it abfolutcly neceffary to repofe them for fome
time in the territory of Adria, a molt pleafant and
fertile country. In his various engagements with the
Romans he had taken a great number of their arms,
with which he now armed his men after the Roman
manner. Being now likewife mailer of that part of
the country bordering on the fea, he found means to
fend an exprefs to Carthage with the news of the glo¬
rious progrefs of his arms. The citizens received
this news with the molt joyful acclamations, at the
fame time coming to a refolution to reinforce their ar¬
mies both in Italy and Spain, with a proper number
of troops. tI^
The Romans being now' in the utmoft confterna-Fabh s
tion, named a dictator, as was their cuftom in timesx*mm na_
of great danger. The perfon they chofe to this of-“^d dlfla'
fice w'as Fabius Maximus, furnamed Verrufcofus; a
man as cool and cautious as Sempronius and Flaminius
were warm and impetuous. He fet out with a defign
not to engage Hannibal, but only to watch his motions
and cut off his provifions, which he knew was the molt
proper way to deftroy him in a country fo far from
his own. Accordingly he followed him through Um¬
bria and Picenum, into the territory of Adria, and
then through the territories of theMarucini and Fren-
tani into Apulia. When the enemy marched he fol¬
lowed them : when they encamped, he did the fame;
but for the molt part on eminences, and at fome dift-
ance from their camp, watching all their motions,
cutting off their ftragglers, and keeping them in a con¬
tinual alarm. This cautious method of proceeding
greatly diftreffed the Carthaginians, but at the fame
time raifed difeontents in his own army. But neither
thefe difeontents, nor the ravages committed by Han¬
nibal, could prevail upon Fabius to alter his meafures.
The former, therefore, entered Campania, one of the
fineft countries of Italy. The ravages he committed
there raifed fuch complaints in the Roman army, that
the dictator, for fear of irritating his foldiers, was
obliged to pretend a defire of coming to an engage¬
ment. Accordingly he followed Hannibal with more
expedition than ufual; but at the fame time avoided,,
under various pretences, an engagement with more
care than the enemy fought it. Hannibal, finding he
could not by any means bring the dictator to a battle,
refolved
[ 2f5 1
ii<y
He is out¬
witted by
Hannibal.
CAR [2i
Carthage, refolved to quit Campania, whicli lie found abound-
ing more with fruit and wine than corn, and to re¬
turn to Samnium through the pafs called Eribanus.
Fabius concluding from his march that this was his
delign, got there before him, and encamped on Mount
Callicula, which commanded the pafs, after having
placed feveral bodies in all the avenues leading to
it.
Hannibal was for fome time at a lofs what to do ;
but at laft contrived the following ftratagem, which
Fabius could not forefee nor guard againft. Being
encamped at the foot of Mount Callicula,. he ordered
Afdrubal to pick out of the cattle taken in the coun¬
try 2000 of the ftrongeft and nimbleft oxen, to tie
faggots to their horns, and to have them and the
herdfmen ready without the camp. After fupper,
when all was quiet, the cattle were brought in good
order to the hill, where Fabius had placed fome Ro¬
man parties in ambulh to flop up the pafs. Upon a
fignal given, the faggots on the horns of the oxen
were fet on fire j and the herdfmen, fupported by
fome battalions armed with fmall javelins, , drove them
on quietly. The Romans, feeing the light of the
fires, imagined that the Carthaginians W’ere marching
by torch light. However, Fabius kept clofe.m his
camp, depending on.the troops he had placed in am-
bufeade j but when the oxen, feeling the fire on their
heads, began to run up and down the hills, the Ro¬
mans in ambulh thinking themfelves furrounded on all
fides, and climbing the ways where they faw leafi:
light, returned to their camp, leaving the. pafs open to
Hannibal. Fabius, though rallied by his foldiers for
being thus overreached by the Carthaginian, ftill
continued to purfue the fame plan, marched diredtly
after Hannibal, and encamped on fome eminences near
him.
Soon after this, the di£lator was recalled to Rome *,
and as Hannibal, notwithftanding the terrible ravages
lie had committed, had all along fpared the lands of
Fabius, the latter was fiifpefted of holding a fecret cor-
refpondence with the enemy. In his abfence, Minu*
cius, the general of the horfe, gained fome. advantages,
which greatly tended to incrcafe the difeontent with
the dictator, infomuch that before his return Minu-
cius was put upon an equal footing with himfelf. I he
general of the horfe propofed that each Ihould com¬
mand his day ; but the diftator chofe rather to divide
the armv, hoping by that means to fave at leaft. a part
of it. Hannibal foon found means to draw' Minucius
to an engagement, and by his mafterly {kill in laying
ambufhes, the Roman general was furrounded on every
fide, and v'ould have been cut off with all his troops,
had’not Fabius haftened to his affiffance, and relieved
him. Then the two armies uniting, advanced m good
order to renew the fight} but Hannibal, not cai ing
to venture a fecond aftion, founded a retreat, and re¬
tired to his camp ; and Minucius, being alhamed of
his ralhnefs, refigned the command of the army to
Fabius. . .
The year following, the Romans augmented their
mans army to 87,00c men, horfe and foot, under the com-
)y defeated man(j Qf y£miHus Paulus and Terentius Varro, the
confuls for the year •, and Hannibal being reduced to
the greateft ftraits for want of provifions, relolved to
leave Samnium, and penetrate into the heart of Apulia.
Accordingly he decamped in the night j and by leav-
CAR
ing fires burning, and tents Handing in his camp, made Cartfag*.
the Romans believe for fome time that his retreat was *
only feigned. When the truth was difeovered, ^Emi¬
lias was againft purfuing him j but in this he was le-
conded by few' befides Servilius, one of the confuls of
the preceding year j-Terentius and all the other officers
being obftinately bent on purfuing the enemy. . They
accordingly overtook them at Eannae, till this time an ^
obfeure village in Apulia*. A battle enfued at this_eeCai>
place, as memorable as any mentioned in hiftory ; in
which thf Romans, though almoft double in number to
the Carthaginians, were put to flight with moil terrible
{laughter *, at lead 45,000 of them being left dead on
the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prifoners in the
action or purfuit. The night was fpent in Hannibal’s
camp in feafting and rejoicings, and next day in {trip¬
ping the dead bodies of the unhappy Romans ; after
which the victorious general invefted their two camps,
where he found 4000 men.
.
Minucius in Q£
great dan¬
ger is re¬
lieved by
Fabius.
11S
The Ro-
1
at Canna.
The immediate confequence of this viaory, as Han- C^ef<J"e:
nibal had forefeen was a difpofition of that part
Italy called the Old Province, Magna Grecia, Taren-
tum, and part of the territory of Capua, to fubmit to
him. The neighbouring provinces likewife dilcovered
an inclination to {hake off the Roman yoke, but want¬
ed firft to fee whether Hannibal was able to protett
them. His firft march was into Samnium, being in¬
formed that the Hirpini and other neighbouring na¬
tions were difpofed to enter into an alliance with the
Carthaginians. He advanced to Compfa, which opened
its gates to him. In this place he left his heavy bag¬
gage, as well as the immenfe plunder he had ac¬
quired. After which he ordered his brother Mago,
w ith a body of troops deftined for that purpofe, to pof-
fefs himfelf of all theTortreffes in Campania, the moft
delicious province of Italy. The humanity Hannibal
had all along ffiown the Italian prifoners, as well, as
the fame of the complete vi&ory he had lately obtain¬
ed, wrought fo powerfully upon the Lucani, Bruttn,
and Apulians, that they expreffed an eager defire of
being taken under his proteftion. Nay, even the
Campanians themfelves, a nation more obliged to. the
Romans than any in Italy, except the Latins, difeo¬
vered an inclination to abandon their natural friends.
Of this the Carthaginian general receiving intelligence, Capua fu
he bent his march towards Capua, not doubting but mits to
that, by means of the popular fa&ion there, he fiiould Hannl •
eafily make himfelf mafter of it j which accordingly
happened. Soon after this place had made its fub-
miffion, many cities of the Bruttii opened their gates
to Hannibal, who ordered his brother Mago to take
poffeffion of them. Mago was then difpatched to
Carthage, with the important news of the viftory at
Cannae, and the confequences attending it. Upon
his arrival there, he acquainted the fenate, that Hanm- ^ ^
bal had defeated fix Roman generals, four of whom ^go’s^
were confuls, one dictator, and the other general ofcoul'tof
.—   — , ~ 1 Hannibal’
horfe to the diftator : that he had engaged fix con- luctef5.
fular armies, killed two confuls, wounded one, and
driven another out of the field, with fcarce 50 men to
attend him : that he had routed the general of the
horfe, who ivas of equal power with the confuls j and
that the diaator was efteemed the only general fit to
command an army, merely bccaufe he had not the
courage to engage him j and as a demonftrative proof
of what he advanced, he produced, according to fome
authors,
::sfthage.
122
iknnibal
! perior to
;ery other
eral
entioned
hiftory.
his
Ira.
143
ufe of
e decline
his af-
CAB. . t 2i
authors, three bufliels and a half of gold rings, taken
from knights and fenators who had been killed in the
various engagements.
Hitherto we have feen Hannibal furprifingly vi&o-
rious; and, indeed, if we confider what he had already
done, we {hall find his exploits fuperior to thofe of
any other general, either ancient or modern. Other
commanders have been celebrated for viftories gained
over barbarous and uncivilized nations. Alexander
the Great invaded and overran the empire of Perfia 5
but that kingdom was then funk in (loth and effemi¬
nacy, fo as to be an eafy conqueft: but had that
great commander turned his arms againlt the weftern
nations, who were of a more martial difpofition, it is
more than probable he had not conquered fo eafily.
Hannibal, on the other hand, lived at a time when
the Romans were not only the moft powerful, but the
moft Varlike nation in the whole world. That nation
he attacked with an army of only 26,000 men, ivith-
•ut refources either for recruits, money, or provi-
fions, except what he could procure in the enemy’s
•ountry. With thefe he had for three years refilled
the Roman armies ; which had been hitherto invinci¬
ble by all other nations. Their armies had been com¬
manded by generals of different tempers, difpofitions,
and abilities : the Ioffes they fuftained are by the
Roman writers imputed to the faults of the generals
themfelves •, but experience had abundantly fliown,
that thefe commanders, with all their faults, were able
to conquer the moft warlike nations, when command¬
ed by another than Hannibal. In the battles fought
with the Romans he had deftroyed 200,000 of their
men, and taken 50,000 prifoners •, yet from the time
of the battle of Cannae, the affairs of this great man
totally declined. The reafon of this is, by the Roman
hiftorians, faid to be, that when he put his army into
winter quarters in Capua, he fo enervated himfelf and
his army by debaucheries in that place, that he be¬
came no longer capable of coping with the Roman
forces. But this feems by no means to have been the
cafe ; for the Roman hiftorians themfelves own, that,
after the battle of Cannae, he gave their armies many
hnd terrible defeats, and took a great number of towns
in their fight.
The true reafon of that reverfe of fortune which
Hannibal now experienced, was his not having fuf-
ficient refources for recruiting his army. On the firft
news, indeed, of his fuccefs at Carthage, a body of
4000 Numidian cavalry, 40 elephants, and 1000 talents
®f filver, were* granted by the fenate. A large de¬
tachment of Spanifti forces was alfo appointed to fol¬
low them \ and that thefe laft might be ready in due
time, Mago fet out immediately for Spain to raife
20,000 foot and 4000 horfe there. Had this ample
fupply been fent with proper expedition, it is by no
means probable that the Romans would have had any
oceafion to refleft upon Hannibal’s conduct at Capua.
That general would undoubtedly have obliged the
haughty republic to fubmit to the fuperior force of his
arms the next campaign. But, notwithftanding the
influence of the Barcinian faction at Carthage, Hanno
and his adherents found means not only to retard the
march of the fupplies intended, but even to diminifir
their number. Mago, through the artifices of that
infatuated party, could obtain an order for enly
Vox.. V. Parti.
? } CAR
12,000 foot and 2500 horfe $ andeVen with thfsSV.con- Csrthagff^
fiderable body of troops he was fent into Spain. Han-
nibal being thus deferted by his *ountry, found him¬
felf obliged to aft on the defenfive j his army amount¬
ing to no more now than 26,000 foot and 9000 horfe.
But though obliged to aft in this manner, he was
only hindered from conquering; the utmoft efforts of
the whole Roman power not being able to drive this
fmall army out of Italy for more than 14 years. r2#
The Romans, though greatly reduced, were not Meafures
yet exhaufted. They rvere able ftill to fend tAvo con- taken by
fular armies into the field, fully recruited and in good^^0"
order j and as neither the Gauls nor Italians wrere na¬
tural allies of the Carthaginians, they did not fail to
abandon them on the firft reverfe of fortune. After
the Romans had recovered from the confternation in¬
to Avhich they were thrown by the defeat at Carmte*
they chofe a diftator, and recalled Marcellus, the con-
queror of Syracufe, from Sicily. All the young Ro¬
mans, above 17 years of age, of what rank ioever^
Avere obliged to inlift themfelves j as Avere alfo thofe
Avho had already ferved their legal time. By this means,
four legions and 10,000 horfe AVere foon railed in the
city. The allies of Rome, the colonies, and the mu-
nicipia, furniftied their contingents as ufual. To thefe
were added 8000 of the youngeft and ftrongeft flave»
in the city. The republic purchafed them of their
matters, but did not oblige them to ferve without their
OAvn confent, Avhich they gave, by anfvvering Voloy
“ I am willing Avhence they were called vo/ones, to
diftinguifh them from the other troops. As the Ro¬
mans, after the lofs of fo many battles, had no fwords,
darts, or bucklers, left in their magazines, the vo/ones
Avere fupplied Avith the arms which had been formerly
taken from the enemy, and hung up in the public
temples and porticoes. The finances of Rome were
no lefs exhaufted : but this defeft w as fupplied by the
liberality of her citizens. The fenators flreAving the
example, Avere followed firft by the knights, and after-
Avards by all the tribes j Avho {tripping themfelves of
all the gold they had, brought it to the public trea-
fury. The fenators only referved their rings, and the
buHce about their children’s necks. As foi the filver
coin, it Avas noAV, for the firft time, alloyed with cop¬
per, and increafed in its value. Thus the financea
Avere put into a good condition, and a competent army
raifed.
This Avas plainly the laft effort the Romans could
make $ and could Hannibal have procured a fufficient
fupply of men and money to enable him to cope Avith
this army, and to break it as he had done the others
before, there crtuld have been no more refiftance made
on their part. He began, hoAvever, to be in Avant of
money j and to procure it, gave the Roman prifoners
leave to redeem themfelves. Thefe unhappy men
agreed to fend ten of their body to Rome to negotiate
their redemption j and Hannibal required no other fe-
curity for their return but their oath. Carthalo Avas They refufr
fent at the head of them to make propofals of peace j to treat of
but upon the firft news of his arrival, the diftator fentPeace-
a liftor to him, commanding him immediately to de¬
part the Roman territory •, and it wws refolved not to
redeem the captives. Upon this Hannibal fent the
moft confiderable of them to Carthage j and of the reft
he made gladiators, obliging them to fight Avith one
E e another,
CAR [21
Carthage, another, even relations with relations, for the entertain-
ment of the troops.
Afdmbal All this time Cneius and Publius Scipio had car-
defeated by ried on the war in Spain with great iuecefs againft
the Ro the Carthaginians. Afdrubal had been ordered to en-
mans in ^-er Italy with his army to alhft Hannibal } but being
.’pain. defeated by the Romans, wras prevented. The dicta¬
tor and fcnate of Rome, encouraged by this news,
carried on the preparations for the next campaign
with the greateft vigour, whilft Hannibal remained in¬
active at Capua. This inaCtion, however, feems to
have proceeded from his expectation of fuccours from
Africa, which never came, and which delay occafioned
his ruin. The Roman diClator now releafed from
prifon all criminals, and perfons confined for debt,
who were willing to inlift themielves. Of thefe he
formed a body of 6000 foot, armed with the broad-
fwords and bucklers formerly taken from the Gauls.
Then the Reman army, to the number of about 25,000
men, marched out of the city under the command of
the dictator ; while Marcellus kept the remains of
Varro’s army, amounting to about 15,000 men, at
Cafilinum, in readinefs to march whenever there {hould
be occafion.
Thus the Roman forces were ftill fuperior to thofe
of Hannibal ; and as they now law the neceflity of
following the example of Fabius Maximus, no engage¬
ment of any confequence happened the firft year after
the battle of Cannae. Hannibal made a fruitlefs at-
Marcellus tempt upon Nola, expeCting it would be delivered up
gains an ad-to him *, but this was prevented by Marcellus, who had
vantage 0- entered that city, and Tallying unexpectedly from three
ver Hanni- gates Up0n the Carthaginians, obliged them to retire
in great confufion, with the lofs of 5000 men. i his
was the firft advantage that had been gained by the
Romans where Hannibal had commanded in perfon,
and raifed the fpirits of the former not a little. They
were, however, greatly dejefted, on hearing that the
conful Pofthumius Albinus, with his whole army, had
been cut off by the Boii, as he w'as crofting a foreft.
Upon this it was refolved to draw all the Roman for¬
ces out of Gaul and other countries, and turn them
againft Hannibal; fo that the Carthaginian flood daily
more and more in need of thofe fupplies, which yet
Hannibal never arrived from Carthage. He reduced, however,
takes feve- the cities of Nuceria, Cafilinum, Petelia, Confentia,
ral cities. Crotona, Locri, and feveral others in Great Greece,
before the Romans gained any advantage over him, ex¬
cept that before Nola, already mentioned. The Cam¬
panians, who had efpoufed the Carthaginian intereft,
raifed an army of 14,000 of their own nation in fa¬
vour of Hannibal, and put one Marius Alfius at the
head of it •, but he was furprifed by the conful Sem-
pronius, who defeated and killed him, with 2000 of
his men. It was now found that Hannibal had con¬
cluded a treaty of alliance, offenfive and defenfive, with
Philip king of Macedon : but, to prevent any difturb-
j2o ance from that quarter, a Roman army was fent to
He is de- Macedon. Soon after this Marcellus defeated Han-
feated by njbal jn a pitched battle, having armed his men with
Marcellus. pjkes ufeci generally at fea, and chiefly in board¬
ing of fhips •, by which means the Carthaginians were
pierced through, while they were totally unable to
hurt their adverfaries with the fhort javelins they car¬
ried. Marcellus purfued them clofe ; and before they
8 ] CAR
got to their camp, killed 5000, and tcok 6co pri- Cwttap
loners •, lofing himielf about 1000 men, who were trod
down by the Numidian horfe, commanded by Han-^*3°^
nibal in perfon. After this defeat the Carthaginian ferted by
general found himielf deferted by 1200 of his belt party of
horfe, partly Spaniards, and partly Numidians, who
had croffed the Alps with him. This touched him fo
fenfibly, that he left Campania, and retired into Apu-
^a’
The Romans ftill continued to increafe their forces >
and Hannibal, not having the lame refources, found it
impoflible to aft againft lo many armies at once, la-
bius Maximus advanced into Campania, whither Han¬
nibal was obliged to return, in order to lave Capua.
He ordered Hanno, however, at the head of 1 “7,000
foot and 1700 horfe, to feize Beneventum j but he
was utterly defeated, fcarce 200c ol his men being lect ^ 131
alive. Hannibal himfelf, in the mean time, advanced He's ^
to Nola, where he was again defeated by Marcellus.
He now began to lofe ground; the Romans retookt0 lofe6
Cafilinum, Accua in Apulia, Arpi, and Aternum ;ground,
but the city of Tarentum was delivered up to him by
its inhabitants. The Romans then entered Campa¬
nia, and ravaged the whole country, threatening Ca¬
pua with a liege. 1 he inhabitants immediately ac¬
quainted Hannibal with their danger; but he was lo
intent upon reducing the citadel of larentum, that he
could not be prevailed upon to come to their afliftance.
In the mean time Hanno was again utterly defeated by
Fulvius, his camp taken, and he himfelf forced to fiy
into Bruttium, with a fmall body of horfe. The con-
fuls then advanced with a defign to befiege Capua in
form. But in their way, Stmpronius Gracchus, a
man of great bravery, and an excellent gencial, was
betrayed by a Lucanian and killed, which proved a ^
very great detriment to the republic. / Capua, how-QapUa^
ever, was foon after invefted on all fides ; and the be-Gegedb)
fieged once more fent to Hannibal, who now came to cl't R°*
their afliftance with his horfe, his light-armed infantry,nirns-
and 33 elephants. He found means to inform the be-^3^
lieged of the time he defigned to attack the Romans, vajn
ordering them to make a vigorous fally at the fame atteinpts
time. The Roman generals, Appius and Iulvius,relieve ii
upon the fil'd: news of the enemy’s approach, divided
their troops : Appius taking upon him to make Imad
againft the garrilon, and lulvius to defend the in-
trenchments againft Hannibal. Ihe former found no
difficulty in repulfing the garrifon : and would have
entered the city with them, had he not been wounded
at the very gate, which prevented him from purfuing
his defign. Fulvius found it more difficult to with-
ftand Hannibal, whofe troops behaved themfelves with
extraordinary refolution. A body of Spaniards and
Numidians had even the boldnefs to pals the ditch,
and, in fpite of all oppofition, climbing the ramparts,
penetrated into the Roman camp ; but, not being pro¬
perly feconded by the reft, they were all to a man cut
in pieces. The Carthaginian general w-as fo dilheart-
ened at this, efpecially after the garrifon was repulled,
that he founded a retreat, which was made in goed
order. His next attempt for the relief of Capua w as ^ .
to march to Rome, where he hoped his approach He marc
would llrike fo much terror, that the armies would be to Rome
called from before Capua; and that the Capuans might
not be dilheartened by his fudden departure, he found
means
137
ntenius
nula de-
ited by
unibal;
alfo the
CAR f 2
isrthagf. ftieSns to acquaint them with his deiign. The news
»=-V“— of his approach caufed great confternation in the me¬
tropolis. Some of the fenators were for calling all the
armies in Italy into the neighbourhood of Romej as
thinking nothing lefs was able to refill the terrible Car¬
thaginian. But Fabius told them that Hannibal’s de¬
iign was not to take Rome, but relieve Capua ; upon
which Fulvius was recalled to Rome with 15,000 foot
T^(. and 1000 horfe j and this obliged Hannibal again to
h furprifes retire. He then returned before Capua fo fuddenly
i deteats ^3+ he furprifed Appius in his camp, drove him out
jppius. 0f t]ie j0fs 0f a great number of men, and obli¬
ged him to intrench himfelf on fome eminences, where
he expefled to be foon joined by his colleague Fulvius.
ipuafub- As Hannibal, however, now expefted to have all the
tsto the Roman forces upon him, he could do nothing more for
imans. t^e reijef Gf Capua ; which was of confequenee obliged
to fubmit to the Romans.
A little before the furrender of Capua, Hannibal
came up with a Roman army commanded by one M.
Centemus Penula, who had fignalized himfelf on many
occafions as a centurion. This rafh man, being intro¬
duced to the fenate, had the aflurance to tell them,
that if they would trull him with a body of only 5000
men, he would give a good account of Hannibal. They
gave him 8000, and his army was foon increafed to
double that number. He engaged the Carthaginians
on Hannibal’s firll offering him battle •, but, after an
engagement of two hours, was defeated, himfelf and
all his men being flain except about 1000. Soon
tor Fnl-after} Having found means to draw the prcetor Cneius
Fulvius into an ambufcade, Hannibal cut in pieces
almoll his whole army, confiding of 18,000 men.
In the mean time Marcellus v’as making great pro-
Bgrefs in Samnium. The city of Salapia was betray¬
ed to him ; but he took other two by affault. In the
lad of thefe he found 3000 Carthaginians, whom he
put to the fword 5 and carried off 240,000 bulhels of
wheat, and 110,000 of barley. This, however, was
by no means a compenfation for the defeat which Han¬
nibal foon after gave the proconful Fulvius Centuma-
lus, whom he furprifed and cut off, with 13,000 of
his men.
After this defeat the great Marcellus advanced with
his army to oppofe Hannibal. Various engagements
happened without any thing decifive. In one of them
the Romans are faid to have been defeated, and in
Another Hannibal } but notwithllanding thefe, it was
neither in the power of Marcellus, nor any other Ro¬
man general, totally to defeat or difperfe the army
commanded by Hannibal in perfon. Nay, in the
iwn into eleventh year of the war, Hannibal found means to de-
^arabuf- COy in|-0 an ambufcade and cut off the great Marcel-
e anc* lus himfelf j the confequence of which was, that the
Romans were obliged to raife the fiege of Locri, with
the lofs of all their military engines.
Hitherto the Carthaginians, though no longer the
favourites of fortune, had lod but little ground 5 but
allv ruin-now they met with a blow which totally ruined their
affairs. This was the defeat of Afdrubal, Hannibal’s
brother, who had left Spain, and was marching to his
affiilance. He croffed the Pyrenees, without any dif¬
ficulty ; and, as the filver mines had fupplied him with
a very confiderable quantity of treafure, he not on¬
ly prevailed upon the Gauls to grant him a paffage
J39
1 ‘he
>conful
Ivius
•ntuma-
140
lircellus
1e and
led.
I41. .
tbagini-
affairs
19 ] CAR
through their territories, but likewife to furnilh him Oai’thhgfo ^
with a confiderable number of recruits. Meeting with —
many favourable circumilances to expedite his march,
he arrived at Placentia fooner than the Romans or
even his brother Hannibal expedled. Had he conti¬
nued to ufe the fame expedition with which he fet;
out, and haltened to join his brother, it w'ould have
been utterly impoflible to have faved Rome J but, fit¬
ting down before Placentia, he gave the Romans an
opportunity of affembling all their forces to attack
him. At laft he wras obliged to raife the fiege, and
began his march for Umbria. He fent a letter to ac¬
quaint his brother of his intended motion $ but the
meffenger was intercepted : and the tw'o confuls, join¬
ing their armies, with united forces fell upon th6
Carthaginians. As the latter were inferior both in
numbers and refolution, they were utterly defeated,
and Afdrubal was killed. About the fame time, Han¬
nibal himfelf is faid to have fuffered feveral defeats,
and was retired to Canufium : but, on the fatal news
of his brother’s defeat and death, he was filled with
defpair, and retired to the extremity of Bruttium :
where, affembling all his forces, he remained for a
confiderable time in a Hate of inaction, the Romans
not daring to difburb him •, fo formidable did they
eftcem him alone, though every thing about him went
to wreck, and the Carthaginian aftairs feemed not
far from the verge of deft ruction. Livy tells us, that
it was difficult to determine whether his. conduct was
more wonderful in profperity or in adverfity. Not¬
withstanding which, Bruttium being but a iinall pro¬
vince, and many of its inhabitants being either forced
into the fervice, or forming themfelves into parties of
banditti, fo that a great part of it remained unculti¬
vated, he found it a difficult matter to fubfift there,
especially as no manner of fupplies were fent him from
Carthage. The people there were as folicitous about
preferving their poffeftions in Spain, and as little con¬
cerned about the lituation of affairs in Italy, as if Han¬
nibal had met with an uninterrupted courfe of fuecefs,
and no difafter befallen him fince he firft entered that
country*
All their folicitude, however, about the affairs of rhe great
Spain, was to no purpofe j their generals, one after progrefs of
another, were defeated by the Romans. They had Scipio Afri-
indeed cut oft* the two Scipios j but found a muchc<inuS’
more formidable enemy in the young Scipio, after¬
wards furnamed Africanus. He overthrew them in
oonjumftion with Mafiniffa king of Numidia 5 and the
latter thereafter abandoned their intereft. Soon af¬
ter, Syphax, king of the Mafoefylii, was likewife peri
fuaded to abandon their party. Scipio alfo gave the
Spaniffi reguli a great overthrow, and reduced the
cities of New Carthage, Gades, and many other im¬
portant places. At laft the Carthaginians began to
open their eyes when it Was too late. Mago was or¬
dered to abandon Spain, and fail with all expedition
to Italy. He landed on the coaft of Liguria with an jviao^f^u.0%
army of 1 2,000 foot and 2000 horfe 5 where he fur- jn J
prifed Genoa, and alfo feized upon the town and port
of Savo. A reinforcement was lent him to this place,
and new levies went on very brilkly in Liguria ; but
the opportunity was paft, and could not be recalled. ^
Scipio having carried all before him in Spain, paffed Scipio lands
over into Africa, where he met with no enemy capable in Africa.
Eg 2 of
CAft t22°jl CAR
Carthage. »f oppofmg liis progrefs. The Carthaginkns, then,
Ui.—y—...i feeing themfelves on the brink of deftruftion, were
obliged to recal their armies from Italy, in order to
fave their city. Mago, who had entered Infubria, was
14S defeated by the Roman forces there j and having re-
Mago and treated into the maritime parts of Liguria, met a
n-ff courier who brought him orders to return directly lo
icca ed. (jart}iage> ^t the fame time, Hannibal was likewife
recalled. When the meffengers acquainted him with
the fenate’s pleafure, he exprefled the utmoft indigna¬
tion and concern, groaning, gnalhing his teeth, and
fcaree refraining from tears. Never banilhed man, ac¬
cording to Livy, ihowed fo much regret in quitting
his native country, as Hannibal did at going out of
I4<S that of the enemy.
Hannibal’S The Carthaginian general was no fooner landed in
proceedings Africa, than lie fent out parties to get provifions for
atterllls the army, and buy horfes to remount the cavalry.
J^111 He entered into a league with the regulus of the
Arcacidae, one of the Numidian tribes. Four thoufand
of Syphax’s horfe came over in a body to him j but as
he did not think proper to repofe any confidence in
them, he put them all to the fword, and diftributed
their horfes among his troops. Vermina, one of Sy¬
phax’s fons, and Macetulus, another Numidian prince,
likewife joined him with a confiderable body of horfe.
Moll of the fortreffes in Mafiniffa’s kingdom either
furrendered to him upon the firlt fummons, or were
taken by force. Narce, a city of confiderable note
* there, he made himfelf mailer of by llratagem. 1 y-
chaeus, a Numidian regulus, and faithful ally of Sy-
phax, whofe territories were famous for an excellent
breed of horfes, reinforcing him alfo with 2000 of
his bell cavalry, Hannibal advanced to Zama, a
town about five days journey dillant from Carthage,
where he encamped. He thence fent out fpies. to
obferve the polture of the Romans. Fhefe being
brought to Scipio, he was fo far from inflicting any
punilhment upon them, which he might have done by
the laws of war, that he commanded them to be led
14* ^bout the camp, in order to take an exaft furvey of
He has an it, and then difmilfed them. Hannibal, admiring the
Interview no^je affurance of his rival, fent a meifenger to defire
with Scipio. an jnterview with him : which, by means of MafiniiTa,
he obtained. 1 he two generals, therefore, efcorted by
^jqual detachments of horfe, met at Nadagara, where,
by the aflillance of two interpreters, they held a pri-
Yate conference. Hannibal flattered Scipio in the moll
Refined and artful manner, and expatiated upon al],
thofe topics which he thought could influence that ge¬
neral to grant his nation a peace upon tolerable terms j
amongil other things, that the Carthaginians would
willingly confine themfelves to Africa, lince. fuch was
the will of the gods, in order to procure a lafting peace,
whilft the Romans ■would be at liberty to extend their
conquelts to the remote!! nations. Scipio . anfwered,
|hat the Romans were not prompted by ambition, or any
finilter views, to undertake either the former or prcfent
war againft the Carthaginians, but by juftice and a
proper regard for tbeir allies. He alfo obferved, that
the Carthaginians had, before bis arrival in Africa, not
only made him the fame propofals, but likewife agreed
to pay the Romans 5000 talents of filver, rellore all
the Roman prifoners without ranfom, and. deliver up
'*4 their galleys. He infilled on the perfidious conduct
of the Carthaginians, who had broke a truce concluded Carthage ,
with them j and told him, that, fo far from granting < i 1
them more favourable terms, they ought to expert
more rigorous ones j which if Hannibal would fubmit
to, a peace would enfue } if not, the decifion of the
difpute mull be left to the fword. ^
This conference betwflxt two of the greateft gene-The battli
rals the world ever produced, ending without fuccels, of ZaraaR
they both retired to their refpedlive camps •, where
they informed their troops, that not only the fato 1]
of Rome and Carthage, but that of the whole world,
was to be determined by them the next day. An 1
engagement enfued *, in which, as Polybius informs * Sec Zj
us, the furprifing military genius of Hannibal dif-^®*
played itfelf in an extraordinary manner. Scipio
likewife, according to Livy, palled a high encomium
upon him, on account of his uncommon capacity in
taking advantages, the excellent arrangement of his
forces, and the manner in which he gave his orders
during the engagement. The Roman general, in¬
deed, not only approved his conduct, but openly de¬
clared that it w'as luperior to his own. NevertLelefs,
being vallly inferior to the enemy in horfe, and the
Rate of Carthage obliging him to hazard a battle with J49
the Romans at no fmall difadvantage, Hannibal w as Hannibal
utterly routed, and his camp taken. He fled firll to totally
Thon, and afterwards to Adrumentum, from whenceroutecl*
he was recalled to Carthage j where bei»g arrived,
he advifed his countrymen to conclude a peace with
Scipio on whatever terms he thought proper to pre-
feribe. _ #
Thus was the fecond war of the Carthaginians with Peace m
the Romans concluded. The conditions of peace eluded,
were very humiliating to the Carthaginians. They
were obliged to deliver up all the Roman deferters, fu¬
gitive Haves, prifoners of war, and all the Italians
whom Hannibal had obliged to follow him. ihey
alfo delivered up all their Ihips of war, except ten
triremes, all their tame elephants, and w'ere to train up
no more of thefe animals for the lervice. They were
not to engage in any war without the confent of the
Romans. They engaged to pay to the Romans, in
50 years, 10,000 Euboic talents, at equal payments*
They were to rellore to Mafinilia all they had ufurp-
ed from him or his ancellors, and to enter into an
alliance with him. They were alfo to affilt the Ro¬
mans both by fea and land, whenever they were calL
ed upon fo to do, and never to make any levies either
in Gaul or Liguria. Thefe terms appeared fo into¬
lerable to the populace, that they threatened to plunder
and burn the houfes of the nobility } but Hannibal
having affembled a body of 6000 foot and 500 horfe
at Marthama, prevented an infurrettion, and by his
influence completed the accommodation.
The peace betw-een Carthage and Rome was fcaree- Carttag;,
ly figned, when Malinifla unjullly made himfelf mailer ans 0ppre |
of part of the Carthaginian dominions in Africa, un-fed byM
der pretence that thefe formerly belonged to his fa-
mily. The Carthaginians, through the villainous me¬
diation of the Romans, found themfelves under a ne-
ceflity of ceding thefe countries to that ambitious
prince, and of entering into an alliance with him. 1 he
good underltanding between the two powers continued
for many years afterwards 5 but at laft Mafinifla vio¬
lated, the treaties fubfilting betwixt him and the Car-.
ijjaginiaa.
IS* .
annibal
iesto An*
ochus.
153
liquitous
•oceed-
gs of Ma
iffa and
,e Ro-
CAR. f 22
larthage. thagxnian republic, and not a little contributed to its
Y”—'' Tubverfion.
After the conclulion of the peace, Hannibal flill
kept up his credit among his countrymen. He was
intrufted with the command of an army againft fome
neighbouring nations in Africa 5 but this being dif-
agreeable to the Romans, he was removed from it, and
raifed to the dignity of prsetor in Carthage. Here he
continued for fome time, reforming abufes, and put¬
ting the affairs of the republic into a better condi¬
tion ; but this likewife being difagreeable to the Ro¬
mans, he was obliged to fly to Antiochus king of Sy¬
ria. After his flight, the Romans began to look up¬
on the Carthaginians with a fufpieious eye j though
to prevent every thing of this kind, the latter had or¬
dered two {hips to purfue Hannibal, had confifcated
his effefts, razed his houfe, and by a public decree
declared him an exile. Soon after, difputes arifing
■ between the Carthaginians and Mafinifla, the latter,
notwithftanding the manifeft iniquity of his proceed¬
ings, was fupported by the Romans. That prince,
grafping at further conquefts, endeavoured to embroil
the Carthaginians with the Romans, by alferting that
the former had received ambaffadors from Perfeus
king of Macedon j that the fenate affembled in the
temple of iEfculapius in the night time, in order to
confer with them j and that ambafladors had been dif-
patched from Carthage to Perfeus, in order to con¬
clude an alliance with him. Not long after this, Ma¬
finifla made an irruption into the province of Tyfca,
where he foon poflefled himfelf of 70, or, as Appian
will have it, 50 towns and caftles. This obliged the
Carthaginians to apply with great importunity to the
Roman fenate for redrefs, their hands being fo tied up
by an article in the laft treaty, that they could not re¬
pel force by force, in cafe of an invafion, without their
confent. Their ambafladors begged, that the Roman
fenate would fettle once for all what dominions they
were to have, that they might from thenceforth know
what they had to depend upon; or, if their ftate had
any way offended the Romans, they begged that they
would punifti them themfelves, rather than leave them
expofed to the infults and vexations of fo mercilefs a
tyrant. Then proftrating themfelves on the earth,
they burfl: out into tears. But, notwithftanding the
imprefiion their fpeech made, the matter w as left un¬
decided ; fo that Mafinifla had liberty to purfue his
rapines, as much as he pleafed. But whatever villan-
ous defigns the Romans might have with regard to
the republic of Carthage, they aflefted to {how a great
regard to the principles of juft ice and honeur. They
therefore fent Cato, a man famous for committing
enormities under the fpecious pretence of public fpirit,
into Africa, to accommodate all differences betwixt
Mafinilfa and the Carthaginians. The latter very well
knew their fate, had they fubmitted to fuch a media¬
tion j and therefore appealed to the treaty concluded
with Scipio, as the only rule by which their condudf;
and that of their adverfary ought to be examined.
This unreafonable appeal fo incenfed the righteous Ca¬
to, that he pronounced them a devoted people, and
from that time refolved upon their deftrudfion. For
fdme time he was oppofed by Scipio Nafica; but the
people of Carthage, knowing the Romans to be their
inveterate enemies, and reflecting upon the iniquitous
1 ] CAR
treatment they had met with from them ever fince the Carthage,
commencement of their difputes with Mafinifla, were
under great apprehenfions of a vifit from them. To
prevent a rupture as much as poflible, by a decree of
the fenate, they impeached Afdrubal, general of the
army, and Carthalo, commander of the auxiliary for¬
ces, together rvith their accomplices, as guilty of high
treafon, for being the authors of the war againft the
king of Numidia. They fent a deputation to Rome,
to difeover what fentiments were entertained there of
their late con duel, and to know what fatisfadfion the
Romans required. Thefe meffengers meeting with a
cold reception, others were difpatched, who returned
with the fame fuccefs. This made the unhappy citi¬
zens of Carthage believe that their deftrudlion was re¬
folved upon } Avhich threw them into the utmoft de-
fpair. And indeed they had but too juft grounds for
fuch a melancholy apprehenfion, the Roman fenate
now difeovering an inclination to fall in with Cato’s
meafures. About the fame time, the city ot .Utica,
being the fecond in Africa, and famous for its immenle
riches, as well as its equally commodious and capaci¬
ous port, fubmitted to the Romans. Upon the poflef-
fion of fo important a fortrefs, Avhich, by reafon of its
vicinity to Carthage, might ferve as a place of arms in
the attack of that city, the Romans declared war a- w’ar’decla**-
gainft the Carthaginians without the leaft hefitation.e(i by the
In confequence of this declaration, the confuls M. Romans a-
Manlius Nepos, and L. Marcius Cenforinus, w ere de-?ainft Car_'
fpatched with an army and fleet to begin hoftilities tiiaSe-:
wdth the utmoft expedition. The land forces confifted
of 80,000 foot and 4000 chofen horfe ; and the fleet
of 50 quinqueremes, befides a vaft number of tranf-
ports. The confuls had feeret orders from the fenate
not to conclude the operations but by the dtftrmftion
of Carthage, without which, it was pretended, the re¬
public could not but look upon all her pofleflions as in-
fecure. Purfuant to the plan they had formed, the
troops were firft landed at Lilybaeum in Sicily, trora
whence, after receiving a proper refrefhment, it was
propofed to tranfport them to Utica.
The anfwer brought by the laft ambafladors to Car- Ambafla-
thage had not a little alarmed the inhabitants of thatclurs 1*
city. But they Avere not yet acquainted with the re- Koir'®‘
folutions taken at Rome. They therefore fent frefh
ambafladors thither, whom they invefted Avith full
powers to adl as they thought proper for the good
of the republic, and even to fubmit themfelves Avith-
out referve to the pleafure of the Romans. But the
moft fen Able perfons among them did not expeft any
great fuccefs from this condefcenfion, fince the early
fubmiflion of the Uticans had rendered it infinitely leis
meritorious than it Avould have been before. Hoav-
ever, the Romans feemed to be in fome meafure fatis-
fied Avith it, fince they promifed them their liberty,
the enjoyment of their laws, and in fhort, every thing
that Avas dear and valuable to them. This threw them
into a tranfport of joy, and they wanted words to ex¬
tol the moderation of the Romans. But the fenate
immediately dalhed all their hopes, by acquainting maRS de.
them that this favour w'as granted upon condition mand 3^-
that they would fend 300 young Carthaginian noble- hoftage^
men of the firrt diftinftion to the prartor Fabius at
Lilybseum, Avithin the fpace of 30 days, and comply
with all the orders of the confuls. Thefe hard terms
filled*
CAR
[ 222 ]
CAR
man arms,
military
machines,
&.C.
t53
to deftroy
their city.
Carthage, filled the whole city with inexpreflible grief: but the
  tT-**' hoftages were delivered j and as they arrived at Lily-
bceum before the 30 days were expired, the ambafla-
dors were not without hopes of foftening their hard¬
hearted enemy. But the confuls only told them, that
upon their arrival at Utica they ihould learn the fur¬
ther orders of the republic.
The minilters no fooner received intelligence of the
Roman fieet appearing off Utica, than they repaired
thither, in order to know the fate of their city. 1. he
confuls however did not judge it expedient to com¬
municate all the commands of the republic at once,
lelt they Ihould appear fo harfii and levere, that the
t ^ Carthaginians would have refufed to comply with
and all the them. They firft, therefore, demanded a fufficient
Carthagi- fupply of corn for the fubfiftence of their troops. Se¬
condly, That they fhould deliver up into their hands
all the triremes they were then mailers of. Thirdly,
That they Ihould put them in poffeffion of all their
military machines. And, fourthly, I hat they Ihould
immediately convey all their arms into the Roman
camp.
As care was taken that there Ihould be a conve¬
nient interval of time betwixt every one of thefe de¬
mands, the Carthaginians found themfelves enfnared,
and could not reje6t any one of them, though they
fubmitted to the laft with the utmolf reluftance and
They com- concern. Cenforinus, now imagining them incapable
njand them ffifiaining a liege, commanded them to abandon
their city, or, as Zonaras will have it, to demoli h it $
permitting them to build anotner 80 Itadia from the
fea, but without walls or fortifications. This terrible
decree threw the fenate and every one elfe into de-
fpair ; and the whole city became a feene of horror,
madnefs, and confufion. The citizens curfed their an-
■cellors for not dying glorioufiy in the defence of then-
country, rather "than concluding fuch ignominious trea¬
ties of peace, that had been the caufe of the deplora¬
ble condition to which their pofterity was then redu¬
ced. At length, when the firit commotion was a little
abated, the ienators aflembled, and refolved to fuftain
a fiege. They were llripped of their arms and delti-
tute of provifions *, but defpair raifed their courage,
and made them find out expedients. They took care
to Ihut the gates of the city •, and gathered together on
the ramparts great heaps of Hones, to ferve them in-
Head of arms in cafe of a furprife. They took the ma-
lefa&ors out of prifon, gave the Haves their liberty,
and incorporated them in the militia. Afdrubal was
recalled, who had been fentenced to die only to pleafe
the Romans 5 and he was invited to employ 20,0^0
men he had raifed againH his country in defence of it.
Another Afdrubal avas appointed to command in Car¬
thage •, and all feemed refolute, either to fave their ci-
They make ty or periih in its ruins. They wanted arms j but, by
-new arms. or(ler Gf t}ie fenate, the temples, porticoes, and all
public buildings, were turned into workhoufes, where
men and women were continually employed in making
arms. As they encouraged one another in their work,
and loH no time in procuring to themfelves the necef-
faries of life, which were brought to them at Hated
"hours, they every day made 144 bucklers, 300 fvvords,
1000 darts, and 500 lances and javelins. As to ba-
RHse and catapult*, they wanted proper materials for
them $ but their induHry fupplied that ckfeft. Where
2
iS9
The Car¬
thaginians
refolve to
fuftain a
fiege.
iron and brafs were wanting, they made ufe of filver Carthagk
and gold, melting down the Hatues, vafes, and even ¥'~'
the utenfils of private families •, for, on this occafion,
even the mofl covetous became liberal. As tow and
flax were wanting to make cords for working the ma¬
chines, the women, even thole of the firfl rank, freely
cut off their hair and dedicated it to that ufe. With¬
out the walls, Afdrubal employed the troops in get¬
ting together provilions, and conveying them fafe into
Carthage ^ fo that there was as great plenty there as
in the Roman camp.
In the mean time the confuls delayed drawing near
to Carthage, not doubting but the inhabitants, whom
they imagined deftitute of neceffaries to luffain a flege,
would, upon cool reflexion, fubmit j but at length}
finding themfelves deceived in their expe£lation, they
came before the place and invefled it. As they were
Hill perfuaded that the Carthaginians had no arms,
they flattered themfelves that they ftiould eafily carry i**
the city by affault. Accordingly they approached
the walls in order to plant their fealing ladders^ but^
to their great furprife they difeovered. a prodigious •.i.ans, whij
multitude of men on the ramparts, fhining in the ar- y- repul.
■mour they had newly made. The legionaries were foie!l*
terrified at this unexpefted fight, that they drew back,
and would have retired, if the coniuls had not led
them on to the attack •, which, however, proved un-
fiiccefsful j the Romans, in fpite of their utmoft ef¬
forts, being obliged to give over the enterprife, and
lay afide all thoughts of taking Carthage by affault.
In the mean time, Afdrubal, having colkaed from all
places ftibjea to Carthage a prodigious number of
troops, came and encamped within reach of the Ro¬
mans, and foon reduced them to great ftraits fw want
of provilions. As IMarcius, one of the Roman con¬
fuls, was polled near a marih, the exhalations of tlm
ftagnating waters, and the heat of the feafon, infeae'd
the air, and caufed a general fieknels among his men.
Marcius, therefore, ordered his fleet to draw as near
the fnore as poflible, in order to tranfport his troops 161
to a healthier place. Afdrubal being informed ofP^'
this motion, ordered all the old barks in the harbour
to be filled with faggots, tow, fulphur, bitumen, and
other combuftible materials •, and then, taking advan¬
tage of the wind, which blewr towTards the enemy, let
them drive upon their (hips, which were for the moft
part confumed. After this difafter, Marcius was call¬
ed home to prefide at the ele£fions •, and the Cartha¬
ginians looking upon the abfcnce of one of the con¬
fuls to be a good omen, made a brilk fally in the night'}
and would have furprifed the conful’s camp, had not
Atmilianus, with fome fquadrons, marched out of tht
gate oppofite to the place where the attack was made,
and, coming round, fell unexpeaedly on their rear, and
obliged them to return in diforder to the city.
Afdrubal had polled himfelf under the walls of a
city named Nepheris, 24 miles diftant from Carthage,
and fituated on a high mountain, which feemed inac-
ceflible on all fides. From thence he made incurfions
into the neighbouring country, intercepted the Roman
convoys, fell upon their detachments fent out to forage,
and even ordered parties to infult the confula? army in
their camp. Hereupon the conful refolved to drive
the Carthaginian from this advantageous poll, and fet
out for Nepherie. As he drew near the hills, Afdru¬
bal
"Efthsge
163
Ihe Ro¬
an army
great
mger, is
ved by
ipio JE,-
dianus.
II54'
gams
r the
thagini-
general
iorfe.
IP*.
toniul.
CAR [2
. bal fuddenty appeared at tlie bead of his army in order
J of battle, and fell upon the Romans with incredible
fury. The confular army fuftained the attack with
great refolution 5 and Afdrubal retired in good order
to his poft, hoping the Romans would attack him
there. But the conful, being now convinced of his
danger, refolved to retire. This Afdrubal no fooner
perceived, than he rulhed down the hill, and falling
upon the enemy’s rear, cut a great number of them in
pieces. The whole Roman army was now faved by
the bravery of Seipio iEmilianus. At the head of 300
horfe, he fuftained the attack of all the forces com¬
manded by Afdrubal, and covered the legions, while
they pafted a river in their retreat before the enemy.
Then he and his companions threw themfelves into
the ftream, and fwam acrofs it. When the army had
crofted the river, it was perceived that four manipuli
were wanting; and foon after they were informed that
they had retired to an eminence, where they refolved
to fell their lives as dear as poftible. Upon this news
./Emilianus, taking with him a chofen body of horfe,
and proviftons for two days, crofted the river, and flew
to the aftiftance of his countrymen. He feized a hill
over againft that on which the four manipuli were
polled j and, after forne hours repofe, marched againft
the Carthaginians who kept them invefted ; fell upon
them at the head of his fquadron with the boldnefs of
a man determined to conquer or die ; and, in fpite of
all oppofition, opened a way for his fellow-foldiers to
efcape. On his return to the army, his companions,
who had given him over for loft, carried him to his
quarters in a kind of triumph ; and the manipuli he
had faved gave him a crown of gramen. By thefe and
fome other exploits, Abmilianus gained fueh reputation,
that Cato, who is faid never to have commended any
body before, could not refufe him the praifes he de-
ferved ; and is faid to have foretold that Carthage
would never be reduced till Scipio ALmilianus was em¬
ployed in that expedition.
The next year, the war ia Africa fell by lot to the
conful L. Calpurnius Pifo •, and he continued to em¬
ploy Amilianus in feveral important enterprifes, in
which he was attended with uncommon fuccefs. He
took feveral caftles; and in one of his excurftons, found
means to have a private conference with Phameas, ge¬
neral, under Afdrubal, of the Carthaginian cavalry,
and brought him over, together with 2200 of his
horfe, to the Roman intereft. Under the conful Cal¬
purnius Pifo himfelf, however, the Roman arms were
unfuccefsful. He invefted Clupea ; but was obliged
to abandon the enterprife, with the lofs of a great
number of men killed by the enemy in their fallies.
From this place he went to vent his rage on a city
newly built, and thence called Nenpo/is, which pro-
fefted a ftrieft neutrality, and had even a fafeguard from
the Romans. The conful, however, plundered the
place, and ftripped the inhabitants of all their effeils.
After this he laid fiege to Hppagret/i, which employ¬
ed the Roman fleet and army the whole fummer : and,
on the approach of winter, the conful retired to Utica,
without performing a ftngle aftion worth notice during
the whole campaign.
Ihe next year Scipio Amilianus \ras chofen conful,
and ordered to pafs into Africa •, and, upon his arrival,
the face of affairs was greatly changed. At the time
24 ] CAR
of his entering the port of Utica, 3500 Romans were Carthage,
in great danger of being cut in pieces before Carthage. * “■*
ihefe had leized Megalia, one of the iuburbs of the
city : but as they had not furnifhed themfelves with
provifions to fubfift there, and could not retire, being
elofely invefted on all ftdes by the enemy’s troops, the
praetor Mancinus, who commanded this detachment,,
feeing the danger into which he had brought himfelf,
difpatched a light boat to Utica, to acquaint the Ro¬
mans there with his fituation. JEmilianus received this
letter a few hours after his landing ; and immediately
Hew to the relief of the befieged Romans, obliged the
Carthaginians to retire within their walls, and fafely
conveyed his countrymen to Utica. Having then
drawn together all the troops, Amulianus applied him¬
felf wholly to the fiege of the capital. i6<s
His firft attack w as upon Megalia j which he car-Cruelties of*
ried by aflault, the Carthaginian garrifon retiring int0
the citadel of Byrfa. Afdrubal, w ho had commanded
the Carthaginian forces in the field, and w'as now go¬
vernor of the city, was fo enraged at the lofs of Me¬
galia, that he caufed all the Roman captives taken in
the tw'o years the war lafted, to be brought upon the-
ramparts, and thrown headlong, in the fight of the
Roman army, from the top of the wall 5 after havings
with an exeefs of cruelty, commanded their hands and
feet to be cut off, and their eyes and tongues to be
torn out. He was of a temper remarkably inhuman j
and it is faid that he even took pleafure in feeing fome
of thefe unhappy men flayed alive. Ahnilianus, in the
mean time, was bufy in drawing lines of circumvalla-
tion and contravallation aci'ofs the neck of land which
joined the ifthmus on which Carthage flood to the i6j
continent. By this means, all the avenues on the land Carthage
fide of Carthage being ftiut up, the city could receive
no provifions that way. His next care was to raife a]an(i.
mole in the fea, in order to block up the old port, the
new one being already fliut up by the Roman fleet j
and this great work he effedled with immenfe labour.
The mole reached from the weftern neck of land, of
which the Romans w'ere matters, to the entrance of the
port ; and was 90 feet broad at the bottom, and 80 at-
the top. The befieged, when the Romans firft began
this furprifing work, laughed at the attempt y but
were no lefs alarmed than furprifed, when they beheld
a vaft mole appearing above water, and by that means
the port rendered inacceflible to fhips, and quite ufe-
lefs. Prompted by defpair, however, the Carthagi-The befie-
nians, with incredible and almoft miraculous induftry, ged dig a
dug a new bafon, and cut a paffage into the fea, by 'VVi^e
w hich they could receive the provifions that were fent
them by the troops in the field. With the fame di¬
ligence and expedition, they fitted out a fleet of 50
triremes j which, to the great furprife of the Romans,
appeared fuddenly advancing into the fea through this
new canal, and even ventured to give the enemy battle*.
The a£lion lafted the whole day, with little advantage
on either fide. The day after, the conful endeavoured
to make himfelf mailer of a terrace which covered the
city on the fide next the fea 5 and on this occafion the i<ftj
befieged fignalized themfelves in a molt remarkable They i'er
manner. Great numbers of them, naked and unarmed,fire tothe
w ent into the w'ater in the dead of the nieht, w ith un-Ron^n
7 machines.
lighted torches in their hands 5 and having, partly by
fwimming, partly by wading, got within reach of the
Roman
CAR t 224
Carthage. Roman engines, they ftruck fire, lighted their torches
and threw them with fury againft the machines, i he
fudden appearance of thefe naked men, who looked
like fo many monfters darted up out of the iea, fo ter¬
rified the Romans who guarded the machines, that
they began to retire with the utmotl confufion. 1 he
conful, who commanded the detachment in peifon,
and had continued all night at the foot of the terrace,
endeavoured to flop his men, and even ordered thofe
who fled to be killed. But the Carthaginians, per¬
ceiving the confufion the Romans were in, threw them-
felves upon them like fo many wild beafls j and having
put them to flight only with their torches, they fet
fire to the machines, and entirely confumed them.
This, however, did not difcourage the conful ^ he re¬
newed the attack a few days after, carried the terrace
by affault, and lodged 4000 men upon it. As this
was an important poll, becaufe it pent in Carthage on
the fea fide, /Emilianus took care to fortify and fe-
cure it againft the fallies of the enemy } and then,
winter approaching, he fufpended all further attacks
upon the place till the return of good ■weather. Dur¬
ing the winter feafon, however, the coniul was not
infaive. The Carthaginians had a very numerous ar-
tny under the command of one Diogenes, ftrongly en¬
camped near Nepheris, whence convoys of provifjons
were fent by fea to the befieged, and brought into
Cartlin
„ ,7I
Cibtho ta¬
ken.
thenewbafon. To take Nepheris, therefore, was to
Vaftflaugh- deprive Carthage of her chief magazine. I his iEmili-
fer of the anus undertook, and fucceeded in the attempt. He
fcarthagini- firft forceci the enemy’s intrenchments, put 70,000 of
ans* them to the fword, and made 10,000 prifoners j all
the inhabitants of the country, who could not retire
to Carthage, having taken refuge in this camp. After
this he laid fiege to Nepheris, which was reduced in
22 days. Afdrubal being diftieartened by the defeat
of the army, and touched with the mifery of the be¬
fieged, now reduced to the utmoft extremity for want
of provifions, offered to fubmit to what conditions the
Romans pleafed, provided the city was fpared ; but
this was abfolutely refufed.
Early in the fpring, ALmilianus renewed the fiege
of Carthage •, and in order to open himfelf a way into
the citv, he ordered Lselius to attempt the redu&ion
of Cotho, a fmall ifland which divided the two ports.
ASmilianus himfelf made a falfe attack on the citadel,
in order to draw the enemy thither. I his ftratagem
had the defired effea : for the citadel being a place of
the greateft importance, moft of the Carthaginians
haftened thither, and made the utmoft efforts to re-
imlfe the aggreffors *, but in the. mean time Lselius
having, with incredible expedition, built a wooden
bridge over the channel which divided Cotho from the
ifthmus, entered the ifland, fealed the walls of the
fortrefs which the Carthaginians had built there, and
made himfelf mailer of that important poll. Ihe pro-
conful, who was engaged before Byrfa, no fooner un-
derflood, by the loud ftiouts of the troops of Ladius,
that he had made himfelf mailer of Cotho, than he
abandoned the falfe attack, and unexpectedly fell on
Romansen-the neighbouring gate of the city, which he broke
ter the city, down, notwithftanding the Ihowers of darts that were
inceffantly difeharged upon his men from the ramparts.
As night coming on prevented him from proceeding
farther, he made a lodgment within the gate, and
, } CAR
waited there for the return of day, with a defigft to
advance through the city to the citadel, and attack it ,
on that fide, which was but indifferently fortified. Pur-
fuant to this defign,, at daybreak, he ordered 4000
frefti troops to be fent from his camp 5 and having fo-
lemnly devoted to the infernal gods the unhappy Car¬
thaginians, he began to advance at the head of his
men through the ftreets of the city, in order to at¬
tack the citadel. Having advanced to the market
place, he found that the way to the citadel lay through
three exceeding fteep ftreets. The houfes on both
fides w ere very high, and filled w ith the Carthaginians,
who overwhelmed the Romans as they advanced with
darts and ftones} fo that they could not proceed till
they had cleared them, d-o this end Atmilianus in
perfon, at the head of a detachment, attacked the firft
houfe and made himfelf mailer of it fword in hand.
His example was followed by the officers and foldiers,
who went on from houfe to houfe, putting all they
met with to the fword. As faft as the houles were
cleared on both fides, the Romans advanced in order of
battle towards the citadel ; but met with a vigorous
refinance from the Carthaginians, wffio on this occafion
behaved with uncommon refolution. From the market
place to the citadel, two bodies of men fought their
way every ftep, one above on the roofs of the houies,
the other below in the ftreets. The fiaughter was in-
expreffibly great and dreadful. The air rung, with
ffirieks and lamentations. Some were cut in pieces,
others threw themfelves down from the tops of the
houfes ; fo that the ftreets were filled with dead and
mangled bodies. But the dellrudlion w^as yet grcater
when the proconful commanded fire to be fet to that fet on i
quarter of the town which lay next to the citadel.
Incredible multitudes, who had efcaped the fwords of
the enemy, periffied in the flames, or by the fall of the
houfes. After the fire, which lalled fix days, had de-
molilhed a fufficient number of houfes, iEmilianus or¬
dered the rubbilh to be removed, and a large area to
be made, where all the troops might have room to
a61. Then he appeared with his whole, army before
Byrfa *, which fo terrified the Carthaginians, who had
lied thither for refuge, that firft of all 25,000 women,
and then 30,000 men, came out of the gates in fuch
a condition as moved pity. They threw themfelves
proftrate before the Roman general, atking no favour
but life. This was readily granted, not only to them
but to all that were in Byrfa except the Roman de-
ferters, whofe number amounted to 900. Afdrubal’s^iu(
wife earneilly entreated her huffiand to fuffer her toCowardid
join the fuppliants, and carry with her to the pro-of Min
conful her two fons who were as yet very young -,ba!‘
but the barbarian denied her requeft, and rejeaed her
remonilrances with menaces, .Lhe Roman delerters,
feeing themfelves excluded from mercy, refolved to die
fword in hand, rather than deliver themfelves up to the
vengeance of their countrymen. Then Afdrudal, find¬
ing them all refolved to defend themfelves to the laft
breath, committed to their care his wife and children ,
after which, he in a moft cowardly and mean-fpirited
manner, came and privately threw himielf at the con¬
queror’s feet. The Carthaginians in the citadel no
fooner underftood that their commander had abandoned
the place, than they threw open the gates, and put
the Romans in poffeffion of Byrfa. Ihey had now
no
I74
5 Cruelty
GAR
'arthage
176
1 rthage
j tidercd,
!77
a’*utter-
'sftroy-
t }
■ no enemy to contend with but the 900 deferters, who,
' btfing reduced to defpair, retreated into the temple of
^fculapius, which was as a fecond temple within the
jirlt. There the proconful attacked them $ and thefe
unhappy wretches, finding there was no way to efcape,
fet fire to the temple. As the flames fpread, they re¬
treated from one part of the building to another, till
they got to the roof. There Afdrubal’s wife appeared
in her belt apparel, and having uttered the moil bitter
imprecations againft her hufband, whom (he faw hand¬
ing below with ALmilianus, “ Bale coward ! (faid (he)
the mean things thou haft done to fave thy life ftiail
not avail thee : thou flialt die this inftant, at leaft in
thy two children.” Having thus fpoken, ftie ftabbed
both the infants with a dagger j and while they were
yet ftruggling for life, threw them both from the top
of the temple, and then leaped dow n after them into
the flames.
yEmilianus delivered up the city to be plundered,
but in the manner prefcribed by the Roman military
law. The foldiers were allowed to appropriate to
themfelves all the furniture, utenfils, and brafs money,
they fliould find in private houfes $ but all the gold
and filver, the ftatues, pictures, &c. were referved to
be put into the hands of the quaeftors. On this occa-
fion the cities of Sicily, which had been often plunder¬
ed by the Carthaginian armies, recovered a number of
ftatues, pidiures, and other valuable monuments j a-
mong the reft the famous brazen bull, which Phalaris
had ordered to be call, and ufed as the chief inftru-
ment of his cruelty, was reftored to the inhabitants of
Agrigentum. As ALmilianus was greatly inclined to
fpare what remained of this ftately metropolis, he w rote
to the fenate on the fubjedl, from whom he received
the following orders: 1. The city of Carthage, with
Byrfa and Megalia, fliall be entirely deftroyed, and
no traces of them left. 2. All the cities that have
lent Carthage any afliftance ftiall be difmantled. 3.
I he territories of thofe cities which have declared for
the Romans ihall be enlarged with lands taken from
the enemy. 4. All the lands between Hippo and
Carthage ihall be divided among the inhabitants of
Utica. 5. All the Africans of the Carthaginian ftate,
both men and women, fliall pay an annual tribute to
the Romans at fo much per head. 6. The whole
country, wrhich was fubjedt to the Carthaginian ftate,
fhall be turned into a Roman province, and be governed
by a praetor, in the fame manner as Sicily. Laftly,
Rome Ihall fend commiflioners into Africa, there to
lettle jointly with the proconful the ftate of the new
province. Before Atmilianus deftroyed the city, he
performed thofe religious ceremonies which were re¬
quired on luch occafions: he firft facrificed to the
gods, and then caufed a plough to be drawn round
the walls of the city. After this, the towers, ramparts,
walls, and all the rvorks which the Carthaginians had
raifed in the eburfe of many ages, and at a vaft ex¬
pence, were levelled with the ground 5 and laftly, fire
was fet to the edifices of the proud metropolis, which
confumed them all, not a Angle houfe efcaping the
flames, i hough the fire began in all quarters at the
fame time, and burnt with incredible fury, it con¬
tinued for 17 days before all the buildings were con-
fumed.
Ihus fell Carthage about 146 years before the
VOL. V. Part I.
r 225 j
GAR
birth of Chnft; a city whofe deftruflion ought to be Carthage,
attributed more to the intrigues of an abandoned fac- ' 11
tion, compofed of the moft profligate part of its citi¬
zens, than to the power of its rival. The treafure which
Ai-milianus carried off, even after the city had been
delivered up to be plundered by the foldiers, was im-
menfe, Pliny making it to amount to 4,470,000 pounds
weight of filver. The Romans ordered Carthage ne¬
ver to be inhabited again, denouncing dreadful im¬
precations againft thofe who, contrary to this prohi¬
bition, fhould attempt to rebuild any part of it, elpe- 17$
cially Byrfa and Megalia. Notwithftanding this, Rebuilt,
however, about 24 years after, C. Gracchus, tribune
of the people, in order to ingratiate himfelf with them,
undertook to rebuild it; and, to that end conduced
thither a colony of 6oco Roman citizens. The work¬
men, according to Plutarch, were terrified by many
unlucky omens at the time they were tracing the limits
and laying the foundations of the' new city j which
the fenate being informed of, would have lufpended
the attempt. But the tribune, little affefted with fuch
prefages, continued to carry on the work, and finifhed
it in a few days. From hence it is probable that only
a flight kind of huts were erefted j but whether
Gracchus executed his defign, or the work was en¬
tirely difeontinued, it is certain that Carthage was the
firft Roman colony ever fent out of Italy. According
to fome authors, Carthage was rebuilt by Julius Caefar j
and Strabo, who flouriflied in the reign of Tiberius,
affirms it in his time to have been equal, if not fupe-
rior, to any other city in Africa. It was looked upon
as the capital of Africa for feveral centuries after the
commencement of the Chriftian era. Maxentius laid
it in alhes about the fixth or feventh year of Conftan-
tine’s reign. Gcnferic, king of the Vandals, took it
A. D. 439 j but about a century afterwards it was re¬
annexed to the Roman empire by the renowned Beli- i-jg
farius. At laft the Saracens, under Mohammed’s iuc- Utterly de-
ceffors, towards the clofe of the feventh century, fo
completely deftroyed it, that there are now iearce anyteM
traces remaining.
At the commencement ef the third Punic war, Car¬
thage appears to have been one of the firft cities in 180
the world. It was feated on a peninfula 360 ftadia or Its aniient
45 miles in circumference, joined to the continent by Srtint*eur*
an ifthmus 23 ftadia or three miles and a furlong in
breadth. On the weft fide there projected from it a
long tra£l of land half a ftadium broad ; which Ihoot-
ing out into the fea, feparated it from a lake or mo-
rafs, and was ftrongly fortified on all fides by rocks and
a fingle wall. In the middle of the city ftixid the ci¬
tadel of Byrfa, having on the top of it a temple facred
to AUculapius, feated upon rocks on a very high hill,
to which the afeent was by 60 fteps. On the fouth
fide the city was furrounded by a triple wall, 30 cu¬
bits high, flanked all round by parapets and towers,
placed at equal diftances of 480 feel. Every tower
had its foundation funk 32 feet deep, and was four
ftories high, though the walls were but two : they
were arched j and, in the lower part, correfponding
in depth with the foundation above-mentioned, were
{tails large enough to hold 300 elephants, with their
fodder, &c. Over thefe were flails and other conve-
niencies for 4000 horfes; and there was likewii’e room
for lodging 20,000 foot and 4000 cavalry, without
~ F f m
4
CAR [
Carthage, in tlie leaft incommoding tlie inhabitants, There were
’ » two harbours, fo difpofed as to have a communication
with one another. They had one common entrance
70 feet broad, and (hut up with chains. T he firft was
appropriated to the merchants •, and included in it a
vaft number of places of refrefiiment, and all kinds of
accommodation for feamen. Ihe fecond, as well as
the ifland of Cothon, in the midft of it, was lined
with large quays, in which were diitinft receptacles for
fecuring and flieltering from the weather 220 drips of
war. Over thefe were magazines of all forts of naval
flores. The entrance into each of thefe receptacles
was adorned with two marble pillars of the Ionic or¬
der j fo that both the harbour and ifland reprefented
on each fide two magnificent galleries. Near this
ifland was a temple of Apollo, in which was a ftatue of
the god all of mafly gold ; and the infide of the temple
all lined with plates of the fame metal, weighing ioco
talents. The city was 23 miles in circumference, and
at the time we fpeak of contained 700,000 inhabitants.
Of their power we may have fome idea, by tire quan¬
tity of arms they delivered up to the Roman conluls.
The whole army vras aftoniflied at the long train of
carts loaded with them, which were thought fufficient
to have armed all Africa. At leaft it is certain, that
on this occafion were put into the hands of the Ro¬
mans 2000 catapultm, 200,000 complete fuits of ar¬
mour, with an innumerable quantity of fwords, darts,
javelins, arrows, and beams armed with iron, which
were thrown from the ramparts by the baliftie.^
The character tranfmitted of the Carthaginians, is
extremely bad j but we have it only on the authority
of the Romans, who being their implacable enemies,
cannot be much relied upon. As to their religion,
manners, &c. being much the fame with the Phoeni¬
cians, of which they were a colony, the reader is.re¬
ferred for an account of thefe things to tne article
Phoenicia.
On the ruins of Carthage there now ftands only a
fmall village called Melcha. The few remains of Car¬
thage confift only of fome fragments of walls, and 17
cifterns for the reception of rain water.
There are three eminences, which are fo many, mal-
fes of fine marbles pounded together, and were in all
probability tbe fites of temples and other diitingmih-
ed buildings. The prefent ruins are by no means the
remains of the ancient city deftroyed by the Romans j
who after taking it, entirely erafed it, and ploughed
up the very foundations : fo truly they adhered to the
well-known advice perpetually inculcated by Cato the
Elder, Delenda eji Carthago. It was again rebuilt by
the Gracchi family, who eondutfed a colony to re¬
people it: and continually increafing in fplendour, it
became at length the capital of Africa under the Ro¬
man emperors. It fubfifted near 700 years after its
firft demolition, until it was entirely deftroyed by the
Saracens in the beginning of the. 7th century
226 ] CAR
the province of Cofta Rica. It is a very rich trading
place. W. Long. 86. 7. N. Lat. 9. 5. . Cart%-
CARTHAGENA, a province of South America, (
and one of the moft eonfiderable in New Caftile, on
account of the great trade carried on by the capital j
for the country itfelf is neither fertile, rich, nor popu¬
lous. The capital city, called likewife Carthagcna, is
fituated in W. Long. 77. N. Lat. 1 x. on a fandy ifland,
by moft writers called a peniniula j which forming a
narrow pafiage on the fouth-weft, opens a communi¬
cation with that called Tierra Bomba, as far as Botea
Chica. The little ifland which now joins them was
formerly the entrance of the bay y but it having been
filled up by orders of the court, Eocca Chica became
the only entrance : this, however, has been filled up
fince the attempt of Vernon and Wentworth, and the
old paflage again opened. On the north fide the
land is fo narrow, that before the wall was begun,
the diftance from fea to fea was only 35 toifes j but
afterwards enlarging, it forms another ifland on this
fide*, fo that, excepting thefe two places, the whole
city is entirely lurrounded by fait water. Lo the eaft-
ward it has a communication, by means of a w’oodtn
bridge, with a large fuburb sailed Xemani, built on
another ifland, wliich is alio joined to the continent
by a bridge of the fame materials. The fortifications
both of the city and fuburbs are built after the mo¬
dern manner, and lined w ith freeftone j and, in time of
peace, the garrifon confifts of ten. companies of 77
men each, befides militia. The city and fuburbs are
well laid out, the ftreets ftraight, broad, uniform, and
well paved. All the houfes are built of ftone or bricky
only one ftory high, well contrived, neat, and furnifli-
ed with balconies and lattices of wood, which is more
durable in that climate than iron, the latter being foon
corroded by tbe acrimonious quality of the atmo-
fphere. The climate is exceedingly unhealthy. The
Europeans are particularly fubjeft to the terrible dif-
eafe called the b/ack vomit, which fveeps off multitudes
annually on tbe arrival of the galleons.. It feldom
continues above three or four days 5 in which time the
patient is either dead or out of danger, and if he reco¬
vers, is never fubjed to a return of the fame diffemper.
—This difeafe has hitherto foiled all the art of th.e
Spanifti phyficians j as has alfo the leprofy, which is
very common here. At Carthagena, likewile, that
painful tumour in the legs., oecafioned by tbe entrance
of tbe dracunculus or Guinea-worm, is very common
and troublefoiM Another diforder peculiar to. this
country, and to Peru, is occafioned by a little in fed
called nigua, fo extremely minute as fcarce to be vi-
fible to the naked eye. This infed breeds in tbe dufl,
infinuates itfelf into tbe foies of the feet and the legs,
piercing the fldn with fuch fubtility, that there is no
being aw*are of it, before it has made its .way to the
fleftif If it is perceived in the beginning, it is extraded
with little pain ; but having once lodged its head, and
racens in the beginning ol the 7th century. . i,n :n tEe natient muff undergo the pain of
It is a fagulat circuniftance that the two of erce the ^ ^ fP.
Carthage and Rome fliould have been built juft op-
pofite one to the other j the bay of . Tunis and the
jaouth of the Tiber being in a dired line.
Littora littoribus contraria, fiuclibus undas,^
Anna armis. ViRG. JEn. iv. 627.
New CARTHAGE, a coufulerable town of Mexico, in
an incifion, without which a nidus would be formed,
and a multitude of infeds ingendered, which would
foon overfpread the foot and leg. One fpecies of the
n'gua is venomous*, and when it enters, the toe, an in¬
flammatory fwelling, greatly refembling a venereal
bubo, takes place in the groin. # .
Carthagena, a fea port town of Spain, m the
kingdom
C A K
:rthageaa kingdom of Murcia, and capital of a territory of the
il . fame name ; built by Afdrubal, a Carthaginian gene-
nousS'" ra^ anc* namec^ a^ter Carthage. It has the bell haf-
I ^ , - hour in all Spain, but nothing elfe very confiderable j
the bilhop’s fee being transferred to Toledo. In 1706
it was taken by Sir John Leake : but the duke of Ber¬
wick retook it afterwards. W. Long. o. 58. N. Lat.
37- 36*
CARTHAMUS. See Botany Index, The car-
thamus tinctorius is at prefent cultivated in many parts
of Europe, and alfo in the Levant, from whence great
quantities of it are annually imported into Britain for
the purpofes of dying and painting. The good qua¬
lity of this commodity is in the colour, which is of a
bright faffron hue : and in this the Britifh carthamus
very often fails ; for if there happens much rain during
the time the plants are in flower, the flowers change
to a dark or dirty yelTbw, as they likewife do if the
flowers arc gathered with any moifture remaining up¬
on them.—The feeds of carthamus have been celebra¬
ted as a cathartic ; but they operate very flowly, and
for the moil part diforder the ilomach and bowels, efpe-
eially when given in fubftance : triturated with didd¬
led aromatic waters, they form an emulflon lefs offenfive,
yet inferior in efficacy to the more common purgatives.
They are eaten by a fpecies of Egyptian parrot, which
is very fond of them j to other birds or beads they
would prove a mortal poifon.
CARTHUSIANS, a religious order, founded in the
year 1080, by one Brudo. The Carthufians, fo called
from the defert of Ghartreux, the place of their inditu-
tion, are remarkable for the auderity of their rule.
They are not to go out of their cells, except to church,
without leave of their fuperior, nor fpeak to any perfon
without leave. They mud not keep any portion of
their meat or drink till next day j their beds are of
draw, covered with a felt; their clothing two hair¬
cloths, two cowls, two pair of hofe, and a cloak, all coarfe.
In the refe&ory, they are to keep their eyes on the diffi,
their hands on the table, their attention on the reader, and
their hearts fixed on God. Women are not allowed to
come into their churches. It is computed that there arc
172 houfes of Carthufians j whereof five are of nuns, who
praftife the fame auderities as the monks. They are
divided into 16 provinces, each of which has two vifitors.
There have been feveral canonized faints of this order,
four cardinals, 70 archbiffiops and bifhops, and a great
many very learned writers.
CARTHUSIAN Powder^ the fame with kermes mine¬
ral. See K.ERMES.
CARTILAGE, in Anatomy, a body approaching to
the nature of bones •, but lubricous, flexible, and elaf-
tic. See Anatomy Index.
PtZooi. CARTILAGINOUS, in Ichthyology, a title given
*5- aR filh whole mufcles are fupported by cartilages in¬
dead of boned* j and Comprehends the fame genera of
fiffi to which Linnaeus has given the name of amphibia
names: but the word amphibia ought properly to be con¬
fined to fuch animals as inhabit both elements 5 and can
live, without any inconvenience, for a confiderable time,
either on land or in water •, fuch as tortoifes, frogs, and
feveral fpecies of lizards j and among the quadrupeds,
hippopotami, &e. &c.
Many of the cartilaginous fiih are viviparous, being
GAB.
excluded front an egg, which is hatched within them. C wtilagb
The egg confids of a white and yolk j and is lodged ni,us
in a cafe formed of a thick tough fubdance, not unlike cJ‘on-
foftened horn : fuch are the eggs of the ray and/Wf . ^ - y
kinds. Some again difter in this refpeft, and are ovi¬
parous : fuch is the Jiurgeon, and others.
They breathe either through certain apertures be¬
neath, as in the rays; on their lides, as in the Jharks^
&c.; or on the top of the head, as in the p’pe-jijh: for
they have not covers to their gills like the bony fidi.
CARTMEL, a town of Lancaffiire in England.
It is feated among the hills called Cartmel-fells, not
far from the fea, and near the river Kent ; adorned
with a very handfome church, built in the form of a
crofs like a cathedral. The market is well fupplied
with corn, Iheep, and fifh. W. Long. 2. 43. N. Lat.
54- 15-
CARTON, or Cartoon, in Painting, a defign
drawn on drong paper,- to be afterwards chalked
through, and transferred on the frefh plader of a wall,
to be painted in frefco. It is alfo ufed for a defign
coloured, for working in mofaic, tapedry, &c. The
word is from the Italian cartoni {carta “ paper,” and
oni “ large,”) denoting many dieets of paper paded
on canvas on which large deligns are made, whether
coloured or with chalks only. Of thefe many are to
be feen at Rome, particularly by Domenichino. Thofe
by Andrea Mantegna, which are at Hampton Court,
were made for paintings in the old ducal palace at
Mantua. But the mod famous performances of this
fort are,
The Cartoons of Raphael, fo defervedly applauded
throughout Europe by all authors of refined tade, and
all true admirers of the art of defign, for their various
and matchlefs merit, particularly with regard -to the
invention, and to the great and noble expreffion of
fuch a variety of characters, countenances, and mod
expreffive attitudes, as they are differently affeCled and
properly engaged, in every compofition. Thefe car¬
toons are feven in number, and form only a fmall part
of the facred hidorical defigns executed by this great
artid, while engaged in the chambers of the Vatican
under the aufpices of Popes Julius II. and Leo X.
When finilhed, they were fent to Flanders, to be co¬
pied in tapedry, for adorning the pontifical apart¬
ments 5 which tapedries were not fent to Rome till fe¬
veral years after the deeeafe of Raphael, and even in all
probability were not finiffied and fent there before the
terrible fack of that city in the time of Clement VII.
when Raphael’s fcholars had fled from thence, and
none left to enquire after the original cartoons, which
lay negleCted in the dorerooms of the manufactory.
The great revolution alfo which followed in the Low
Countries prevented their being noticed amidd the en¬
tire negleCt of the works of art. It was therefore a
mod fortunate circumdance that thefe feven efcaped
the -wreck of the others, which were torn in pieces
and remained difperfed as fragments in different collec¬
tions. Thefe feven were purchafed by Rubens for
Charles I. and they have been fo roughly handled
from the fird, that holes were pricked for the weavers
to pounce the outlines, and other parts almod cut
through in tracing alfo. In this date perhaps they as
fortunately efcaped the fale amongd the royal collec-
F f 2 tion.
[ 227 1
CAR
Carton
II
Carucatu-
tion, by the difproportioned appraifement of thefe feven
at 300I. and the nine pieces, being the Triumph of Ju¬
lius Csefar, by Andrsea Mategna, apprarfed at locol.
They feem to have been taken fmall notice of till King
William built a gallery, purpofely to receive them at
Hampton Court 5 whence they were moved, on their
fuffering from damps, to the Queen’s Palace. They are
now at Windfor Caftle, and open to public infpedtion.
CARTOUCHE, in ArchiteBure and Sculpture,
an ornament reprefenting a fcroll of paper. It is ufu-
ally a flat member, with wavings to reprefent fome
infcription, device, cipher, or ornament of armoury.
They are, in architeaure, much the fame as medil-
lions; only thefe are fet under the cornice in wainf-
cotting, and thofe under the cornice at the eaves of a
houfe.
Cartouche, in the military art, a cafe ox wood, a-
bout three inches thick at the bottom, girt with mar¬
line, holding about four hundred mulket balls, befides
fix or eight balls of iron, of a pound weight, to be fired
out of a hobit, for the defence of a pafs, &c.
A cartouche is fometimes made of a globular form,
and filled with a ball of a pound weight; and fome¬
times it is made for the guns, being of a ball of half
or quarter a pound wreight, according to the nature of
the gun, tied in form of a bunch of grapes, on a tom-
pion of wood, and coated over. 1 hefe were made in
the room of partridge-ftrot.
CARTRIDGE, in the military art, a cafe of pafte-
board or parchment, holding the exadt charge of a fire¬
arm. Thofe for mufkets, carabines, and piftols, hold
both the powder and ball for the charge : and thofe of
cannon and mortars are ufually in cafes of pafteboard or
tin, fometimes of wood, half a foot long, adapted to the
caliber of the piece.
CARTBIDGE-Box, a cafe of wood or turned iron, co¬
vered with leather, holding a dozen mulket cartridges.
It is worn upon a belt, and hangs a little lower than
the right pocket hole. . .
CARTWRIGHT, William an eminent divine
and poet, born at Northway, near Tewkfbury, in
Gloucefterfhire, in September 1611. H6 finiftied his
education at Oxford ; afterwards w'ent into holy orders,
and became a moil florid preacher in the univerfity.
In 1642, he had the place of fuccentor in the church
©f Salilbury j and, in 1643, was chofen junior proftor
in the univerfity. He was aifo metaphyfical reader there.
Wit, judgement, elocution, a graceful perfon and be¬
haviour, occafioned that encomium of him from Dean
Fell, “ That he was the utmoft that man could come
to.” He was an expert linguift 5 an excellent orator j
and at the fame time was eileemed an admirable poet.
There are extant of his, four plays, and fome poems.
He died in 1643, aged 33. N , r . , ^
CARVAGE, (carvagiuni), the fame with Carru-
•cage.
Henry III. is faid to have taken carvage, that is, two
marks of filver of every knight’s fee, towards the mar¬
riage of his fifler Ifabella to the _ emperor. Carvage
could onlv be impofed on tenants in ccipite.
Carvage alfo denotes a privilege whereby a man is
exempted from the fervice of carrucage.
CARUCATURIUS, in ancient law books, he that
held land in foccage, or by plough tenure.
[ 228 ] CAR
CARUCATE. See Carrucate.
CARVER, a cutter of figures or other devices in
wood. See Carving.
Carvers anfwer to what the Romans called fculptores,
who were different from or engravers, as thefe
laft wrought in metal.
Carver is alfo an officer of the table, whofe bufi-
nefs is to cut up the meat, and diftribute it to the
guefts. The word is formed from the Latin carp tor,
which fignifies the fame. The Romans alfo called
him carpus, fometimes fcijfor, feindendi magifter, and
JlruBor.
In the great families at Rome, the carver was an
officer of fome figure. There were matters to teach
them the art regularly, by means of figures of animals
cut in wood. The Greeks alfo had their carvers, called
q. d. diribitores, or di/lributors. In the pri¬
mitive times, the matter of the feaft carved for all his
guefts. Thus in Homer, when Agamemnon’s ambaffa-
dors were entertained at Achilles’s table, the hero him-
felf carved the meat. Of latter times, the fame office
on folemn occafions was executed by fome of the chief
men of Sparta. Some derive the cuftom of diftri-
buting to every gueft his portion, from thofe early ages
when the Greeks firft left off feeding on acorns, and
learned the ufe of corn: The new diet was fo great a deli¬
cacy, that to prevent the guefts from quarrelling about
it, it was found neceffary to make a fair diftribution.
’ In Scotland, the king has a hereditary carver in the
family of Anftruther.
CARUI, or Carvi, in Botany. See Carum, Bo¬
tany Index.
CARVING, in a general fenfe, the art or aft of
cutting or faftiioning a hard body, by means of fome
ftiarp inftrument, efpecially a chiffel. In this fenfe
carving includes ftatuary and engraving, as well as cut¬
ting in wood. __ .
Carving, in a more particular fenfe, is the art of
engraving or cutting figures in wood. In this fenfe
carving, according to Pliny, is prior both to ftatuary
and painting.
To carve a figure or defign, it muft be firft drawn
or patted on the wood } which done, the reft of the
block not covered by the lines of the defign, is^ to
be cut away with little narrow-pointed knives. The
wood fitteft for the ufe is that which is hard, tough,
and clofe, as beech, but efpecially box : to prepare it
for drawing the defign on, they waffi it over with
white lead tempered in water 5 which better enables it
either to bear ink or the crayon, or even to take the
impreffion by chalking. _ When the defign is to be ■
pafted on the wrood, this whitening is omitted, and
they content themfelves with feeing the wood well
planed. Then wiping over the printed fide of the
figure with gum tragacanth diffolved in water, they
clap it fmooth on the wood, and let it dry : which done,
they wet it flightly over, and fret off the furface of the
paper gently, till all the ftrokes of the figure appear
diftinftly. ' This done, they fall to cutting or carving,
as above,
CARUM. See Botany Index.
CARUNCUL A, or Caruncle, in Anatomy, a term
denoting a little piece of flefti, and applied to feveral
parts of the human body. Thus,
Carucat
u
Caruncul
Caruncul®
CAR [229] CAR
'"amnculte CarVNCULJE Mijrtiformes, in Anatomy, flefliy
ijMyrtifbr- knobs about the fize of a myrtle berr
m.?s owe their origin to the breaking of the
cJy> Anatomy Index.
 1 Caruncles, in the urethra, proceeding from a go¬
norrhoea, or an ulceration of the urethra, may be re¬
duced by introducing the Bougie.
CAR US, a hidden deprivation of fenfe and motion,
affedling the whole body. See Medicine Index.
CaRUS, Marcus Aurelius, was railed from a low
flation, by his great merit, to be emperor of Rome in
282. He Ihowed himfelf worthy of the empire j fub-
dued its enemies $ and gave the Romans a profpeft of
happy days, when he was unfortunately killed by light¬
ning in 284.
CARWAR, a town of Alia, on the coaft of Mala¬
bar in the Eaft Indies, and where the Eaft India Com¬
pany have a faftory, fortified with two baltions. The
valleys about it abound in corn and pepper, which
laft is the bell in the Eaft Indies. The woods on
the mountains abound with quadrupeds, fuch as ti¬
gers, wolves, monkeys, wild hogs, deers, elks, and a
fort of beeves of a prodigious fize. The religion of
the natives is Paganifm } and they have a great many
ftrange and fuperftitious cuftoms. E. Long. 73. 7.
N. Lat. 15. o.
CARY, Lucius, Lord Vifcount Falkland, was
born in Oxfordlhire, about the year 1610 $ a young
nobleman of great abilities and accomplilhments. About
the time of his father’s death in 1633, he was made
gentleman of the privy chamber to King Charles I.
and afterwards fecretary of ftate. Before the affem-
bling of the long parliament, he had devoted himfelf
to literature, and every pleafure which a fine genius,
a generous difpolition, and an opulent fortune, could
afford : when called into public life, he flood foremoft
in all attacks on the high prerogatives of the crown j
but when civil convulfions came to an extremity, and
it wras neceffary to choofe a fide, he tempered his zeal,
and defended the limited pow ers that remained to mo¬
narchy. Still anxious, however, for his country, he
feems to have dreaded equally the profperity of the
royal party, and that of the parliament; and among
his intimate friends, often fadly reiterated the wrord
peace. This excellent nobleman freely expofed his
perfon for the king in all hazardous enterprifes, and
was killed in the 34th year of his age at the battle
of Newberry. In Wellwood’s Memoirs w'e are told,
that whilft he wras with the king at Oxford, his ma-
jefty went one day to fee the public library, where he
wras fhown among other books a Virgil, nobly printed,
and exquifitely bound. The lord Falkland, to di¬
vert the king, w'ould have his majefty make a trial
of his fortune by the Sortes Virgilianae, an ufual kind
of divination in ages paft, made by opening a Virgil.
The king opening the book, the paffage which hap¬
pened to c ome up, was that part of Dido’s impreca¬
tion again!! iEneas, iv. 615, See. which is thus tranf-
lated by Dryden :
“ Opprefs’d with numbers in th’ unequal field,
“ His men difeourag’d, and himfelf expell’d j
“ Let him for fuccour fue from place to place.
“ Torn from his fubjedts and his fon’s embrace.” &c.
Kmg Charles feeming concerned at this accident, the
, fuppofed to
hymen. See
lord Falkland, who obferved it, would likewife try his Cary
own fortune in the fame manner, hoping he might fall H .
upon fome paffage that could have no relation to his ■ ‘ , j
cafe, and thereby divert the king’s thoughts from any
impreftion the other might make upon him : but the
place Lord Falkland Humbled upon was yet more fuited
to his deftiny than the other had been to the king’s j
being the following expreflions of Evander, upon the
untimely death of his fon Pallas, JEn. xi. 152.
“ O Pallas ! thou haft fail’d thy plighted w ord,
“ To fight with caution not to tempt the fword,
“ I warn’d thee, but in vain $ for well I knew'
“ What perils youthful ardour would purfue j
“ That boiling blood wrould carry thee too far j
“ Young as thou wrert in dangers, raw to war.
“ O curft effay of arms, difaftrous doom,
“ Prelude of bloody fields and fights to come !”
He WTote feveral things both poetical and political j
and in fome of the king’s declarations, fuppofed to be
penned by Lord Falkland, w e find the firlt regular de¬
finition of the Englifti conftitution that occurs in any
compofition publilhed by authority. His predeceffor,.
the firft Vifcount Cary, was ennobled for being the
firft who gave King James an account of Queen Eli¬
zabeth’s death.
Cary, Robert, a learned Englifh chronologer, born
in Devonftiire about the year 1615. On the Reftora-
tion, he was preferred to the archdeaconry of Exeter,
but on fome pretext w as ejected in 1664, and fpent the
reft of his days at his redlory of Portlemoth, where he
died in 1688. He publiflied Palee login Chronica, a
chronology of'ancient times, in three parts, didactical,
apodeiCtical, and canonical; and tranflated the hymns
of the church into Latin verfe.
CARY A, -EL, (Stephanus) j Carycc, -arum, (Pau-
fanias) 5 a town of Laconia, between Sparta and the
borders of Meffenia j where flood a temple of Diana,
thence called Can/atis, -idis; whofe annual feitival,
called Carya, -orum, was celebrated by Spartan virgins
with dances. An inhabitant, Caryates, and Cary at is,
Caryatis apis, a Laconian bee, (Stephanus).
Car TM, -arum, in Ancient Geography, a place in
Arcadia, towards the borders of Laconia. Whether
from this of Arcadia, or that of Laconia, the columnee
caryatides of Vitruvius and Pliny (which were ftatues
of matrons in Holes or long robes) took the appella¬
tion, is difputed.
CARYTES, in antiquity, a feftival in honour of
Diana furnamed Caryatis, held at Caryum, a city of
Laconia. The chief ceremony was a certain dance faid
to have been invented by Caftor and Pollux, and per¬
formed by the virgins of the place. During Xerxes’s
invafion, the Laconians not daring to appear and cele¬
brate the cuftomary folemnity, to prevent incurring the
anger of the goddefs by fuch an intermiflion, the neigh¬
bouring fwains are faid to have affembled and fung pa-
ftorals or lucolifmi, which is faid to have been the ori¬
gin of bucolic poetry.
CARYATIDES, or Cariates. See Architec¬
ture.
CARYL, Joseph, a divine of the laft century, bred
at Oxford, and fome time preacher to the fociety of
Lincoln’s-inn, an employment he filled wdth much »p-
plaufe. He became a frequent preacher before the
long parliament, a licenfer of their books, one of the
affembly
ius.
CAR T 230 1
Caryl aifemMy of divines, and one of the triers for the ap- hard.
K probation of minifters *, in all which capacities he
Caryophyl- j|lowe(j Ijimfelf a man of confiderable parts and learn-
, jng^ but with great zeal againft the king’s perfon and
cau’fe. On the reftoration of Charles II. he was filen-
ced by the aft of uniformity, and lived privately in
London, where, befides other works, he diftinguilhed •
himfelf by a laborious Expofition of the Book of Job;
and died in 1672.
CARYLL, John, a late Englifh poet, was of the
Roman Catholic perfuafion, being fecretary to Queen
Mary the wife of James II. and one who followed the
fortunes of his abdicating mafter j who rewarded him,
hrft with knighthoed, and then with the honorary
titles of Earl Caryll and Baron Dartford. How long
he continued in that fervice is not known * but he
was in England in the reign of Queen Anne, and re¬
commended the fubjeft of the 44 Rape of the Lock
to Mr Pope, who at its publication addreffed it to
him. He was alfo the intimate friend of Pope’s
44 Unfortunate Lady.” He was the author of two
plays: 1. “The Englifh Princefs, or the Death of
Richard III. 1667,” 4to.; 2. 44 Sir Salomon, or the
Cautious Coxcomb, 1671,” 4to. ; and in 1700, he
publiihed 44 The Pfalms of David, tranflated from the
Vulgate,” 12mo. In Tonfon’s edition of. Ovid’s
Epiitles, that of 44 Brifeis to Achilles” is faid to be
by Sir John Caryll •, and in Nichols’s Seleft Collec¬
tion of Mifcellany Poems, vol. ii. p. I. the fir ft eclogue
of Virgil is tranftated by the fame ingenious poet. He
was living in 1717, arid at that time muft have been
•a very old man. See three of his letters in the 44 Ad¬
ditions to Pope,” vol. ii p. 114.
CARYQCAR, in Botany, a genus of the tetragy-
mia order, belonging to the polyandria clafs of plants.
The calyx is quinquepartite, the petals five, the ftyles
more frequently four. The fruit is a plum, with nu-
cleuflfes, and four furrows netted.
CARYOPHYLL/EI, in Botany, the name of a
very numerous family or order in Linnaeus’s Fragments
of a Natural Method •, containing, befides the clafs of
the fame name in Tournefort, many other plants,
which from their general appearance feem pretty nearly
allied to it. The following are the genera, viz. Agro-
ftema, Cacubalus, Dianthus, Drypis, Gypfophilia,
Lychnis, Saponaria, Silene, Velazia, Alfine, Arenaria,
Eufonia, Ceraftium, Cherleria, Glinus,. Holofteum,
Loeflingia, Mochringia, Polycarpon, Sagina, Spergu-
7a, Stellarla, Minuartia, Mollugo, Ortegia, Pharnace-
um, Queria. All the plants of this order are herba¬
ceous, and moftly annual. Some of the creeping
kinds do not rife an inch, and the talleft exceed not
feven or eight feet. See Botany, Natural Orders.
CARYOPHYLLUS, the Pink, in Botany. See
Dianthus.
Caryophyllus, the Clove tree. See Botany
index.
The caryophyllus aromaticus is a native of the Moluc¬
ca iflands, particularly of Amboyna, where it is. princi¬
pally cultivated. I he clove tree refembles, m its bark
the olive, and is about the height of the laurel, which it
alfo refembles in its leaves. No verdure is ever feen under
■it. It has a great number of branches, at the extremities
of which are produced vaft quantities of flowers, that
(flffe firft jvhite, then green, and at laft pretty red and
GAR
When they arrive at this degree of maturity^ CaryoptyV
they are, properly fpeaking, doves. As they dry, thty . *us'
affume a dark yellowifh call *, and when gathered, be¬
come of a deep brown. The feafon for gathering the
cloves is from Oftober to February. The boughs of
the trees are then ftrongly ftiaken, or the cloves beat
down with long reeds. Large cloths are Ipread to re¬
ceive them, and they are afterwards either dried in the
fun or in the fmeke of the bamboo cane. Ihc cloves
which efcape the notice of thofe who gather them, or
are purpofely left upon the tree, continue to grow till
they are about an inch in thicknefs •, and theie falling
oft', produce new plants, which do not bear in lefs than
eight or nine years. Thofe which are called mother
cloves are inferior to the common fort •, but are pre-
ferved in fugar by the Dutch; and in long voyages,
eaten after their meals, to promote digeftion.
The clove, to be in perfeftion, muft be full fized,
heavy, oily, and eafxly broken \ of a fine fmell, and of
a hot aromatic tafte, fo as almoft to burn the throat.
It ftiould make the fingers fmart when handled, and
leave an oily moifture upon them when prefled. . In
the Eaft Indies, and in feme parts of Europe, it is fo
much admired as to be thought an indifpenfible. ingre¬
dient in almoft every difti. It is put into their, food,_
liquors, wines, and enters likewife the compofition of ^
their perfumes. Confidered as medicines, cloves are
very hot ftimulating aromatics, and poflefs in an emi¬
nent degree the general virtues of fubftances of this
clafs. Their pungency refidcs in their refin } or rather
in a combination of refin with eflential oil: for the
fpirituous extraft is very pungent; but if the oil and
the refin contained in this extraft are feparated from
each other by diftillation, the oil will be very mild j
and any pungency which it does retain, proceeds from
feme fmall portion of adhering refin, and tire remain¬
ing refin will be infipid. No plant, or part of any
plant, contains fuch a quantity of oil as . cloves do.
From 16 ounces NewmaA obtained by diftillation two
ounces and two drachms, and Hoffman obtained . an
ounce and a half of oil from two ounces of the fpice.
The oil is fpecifically heavier than water. .Cloves
acquire weight by imbibing water $ and this they
will do at fome confiderable dijlance. The Dutch,
who trade in cloves, make a confiderable advantage
by knowing this fecret. They fell them always by
weight; and when a bag of cloves is ordered, they
hang it, for feveral hours before it is fent in, over a
veflel of water, at about two feet diftanee from, the
furface. This will add many pounds to the w eight,
which the unwary purchafer pays for on the fpot.
This is fometimes praftifed in Europe, as well as in
the Spice iflands •, but the degree of moifture muft
be more carefully watched in the latter ; for there -4
bag of cloves will, in one night’s time, attraft fo much
v.-ater, that it may be prefled out of them by fqueez-
ing them w ith the hand.
The clove tree is never cultivated in Europe. At
Amboyna the Company have allotted the inhabitants
4000 parcels of land, on each of which they were at
firft allowed, and about the year 1720 compelled, to
plant about 125 trees, amounting in all to 500,000.
Each of thefe trees produces annually, on an average,
more than twro pounds of cloves ; and confequently
the colleftive produce muft weigh more than a mil¬
lion.
u
CAS [ 231 ] CAS
phyl- Hon. The cultivator is paid with the fpecle that is
Iu5 conftantly returned to the Company, and receives feme
Cals unbleached cottons which are brought from Coroman¬
del.
CARYOTA. See Botany Index.
CASA, in ancient and middle-age writers, is ufed
to denote a cottage or houfe.
CASA Santa, denotes the chapel of the holy virgin
at Loretto. The Santa Cafa is properly the houfe,
or rather chamber, in which the bleffed virgin is faid
to have been born, where die was betrothed to her
fpoufe Jofeph, where the angel fainted her, the Holy
GhoA overihadowed her, and by confequence where
the Son of God was conceived or incarnated. Of
this building the Catholics tell many wonderful itories
too childiih to tranferibe. The Santa Cafa, or holy
chamber, confifts of one room, forty-four fpans long,
eighteen broad, and twenty-three high. Over the
chimney, in a niche, Hands the image called the great
Madona or Lady, four feet high, made of cedar, and,
as they fay, wrought by St Luke, who was a carver
as well as a phyfician. The mantle or robe flie has
on, is covered with innumerable jewels of ineftimable
value. She has a crown, given her by Louis XIII.
of France, and a little crown for her fon.
CASAL, a ftrong town of Italy in Montferrat,
with a citadel and a bifhop’s fee. It was taken by
the French from the Spaniards in 1640 •, and the duke
of Mantua fold it to the French in 1681. In 1695
It was taken by the allies, who demolifhed the for¬
tifications ; but the Frencli retook it, and fortified it
again. The king of Sardinia became mailer of it in
1706, from whom the French took it in 1745; how¬
ever the king of Sardinia got poffeflion again in 1746.
It is feated on the river Po, in E. Long. 8.37. N. Lat.
J4- 7-
CASAL-Maggicre, a fmall llrong town of Italy, in
the duchy of Milan, feated on the river Po. E. Long,
n. 5. N. Lat. 45. 6.
CASA NOVA, Marc Antony, a Latin poet,
born at Rome, fucceeded particularly in epigrams.
The poems he compofed in honour of the illuftrious
men of Rome are alfo much efteemed. He died in
152;.
CASAN, a confiderable town of Alia, and capital
of a kingdom of the fame name in the Ruffian empire,
with a ftrong caftle, a citadel, and an archbifhop’s fee.
The country about it is very fertile in all forts of fruits,
corn, and pulfe. It carries on a great trade in furs,
and furniffies wood for the building of (hips. The
kingdom of Cafan is bounded on the north by Permia,
®n the eaft by Siberia, on the fouth by the river Wol-
ga, and on the weft by the province of Mofcow. E.
Long. 53. 25. N. Lat. 55. 38.
CASAS, Bartholomew de las, biffiop of Chi-
apa, diftinguifhed for his humanity and zeal for the
converfion of the Indians, was born at Seville in 14745
and went with his father who failed to America with
Chriftopher Columbus in 1493. At his return to
Spain, he embraced the ftate of an ecclefiaftic, and ob¬
tained a curacy in the illand of Cuba : but fome time
after quitted his cure in order to procure liberty for
the Indians, whom he faw treated by the Spaniards
in the moft cruel and barbarous manner, which natu¬
rally gave them an unconquerable averfion to Chrifti-
anity. Bartholomew exerted himfelf with extraordl- Ckfay
nary zeal, for 50 years together, in his endeavours to
perfuade the Spaniards that they ought to treat the In- *
dians with equity and mildnefs j for which he fuffered
a number of perfecutions from his countrymen. At
laft the court, moved by his continual remonftrances,.
made laws in favour of the Indians, and gave orders
to the governors to obferve them, and fee them exe¬
cuted *. He died at Madrid in 1566, aged 92. He* See the
wrote feveral works, which breathe nothing but huma- article
nity and virtue. The principal of them are, 1. An ^*£XiC0'
account of the deftruftion of the Indies. 2. Several
treatifes in favour of the Indies, againft Dr Sepulveda,
who wrote a book to juftify the inhuman barbarities
committed by the Spaniards. 3. A very curious, and
now fcarce, work in Latin, on this queftion, “ Whe¬
ther kings or princes can, confidently with confcience,
or in virtue of any right or title, alienate their fub-
jedb, and place them under the dominion of another
fovereign i1”
CASATI, Paul, a learned Jefuit, born at Pla¬
centia in 1617, entered early among the Jefuits; and
after having taught mathematics and divinity at Romer,
was fent into Sweden to Queen Chriftina, whom he'
prevailed on to embrace the Popiffi religion. He wrote,
1. Vacuum profcriplum. 2. Terra machims mot a. 3.
Mechanicoruni, libri 0R0. 4. De Igne Dfertationes^
which is much efteemed. 5. De Angela Dijputatio
Theolog. 6. Hydrofaticce Dijfcrtatwnes. 7. Opticce
DJputationes. It is remarkable that he wrote this
treatife on optics at 88 years of age, and after he was
blind. He alfo wrote feveral books in Italian.
CASAUBON, Isaac, was born at Geneva in 1559 >
and Plenry IV. appointed him his library keeper in
1603. After this prince’s death, he went to Eng¬
land with Sir Henry Wotton, ambafiador from King
James I. where he vras kindly received, and engaged
in writing againft Baronius’s annals. He died not long
after this, in J614 j and was interred in Weftminfter-
abbey, Avhere a monument was erefted to him. He
was greatly ikilled in the Greek, and in criticifm j
publiftied feveral valuable commentaries ; and received
the higheft effiogiums from all his cotemporaries.
CasauBON, Meric, a fon of the preceding, was
born at Geneva in 1599. He was bred at Oxford, and
took the degree of mailer of arts in 1621. The fame
year he publiffied a book in defence of his father a-
gainft the calumnies of cert ‘1 Roman Catholics, which
gained him the favour of King James I. and a confi¬
derable reputation abroad. He was made prebendary
of Canterbury by Archbiihop Laud. In the beginning
of the civil war he loft all his fpiritual promotions, but
ftill continued to publiih excellent works. Oliver Crom¬
well, then lieutenant-general of the parliament’s forces,
would have employed his pen in writing the hiftory of
the late war ; but he declined it, owning that this
fubjeft wmuld oblige him to make fuch reflexions as
would be ungrateful, if not injurious, to his lordftiip.
Notwithftanding this anfwer, Cromwell, fenfible of his
worth, ordered three or four hundred pounds to be
paid him by a bookfeller in London, vhofe name was
Cromwell, on demand, without requiring from him
any acknowledgment of his benefaftor. But this offer
he rejeXed, though his circumftances were then mean.
At the fame time it was propofed by his friend Mr
Greaves,.
Cafe.
CAS [232
Cafenbon Greaves, vlio belonged to the library at St James’s,
that, if Cafaubon would gratify Cromwell in the re-
, queit above mentioned, all his father’s books, which
were then in the royal library, having been purchafed
by King James, fhould be reltored to him, and a pen-
fion of 300I. a-year paid to the family as long as the
youngeft fon of Dr Cafaubon Ihould live ■, but this alfo
was refufed. He likewife refufed handfome offers
from Chriftina queen of Sweden, being determined to
fpend the remainder of his life in England. At the
Refloration he recovered all his preferments, and con¬
tinued writing till his death in 1671* He was the
author of an Englifh tranflation of Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus’s Meditations, and of Lucius Florus } edi¬
tions of feveral of the claffics, with notes j a treatife of
ufe and cuftom} a treatife of enthufiafm •, w-ith many
other works : and he left a number of MSS. to the
univerfity of Oxford.
CASAURINA. See Botany Mx.
CASCADE, a deep fall of w^ater from a higher in¬
to a lower place. The word is French, formed of the
Italian cafcata, which fignified the fame of cafcaro,
“ to fall,” and that from the Latin cadere.
Cafcades are either natural, as that at Tivoli, &c. j
or artificial, as thofeof Verfailles, &c.; and either fall¬
ing with a gentle defcent, as thofe of Sceaux; or in
form of a bullet, as at Trianon •, or down Heps, in
form of a perron, as at St Cloud $ or from bafon to
bafon, &c.
CASCAIS, a town of Eftremadura in Portugal,
fituated at the mouth of the river Tagus, 17 miles eaft
of Lilbon. W. Long. 10. 15. N. Lat. 38. 40.
CASCARILLA. See Clutia and Croton.
CASE, among grammarians, implies the different
inlleftions or terminations of nouns, ferving to exprefs
the different relations they bear to each other} and to
the things they reprefent. See Grammar.
Case alfo denotes a receptacle for various articles j
as a cafe of knives, of lancets, of piftols^&c.
Case, in printing, a large fiat oblong frame, pla¬
ced afiope, divided into feveral compartments or little
fquare cells •, in each of which are lodged a number of
types or letters of the fame kind, whence the compofi-
tor takes them out, each as he needs it, to compofe his
matter. See Printing.
Case is alfo ufed for a certain numerous quantity
of divers things. Thus a cafe of crown glafs contains
ufually 24 tables, each table being nearly circular, and
about three feet fix inches diameter •, of Newcaftle
glafs, 35 tables j of Normandy glafs, 25^
CASE-Hardening of Iron, is a fuperficial converfion
of that metal into fieel, by the ordinary method of
converfion, namely, by cementation with vegetable or
mineral coals. This operation is generally pradtifed
upon fmall pieces of iron wrought into tools and in-
ftruments to which a fuperficial converfion is fufficient j
and it may be performed conveniently by putting the
pieces of iron to be cafe-hardened, together with the
cement, into an iron box, which is to be clofely {hut
and expofed to a red heat during fome hours. By this
cementation a certain thicknefs from the furface of
the iron will be converted into fteel, and a proper hard-
nefs may be afterwards given by hidden extinftion of
the heated pieces of converted iron in a cold fluid.
Sec Steel.
Cafiiel,
1 CAS
CASE-S/iot, in the military art, mulket balls, {tones, Cafe-Shot
old iron, &c. put into cafes, and ftiot out of great
guns. _ w.
CASEMENT, or Casemate, in ArchiteBure, a
hollow moulding, which fome architedls make one-
fixth of a circle, and others one fourth.
Casement is alfo ufe in building, for a little
moveable window, ufually within a larger, being made
to open or turn on hinges.
CASERN, in fortification, lodgings built in garri-
fon towns, generally near the rampart, or in the wafte
places of the town, for lodging foldiers of the garrifon.
There are ufually tw» beds in each cafern for fix fol¬
diers to lie, who mount the guard alternately j the
third part being always on duty.
CASERTA, an epifcopal town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the lerra de Lavoro,
with the title of a duchy, feated at the foot of a moun¬
tain of the fame name, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat.
4J. 5. . _ .
CASES, Peter-James, of Paris, the moft emi¬
nent painter of the French fchool. The churches of
Paris and of Verfailles abound with his works. He
died in 1754, aged 79.
CASH, in a commercial ftyle, fignifies the flock
or ready money which a merchant or other perfon has
in his prefent difpofal to negotiate j fo called from
the French term caiffe, i. e. “ eheft or coffer,” for the
keeping of money.
M. Savary (hows that the management of the cafli
of a company is the moft confiderable article, and that
whereon its good or ill fuccefs depends.
CASH-Book. See Book-Keeping.
CASHEL, or Cashil, a town of Ireland in the
county of Tipperary, and province of Munfter, with
an archbifhop’s fee. The rums of th© old cathedral
teftify its having been an extenfive as well as handfome
Gothic ftructure, boldly towering on the celebrated
rock of Caftiel, which taken together form a magni¬
ficent objeft, and bear honourable teftimony to the la¬
bour and ingenuity, as well as the piety and zeal, of
its former inhabitants. It is feen at a great diftance,
and in many direftions. Adjoining it are the ruins
of the chapel of Cormac M*Culinan, at once king and
archbiftiop of Cafhel, fuppofed to have been the firft Hone
building in Ireland 5 and feems, by its rude imitation
of pillars and capitals, to have been copied after the
Grecian architedlure, and long to have preceded tnat
which is ufually called Gothic. Cormac M‘Culinan
was a prince greatly celebrated by the Irifh hiftorians
for his learning, piety, and valour. He wrote, in his
native language, a hiftory of Ireland, commonly called
the Pfalter of Cajhel, which is ftill extant, and contains
the moft authentic account we have of the annals of
the country to that period, about the year 900. On tne
top of the rock of Cafiiel, and adjoining the cathedral,
is a lofty round tow er, which proudly defied the too
fuccefsful attempts of Archbifliop Price, who in this
century unroofed and thereby demolilhed the ancient
cathedral founded by St Patrick. In the choir are
the monuments of Myler Magrath, archbifliop of this
fee, in the reign of (^ueen Elizabeth, and fome other
curious remains of antiquity. Caftiel was formerly the
royal feat and metropolis of the kings of Munfter j
and on the afeent to the cathedral is a large ftone on
which
CAS
* lb!lofo-
f-il
&\p[odies
uliluli every new-king of Munfter was, as the inhabi¬
tants report from tradition, formerly proclaimed. Ca-
ihel is at prefent but fmall to Mrhat we may fuppofe it
to have been in ancient days. The archbifhop’s pa¬
lace is a fine building. Here is a very handfome mar¬
ket houfe, a feflions houfe, the county infirmary, a
charter fchool for twenty boys and the fame number
of girls, and a very good barrack for two companies of
foot. Dr Agar finifhed a very elegant church which
was begun by his predeceffor. W. Long. 7. 36. N.
•Lat. 52. 16.
CASHEW nut. See Anacardium, Botany
Index.
CASHIER, the calh-keeper 5 he who is charged
with the receiving and paying the debts of a fociety?—
In the generality of foundations, the cafhier is called
treafurer,
CASHIERS of the Banh, are officers whofignthe notes
that are iflued out, and examine and mark them when
returned for payment.
CASHMIRE, a province of Afia in the dominions
of the Mogul. It is iituated at the extremity of Hin-
doftan, northward of Lahore, and is bounded on the
one fide by a ridge of the great Caucafus, and on the
other by the liule Tartarian Thibet and Moultan.
The extent of it is not very confiderable j but being
girt in by a zone of hills, and elevated very confider-
ably above an arid plain, which firetches many miles
around ^it, the fcenes which it exhibits are wild and
piftureique. Rivers, hills, and valleys, charmingly
diverfify the landfcape. Here, Mr Sullivan * informs
us, a cafcade ruffies from a foaming precipice ; there
a^ tranquR ftream glides placidly along j the tinkling
rill, too, founds amidft the groves ; and the feathered
chorifters fing the fong of love, clofe ffieltered in the
glade.
At what time Cafhmire came under the dominion
of the Mogul government, and how long and in what
manner it was independent, before it was annexed to the
territories of the houfe of Timur, are points that are
beyond our prefent purpofe. Though inconfiderable
as to its revenues, it was uniformly held in the higheft
eftimation by the emperors of Hindoftan. Thither
they repaired in the plenitude of their greatnefs, when
the affairs of Rate would admit of their abfence ; and
there they diverted themfelves of form, and all the op-
preffive ceremony of ftate. The royal manner of tra¬
velling to Caffimire was grand, though tedious and un¬
wieldy, and rtiowed, in an eminent degree, the fplen-
dour and magnificence of an eartcrn potentate. Au-
rengzebc, we are told, feldom began his march to
that country, for a march certainly it was to be call¬
ed, without an efcort of 80,000 or 100,000 fighting
men, bcfides the gentlemen of his houfehold, the at¬
tendants of his feraglio, and moft of his officers of
nate. J hefe all continued with him during the time
he was on the road, which generally was a month ;
but no fooner was he arrived at the entrance of thofe
aerial regions, than, with a feleft party of friends, he
leparated from the reft of his retinue, and with them
alcended the defiles which led him to his Eden.
-I he temperature of the air of Cafhmire, elevated
as it is fo much above the adjoining country, together
jfi.th tlie ffreams which continually pour from its moun¬
tains, enables the hufbandman to cultivate with fuccefr
vol, Y. Pari I.
r 233 i
CAS
Caflimiifc
it
Catk.
the foil he appropriates to agriculture j whilft the gar-
dener’s labour is amply repaid in the abundant produce
of his fruit. In fliort, nature wears her gayeft cloth- y—
jng m this enchanting fpot. The rivers fupply the in¬
habitants with almoft every fpecies of filh • the hills
yield fweet herbage for the cattle } the plains are co¬
vered with grain of different denominations j and the
woods are ftored with variety of game. The Cafti-
mireans, according to our author, feem a race diftindt
from all others in the eaft : Their perfons are more
elegant, and their complexions more delicate and more-
tinged with red.
On the decadence of the Mogul power in Hindof-
tan, Caftimire felt fome of the ravages of wnr. It is
now however in peace j and the inhabitants are defi-
rous of keeping it fo. They are fprightly and inge¬
nious, and have feveral curious manufadtures much
valued in India.. They are all Mahometans or idola ¬
ters. Cafhmire is the capital town.
CASIMIR, the name of feveral kings of Poland.
See (Hi/iory of) Poland.
. Casimir, Mattluas Sorbiewfki, a Polifii Jefuit, born
^ I597- He was a moft excellent poet j and is, lays
M. Baillet, an exception to the general rule of Ari-
ftotle and the^ other ancients, which teaches us to ex-
pedt nothing ingenious and delicate from northern cli¬
mates. His odes, epodes, and epigrams, have been
thought not inferior to thofe of the fineft wits of
Greece and Rome. Dr Watts has tranflated one or
two of his final! pieces, which are added to his Lyric
Poems. He died at Warfaw in 1640, aged 43. There
have been many editions of his poems, the beft of which
is that of Paris, 1 7 99.
CASING of timber WORK, among builders, is
the plaftering the houfe all over the outfide with mor¬
tar, and then ftriking it while wet, by a ruler, with
the corner of a trowel, to make it referable the’joints
of freeftone. Some diredt it to be done upon heart-
laths, becaufe the mortar would, in a little time, de-
cay the fap laths j and to lay on the mortar in two
thickneffes, viz. a fecond before the firrt is dry.
CASK, or Casque, a piece of defenfive armour
wherewith to cover the head and neck 5 otherwife call¬
ed the head-piece and helmet *. The word is French * See ^
cafque, from cajtcum or cajfwusy a diminutive of caffu™1'
“ a helmet.” Le Gendre obferves, that anciently, in
France, the gens d’annes all wore cajhs. The king
wnre a cajk gilt 5 the dukes and counts filvered 5 gen¬
tlemen of extradlion polifhed fteel 3 and the reft plain
iron. 1
The calk is frequently feen on ancient medals, where
we may obferve great varieties in the form and faffiion
thereof3 as the Greek fafhion, the Roman fafhion, &f.
F. Joubert makes it the moft ancient of all the co¬
verings of the head, as well as the moft univerfal.
Kings,. emperors, and even gods themfelves, are feen
therewith. I hat which covers the head of Rome has
ufually two wings like thofe of Mercury 3 and that of
fome kings is furnilhed with horns like thole of Jupiter
Ammon ; and fometimes barely bulls or rams horns,
to exprefs uncommon force.
Cask, in Heraldry, the fame with helmet. See He¬
raldry, N° 45.
Cask, a veffel of capacity, for preferving liquors of
divers kinds 3 and fotnetimes alfo dry goods, as fuear
G g almonds;
CAS C 234 ] CAS
A cafk of fugar is a barrel of that came, in procefs of time, the molt capital one that ex
Eio<r. Brit.
and Anec¬
dotes of
Bowyer,
by N icholas
almonds, &c. __   „
commodity, containing from eight to eleven hundred
weight. A calk of almonds is about three hundred
weight. .
CASKET, in a general fenfe, a little colter or ca¬
binet. See Cabinet.
Caskets, in the fea language, are fmall ropes made
of linnet, and faftened to gromets, or little rings upon
the yards ; their ufe is to make fail the fail to the yard
when it is to be furled. #
CASLON, William, eminent m an art ot the
greatelt confequence to literature, the art of letter¬
founding, was born in 1692, in that part of the town
. of Hales Owen which is fituated in Shroplhire. I hough
he juftly attained the charadter of being the Coryphae¬
us in that employment, he was not brought up to the
bufmefsj and it is obferved by Mr Mores, that this
handywork is fo concealed among the artificers of it,
that he could not difcover that any one had taught it
to another, but every perfon who had ufed it had
learned it of his own genuine inclination. Mr Callon
ferved a regular apprenticelhip to an engraver of orna¬
ments on gun barrels j and after the expiration of his
term carried on this trade in Vine-ltreet, near the
Minories. He did not, however, folely confine his
ingenuity to that inltrument, but employed himfeli
likewife in making tools for the bookbinders, and for
the chafing of filver-plate. Whilit he was engaged m
this bufinefs, the elder Mr Bowyer accidentally faw, in
a bookfeller’s (hop, the lettering of a book uncom¬
monly neat; and inquiring who the artift was by whom
the letters were made, was hence induced to leek an
acquaintance with Mr Gallon. Not long after, Mr
Bowyer took Mr Cation to Mr James’s foundery, m
Bartholomew-clofe. Gallon had never before that
time feen any part of the bufinefs \ and being alkcd by
-his friend, if he thought he could undertake to cut
types, he requefted a lingle day to confider the ros¬
ter : and then replied that he had no doubt but he
could. Upon this anfwer, Mr Bowyer, Mr Betten-
ham, and Mr Watts, had fuch a confidence m his abi¬
lities, that they lent him <;ocl. to begin the undertak¬
ing and he applied himfelf to it with equal afliduity
and fuccefs. In 1720, the fociety for promoting Chri-
ftian knowledge, in confequence of a reprefentation
from Mr Solomon Negri, a native of Damafcus in Sy¬
ria who was well Ikilled in the oriental tongues, and
had been profeffor of Arabic in places of note, deemed
it expedient to print, for the ufe of the Eallern church¬
es the New Teftament and Pfalter, in the Arabic
language. Thefe were intended for the benefit of the
poor Chriltians in Paleftine, Syria, Mefopotamia, A-
rabia, and Egypt, the conftitution of which countries
did not permit the exercife of the art of printing. U p¬
on this occafion Mr Callon was pitched upon to cut the
fount •, in his fpecimensof which he diitinguifhed it by
the name of Englilh Arabic. Under the farther en¬
couragement of Mr Bowyer, Mr Bettenham, and Mr
Watts, he proceeded with vigour in his employment j
and he arrived at length to fuch perfedtion, that he
not only freed us from the neceflity of importing types
from Holland, but in the beauty and elegance of thofe
made bv him he fo far exceeded the productions of the
belt artificers, that his workmanlhip was frequently ex¬
ported to the continent. In Ihort, his foundery bc-
Caflon,
ills in this or in foreign countries. Having acquiredCatpiant
opulence in the courfe of his employment, he was put
into the commiffion of the peace for the county of Mid-
dlefex. Towards the latter end of his life, his eldeft
fon being in partnerlhip with him, he retired in a great
meafure from the adtive execution of bufinefs. His
death happened in January 1766.
CASPIAN SEA, a large lake of fait water in Afia,
bounded by the province of Aftrakan on the norths .
and by part of Perfia on the fouth, ealt, and weft. It
is upwards of 400 miles long from fouth to north, and
300 broad from eaft to weft. This fea forms feveral
gulfs, and embraces between Aftrakan and Aftrabad
an incredible number of fmall illands. Its bottom is-
mud, but fometimes mixed with Ihells. At the diftance
of fome German miles from land it is 500 fathoms deep •,
but on approaching the ftiore it is everywhere fo
{hallow, that the fmalleft veffels, if loaded, are obliged
to remain at a diftance.
When we confider that the Cafpian is enclofed on
all fides by land, and that its banks are in the neigh¬
bourhood of very high mountains, we eafily fee why
the navigation in it ihould be perfedlly difterent from
that in every other fea. There are certain winds that,
domineer over it with fuch abfolute fway, that vefleis
are often deprived of every refource } and in the whole
extent of it there is not a port that can truly be called
fafe. The north, north-eaft, and eaft winds, blow moft
frequently, and occafion the moft violent tempefts. A-
long the eaftern ftiore the eaft w inds prevail j for which
reafon veffels bound from Perfia to Aftrakan always
direct their courfe along this ftiore.
The furface of the Cafpian fea is lower than the
ocean. Although its extent is immenfe, the variety
of its productions is exceedingly fmall. ihis undoubt¬
edly proceeds from its want of communication with the
ocean, which cannot impart to it any portion of its in-
exhauftible ftores. But the animals which this lake
nouriihes multiply to fuch a degree, that the Ruffians,
who alone are in condition to make them turn to ac¬
count, juftly coniider them as a never-failing fource of
profit and wealth. It will be underftood that we
{peak of the fi(h of the Cafpian, and oi its fiffieries.
which make the foie occupation and principal trade of
the people inhabiting the banks of the Vv olga and of
the Jaik. This bufinefs is diftinguilhed into the great
and leffer fiffieries. The fiih comprehended under the
firft divifion, fuch as the fturgeon and others, abound
in all parts of the Cafpian, as well as in the rivers that
communicate with it, and which they afeend at ipawn¬
ing time. The fmall fillies, fuch as the falmon and
many others, obferve the general law of quitting the
fait waters for the freffi 5 nor is there an infiance of
one of them remaining conftantly in the lea.
Seals are the only quadrupeds that inhabit the Caf¬
pian •, but they are there in fuch numbers as to afford
the means of fubfiftence to many people in that coun¬
try as well as in Greenland. The varieties of the Ipe-
cies are numerous, diverfified however only by the
colour. Some are quite black, others quite white j
there are fome whitilh, fome yellowiffi, fome of a
moufe colour, and fome ftreaked like a tiger. . Ihey
crawl by means of their fore feet upon the iflancls^.
where they become the prey of the filhermen, who kill
J them
CAS [ 23
pi an fe a. them v 1th long clubs. As foon as one is defpatched,
he is fucceeded by feveral who come to the afliftance
of their unhappy companion, but come only to {hare
his fate. They are exceedingly tenacious of life, and
endure more than thirty hard blows before they die.
They will even live for feveral days after having re¬
ceived many mortal wounds. They are moft terrified
by fire and fmoke 5 and as foon as they perceive them,
retreat with the utmoit expedition to the fea. Thefe
animals grow fo very fat, that they look rather like
oil bags than animals. At Aftrakan is made a fort of
gray foap with their fat mixed with pot-afhes, which is
much valued for its property of cleanfing and taking
greafe from woollen fluffs. The greatefl numbers of
them are killed in fpring and autumn. Many fmall
veffels go from Aftrakan merely to catch feals.
If the Cafpian has few quadrupeds, it has in propor¬
tion ftill fewer of thofe natural productions which are
looked upon as proper only to the fea. There have
never been found in it any zoophytes, nor any animal
of the order of molufca. The fame may altnoft be faid
of fhells ; the only ones found being three or four fpe-
cies of cockle, the common mufcle, fome fpecies of
fnails, and one or two others.
But to compenfate this fterility, it abounds in birds
of different kinds. Of thofe that frequent the flrores,
there are many fpecies of the goofe and duck kind,
of the ftork and heron, and many others of the water
tribe. Of birds properly aquatic, it contains the grebe,
the crefted diver, the pelican, the cormorant, and al-
moft every fpecies of gull. Crows are fo fond of fifh,
that they haunt the fhores of the Cafpian in prodigious
multitudes.
The waters of this lake are very impure, the great
number of rivers that run into it, and the nature of its
bottom, affeCting it greatly. It is true, that in gene¬
ral the waters are fait: but though the whole weftern
Ihore extends from the 46th to the 35th degree of
north latitude *, and though one might conclude from
analogy that thefe waters v'ould contain a great deal
of fait, yet experiments prove the contrary : and it is
certain that the faltnefs ot this fea is diminiihedby the
north, north-eaft, and north-weft winds •, although we
mav with equal reafon conclude, that it owes its falt¬
nefs to the mines of fait which lie along its tv-o banks,
and which are either already known or will be known
to pofterity. The depth of thefe waters alfo dimi-
hiflies gradually as you approach the fhores, and their
faltnefs in the fame way grows lefs in proportion to their
proximity to the land, the north winds not unfrequent-
ly caufing the rivers to difcharge into it vaft quantities
of troubled water impregnated with clay. Thefe va¬
riations which the fea is expofed to are more or lefs
confiderable, according to the nature of the winds $
they affed the colour of the river waters to a certain
diftance from the fliore, till thefe mixing with thofe
of the fea, which then refume the afcendency, the fine
green colour appears, which is natural to the ocean,
and to all'thofe bodies of water that communicate
with it.
It is well known, that befides its fait tafte, all fea
water has a fenfible bitternefs, which muft be attri¬
buted not only to the fait itfelf, but to the mixture of
different fubftances that unite with it, particularly to
different forts of alum, the ordinary effect of different
5 J GAS
combinations of acids. Befides this, the waters of the Cafpian fea.
Cafpian have another tafte, bitter too, but quite di~ *
ftinCt, which affedts the tongue with an impreflion
fimilar to that made by the bile of animals ; a property
which is peculiar to this fea, though not equally fen¬
fible at all feafons. When the north and north-weft
winds have raged for a confiderable time, this bitter
tafte is fenfibly felt 5 but when the wind has been
fouth, very imperfectly. We ftiall endeavour to ac¬
count for this phenomenon.
The Cafpian is furrounded on its weftern fide by the
mountains of Caucafus, which extend from Derbent
to the Black fea. Thefe mountains make a curve
near Aftrakan, and directing their courfe towards the
eaftern ftiore of the Cafpian, lofe themfelves near the
mouth of the Jaik, where they become fecondary
mountains, being difpofed in ftrata. As Caucafus Is
an inexhauftible magazine of combuftible fubftances, it
confcquently lodges an aftoniihing quantity of metals
in its bowels. Accordingly, along the foot of this
immenfe chain of mountains, we fomelimes meet with
warm fprings, fometimes fprings of naphtha of dif¬
ferent quality ; fometimes we find native fulphur,
mines of vitriol, or lakes heated by internal fires. Now
the foot of Mount Caucafus forming the immediate
weftern ftiore of the Cafpian fea, it is very eafy to
imagine that a great quantity of the conftituent parts
of the former muft be communicated to the latter :
but it is chiefly to the naphtha, which abounds fomuch
in the countries which furround this fea, that we muft
attribute the true caufe of the bitte rnefs peculiar to
its waters ; for it is certain that this bitumen flows
from the mountains, fometimes in all its purity, and
fometimes mixed with other fubftances which it ac¬
quires in its paiTage through fubterranean channels,
from the moft interior parts of thefe mountains to the
fea, where it falls to the bottom by its fpeeific gravity.
It is certain too, that the north and north-weft winds
detach the grCateft quantities of this naphtha •, whence
it is evident that the bitter tafte muft be moft fenfible
when thefe winds prevail. We may alfo comprehend
why this tafte is not fo ftrong at the furface or in the
neighbourhood of the ftiore, the waters there being
lefs impregnated with fait, and the naphtha, which is
united with the water by the fait, being then either
carried to a diftance by the winds, or precipitated to
the bottom.
But it is not a bitter tafte alone that the naphtha
communicates to the waters of the Cafpian : thefe wa¬
ters were analyfed by M. Gmelin, and found to con¬
tain, befides the common fea fait, a cpnfiderable pro¬
portion of Glauber fait, intimately united with the for¬
mer, and which is evidently a produflion of the naph¬
tha.
As the waters of the Cafpian have no outlet, they
are difeharged by fubter^anean canals tbsough the
earth, where they depofite beds of fait ; the furface of
which correfponds with that of the level of the fea.
The two great deferts which extend from it to the eaft
and weft are chiefly compofed of a faline earth, in
which the fait is formed by efflorefcence into regular
cryftals •, for which reafon fait ftiowers and dews are
exceedingly common in that neighbourhood. The fait
of the marflies at Aftrakan, and that found in efflo¬
refcence in the deferts, is by no means pure fea lalt,
G g 2 • but
CAS [ 236 3 <2 A S
JGfafpian Tea but mucK debafed by tbe bitter Glauber fait we mcn-
Caflana ^one^ above. In many places indeed it is found with
« ^ • crvftals of a lozenge lhape, A\hich is peculiar to it,
without any cubical appearance, the form peculiar to
cryltals of fea fait.
A great deal has been written on the fucceflive aug¬
mentation and decreafe of the Cafpian fea, but with
little truth. There is indeed to be perceived in it a
certain rife and fall of its waters ; in which, however,
no obfervation has ever difcovered any regularity.
Many fuppofe (and there are ftrong prefumptions in
favour of the fuppofition), that the {bores of the Caf¬
pian were much more extenlive in ancient times than
they are at prefent, and that it once communicated
with the Black fea. It is probable too, that the level
of this lafl fea was once much higher than it is at pre¬
fent. If then it be allowed, that the waters of the
Black fea, before it procured an exit by the {trails of
Conftantinople, rofe feveral fathoms above their pre¬
fent level, which from many concurring circumftances
may eafily be admitted, it will follow, that all the
plains of the Crimea, of the Kuman, of the Wolga,
and of the Jaik, and thofe of Great Tartary beyond
the lake of Aral, in ancient times formed but one fea,
which embraced the northern extremity of Caucafus
by a narrow {trait of little depth ; the veftiges of which
are {till obvious in the river Mantyfch.
CASQUE, or Cask. See Cask.
CASSADA. See Jatropha, Botany Index.
CASSANA, Nicolo, called Nicoletto, an emi¬
nent Italian painter, wras born at Venice in 1659, and
became a difciple of his father Giovanni Franeefco
Caffana, a Genoefe, who had been taught the art of
painting by Bernardino Strozzi. He foon diitinguifh-
ed himfelf, not only by the beauty of his colouring,
but by the gracefulnefs of his figures in hiftorical com-
pofitions, as vrell as in portrait. The molt eminent
perfonages folicited him to enrich their cabinets with
fome of his performances *, and were more particularly
defirous to obtain their portraits, becaufe in that branch
he excelled beyond competition. The grand duke of
Tufcany, who was an excellent judge of merit in all
profeffions, and as liberal an encourager of it, invited
Nicoletto to his court •, and he there painted the por¬
traits of that prince and the princefs Violante his con-
fort. Thefe performances procured him uncommon
applaufe, as w'ell as a noble gratuity, and he was em¬
ployed and carelTed by the principal nobility of Flo¬
rence. Befide feveral hifterical fubjedls painted by
this mailer while he refided in that city, one was a
very capital defign : The fubjedl of it was the Confpi-
racy of Catiline ; it confided of nine figures as large as
life, down to the knees ; and the two principal figures
were reprefented as with one hand joined in the pre¬
fence of their companions, and in their other hand hold¬
ing a cup of blood. Some of the Englilh nobility «n
their travels fat to him for their portraits ; which being
fent to London, and highly admired, Nicoletto was
invited to England, with drong affurances of a ge¬
nerous reception ; and on his arrival he experienced
the kindnefs, the refpeft, and the liberality, fo pecu¬
liar to the natives of that kingdom. He had the ho¬
nour of being introduced to the prefence of Queen
Anne, and to paint her portrait; in which he fucceed-
®d f<? happily, that the queen didinguilhed him by
many marks of favour and honour ; but he had not the Caflanij
happinefs to enjoy his good fortune for any length of R
time, dying in London, univerfally regretted, in the ,^a^an^rs
year 1713. *
Cassana, Giovanni dgcfino, called DAbate Caf
fanay was brother to the preceding, and born in 1664.
He was educated along with him by their father
Francefco Caffana, and he finidied his dudies at Ve¬
nice, where his brother Nicolo refided for fome time.
Although he compofed and defigned hidorical fubjefts
with expertnefs, and w ith a corredtnefs of outline equal
to his brother •, yet, from prudence and fraternal affec¬
tion, he declined te interfere with him, and chofis
therefore to defign and paint all forts of animals and
fruits. In that llyle he arrived at a high degree of
excellence, imitating nature with exadtnefs, beauty7,
and truth : expreding the various plumage of his birds,
and the hairs of the different animals, wfith fuch tender*
nefs and delicacy as rendered them edimable to all
judges and lovers of the art.. His w orks were admit¬
ted into the colledlions of thofe of the fird rank, and
accounted ornaments of thofe repofitmies of what is
curious or valuable. He alfo painted fruits of thofe
kinds which were the mod uncommon, or naturally of
odd and fingular colours j and fuch fifhes as feemed
worthy to excite admiration by their umifual fornr,
colour, or appearance. But befides thofe fubjefts, he
fometimes painted the portraits of particular perfons
of didindtion, which he defigned, coloured and touch¬
ed, with the fame degree' of merit that w as vifible in
all his other performances. At lad he determined to
vifit Genoa, where his family had lived in edeem •, and
took with him feveral pictures which he had already
finidied. His intention was to difplay his generofity,
and to appear as a perfon of more wealth, and of greater
confequence, than he really was ; and to fupport that
eharadler, he bedowed his pictures on feveral of the
principal nobility of that city. But, unhappily, he
experienced no grateful return for all that prodigal
munificence : he reduced himfelf by that vain liberali¬
ty to the mod necefiitous circumdances-^ was deprived
of the means to procure for himfelf even the common
neceffaries of life *, and w aded away the remainder of
his days in the bitter nefs of poverty, mifery, and ne-
gleft.
CASSANDER, king of Macedon after Alexan¬
der the Great, w as the fon of Amipater. He made
feveral conqueds in Greece, abolidied democracy at
Athens, and gave the government of that date to
the orator Demetrius. Olympias, the mother of Alex¬
ander, having caufed Aridaeus and his wife Eurydice^
with others of Caffander’s party, to be put to death,
he befieged Pydne, whither the queen had retired, took
it by a ilratagem, and caufed her to be put to death.
He married Theffalonica, the fider of Alexander the
Great *, and killed Roxana and Alexander, the w ife
and fon of that conqueror. At length he entered into
an alliance with Seleucus and Lyfimachus, againd An-
tigonus and Demetrius ; over whom he obtained a
great vidlory near Ipfus in Phrygia, 30x years before
the Chridian era, and died three years after, in the
19th year of his reign.
CASSANDRA, in fabulous hidory, the daughter
of Priam and Hecuba, was beloved of Apollo, who
promifed to beftow on her the fpirit of prophecy, pro¬
vided
;;at?ant!ra
11
CAS
vided fhe veuld confent to liis love
to accept the propofal ; but had no fooner obtained
, that gift, than die laughed at the tempter, and broke
her word. Apollo,, being enraged, revenged himfelf,
by cauling no credit to be given to her prediflions,
hence die in vain prophefied the ruin of Troy. Ajax,
the fon of Oileus, having ravilhed her in the temple of
Minerva, he -was ftruck with thunder. She fell into
the hands of Agamemnon, who loved her to diflrac-
tion ; but in vain did Ihe preditt that he would be af-
faflinated in his own country. He was killed, with
her, by the intrigues of Clytemneftra $ but their death
was avenged by Oreftes.
CASSANO, a town of Italy in the duchy of'Mi¬
lan, rendered remarkable by an obflinate battle fought
there between the Germans and French in 1705. It
is fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria, and is feated on the
river Adda, in E. Long. 10. O. N. Lat. 45. 20.
Cassano, a town or Italy in Calabria citerior, in
the kingdom of Naples, with a bifhop’s fee. E. Long.
^6. 30. N. Lat. 39. 55.
CASSAVI, or Cassada. See Jatropha, Bo¬
tany Index.
CASSEL, a town of French Flanders, and capital
a chatellany of- the fame name : It is feated on a
mountain, where the terrace of the caille is dill to
be feen ; and from whence there is one of the fined
profpefts in the world ; for one may fee no lefs thaYi
32 towns, with a great extent of the fea, from whence
it is diftant 1 <; miles. E. Long. 2. 27. N. Lat. 50. 48.
Cassel, the capital city of the landgravate of
Heflfe Caffel, in the circle of the Upper Rhine in Ger-
many;.(fee Hesse Cassel). It is divided into the
Old, .New, and High Towns. The New Town is bed
built) the houfes being of done, and the dreets broad.
The houfes of the Old Town, which is within the
walls, are modly of timber •, but the dreets are broad,
and the market places fpacious. The place is drongly
fortified, but the fortifications are not regular. It con¬
tains about 3 2,000 inhabitants, of whom a great pro¬
portion are French Protedants. Thefe have edablifh-
ed feveral manufactories in the place, particularly in
the woollen branch. It is feated on the declivity of a
hill near the river Fulva, in E. Long. 9. 28. N. Lat.
j*. 20.
CASSIA. See Eot vny fodex.
Cassia Li^nea. See Laurus.
CASSIDA. See Scutellaria, Botany Index.
Cassida, in Zo'dofi/, a genus of infedts belonging
to the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
CASSIMER, or Casimer, the name of a thin
tweeled woollen cloth, much in falhion for dimmer
ufe.
CASSIMIRE, or Cashmire. See Cashmire.
CASSINE. Sec Botany Index. The Spaniards
who live near the gold mines of Peru, are frequently
obliged to drink an infufion of this herb in order to
moiiten their breads; without -which they are liable to
a fort of fuffocation, from the drong metallic exhala¬
tions that are continually proceeding from the mines.
In Paraguay, the Jefuits make a great revenue by im¬
porting the leaves of this plant into many countries,
under the name of Paraguay or South fea tea, which
is there dranls, in the fame manner as that of China or
[ 237 q
Caffandra feemed Japan is with us.
CAS
it is with difficulty prefervid in
England.
CASSINI, Johannes Dominicus, a mod excellent
adronomer, was born at Piedmont in 1635. His early
proficiency in adronomy procured him an invitation to
be mathematical profeffor at Bologna when he was no
more than 15 years of age : and a comet appearing in
1652, he difeovered that comets were not accidental
meteors, but of the fame nature, and probably govern¬
ed by the fame laws, as the planets. In the fame year
he folved a problem given up by Kepler and Bullialdu#
as infolvable, which was, to determine geometrically
the apogee and eccentricity of a planet from its true
and mean place. In 1663, be was appointed infpe&or
general of the fortifications of the cadle of Urbino, and
had afterwards the care of all the rivers in the eeclefi-
adical date : he dill however profecuted his adronomi*
cal dudics, by difeovering the revolution of Mars round
his own axis y and, in 1666, publifhed his theory of
Jupiter’s fatellites. Caffini -was invited into France by-
Louis XIV. in 1669, where he fettled as the fird pro-
feflbr in the royal obfervatory. In 1677 he demon*
drated the line of Jupiter’s diurnal rotation j and in
1684 difeovered four more fatellites belonging to Sa¬
turn, Huygens having found one before. He inhabited
the royal obfervatory at Paris more than forty years \
and when he died in ly1^, was fucceeded by his only
fon James CaflinL
Cassini, Jamesr another celebrated adronomer, was j
the only fon of the former. He wras born at Paris,
18th February 1677. ^ would appear that his early
dudies were conduced in his father’s houfe, where,
from the purfuits and dudi&s of his-father, mathematics^
and their application to adronomy, it is probable, were
not neglected. He became a dudent afterwards at the
Mazarine college, at the time that the celebratad Va-
rignon was profeffor of mathematics. With the adid-
ance of this eminent man young Caflini made fuch pro-
grefs, that at 15 years of age he fupported a mathema¬
tical thefis with great honour. At the age of 17 he
was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences ^
and the fame year he accompanied his father in a jour¬
ney to Italy, where he adided him in the verifieatio*
of the meridian at Bologna and ether meafurements.
After his return he- performed limilar operations in a
journey into Holland, and he difeovered feme errors in
the meafure of the earth by Snell, the refult of which
was communicated to the Academy in 1702. In 1696
he made alfo a vifit to England, where he was made a
member of the Royal Society. In 1712 he fucceeded.
his father as adronomer royal at the obfervatory of
Paris. In 1717 he gave to the Academy his refearches
on the didance of the fixed dars j-in which he die wed
that the whole annual orbit, of near 200 millions of
miles diameter, is but as a point in comparifen of-that
didance. The fame year he communicated alio his
difcovciies concerning the inclination of the orbits of
the fatellites in general, and efpeci dly of thofe of Sa¬
turn’s fatellites and ring. In 1725 he undertook to
determine the caufe of the moon’s libration, by which
die diews fometimes a little tow-ards one fide, and fome-
times a little on the other, of that half which is com¬
monly behind or hid from our view.
In 1732 an important queftion in adronomy enga¬
ge
Oafiltf,
O.tffinu
Caff! ill.
CAS [238
ged tlie ingenuity of our author. His father had de-
1 termined, by his obfervations, that the planet Venus re¬
volved about her axis in the fpace of 23 hours} and
M. Bianchini had published a work in I729> in which
he fettled the period of the fame revolution at 24 days
8 hours. From an examination of Bianchini’s obfer¬
vations which were upon the Ipots in \ enus, he dif-
covered that he had intermitted his obfervations for the
fpace of three hours, from which caufe he had probably
miftaken new fpots for the old ones, and fo had been
led into the miftake. He alfo determined the nature
and quantity of the acceleration of the motion of Ju¬
piter at half a fecond per year, and of that of the re¬
tardation of Saturn at two minutes per year •, that
thefe quantities would go on incrcafiiig for 2000 years,
and then would decreale again. In 1740 he publilh-
ed his Aftronomical Tables, and his Elements of
Aftronomy *, very extenfive and accurate works.
Aftronomy was the principal objetl of our author’s
eonnderation, but he did not confine himielf abfolutely
,to that purfuit, but made occafional excurfions into
other fields. -We owe-to him Experiments on Eleftri-
city, Experiments on the Recoil of hire-arms ; Re-
fearehes on the Rife of the Mercury in the Barometer
at different Heights ; Reflexions on the perfecting of
Burning-glaffes •, and fome other memoirs.
One of the moft important objeCts of the French
•■academy was the meafurement of the earth. In 1669
Picard meafured a little more than a degree of lati¬
tude to the north of Paris ; but as that extent appear¬
ed too fmall from which to conclude the whole circum¬
ference with fufficient accuracy, it was refolved to
continue that meafuretnent on the meridian of Paris to
the north and the fouth, through the whole extent of
the country. Accordingly, in 1683, the late M. de
la Hire continued that on the north lide of Paris, and
the older Caflini that on the fouth fide. The latter
Was aflifted in 1700 in the continuation of this opera¬
tion by his fon our author. The fame work was
farther continued by the fame academicians j and
finally, the part left Unfinifhed by De la Hire in the
north Avas finiflred in 1718 by our author, Avith the
late Maraldi, and De la Hire the younger.
Thefe operations produced a confiderable degree of
precifion. From this meafured extent of fix degrees,
it appeared alfo, that the degrees Avere of different
lengths in different parts of the meridian ; and our
author concluded, in the volume publiftied for 1718,
> that they decreafed more and more tOAvards the pole,
■and that therefore the figure of the earth Avas that of
an oblong fpheroid, or having its axis longer than the
equatorial diameter. He alfo meafured the perpendi¬
cular to the fame meridian, and compared the meafured
diftance with the differences of longitude as before
determined by the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites . from
‘ which he concluded that the length of the degrees of
longitude Avas fmaller than it would be on a fphere,
and* that therefore again the figure of the earth was
an oblong fpheroid, contrary to the determination.of
Newton by the theory of gravity. Newton Avas in¬
deed of all men the moft averfe from controverfy •,
but the other mathematicians in Britain did not
tamely fubmit to conclufions in direX oppofition to
the fundamental doXrine of this philofopher. The
veonfequence Avas, that the French government font
' 4
] C A S
two different fets of meafurers, the one to meafure
a degree at the equator, the other at the polar circle j
and the comparifon of the whole determined the figure
to be an oblate fpheroid, contrary to Caffini’s deter¬
mination.
After a long and laborious life, James Caflini died
in April 1756, and Avas fucceeded in the Academy and
Obfervatory by his fecond fon. Fie publiftied, A Trea-
tife on the Magnitude and Figure of the Earth j as al¬
fo, The Elements or Theory of the Planets, with
Tables ; betide a great number of papers in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy, from the year 1699 to 1555.
Cassini de Thury, Cafar Francois, a celebrated
French aftronomer, direXor of the obfervatory, and
member of moft of the learned focieties of Europe,
Avas born at Paris June 17. 1714. He Avas the fecond
fon of James Caflini, whofe occupations and talents he
inherited and fupported with great honour. He re¬
ceived his firft leffons in aftronomy and mathematics
from MM. Maraldi and Camus •, and made fueh a ra¬
pid progrefs, that Avhen he was not more than ten
years of age he calculated the phafes of a total eclipfe
of the fun. At the age of eighteen he accompanied
his father in his two journeys undertaken for draiving
the perpendicular to the obfervatory meridian from
Strafbourg to Breft. A general chart of France was
from that time devifed •, for which purpofe it Avas necef-
fary to traverfe the country by feveral lines parallel and
perpendicular to the meridian of Paris. Our author
Avas charged Avith the conduX of this bufinefs ; in
Avhich he was fo fcrupulous as to meafure again Avhat
had been meafured by his father. This great work was
publiftied in 1740, Avith a chart (hewing the new me¬
ridian of Paris, by two different feriesof triangles, paf-
fing along the fea coafts to Bayonne, traverfing the
frontiers of Spain to the Mediterranean and Antibes,
and thence along the eaftern limits of France to Dun¬
kirk, with parallel and perpendicular lines deferibed at
the diftance of 6oco toifes from one another, from fide
to fide of the country.
Our author made a tour in xyd1* in Flanders, in the
train of the king. This gave rife, at his majefty’s in-
ftance, to the chart of France j relative to which Cafiini
publiftied'different works, as well as a great number of
the ftieets of the chart itfelf. He undertook, in 1761,
an expedition into Germany, for the purpofe of con¬
tinuing to Vienna the perpendicular of the Paris me¬
ridian •, to unite the triangles of the chart of France
Avith the points taken in Germany 5 to prepare the
means of extending into that country the fame plan
as in France •, and thus to eftablilh fucceflively for all
Europe a moft ufeful uniformity. Our author Avas at
Vienna the 6th of June 176T, the day of the tranfit
of the planet Venus over the fun, of which he obferved
as much as the (late of the Aveather Arould permit him
to do, and publiftied the account of it in his Voyage
en Allenwgne.
Caflini, always meditating the perfeXioti of his
grand defign, profited of the peace of 1783 to propofe
the joining of certain points taken upon the Englifti
coaft with thofe Avhich had been determined on the
coaft of France, and thus to conneX the general chart
of the latter w ith that of the Britifli ifles, as he had
before united it Avith thofe of Flanders and Germany,
The propcfal Avas favourably received by the Englifti
government,
Caffiui,
Caffini (l;i
Thury.
CAS
[ 259 ]
CAS
iaflSni de
Thury
t!
uffiopeia.
government, and prefently carried into effe& under
the direction of the Royal Society, by the late General
Roy.
Between the years 1735 and 1770, M. Caffmi pub-
lithed, in the volumes of Memoirs of the French Aca¬
demy, a great number of pieces, conlifting chiefly of
altronomical obfervations and queftions j among which
are refearches concerning the parallax of the fun, the
moon, Mars and Venus 5 on ailronomical refraftions,
and the effeht caufed in their quantity and laws by the
weather ; numerous obfervations on the obliquity of
the ecliptic, and on the law of its variations. He cul¬
tivated aflronomy for 50 years, the moil important for
that feience that ever elapfed for the magnitude and
variety of objedls ; and in which he commonly fullain-
ed a principal fhare.
M. Caflini was of a very ftrong and vigorous confti-
tution, which carried him through the many laborious
operations in geography and aflronomy which he con¬
ducted. An habitual retention of urine, however, ren¬
dered the lafl twelve years of his life very painful and
di'treTmg, till it was at length terminated by the fmall-
pox the 4th of September 1784, in the 71ft year of his
age. He was fuceeeded in the academy, and as director
of the obfervatory, by his only fon John-Dominic Caf-
fini, the fourth in order of direfl defeent who has filled
that honourable flation. Hutton's Math. D cl.
CASSIODORUS, Marcus Aurelius, fecretary
of flate to Theodoric king of the Goths, was born at
Squillace, in the kingdom of Naples, about the year
470. He was conful in 514, and was in great credit
under the reigns of Athalaric and Vitiges j but at 70
years of age retired into a monaflery in Calabria, where
he amufed himfelf in making fun-dials, v’ater hour-
glafies, and perpetual lamps. Fie alfo formed a libra¬
ry ; and compofed feveral works, the bell edition of
which is that of Father Garet, printed at Rouen in
1679. Thole mofl efteemed are his Divine Inllitu-
tions, and his Treatife on the Soul. He died about
the year q62.
CASSIOPEIA, in fabulous hiflory, wife to Ce-
pheus king of Ethiopia, and mother of Andromeda.
She thought herfelf more beautiful than the Nereides,
■who defired Neptune lo revenge the affront ; fo that
he fent a fea monfler into the country, which did much
harm. To appeafe the god, her daughter Andromeda
was expofed to the montler, but was refeued by Per-
feus ; who obtained of Jupiter, that Calhopeia might
be placed affer her death among the liars: hence the
conflellation of that name.
C assiopeia, in AJlronomy, one of the conflellations
of the northern hemifphere, fituated next to Cepheus.
In 147 2, there appeared a new liar in this conltella-
tion, which at firlt furpaffed in magnitude and bright-
nefs Jupiter himfelf: but it diminifhed by degrees, and
at lad disappeared, at the end of eighteen months. It
ahirmed all the aftronomers of that age, many of whom
wrote differtations on it*, among the-reft Tycho Brahe,
Kepler, Maurolycus, Lycetus, Cramineus, &c. Beza,
the landgrave o*- Heffe, Rofa, &c. wrote to prove it a
comet, and the fame which appeared to the Magi at
the birth of Jefus Chrift, and that it came to declare
his fecond coming *, they were anfwered on this fub-
je£l by Tycho. The liars in the conitellation Callio-
peia, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are 13 5 in Hevelius’s, Caffiopete
33 : in Tycho’s, 46: But in the Britannic catalogue ^
Mr Flamltead makes them 55. ^ Caffumar.^
CASSIS, in antiquity, a plated or metalline hel¬
met *, different from the which was of leather.
CASSITERIA, in the hiftory of foflils, a genus of
cryftals, the figures of which are influenced by an ad¬
mixture of fome particles of tin.
The caffiteria are of two kinds $ the whitilh pellu¬
cid cafliterion, and the brown cafliterion. The firft
is a tolerably bright and pellucid cryftal, and feldom
fubjecl to the common blemiihes of cryftal: it is of a
perfect and regular form, in the figure of a quadrila¬
teral pyramid: and is found in Devonthire and Corn¬
wall principally. The brown cafliterion is like the
former in figure : it is of a very fmooth and gloffy fur-
face, and is alfo found in great plenty in Devonihire
and Cornwall.
CASSI ERIDES, in Ancient Geography, a cluf-
ter of iflands to the weft of the Land’s End 5 oppofite
to Celtiberia, (Pliny) ; famous for their tin, which he
calls candidum plumbum, formerly open to none but the
Phoenicians, who alone carried on this commerce from
Gades, concealing the navigation from the reft of the
world, (Strabo). The appellation is from Cajfiteros,
the name for tin in Greek. Now thought to be the
Scilly iflands, or Sorlings, (Camden).
CASSIUS, Spurius, a renowned Roman general
and conful, whofe enemies a^'cufing him of afpiring to
royalty, he was thrown down from the Tarpeian rock
485 years before Chrift j after having thrice enjoyed
the confular dignity, been once- general of the horfe
under the firft dictator that was created at Rome, and
twice received the honour of a triumph.
Cassius Longinus, a celebrated Roman lawyer,
fiourifhed 113 years before Chrift. . He was fo in¬
flexible a judge, that his tribunal was called the Rock
of the impeached. It is from the judicial feverity of
this Caflius, that very fevere judges have been called
CaJJiani.
Cassius, Cains, one of the murderers of Julius-
Caefar ; after his defeat by Mark Antony at the battle
of Philippi, he ordered one of his freedmen to put
him to death with his own Iword 41 years before
Chrift. See Rome.
CASSOCK, or Cassula, a kind of robe or gowm,^
worn over the reft of the habit, particularly by the
clergy. The word caffock comes from the French
cajfaque, a horfeman’s coat.
CASSONADE, in commerce, cafk-fugar, or fugar
put into calks or chefts, after the firft purification, but
which has not been refined. It is fold either in pow¬
der or in lumps the whiteft, and that of which the
lumps are largeft, is the bell. Many imagine it to
fweelen more than loaf fugar j but it is certain that it
yields a great deal more feum.
CASSOWARY. See Struthio, Ornithologt
Index.
CASS UMAR, in the Materia Medico, a root re-
fembling that of zedoary.
It is cardiac and fudorific, and famous in nervous
cafes •, it is alfo an ingredient in many compofitionsg
and is preferibed in powders, bolufes, and infufions.
Its dofe is from five to fifteen grains.
CASSUMBAZAR,
CAS T 240 ] CAS
Cafiumba- CASSUMBAZAR, a town of India in Afia, fitu-
Zi,r atcd on the river Ganges, in the province of Bengal.
Caftagno. E* Long- 37* a^d N- Lat- 24- O.
u, hi.^—. 1, < CAST is peculiarly ufed to denote a figufe or fntall
flatue of bronze. See Bronze.
Cast, among founders, is applie'd to tubes of wax
fitted in divers parts of a mould of the fame matter;
by means of which, when the wax of the mould is re¬
moved, the melted metal is-conveyed into all the parts
which the wax before poffeffed.
Cast, alfo denotes a cylindrical piece of brafs' or
copper, flit in two, lengthwife, ufed by the founders
in fand, to form a canal or conduit in their moulds,
whereby the metal may be conveyed to the different
pieces intended to be call.
Cast, among plumbers, denotes a little brazen fun¬
nel at one end of a mould, for calling pipes without
foldcring, by means of which the melted metal is pour¬
ed into the mould.
Cast, or Cajle, in fpeaking of the eallern affairs,
denotes , a tribe, or number of families, of the fame
rank and profeffion. The divifion of a nation into
calls chiefly obtains dn the- dominions of the Great
Mogul, kingdom of Bengal, ifland of Ceylon, and the
great peninfula oppofite thereto. In • each of thefe
there are, according to Father Martin, four principal
calls, viz. the call of the bramins^ which is the firll
and moll noble; the call of the rajas, or princes, who
pretend to be defeended from divers royal families *,
the call of the choatres, which comprehends all the
■artificers j and that of the parias, the lowell and moll
contemptible of all : though Henry Lord, it mull be
obferved, divides the Indians about Surat into four cajls,
fomewhat differently from Martin, viz, into hr a mins,
or prielts ; cut ten/, or foldiers •, Jhuddery, which we call
banians, or merchants *, and 'uoyfc, the mechanics or
artificers. Every art and trade is confined to its pro¬
per cajl, nor is allowed to be exercifed by any but thofe
whofe fathers profeffed the fame. So that a tailor’s
fon can never rife to be a painter, nor a painter’s foil
fall to be a tailor \ though there are fome employ¬
ments that are proper to all the calls, e. g. every body
may be a. foldier or a merchant. There are alfo di¬
vers calls which are allowed to till the ground, but not
all. The call of parias is held infamous, infomuch
that it is a difgrace to have any dealings or converfa-
tion with them *, and there are fome trades in the call
of choutres, which debafe their profeffors almoll .to the
fame rank. Thus Ihoemakers, and all artificers in lea¬
ther, as alfo filhermen, and even Ihepherds, are reputed
no better than parias.
CASTAGNO, Andrea Dal, hillorical painter,
was born at a fmall village called Cajtagno, belonging
to the territory of Tufcany, in 1409: and being de¬
prived of his parents, was employed by his uncle to
attend the herds of cattle in the fields 5 but, having
accidentally -feen an ordinary painter at work in the
country, he obferved him for fome time with furprife
and attention, and afterwards made fuch efforts to imi¬
tate him, as alloniflied all who faw his productions.
The extraordinary genius of Andrea became at lalt a
common topic of difeourfe in Florence *, and fo far
excited the curiofity of Bernardetto de Medici, that
4he fent for Andrea : and perceiving that he had pro-
4
mifing talents, he placed him under the care of the Caftagat
belt mailers who were at that time in Florence* An- I!
drea diligently purfued his ftudies, devoted himfelf en- ^aftalio.
tircly to pradtice under the diredlion of his inltrudtors, Y ^
became particularly eminent in defign, and in a few
years made fo great a progrefs, that he found as much
employment as he could poflibly execute. He painted
only in diltemper, and frefco, with a manner of colour¬
ing that was not very agreeable, being rather dry and
hard, till he learned the fecret of painting in oil from
Domenico Venetian0, who had derived his knowledge
of that new difeovery from Antoncllo da Metfina.
Andrea was the firll of the Florentine artilts who
painted in oil j but although he was in the highelt de¬
gree indebted to Domenico for difelofing the fecret,
yet he fecretly envied the merit of the man who
taught him the artj and beeaufe his own works feem-
ed to be much lefs admired than thofe of Domenico,
he determined to affaflinate his friend and benefac¬
tor. He executed his defign with the utmolt ingra¬
titude and treachery (for Domenico at that time lived
with him, and painted in partnerlhip with him), and
he llabbed him at a corner of a llreet fo fecretly, that
he efcaped, unobferved and unfufpefted, to his own
houfe, where he compofedly fat down to work ; and
thither Domenico was foon after conveyed, to die in
the arms of his murderer. The real author of fo in¬
human a tranfadlion was never difeovered, till An¬
drea, through remorfe of confcience, difclofed it on his
death-bed-, in 1480. He fmilhed fevcral confiderable
works at Florence, by which he gained great riches,
and as great a reputation j but when his villainous
mifcondufl became public, his memory was ever after
held in the utmoll detellation. The moll noted work
of this mailer is in the hall of jullice at Florence,
freprefenting the execution of the confpirators againft
the houfe of Medicis.
CASTALIAN spring. See Castalius.
CASTALIO, Sebastian, was born at Chatillon,
on the Rhone, in the year 1515. Calvin conceived
fuch an efteem and friendlhip for him, during the Hay
he made at Stralburg in 1540 and 1541, that he lodg¬
ed him fome days at his houfe, and procured him a re¬
gent’s place in the college of Geneva. Caltalio, after
continuing in this office near three years, was forced
to quit it in the year 1544, on account of fome par¬
ticular opinions which he held concerning Solomon’e
Song, and Chrilt’s defeent into hell. He retired to
Bafil, where he w'as made Greek profeffor, and died
in that place in 1564, aged 48. He incurred the
high difpleafure of Calvin and Theodore Beza, for
differing with them concerning predellination and the
punilhment of heretics. His w*orks are very confi¬
derable both on account of their quality and number,
In 1545, he printed at Bafil four books of dialogues,
containing the principal hiltories of the Bible in ele¬
gant Latin 5 fo that youth might thereby make a pro¬
ficiency in piety and in the Latin tongue at the fame
time. But ?his principal work is a Latin and French
tranflation of the Scripture. He began the Latin
tranflation at Geneva in 1542, and finilhed it at Bafil
in 1 550. It was printed at Bafil in 1551, and dedi¬
cated by the author to Edward VI. king of England.
The French verfion was dedicated to Henry XL of
France,
GAS [241] CAS
ftallo
a
aftel.
■prance, and priiited at Bafil in 1555. The fault which
has been molt generally condemned in his Latin tranf-
lation, is the affe&ation of uling only claflical terms.
CASTALIUS tons (Strabo, Paufanias); Cqjlalia,
(Pindar, Virgil) •, a fountain at the foot of Mount
Parnaffus, in Phocis, near the temple of Apollo, or
near Delphi 5 facred to the Mufes, thence called Ca-
fialides. Its murmurs were thought prophetic, (Non-
nius, Lucian). See the articles Delphi and Par¬
nassus.
CA3TANEA. See Fagus, Botany Index.
CASTANETS, Castagnettes, or Castanet-
TAS, a kind of mufical inftrument, wherewith the
Moors, Spaniards, and Bohemians, accompany their
dances, farabands, and guitars. It confiil; of two
little round pieces of wood dried, and hollowed in
manner of a Spoon, the concavities whereof are placed
on one ano her, faltened to the thumb, and beat from
time to time with the middle linger, to direct their
motion and cadences. The cqftanets may be beat
eight or nine times in the Ipace of one meafure, or fe-
«ond of a minute.
CAST ANO VITZ, a town of Croatia, lituated on
the river Unna, which divides Chriitendom from Tur¬
key. E. Long. 17. 20. N. Lat. 45. 40. It is fub-
je£t to the houfe of Auftria.
CASTEL, Lewis Bertrand, a learned Jefuit, was
born at Montpelier in 1688, and entered among the
Jefuits in 1703. He ftudicd polite literature in his
youth j and at length applied himielf entirely to the
ftudy of mathematics and natural philofophy. He
diltinguiihed himfelf by writing on gravity) the ma¬
thematics j and on the mufic of colours, a very whim-
fical idea, which he took great pains to reduce to
pra£Hce. His piece on gravity, entitled Trade de la
Penfateur Univerfe/le, was printed at Paris in 1724.
He afterwards publifhed his Mathematique Univerfelle;
which occafioned his being unanimouily chofen a fel¬
low of the Royal Society of London, without the
leaf! felicitation. He was alfo a member of the aca¬
demies of Bourdeaux and Rouen : but his Clavecin
ocu/aire made the moft noife ; and he {pent much
time and expence in making an harplichord few the
eye, but without fuceefs. He alfo wrote for and
againft Sir Ifaac Newton, and publilhed feveral other
works; the principal of which are, he Plan du Mathema-
tique abregee, and a treatife entitled Optiqne des Couloirs.
He led a very exemplary life, and died in 1757.
CASTE LAMAR A, a town of Italy, in the king¬
dom of Naples, and the Hither Principato, with a
bilhop’s fee, and a good harbour. E. Long. 14. 15.
N. Lat. 41. 40.
C ASTEL-aragonese, a ftrong town of Italy, in
the illand of Sardinia, with a bilhop’s fee, and a good
harbour. It is feated on the N. W. coaft of the illand,
in E. Long. 8. 57. N. Lat. 40. 56.
CASTEL-Branco, a town of Portugal, and capital
®f the province of Beira 5 feated on the river Lyra,
35 miles N. W. of Alcantara. W. Long. 8. o. N.
Lat- 39- 35-
CAHTEL-Franco, a very fmall, but well fortified fron¬
tier town of the Bolognefe, in Italy, belonging to the
Pope.
CA3TF.L-de-V.de, a fmall ftreng town of Alentejo.
Vol. V. Part I.
It was taken by Philip V. W. Long. 6. 25. N. Lat.
39- I5-
CASTEL To lit, a town of Spain, in Catalonia, feat¬
ed on an inacceffible eminence, between Gironne and
Campredon, about 15 miles from each, and near the
river Fulva.
CAsTEL-Gandojplio, a town of Italy, in the territory
of the church, with a cattle, to which the pope retiree
in the fummer feafon j 10 miles S. by E. of Rome.
E. Long. 12. 46. N. Lat.. 41. 44.
CastEL-Novo, a ftrong town of Dalmatia, fubjeft
to the Venetians *, feated on the guif of Cataro, in
E. Long. 18. 45. N. Lat. 4.’. 25.
CASTEL-Rodrigo, a town of Portugal, in the pro¬
vince of Tra-los-Montes, in W. Long. 7. 1. N. Lat.
41. o.
CasteL-Novo de-Carfagnana, a town of Italy, in the
Modcnefe, v ith a ftrong fortrefs. It is the capital of
the valley of Carfagnana, and feated on the river der-
chio,, 17 miles above Lucca.
CASTEL-dei-Ovo, a fmall illand in the Tufcan fea,
in the gulf of Naples, near a town of that name, to
which it is joined by a ftone bridge. The fortrels is
called Caftel-del-Ovo, in which there is always a good
garrifon.
CASTELBAR, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Mayo, and province of Connaught, 35 miles N. of
Galway. W. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 53. 45.
CASTELL, Edmund, D. D. a learned Engliih di¬
vine of the 17th century, diftinguiftied by his ikill in
the eaftern languages. He was educated at Cam¬
bridge 5 where he was matter of Cathaiine hall, and
Arabic profeffor j and was at length canon of Canter¬
bury. He had the greateft thare in the Polyglott Bible
of London 5 and wrote the Hebtaglotton pro Jeptem 0
rientalibu\, &c. On this excellent work, which occu¬
pied a great part of his life., he beftowed incredible
pains and expence, even to the breaking of his confti-
tution, and exhaufting of his fortune, having expended
no lefs than 12,ocol. upon that work. At length,
when it was printed, the copies remained unfold upon
his hands. He died in 1685 ; and lies buried in the
churchyard of Higham Gobyon in Bedfordlbire, of
which he was re&or. It appears from the infeription
on his monument, which he erefted in his lifetime, that
he was chaplain to Charles II. He bequeathed all his
oriental manuferipts to the univerfity of Cambridge, on
condition that his name fliould be written on every co¬
py in the collection.
CASTELLA, a town of the Mantuan, in Italy,
about five miles north-eaft of the city of Mantua.
E. Long. 11. 15. N. Lat. 45. 30.
CASTELLAN, the name of a dignity or charge
in Poland ; The caftellans are fenators of the king¬
dom, but fenators only of the lower clafs, who, in
diets, fit on low feats, behind the palatines, or great
fenators. They are a kind of lieutenants of provinces,
and command a part of the palatinate under the palatine.
CASTELLANY, the territory belonging to any
city or town, chiefly ufed in France and Flanders ;
Thus we fay, the caftellany »f Lille, Ypres, &c.
CASTELLARIUS, the keeper, or curator, of a
caftellum. Grater gives an ancient fepulchral inferip¬
tion in memory of a cajlellarius.
H h CASTELLATIO,
Caftel
CaftelluriuS.
)
CAS
[ 242 ]
CAS
CafteUatio CASTELLATIO, in middle-age writers, the aA
II. of building a caftle, or of fortifying a houfe, and
t aftighone renjerjng {1 a caftle.—By the ancient Englifli laws,
^ caftellation was prohibited without the king’s Ipecial
licenfe.
CASTELLI, Bernard, an Italian painter, was
born at Genoa in 1557 5 and excelled in colouring and
in portraits. He was the intimate friend of X affo, and
took upon himfelf the talk of deftgning and etching
the figures of his Jerufalem Delivered. He died at
Genoa in 1629.
Valerio Caltelli, one of his fons, was born at Ge¬
noa in 1625, and furpaffed his father. He particu¬
larly excelled in painting battles •, which he compofed
with fpirit, and executed them with fo pleafing a va¬
riety, and fo great freedom of hand, as gained him
univerfal applaufe. His horfes are admirably drawn,
thrown into attitudes that are natural and becoming,
full of motion, aft ion, and life. In that ftyle of
painting he ftiowed all the fire of I mtoretto, united
with the fine tafte of compofition of Paolo Verongfe.
He died in 1659. The works of this matter are not
very frequent} but they are defervedly held in vtiy
high efteem. It is believed that a greater number oj.
his eafel pictures are in the colleftions of the nobility
and gentry of England, than in any other pait of Eu-
rope.
CASTELLORUM operatic, caftle work, or fcr-
viee and labour done by inferior tenants for the build¬
ing and upholding of cattles of defence ; towards which
fome gave perfonal afliftance, and others paid their
contributions. This was one of the three neceflary
charges to which all lands among the Anglo-Saxons
were exprefsly fubjeft.
CASTELVETRO, Lewis, a native of Modena,
of the 16th century, famous for his Comment on Arif-
totle's Poetics. He was profecuted by the inquifition
for a certain book of Melanfthon, which he had tranf-
lated into Italian. He retired to Bafil, where he
died.
CASTIGATION, among the Romans, toe punith-
ment of an offender by blows, or beating with a wand
or fwitch. Caftigation was chiefly a military punifti-
ment *, the power of inflifting of which on the foldiery
was given to the tribunes. Some make it of two kinds y
one with a flick or cane, caUe&fu/tigntio : the other
with rods, called jlagellcitio .■ the latter was the molt
diihonourable.
CASTIGATORY for Scolds. A woman m-
difted for being a common fcold, if conyifted, (hall be
placed in a certain engine of correftion, called the
trebuchet cajligatory, or clicking fool; which, in the
Saxon language, ftgnifies the fco/din^ fool; though
now it is frequently corrupted into the ducking fool;
becaufe the refidue of the judgement is, that when fhe
is placed therein, Ihe {hall be plunged in water for her
punifhment.
CASTIGLIONE, Giovanni Benedetto, a ce¬
lebrated painter, was born at Genoa in 1616. His
fit ft matter was Gio-Battifta Paggi. Afterwards he
ft died under Andrea Ferrari: and laftly perfefted him¬
felf from the inftruftions of Anthony Vandyck, who
at that time refided at Genoa. He painted portraits,
h'llorical pieces, landfcanes. and caftlesq in the latter of
which he is faid chiefly to have excelled} as alfo in fairs,
Caftile.
markets, and all kinds of rural feenes. By this matter Caftiglion.,
we have aifo a great number of etchings, which are all
fpirited, free, and full of tafte. The effeft is, in ge- _
neral, powerful and pleafing ; and many of them have
a more harmonized and finhhed appearance than is
ufual from the point, fo little aflifted by the graver.
His drawing of the naked figure, though by no means
correct, is notwithftanding managed in a ftyle that in¬
dicates the hand of the mafter.
His fon, Francefcoy was bred under himfelf, and ex¬
celled in the fame fubjeftsj and it is thought that ma-
ny good paintings which are aicribed to Benedetto, and
are frequently feen at fales, or in modern colleftions,
are copies after him by bis fon Franceico, or-peihaps
originals of the younger Caftiglione.
CaSTIGLIONE, a Imall but ttrong town of Italy,
in Mantua, with a caftle. It was taken by the Ger¬
mans in 1701, and the French defeated the Imperial-
ifts near it in 1706. E. Long. 10. 29. N. Lat. 43.
23.
CASTIGLIONI, Balthazar, an eminent Italian
nobleman, defeended from an illuftrious and ancient
family, and born at his own villa at Cafalico in the
duchy of Milan in 1478. He ftudied painting, fculp-
ture, and architefture, as appears from a book ho
wrote in favour of thefe arts j and excelled fo much,
in them, that Raphael Urbino, and Buonaroti, though
incomparable artifts, never thought their works com¬
plete, without the approbation of Count Caftiglioni..
When he was 26 years of age, Guido Ubaldo, duke
of Urbino, fent him ambaflador to Pope Julius II.
He was lent upon a fecond embaffy to Louis XII. of
France, and upon a third to Henry VIE of England.
After he had defpatched his bufinefs here, he return¬
ed and began his celebrated work, entitled the Cour*
tier ; which he completed at Rome in 1516. 1 his
work is full of moral and political inftruftion : and it
we feek for the Italian tongue in perfeftion, it is laid
to be nowhere better found than in this performance.
A verfion of this work, together w ith the original Ita¬
lian, was publilhed at London in 1727, by A. P. Ca¬
ftiglioni, a gentleman of the fame familywho refided
there under the patronage of Dr Gibfon, biftiop of Lon¬
don. Count Caftiglioni was fent by Clement VII. to
the court of the emperor Charles V. in quality of le¬
gate, and died at Toledo in I529'
CASTILE, New, or The Kingdom of Toledo,
a province of Spain, bounded on the north by Old
Caftile, on the eaft by the kingdoms of Arragon and
Valencia, on the fouth by thofe of Murcia and Anda-
lufia, and on the weft by the kingdom of Leon. It
is divided into three parts } Argaria to the north,
Mancha to the eaft, and Sierra to the fouth. Madrid
is the capital. Both thefe provinces are very well wa¬
tered with rivers, and the air is generally pure and
healthy *, but the land is mountainous, dry, and un¬
cultivated, through the lazinefs of the inhabitants.
The north part produces fruits and wine, and the fouth
good paftures and fine wool. Xhele provinces are di¬
vided by a long chain of mountains which run irom
eaft to weft. _ # ...
Castile, Oldf a province of Spain, with the title
of a kingdom. It is about 192 miles in length, and 115
in breadth j bounded on the fouth by New Caftile,
on the eaft; by Arragon and Navarre, on the north by
Biicay
£ A S [ 243 ] C A *S
iftile Bifcay and Afturias, *and 'on the Weil by the kingdom
II of Leon. Burgos is the capital town.
CASTILE-de-Oro, a fertile and large country in
South America, lying to the weft of the Oroonoko. It
comprehends eight governments ; viz. Terra Firma,
Proper Carthagena, St Martha, Rio de la Hacha, Ve¬
nezuela, New Andalulia, Popayan, and the kingdom
of New Granada.
CASTILLAN, or Castillane, a gold coin cur¬
rent in Spain, and worth fourteen rials and ftxteen
deniers.
Castillan, is alfo a weight ufed in Spain for Weigh¬
ing gold. It is a hundredth part of a pound Spanilh
weight. What they commonly call a weight of gold
in Spain is always underftood of the caftillan.
CASTILLARA, a town of the Mantuan in Italy,
fituated fix miles north-eaft of the city of Mantua.
1L. Long. 11. 25. N. Lat. 4^. 20.
CASTILLON, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Gironde, fituated on the river Dordogne, 16
miles eaft of Bourdeaux. W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 44.
5°*
CASTING, in foundry, the running of metal into
a mould, prepared for that purpofe.
Casting of Metals, of Letters, Bells, &c. See the
article Foundry.
CASTING in Sand or Earth, is the running of me¬
tals between two frames, or moulds, filled with fand or
earth, wherein the figure that the metal is to take has
been impreffed en creux, by means of the pattern.
Casting, among fculptors, implies the taking of cafts
and impreflions of figures, bufts, medals, leaves, &c.
The method of taking of cafts of figures and bufts
is moft generally by the ufe of plafter of Paris, i. e.
alabafter calcined by a gentle heat. The advantage of
ufing this fubftance preferably to others is, that not-
withftanding a flight calcination reduces it to a pul-
verine ftate, it becomes again a tenacious and cohering
body, by being moiftened with wra.ter, and afterwards
fuffered to dry ; by which means either a concave or
a convex figure may be given by a proper mould or
model to it when wet, and retained by the hardnefs
it acquires when dry : and from thefe qualities, it is
fitted for the double purpofe of making both cafts, and
moulds for forming thofe cafts. The particular manner
of making cafts depends on the form of the fubjeft to
be taken. Where there are no projecting parts, it is
very fimple and eafy •, as likewdfe where there are
fuch as form only a right or any greater angle with
the principal furface of the body 5 but where parts
projeft in leffer angles, or form a curve inclined to¬
wards the principal furface of the body, the work is
more difficult.
The firft ftep to be taken is the forming the mould.
In order to this, if the original «r model be a bafs re¬
lief, or any other piece of a flat form, having its fur¬
face firft well greafed, it muft be placed on a proper
table, and furrounded by a frame, the fides of which
muft be at fuch a diftance from it as will allow a pro¬
per thicknefs for the fides of the mould. As much
plafter as will be fufficient to cover and rife to fuch a
thicknefs as may give fufficient ftrength to the mould,
as alfo to fill the hollow betwixt the frame and the
model, muft be moiftened with water, till it be juft
$f fuch confiftence as will allow it to be" poured upon
the model. This muft be done as foon as poflible *, Caftfnf.
or the plafter would concrete or fet, fo as to become
more troublefome in the working, or unfit to be ufed.
JLhe whole muft then be fuffered to remain in this
condition, till the plafter has attained its hardnefs j
and then the frame being taken away, the preparatory
caft or mould thus formed may be taken off from the
fubjeft entire.
Where the model or original fubjeft is of a round
or ere<ft form, a different method muft be purfued $
and the mould muft be divided kato feveral pieces : of
if the fubjeft confifts of detached and projefting parts,
it is frequently moft expedient to caft fuch parts iepa-
rately, and afterv'ards join them together.
Where the original fubjedl or mould forms a round,
or fpheroid, or any part of fuch round or fpheroid,
more than one half the plafter muft be ufed without
any frame to keep it round the model ; and muft be
tempered with water to fuch a confiftence, that it may
be wrought with the hand like very foft pafte ; but
though it muft not be fo fluid as when prepared for
flat-figured models, it muft yet be as moift as is com¬
patible with its cohering fufficiently to hold together $
and being thus prepared, it muft be put upon the mo¬
del, and compreffed with the hand, or any flat inftru-
ment, that the parts of it may adapt themfelves, in the
moft perfedl manner to thofe of the fubjedt, as well
as to be compadf with refpedl to themfelves. When
the model is fo covered to a convenient thicknefs, the
whole muft be left at reft till the plafter be fet and
firm, fo as to bear dividing without falling to pieces,
or being liable to be put out of its form by flight vio¬
lence ; and it muft then be divided into pieces, in or¬
der to its being taken off from the model, by cutting
it vuth a knife with a very thin blade : and being di¬
vided, muft be cautioufly taken off-, and kept till dry
but it muft be always carefully obferved, before the
feparation of the parts be made, to notch them acrofs
the joints or lines of the divifion, at proper diftances,
that they may w ith eafe and certainty be properly con¬
joined again ; which would be much more precarious
and troublefome without fuch diredfive marks. The
art of properly dividing the moulds, in order to make
them feparate from the model, requires more dexterity
and Ikill than any other thing in the art of cafting j
and does not admit of rules for the moft advantageous
condufl of it in every cafe. Where the fubjeft is of
a round or fpheroidal form, it is beft to divide the
mould into three parts, which will then eafily come
oft’ from the’ model : and the fame will hold good of
a cylinder or any regular curved figure.
The mould being thus formed, and dry, and the
parts put together, it muft be firrt greafed, and placed
in fuch a pofition that the hollow may lie upwards,
and then filled with plafter mixed with water, in the
fame proportion and manner as was direfted far the
cafting the mould : and when the caft is perfectly fet
and dry, it muft be taken out of the mould, and re¬
paired where it is necelfary j which finifties the ope*
ration.
This is all that is required with refpefl to fubjedts
where the furfaces have the regularity above-men¬
tioned : but w here they form curves which interfedl
each other, the conduft of the operation muft be va¬
ried with refpedt to the manner of taking the caft of
H h 2 the
Ciafting.
CAS [ 244. ] CAS
the mould from off the fubjecl or model *, and where
there are long projecting parts, fuch as legs or arms,
they {hould.be wrought in feparate caffs. 'I be opera¬
tor may eafily judge, from the original fubjeCts, what
parts will come oft together, and what require to be
1'eparated : the principle of the whole conftfts only in
this, that where under-workings, as they are called,
occur, that is, wherever a ftraight line drawn from the
bafis or infertion of any projection, would be cut or
crofted by any part of fuch projection, fuch part can¬
not be taken off without a divifion j which mutt be
made either in the place where the projection would
crofs the ftraight line j or, as that is frequently difficult,
the whole projection muff be feparated from the main
body, and divided alfo lengthwife into tw'o parts; and
where there are no projections from the principal fur-
faces, but the body is fo formed as to render the fur-
face a cempofition of fueh curves, that a ftraight line
being drawn parallel to the furface of one part would
be cut by the outline, in one or more places, of ano¬
ther part, a divifion of the whole ftiould be made, fo
as to reduce the parts of it into regular curves, which
muft then be treated as fueh.
In larger maffes, where there would otherwife be a
great thicknefs of the plaltcr, a core or body may be
pot within the mould, in order to produce a hollow in
the caft ; which both faves the expence of the plafter,
and renders the caft lighter.
This core may be of w’ood, where the forming a
hollow of a ftraight figure, or a conical one with the
bafis outward, will aniwer the end : but if the cavity
require to be round, or of any curve figure, the core
cannot be then drawn while entire ; and confequently
ftiould be of fuch matter as may be taken out piece¬
meal. In this-cafe, the core is beft formed of clay 5
which muft be worked upon wires to give it a tenacity,
and fufpended in the hollow of the mould by crofs
wires lying over the mouth *, and when the plafter is
Efficiently fet to bear handling, the clay muft be pick¬
ed out by a proper inftrument.
Where it is defired to render the plafter harder, the
wrater with which it is tempered ftiould be mixed w ith
parchment fixe properly prepared, which will make it
very firm and tenacious.
In the fame manner, figures, buffs, &c. may be
eaft of lead, or any other metal, in the moulds of pla¬
fter *, only the expence of plafter, and the tedioufnefs
©f its becoming Efficiently dry, when in a very large
mafs, to bear the heat of melted metal, render the ufe
of clay, compounded with fome other proper materials,
preferable where large Ebje&s are in queftion. The
clay, in this cafe, ffiould be walked over till it be per¬
fectly free from gravel or ftones } and then mixed with
a third or more of fine fand to prevent it cracking •,
or, inftead of fand, coal aihes fifted fine may be ufed.
Whether plafter or clay be employed for the calling in
metal, it is extremely neceffary to have the mould per-
feftly dry : otherwife the moiiiure, being rarefied, will
make an explofion that will blow the metal out of the
mould, aud endanger the operator, or at leaf! crack the
mould in Ech a manner as to fruftrate the operation.
Where the parts of a mould are larger, or projeft
much, and confequently require a greater tenacity of
the matter they are formed of to keep them together,
Hocks of cloth, prepared like thofe defigned for pa¬
per hangings, or fine cotton plucked or cut till it Is Caftins;
very Ihort, lliould be mixed with the allies or fand be-
fore they are added to the clay to make the compofition
for the mould. The proportion Ihould be according to
the degree of cohefion required 5 but a fmall quantity
w ill anfwer the end, if the other ingredient of the com¬
pofition be good, and the parts of the mould properly
linked together by means of the wires above direded.
There is a method of taking calls in metals from
fmall animals, and the parts ot vegetables, which may
be pradtifed for fome purpofes with advantage : par¬
ticularly for the decorating grottoes or rock works,
where nature is imitated. "I he proper-kinds of animals
are lizards, fnakes, frogs, birds or infedts j the calls
of wrhich, if properly coloured, will be exadt reprefen-
tations of the originals.
This is to be performed by the following method :
A coffin or proper cheft for forming the mould being
prepared of clay, or four pieces of boards fixed toge¬
ther, the animal or parts of vegetables muft be iufpend-
ed in it by a firing ; and the leaves, tendrils or other
detached parts of the vegetables, or the kgs, wings,
&c. of the animals, properly feparated, and adjufted
in their right petition by a fmall pair of pincers: a
due quantity of plailer of Paris and calcined talk,
in equal quantities, with fome alumen plumofum,
muft then be tempered with water to the proper con-
fiftence for calling ; and the Ebjedt from whence the
caft is to be taken, alfo the fides of the coffin, moiften-
ed with fpirit of wine. The coffin or cheft muft then
be filled with the tempered compofition of the plafter
and talk, putting at the fame time a piece of ftraight
Hick or wood to the principal part of the body of the
Ebjedft, and pieces of thick wire to the extremities of
the other parts, in order that they may form, when
drawn out after the matter of the mould is properly
fet and firm, a channel for pouring in the melted
metal, and vents for the air 5 which otherwife by the
rarefaftion it would undergo from the heat of the me¬
tal would blow it out or burft the mould. In a Ihort
time the plafter and talk will fet and become hard,
when the flick and wires may be drawn out, and the
frame or coffin in which the mould w as caft taken aw ay :
and the mould muft then be put firft into a moderate
heat, and afterwards, when it is as dry as it can be ren¬
dered by that degree, removed into a greater ) which
may be gradually increafed till the whole be red hot.
The animal or part of any vegetable, which was in¬
cluded in the mould, w ill then be burnt to a coal ; and
may be totally calcined to allies, by blowing for fome
time gently into the channel and paffages made for
pouring in the metal, and giving vent to the air, which
will, at the fame time that it deftroys the remainder
of the animal or vegetable matter, blow out the allies.
The mould muft then be Effered to cool gently j and
will be perfeft ; the deftru&ion of the Ebftance of the
animal or vegetable having produced a hollow of a fi¬
gure corefpondent to it : but it may be neverlhelefs
proper to lhake the mould, and turn it upfide dowi»,
as alfo to blow w ith the bellows into each of the air-
vents, in order to free it wholly from any remainder of
the allies 5 or where there may be an opportunity of
filling the hollow with quickfilver without expence, it
will be found a very effectual method of clearing the
cavity, as a.ll duff, aihes, or fmall detached bodies, will
^ i neceffarily
r>>
C A' S [ 245 ] CAS
neceffarily rife to the furface of the quickfilver, and be
1 i—v—1 poured out with it. The mould being thus prepared, it
muft be heated very hot when ufed, if the call be made
with copper or brafs ; but a lefs degree ferve for
lead or tin, and the matter being poured in, the mould
muft be gently ftruek •, and then fuffered to reft till it
be cold ; at which time it muft be carefully taken from
the caft, but without the leaft force ; for fuch parts of
the matter as appear to adhere more ftrongly, muft be
foftened by foaking in water till they be entirely loof-
ened, that none of the more delicate parts of the caft
may be broken off or bent.
Where the alumen plumofum, or talk, cannot eaftly
be procured, the plafter may be ufed alone •, but it is
apt to be calcined by the heat ufed in burning the ani¬
mal or vegetable from whence the caft is taken, and
to become of too incohering and crumbly texture 5 or,
for cheapnefs, Sturbridge or any other good clay, wafh-
ed over, till it be perfedtly fine, and mixed with an
equal part of fand, and fome flocks cut fmall, may be
employed. Pounded pumice ftone and plafter of Paris,
taken in equal quantities, and mixed with wafhed clay
in the fame proportion, is faid to make excellent moulds
for this and parallel ufes.
Cafts of medals, or fuch fmall pieces as are of a fimi-
lar form, may be made in plafter by the method direct¬
ed for bafs relievos.
Indeed there is nothing more required than to form
a mould by laying them on a proper board, and having
furrounded them by a rim made by the piece of a card
or any other pafteboard, to fill the rim with foft tem¬
pered plafter of Paris 3 which mould, when dry, will
ferve for feveral cafts. It is neverthelefs a better me¬
thod to form the mould of melted fulphur 3 which will
produce a fharper impreffion in the caft, and be more
durable than thofe made of plafter.
The cafts are likewife frequently made of fulphur,
which being melted muft be treated exaftly in the fame
manner as the plafter.
I k Comm. For taking cafts from medals, Dr Lewis recom-
‘‘•hts. mends a mixture of flowers of brimftone and red
lead: equal parts of thefe are to be put over the fire
in a ladle, till they foften to the confiftence of pap :
then they are kindled with a piece of paper, and ftir-
red for fome time. The veffel being afterwards co¬
vered clofe, and continued ori the fire, the mixture
grows fluid in a few minutes. It is then to be poured
on the metal, previoufly oiled and wiped clean. The
cafts are verv neat 3 their colours fometimes a pretty
deep black, fometimes a dark grey : they are very du¬
rable 3 and when foiled, may be wathed clean in fpirit
of wine.
Suralijls Dr Lettfom recommends tin foil for taking off cafts
waniem. from medals. The thinneft kind is to be ufed. It
ftrould be laid over the fubject from which the impref¬
fion is to be taken, and then rubbed with a brufli, the
point of a Ikewer, or a pin, till it has perfectly re¬
s' ceived the impreflion. The tin foil fhould now be
pared clofe to the edge of the medal, till it is brought
to the fame circumference : the medal muft then be
reverfed, and the tin foil will drop off into a chip box
or mould placed ready to receive it. Thus the con¬
cave fide of the foil wall be uppermoft, and upon this
plafter of Paris, prepared in the ufual manner, may
be poured. When dry, the whole is to be taken
out, and the tin foil flicking on the plafter will give Caftitigt
a perfect reprefentation of the medal, almoft equal in
beauty to filver. If the box or mould is a little larger
than the medal, the plafter running round the tin foil
will give the appearance of a white frame or circular
border 3 whence the new made medal will appear more
neat and beautiful.
Cafts may be made likewife with iron, prepared
in the following manner : u Take any iron bar, or
piece of a fimilar form : and having heated it red-
hot, hold it over a veffel containing water, and
touch it very (lightly with a roll of fulphur, which
will immediately diffolve it, and make it fall in drops
into the w-ater. As much iron as may be wanted
being thus diffolved, pour the water out of the vef¬
fel 3 and pick out the drops formed by the melted
iron from thofe of the fulphur, which contain little
or no iron, and will be diftmguiftiable from the other
by their colour and weight.” The iron will, by
this means, be rendered ib fufible, that it will run . ^
with lefs heat than is required to melt lead 3 and may
be employed for making cafts of medals, and many
other fuch purpofes, with great convenience and ad¬
vantage.
Impreflions of medals having the fame effeft as.
cafts, may be made alfo of ilinglafs-glue, by the fol-
lowing means. Melt the ifinglafs, beaten, as when
commonly ufed, in an earthen pipkin, with the ad¬
dition of as much water as will cover it, ftirring it
gently till the whole is diffolved 3 then with a brulh
of camels hair, cover the medal, which fhould be
previoully well cleanfed and warmed, and then laid
horizontally on a board or table, greafed in the part
around the medal. Let them reft afterwards till the
glue be properly hardened 3 and then, with a pin,
raife the edge of it 3 and feparate it carefully from
the medal: the caft will be thus formed by the glue
as hard as horn 3 and fo light, that a thoufand will
fcarcely weigh an ounce. In order to render the re¬
lief of the medal more apparent, a fmall quantity of
carmine may be mixed with the melted ifinglafs 3 or
the medal may be previoufly coated with leaf gold
by breathing on it, and then laying it on the leaf,
which will by that means adhere to it 3 but the ufe of
leaf gold is apt to impair a little the iharpnefs of the
impreflion.
Im .flions of medals may be likewife taken In
putty "; but it fhould be the true kind made of calx of
tin, and drying oil. Thefe may be formed in the
moulds, previoufly taken in plafter or fulphur; or
moulds may be made in its own fubftar.ee, in the
manner direfted for thofe of the plafter. Thefe im¬
preflions will be very fharp and hard 3 but the great-
eft difadvantage that attends them, is their drying
very (lowly, and being liable in the mean time to be-
damaged.
Impreflions of prints, or other engravings, may be
taken from copperplates, by cleanfing them thorough¬
ly, and pouring plafter upon them 3 but the effeft in
this way is not ftrong enough for the eye 3 and there¬
fore the following method is preferable, where fuch
impreflions on plafter are defired.
Take vermilion, or any other coloured pigment, fine¬
ly powdered, and rub it over the plate : then pafs a
folded piece of paper, or the flat part of the hand, over
the
CAS
Cafiing.
[ 246 i
CAS
the plate to take off the colour from the lights or parts
where there is no engraving •, the proceeding muff then
be the fame as where no colour is ufed. Ihis laft
method is alfo applicable to the making of impieffions
of copperplates on paper with dry colours } for the
plate being prepared as here dire&ed, and laid on the
paper properly moiftened, and either paffed under the
rolling prefs, or any other way ftrongly forced. down
on the paper, an impreffion of the engraving will be
obtained.
be likewife
taken from cop¬
er paper, by means of
Impreffions may
perplates, either on plafter A , .
the fmoke of a candle or lamp j if, inftead of rub¬
bing them with any colour, the plate be held over
the candle or lamp till the whole furface become
black, and then wiped off by the flat of the hand, or
paper. .
Thefe methods are not, however, of great ufe m the
cafe of copperplates, except where impreflions may
be defired on occaflons where printing ink cannot be
procured : but as they may be applied likewife to the
taking impreffions from fnuff boxes, or other engraved
fubjects, by which means defigns may be inftantly bor¬
rowed by artills or curious perfons, they may in fuch
inftances be very ufeful.
The expedient of taking impreflions by the fmoke
of a candle or lamp may be employed alfo for bota¬
nical purpofes in the cafe of leaves, as a perfedf and
durable representation of not only the general figure,
but the contexture and dilpofition of the larger fibres,
may be extemporaneoufly obtained at any time. "Ihe
fame may be neverthelefs done in a more perfeft man¬
ner, by the ufe of linfeed oil, either alone or mixed
with a fmall proportion of colour, where the oil can
be conveniently procured : but the other method is va¬
luable on account of its being practicable at almolt all
fealons, and in all places, within the time that the
leaves will keep frefhand plump. In taking thefe im¬
preflions it is proper to bruife the leaves, fo as to take
off the projections of the large ribs, which might pre¬
vent the other parts from plying to the paper.
Leaves, as alfo the petals, or flower leaves, of plants,
may themfelves be preferved on paper, with their ori¬
ginal appearance, for a confiderable length of time, by
the following means.—Take a piece of paper, and rub
it over with ifmglafs glue treated as above directed for
taking impreflions from medals; and then ky the
leaves in a proper pofition on the paper. The glue
laid cn the paper being fet, brufh over the leaves
with more of the fame ; and that being dry likewife,
the operation will be finifhed, and the leaves fo fecured
from the air and moifture, that they will retain their
figure aud colour much longer than by any other treat¬
ment.
Butterflies, or other fmall animals of a flat figure,
may alfo be preferved in the fame manner.
Casting is alfo fometimes ufed for the quitting,
laying, or throwing afide any thing; thus deer cait
their horns, fnakes their fldns, lobfters their flrells,
hawks their feathers, &c. annually.
Cqfting of feathers is more properly called moulting
fir mewing.
A horle cafs his hair, or coat, at leaft once a-year,
in the fpring, when he caffs his winter coat ; and
Caftingj
Caftie
coat, in cafe he has been ill kept. Horfes alfo fome¬
times caft their hoofs, which happens frequently to
coach horfes brought from Holland ; thefe be.ng bred '■““V"
in a moift marliiy country, have their hoofs too flabby;
fo that commg into a drier foil, ajid lefs juicy proven¬
der, their hoofs fall off, and others that are firmer fuc-
ceed.
CASTING a Colt, denote a mare’s proving abor¬
tive.
CASTING Net, a fort of filhing net, fo called, becaufe
it is to be caf or thrown out; which when exactly
done, nothing efcapes it, but weeds and every thing
within its extent are brought away.
CASTLE, a fortrefs or place rendered defenfible
either by nature or art. It frequently fignifies with us
the principal manfion of noblemen. In the time of
Henry II. there w ere no lefs than m 5 caftles in Eng¬
land, each of which contained a manor.
Castles, walled with ftone, and defigned for refi-
dence as well as defence, are for the moft part, ac¬
cording to Mr Grofe, of no higher antiquity than the
Conqueff ; for although the Saxons, Romans, and even,
according to fome writers on antiquity, the ancient
Britons, had caftles built with ftone j yet thefe w'ere
both few in number, and at that period, through ne-
gle£t or invafions, either deftroyed or fo much decayed,
that little more than their ruins were remaining. This
is afferted by many of our hiftorians and antiquaries,
and afligned as a reafon for the facility with which
William made himfelf mafter of this country.
This circumftance wras not overlooked by fo good a
general as the Conqueror; who, effcftually to guard
againft invaftons from without, as wrell as to awe his
newly acquired fubjefts, immediately began to^ ere£t
caftles all over the kingdom, and likewife to repair and
augment the old ones. Befides, as he had parcelled
out the lands of the Engliih amongft his followers,
they, to proteft themfelves from the refentment of
thofe fo defpoiled, built ftrong holds and caftles on
their eftates. This likewife caufed a confiderable in-
creafe of thefe fortreffes; and the turbulent and un¬
fettled ftate of the kingdom in the fucceeding reignS,
ferved to multiply them prodigioufly, every baron or
leader of a party building caftles ; infomuch, that to¬
wards the latter end of "the reign of King Stephen,
they amounted to the almoft incredible number of
1115.
As the feudal fyftem gathered ftrength, thefe caftles Oo/S
became the heads of baronies. Each caftie was a mz-tiquitie\
and its caftclain, owner, or governor, the lord
t-
nor
sometimes, at the clofe of autumn, he calls Ins fummer
2
ner, or governor, ^
of that manor. Markets and fairs were dire&ed to^j i P[
be held there ; not only to prevent frauds in the king’s face.
duties or cuftoms, but alfo as they were efteemed places
where the laws of the land were obferved, and as fuch
had a very particular privilege. But this good order
did not long laft : for the lords of eaftles began to arro¬
gate to themfelves a royal power, not only within their
caftles, but likewife its environs ; exercifing judicature
both civil and criminal, coining of money, and arbitra¬
rily feizing forage and provifion for the fubfiftence of
their garrifons, which they afterwards demanded as a
right: at length their infolence and oppreffion grew
to fuch a pitch, that, according to William of New¬
bury, “ there were in England as many kings, or ra¬
ther tYrants. as lords of caftles and PvlatthewT Paris
ftyles
CAS
t '
flyles them very nefts of devils, and dens of thieves.
Caftles were not folely in the poffeHion of the crown
and the lay barons, but even biihops had thefe fortrefles j
though it feems to have been contrary to the canons,
from a plea made ufe of in a general council, in favour
of King Stephen, who had feized upon the ftrong
caftles of the biihops of Lincoln and Salifbury. This
prohibition (if fuch exifted) was, however, very little
regarded ; as in the following reigns many flrong
places were held, and even defended, by the eccieliaf-
tics : neither was more obedience afterwards paid to a
decree made by the pope at Viterbo, the fifth of the
kalends of June x 220, wherein it was ordained, that no
perfon in England fhould keep in his hands more than
two of the king’s caftles.
The licentious behaviour of the garrifons of thefe
places becoming intolerable, in the treaty between
King Stephen and Henry II. when only duke of
Normandy, it was agreed, that all the caftles built
within a certain period ihould be demolifhed 5 in con-
fequence of which many were actually rated, but not
the number ftipulated.
The few cattles in being under the Saxon govern¬
ment, were probably, on occafion of v'ar_ or ipvafions,
garrifoned by the national militia, and at other times
llightly guarded by the domeftics of the princes or
great perfonages who refided therein j but after the
Conqueft, when all '• z eftates were converted into ba¬
ronies held by knight’s fervice, caftle guard coming
under that denomination, was among the duties to
which particular tenants were liable. From thefe fer-
vices the bifhops and abbots, who till the time of the
Normans had held their lands in frank almoign, or free
aims, were, by this new regulation, not exempted j
they were not indeed, like the laity, obliged toperfonal
iervice, it being fuflicient that they provided fit and
able perfons to officiate in their Head. This was how¬
ever at firft floutly oppofed by Anfelm archbifhop of
Canterbury j who being obliged to find fome knights
to attend King William Rufus in bis wars in Wales,
complained of it as an innovation and infringement of
the rights and immunities of the church.
It was no uncommon thing for the Conqueror and
the kings of thofe days to grant eflates to men of ap¬
proved fidelity and valour, on condition that they
fhould perform caitle guard in the royal caflles, with a
certain number of men, for fome fpecified time j and
fometimes they were likewife bound by their tenures
to keep in repair and guard fome particular tower or
bulwark, as was the cafe at Dover caftle.
In procefs of time thefe fervices were commuted for
annual rents, fometimes flyled wardpenny, and waytfee,
but commonly cajlleguard rents, payable on fixed days,
under prodigious penalties called furji%es. At Rochef-
ter, if a man failed in the payment of his rent of caflle
guard on the feait of St Andrew, bis debt was doubled
every tide during the time for which the payment was
delayed. Thefe were afterwards reftrained by an a£t of
parliament made in the reign of King Henry VIII.
and finally annihilated, with the tenures by knight’s
fervice in the time of Charles II. Such caftles as were
private property were guarded either by mercenary fol-
diers, or the tenants of the lord or owner.
Caflles which belonged to the crown, or fell to it
either by forfeiture or efeheat, (circumftances that fre-
[ 247 ]
CAS
quently happened in the diflraaed reigns of the feudal Caflle.
times), were generally committed to the cuftody of —
fome trufly perfon, who feems to have been indifferently
ityled governor and conftable. Sometimes alfo they
were put into the pofTeffion of the ffienfi ol the county,
who often converted them into prilons. That officer
vas then accountable at the exchequer, for the farm
or produce of the lands belonging to the places intruft-
ed to bis care, as wHl as all other profits ; he was
likewife, in cafe of war or invafion, obliged to victual
and furnifh them with munition out of the illucs of
his county j to which he was direfled by writ of privy
feal.
The materials of which caflles were built, varied
according to the places of their ereflion: but the
manner of their conitruflion feems to have been pretty
uniform. The outlides of the wails were generally
built with the Hones nearefl at hand, laid as regularly
as their fhapes would admit} the iniides were filled up
with the like materials, mixed with a great quantity of
fluid mortar, which was called by the workmen grout-
work.
The general ffiape or plan of thefe caflles depended
entirely on the caprice of the architefts, or the form
of the ground intended to be occupied j neither do -
they feem to have confined themfelves to any particular
figure in their towers; fquare, round, and polygonal,
oftentimes occurring in the original parts of the fame,
building.
The fituation of the caftles of the Anglc-Norman-
kings and barons was moft commonly on an eminence,
and near a river •, a fituation on feveral accounts eli¬
gible. The whole fite of the cattle (which was fre¬
quently of great extent and irregular figure) was fur-
rounded by a deep and broad ditch, fometimes filled-
w ith w ater, and fometimes dry, called the fojfe. Be¬
fore the great gate was an outwork, called a barbacan^
or antemural, which was a ftrong and high-wall, with
turrets upon it, defigried for the defence of the gate
and drawbridge. On the infide of the ditch flood the
wall of the caflle, about eight or ten feet thick, and
between 20 and 30 feet high, with a parapet, and a
kind of embrafures called crennels on the top. On
this wall, at proper diftances, fquare towers of two or
three flories high were built, which ferved for lodging
foma of the principal officers of the proprietor of the
caflle, and for other purpofes: and on the infide were
eredled lodgings for the common fervants or retainers,
granaries, ftorehoules, and other neceflary offices. On
the top of this wall, and on the flat roofs of thefe
buildings, flood the defenders of the caftle, when it
■ wras belieged, and from thence difeharged arrows, darts,
and ftones on the befiegers. The great gate of the
cattle flood in the courfe of this w all, and was ftrongly
fortified with a tow'er on each fide, and rooms over the
paffage, which was clofed with thick folding doors of
oak, often plated with iron, and with an iron portcullis
or grate let down from above. Within this outward
wall was a large open fpace or court, called, in the
largefl and moll perfedt caftles, the outer bay/e, or bn/-
iium7 in which flood commonly a church or chapel.
On the infide of this outer bayle was another ditch,
wall, gate, and towers, enclofing the inner bayle or
court, within which the chief tower or keep was built.
This was a very large fquare fabric, four or five flories
high,.
CAS
r
Caflle.
high, having fmall windows in prodigious tnick walls,
1 which rendered the apartments within it dark and
gloomy. This great tower was the palace of the
prince, prelate, or baron, to whom the caille belonged,
and the refidence of the conftable or governor. Under
ground were difmal dark vaults, for the confinement
of prifoners, which made it fometimes be called the
dungeon. In this building alfo was the great hall, in
which the owner difplayed his hofpitality, by entertain¬
ing his numerous friends and followers. At one en
of the great halls of caftles, palaces, and moftallenes,
there was a place raifed a little above the reft of tne
floor, called the deu, where the chief table flood, at
which perfons of the higheft rank dined. Thougn there
were unqueftionably great variations in the ftrufture of
caftles, yet the molt perfect and magnificent of them
feem to have been conflrufled nearly on the above plan.
■Such, to give one example, was the famous callle of
Bedford, as appears from the following account of the
manner in which it was taken by Henry III. i ^
-1224. The caftle was taken by four affaults. in
the firft was taken the karbaean \ in the fecund the
outer ballia ; at the third attack, the wall by the old
tower was thrown down by the miners, where, with
great danger, they poffeffcd themielvcs of the inner
ballia, through a chink j at the fourth affault the
miners fet fire to the tower, fo that the fmoke burit
out,
and the tower itfelf was cloven to that degree, as
to fhow Vifibly fome broad chinks: whereupon the
enemy furrendered.” See a reprefentation of a caftle m
Plate CXXXV. where 1 is the barbacan, 2 the ditch
or moat, 3 the wall of the outer ballium, 4 tne outer
ballium, 5 the artificial mount, 6 the wall of the in¬
ner ballium, 7 the inner ballium, 8 the keep or dun-
geon.
Before the acceflion of James VI. to
the throne of
England, the fituation of Scotland was fuch, thut eve¬
ry baron’s houfe was more or lefs fortified, according
to the power or confequence of its lord, or according
to the iituation of the caftle. Near Edinburgh or
Stirling, where the inhabitants were more pohfhed in
their manners, and overawed by the feat of government,
no more was necefhiry than towers capable of refilling
the curfory attack of robbers and thieves, who never
durft flop to make a regular inveflment, but plundered
by furprife, and, if repulfed, inftantly fled away. Such
was Melville Caflle. It anciently confifled of a Itrong
built tower of three ft ones, embattled at the top, and
was fufficiently ftrong to refill a fudden attack, unaid¬
ed by artillery, or other engines of war. But, when
further removed, as in Perthfture, Invernefsthire, or
Aberdeenlhire, then it was neceffary to be better de¬
fended, and the aids of a peel or dungeon, with outer
walls, moat, and wet ditch, barnakin &c. added to en¬
able the powerful lord to refill the formidable attack
of his powerful adverfary. The hiitory of Scotland,
fo late as the reign of the Stuart family, affords a num-
~ « ii*  ~ •« rrof-r-'ra f f* Tpnris am on P"
248 ] CAS
in Scotland are thofe fituated on the borders of Eng¬
land, or on the fea coafls of the kingdom, and in the
Weftern ifles, and very remote places. Many of the old
caftles in Scotland were fituated on an ifland, in a deep
lake, or on a peninfula, which by a broad deep cut was
made an ifland. Of this kind was Lochmaben, in the
ftewartry of Annandale, the caftle of Clofeburn in the
fliire of Nithldale, the caftle of the Rive, iiluated on
the river Dee in the fliire of Galloway, Lochleven
caflle, and many others. .
This kind of fortrefs was only acceflible in a hard
froft, or by boats, which were not eaiily tranfported
by a’ people dertitute of good roads and wheel carriages.
In fact, they could only be taken by furprife or block¬
ade j the firit very difficult, the fecond very tedious j
fo that, before the ufe of artillery, they might be deem¬
ed alrnoft impregnable. On that account, their fitua¬
tion was very delirable in the inland parts of Scotland.
On the fea coafts of Scotland we generally find the
ftrongeft and moft ancient, as well as the molt impreg¬
nable caftles. Thefe had to defend themfelves from
the invafion of the foreign enemy, as well as the at¬
tacks of the domeftic foe. Thus we find the barons,
whofe lands extended to the fea coaft, perched, like the
eagle, on the molt inacceflible rocks that lay within
their poffeflions. Of this kind were Slains caftle, I an-
tallon and Dunottar, on the eaft coaft, and Dunvegan
in the ifle of Sky, with Dunol’- on the weft coaft.
Thefe muft have, been moft uncomfortable retreats, ex¬
cept to a barbarops people, or when a preflmg da"g^r
forced the baron to leek his fafety m the only poflible
retreat left him. .
C \STLE, in ancient writers, denotes a town or vil¬
lage furrounded with a ditch and wall, furnifhed with
towers at intervals, and guarded by a body of troops.
The word is originally Latin, caje//uw, a diminutive
from call rum. Cajlellutn originally feems to have figm-
fied a fmaller fort for a little garrifon : though Sueto¬
nius ufes the word where the fortification was large
enough to contffin a cohort. The cqfieha, according
to Vegetius, were often like towns, built on the bor¬
ders of the empire, and where there were conftant
guards and fences agalnft the enemy. Horfley takes
them for much the fame with what were otherwise de¬
nominated Jlations. „ . .
Castle, or CeJile-Jleed, is alio an appellation given
by the country people in the north to the Roman caj-
tella. as ditlinguithed from the cajtra Jiativa, which
they ufually call cheflers. Horfley reprefents this as
an ufeful criterion, whereby to difeover or dfltinguiffi
a Roman camp or ftation. There are feveral of thde
caftella on Severus’s wall: th y are generally 60 feet
fquare; their north fide is formed by the wall melt,
which falls in U.th them ; the intervals between them
are from fix furlongs and a half to feyen 5 they feem
to have flood clofeft where the ftations are wideft.
The neighbouring people call them cajlles, or cciji <
. . & r.  tfint their ancienl
fo late Is the reign of the Sturt family, attorns a num- uo robable that ,heir ancient
her of melancholy inftances of inveterate feuds among > ^ ^ ^ ^ Some modern unters
the greater and leffer barons of that period ; by which
every mode of fortification then in ufe was felflom ade¬
quate to the defence of the caftle againft the florin
or blockade of the enraged chieftain. I he caflle ot
Doune feems to anfwcr this defcription of fortification,
«nd has made feveral gallant defences, m the annals oi
Scotland. The third kind of fortreffes we meet with
Latin name had been caftellum. Some modern
call them mile caJUes, or military ^/^d-Horfley
•fometimes exploratory cajlles. In thefe cajlella t -
arcans had their ftation, who were an order oi men
whofe buflnefs was to make incurflons into the enemy s
country, and give intelligence of their motions.
Casile, in the lea language, is a part of the ihq^
CAS
of which there are two •, the forecaftle, being the ele-
' II vatxon at the prow, or the uppermoft deck towards the
y ^ mizen, the place where the kitchens are. Hindcaftle
v is the elevation which reigns on the ftern, over the laft
deck, where the officers cabins and places of affembly
are.
Castle, Edmund. See Castel.
CASTLE-Bctr, a borough and market town, capital
of the county of Mayo in Ireland, is a -well-inhabited
place, and carries on a brifk trade : it has a barrack
for a troop of horfe; and there is here a charter fchool
' capable of receiving 50 children, and endowed with
two acres of land, rent free, by the right honourable
Lord Lucan, who has alfo granted a leafe of 20 acres
more at a pepper corn yearly.
CASTLE-Cary, a remarkable Roman ftation about
four miles weft from Falkirk on the borders of Stir-
lingfhire in Scotland. It comprehends feveral acres
ef ground, is of a fquare form, and is lurrounded
with a wall of ftone and mortar : all the fpace within
the walls has been occupied by buildings, the ruins of
which have railed the earth eight or ten feet above its
natural furface ; fo that the fort now feems like a
hill top furrounded with a funk fence. In 1770, feme
Workmen employed in fearching for ftones for the
great canal, which paffes very near it, difcovered feve¬
ral apartments of ftone j and in one of them a great
number of ftones about two feet ire length, and Hand¬
ing ereft, with marks of fire upon them, as if they
had been employed in fupporting fome velfel under
which fire was put. In a hollow of the rock near this
place, in 1771, a confiderable quantity of wheat quite
black with age was found, with fome wedges and ham-
Iners fuppofed to be Roman.
Castle-Ri/tug, a borough town of Norfolk in Eng¬
land, which fends two members to parliament. E.
Long, o. 40. N. Lat. 52. 46.
CASTLE-lVork, fervxce or labour done by inferior te¬
nants, for the building and upholding caftles of de¬
fence, towrard which fome gave their perfonal aflift-
ance, and others paid their contributions. This was
one of the three neceffary charges to which the An¬
glo-Saxons were exprefsly fubjeft.
CASTLETOWN, the capital of the ifle of Man,
feated on the fouth-weft part of the ifiand. It has a
ftrong caftle j but of no great importance, on account
of its diftance from the rocky and (hallow harbour.
W. Long. 4. 39. N. Lat. 53. 30.
CASTOR, the Beaver, in Zoology, a genus of
quadrupeds belonging to the order of glires. See
Mammalia Index.
Castor, in /IJlronomy, a moiety of the conftellation
Gemini ; called alfo Apollo. Its latitude north¬
wards, for the year 1700, according to Hevelius, was
10° 4' 23" *, and its longitude, of Cancer, 170 4' 14".
It is alfo called Rafalgenze, Apollo, Aphellan, Avellar,
and Anelar.
Castor and Pollux, in Pagan mythology. Jupiter
having an amour with Leda, the wife of Tyndarus
king of SpaxTa, in the form of a fwan, (he brought
forth two eggs, each containing twins. From that
impregnated by Jupiter proceeded Pollux and Helena,
who were both immortal: from the other Caftor and
Clytemneftra, who being begot by Tyndarus were
¥ol. V. Part I.
CAS
both mortal. They were all, however, called by the Caftor,
common name of E^jndavidce. I hefe two brothers en- Caftoreunj.
tered into an inviolable friendftixp j they went with the ^
other noble youths of Greece in the expedition to
Colchis, and on feveral occafxons fignalized them-
fclves by their courage*, but Caftor being at length
killed, Pollux obtained leave to (hare his own immor¬
tality wfith him ; fo that they are faid to live and die
alternately every day : for, being tranftated into the
(kies, they form the conftellation of Gemini, one of
which ftars rifes as the other fets.
A martial dance, called the Pyrrhic or Cajlorian
dance, was invented in honour of tlxofe deities, whom
the Cephelenfes placed among the Dii Magni, and of¬
fered to them white lambs. The Romans alfo paid
them particular honours on account of the affiftance
they are faid to have given them in an engagement
againft the Latins ; in which, appearing mounted on
w hite horfes, they turned the fcale of victory in their
favour, for which a temple was eroded to them in
the forum.
Castor and Pollux, a fiery meteor, which at fea ap¬
pears fometimes (licking to a part of the (hjp, in form
of one, two, or even three or four fire-balls: w-hen
one is feen alone, it is more properly called Helena;
two are denominated Caftor and Pollux, and fometimes
Tyndaridae. Caftor and Pollux are called by the Spa¬
niards, San Elmo 5 by the French St Elme, St Ni¬
cholas, St Clare, St Helene; by the Italians, Her-
mo j by the Dutch, Tree Vuuren.
Caftor and Pollux are commonly judged to portend
a ceflation of the ftorm, and a future calm j being
rarely feen till the temped is nigh fpent. Helena
alone portends ill, and witneffes the fevered part of the
ftorm yet behind. When the meteor (ticks to the mafts,
yards, See. they conclude, from the air’s not having
motion enough to diflipate this dame, that a pro¬
found calm is at hand } if it flutter about, it indicates
a ftorm.
CASTOREUM, in the Materia Medico, Castor ;
the inguinal glands of the beaver. The ancients had
a notion that it was lodged in the tefticles 5 and that
the animal, wdxen hard preffed, would bite them off,
and leave them to its purfuers, as if confcious of what
they wanted to deftroy him for. The bed fort of
caftor is what comes from Ruffia. So much is Ruf¬
fian caftor fuperior to the American, that two gui¬
neas per pound are paid for the former, and only 8s. 6d.
for the latter. The Ruffian caftor is in large hard
round cods, which appear, w hen cut, full of a brittle,
red, liver-coloured fubftance, interfperfed with mem¬
branes and fibres exquilitely interw'oven. An inferior
fort is brought from Dantzic, and is generally fat and
moift. The American caftor, which is the word of
all, is in longiih thin cods. Ruflia caftor has a ftrong
difagreeable fmell *, and an acrid, bitterilh, and naufe-
ous tafte. Water extradls the naufeous part, with
little of the finer bitter 5 reflified fpirit extracts this
laft without much of the naufeous ; proof fpirit both ;
water elevates the whole of its flavour in diftillation
rectified fpirit brings over nothing. Caftor is looked
upon as one of the capital nervine and antihyfteric
medicines : fome celebrated practitioners, neverthelefs,
have doubted its virtues ; and Neumann and Stahl de-
I i darA
1 249 ]
c
AS f 25° 1 CAS
Experience, however, has fhovn anther* or tops being confidered by the fexualifls as Caftr^t:
Caftoreum, clare it infignificant. — ,  7
Caitration. t^at t^e virtues of caftor are confiderable, though lefs
,"'1 y than they have been generally fuppofed.
CASTRATION, in Surgery, the operation of
gelding, i. e. of cutting off the tefticles, and putting
a male animal out of the capacity of generation.
Caftration is in much ufe in Alia, efpecially among
the Turks, who practife it on their flaves, to prevent
any commerce with their womefi. Ihe lurks often
make a general amputation.
Caftration alfo obtains in Italy, where it is ufed with
a view to preferve the voice for finging. l'ee Eunuch.
The Perfians, and other eaftern nations, have di¬
vers methods of making eunuchs, different from thofe
which obtain in Europe : we fay, of making eunuchs,
for it is not always done among them by cutting, or
even collifion. Cicuta and other poifonous herbs do
the fame otfice, as is Ihown by Paulus ALgineta. ihofe
eunuchifed in this manner are called thhbia. Befides
which there is another fort called thiafue,^ in whom the
genitals are left entire, and only the veins which ihould
feed them are cut; but which means the parts do in¬
deed remain, but lax and weak, as to be of no ufe.
Caitration was for fome time the puniftiment of
adultery. By the laws of the \ ifigoths, fodomites
underwent the fame puniftiment.
By the civil law it is made penal in phyficians and
furgeons to caftrate, even with confent of the party ,
who is himfelf included in the fame penalty, and his
effects forfeited. Tihe oitence of IVrayhem by caitia-
tion is, according to all our old writers, felony } though
committed upon the higheft provocation.^ oee a re¬
cord to this purpofe of Henry III. tranferibed by Sir
Edward Coke, 3 Inft. 62. or Blackftone’s Com. vol.
iv. p. 206. - . .
Caftration is fometimes found neceffary on medicinal
confideratjons, as in mortifications, and feme other
difeafes of the tefticles, efpecially ihe farcocele and va¬
ricocele. Some have alfo ufed it in maniac cafes.
Castration is alfo in fome iort pra&ifed on
women. Athenaeus mentions that King Andiamytes
was the firft who caftrated women. Hefychius and
Suidas fay Gyges-did the fame thing. Galen obferyes,
that women cannot be caftrated without danger of life-,
and Dalechampius, on the fore-mentioned paffage of
Athenaeus, holds, that it is only to be underftood of
fimple padlocking. .
Castration, in refpeft of brutes, is called Geld¬
ing and Spaying. -
Castration alfo denotes the art of retrenching, or
cutting away any part of a thing from its whole.
Caftrating a book, among bookfellers, is the taking out
fome leaf, ftieet, or the like, which renders it imper-
feft and unfit for fale. The term is alfo applied to
the taking away particular paffages, on account or their
obfeenity, too great freedom with refpeft to govern¬
ment, &c. , • j r
Castration, among botanifts, a term derived irom
the fancied analogy betwixt plants and animals. The
caftration of plants confifts in cutting off the antnerce,
or tops of the ftamina, before they have attained ma¬
turity, and difperfed the pollen or fine dull contained
within their fubftance. This operation has been fre¬
quently praftifed by the moderns, with a view to efta-
bliftr or confute the dodlrine of the fexes of plants j the
the male organs of generation. The experiment of
caftration fucceeds principally on plants which, like Caftruo
the melon, have their male flowers detached from the
female. In fuch as have both male and female flowers
contained within the lame covers, this operation can¬
not be eafily performed without endangering the neigh¬
bouring organs. The refult of experiments on this
fubjeft by Linnaeus, Alfton, and other eminent bota¬
nifts, may be feen under the article Botany.
CASTREL, a kind of hawk refembling the lanner
in ftiape, but the hobby in fize. The caftrel is alfo
called keftrel, and is of a flow and cowardly kind j her
game is the groufe, though Ihe will kill a partridge.
CASTRES, a city of Languedoc, in France, about
35 miles call of Thouloufe. E. Long. 2. o. N. Lat.
34. 40. It is a bilhop’s fee.
CASTRO, the capital of the ifland of Chiloe, on
the coaftof Chili in South America. W. Long. 82.0.
S. Lat. 43. o.
Castro is alfo the capital of a duchy of the fame
name in the pope’s territories in Italy, lituated on +he
confines of’iuluany. E. Long. 12. 35- N'- Lat. 42.
30.
Castro, Fietro de, a celebrated painter, who flou-
rilhed about the middle of the 17th century. The fub-
je&s which this great artift chofe to paint, were what
are diflinguiftied by the name of ftill life ; vafes, (hells,
mufical inftruments, gems, veffels of gold, filver, and
cryftal, books, and rich bracelets : and in thofe iub-
jedts his choice and difpofition were elegant, and his
execution admirable.
CASTRUCCIO Castracani, a celebrated Italian
general, vras born (nobody knows of whom) at Lucca
in Tufcany in 1284, and left in a vineyard covered
with leaves, where he was found by Dianora a widow
lady, the After of Antonio, a canon of St Michael
in Lucca, who was defeended from the illuftrious
family of the Caftracani. The lady having no chil¬
dren, (he refolved to bring him up, and educated
him as carefully as he had been her own. She in¬
tended him for a prieft -, but he was fcarcely 14 years
old when he began to devote himfelf to military fports,
and thofe violent exercifes which fuited his great
ftrength of body. The faftions named the Guelfs and
Gtbefines then (hared all Italy between them j divided
the popes and the emperors 5 and engaged in their dif¬
ferent interefts not only the members of the fame town,
but even thofe of the fame family. Francifco, a con¬
fiderable perfon on the fide of the Gibelines, obferv-
ing Caftruccio’s uncommon fpirit and great qualities^,
prevailed with Antonio to let him turn fifldicr ; on
which Caftruccio foon became acquainted with every
thing belonging to that profeflion, and was made a
lieutenant of a company of foot by Francifco Guinigi.
In his firft campaign he gave fuch proofs of his cou¬
rage and conduA as fpread his fame all over Loinbardyj
and Guinigi, dying foon after, committed to him the
care of his fon and the management of his eftate. Still
diftinguilhing himfelf by his exploits, he filled his com¬
mander in chief with fuch jealoufy and envy,, that he
was imprifoned by ftratagem in order to be put. to
death. But the people of Lucca (oon releafed him,
and afterwards chofe him for their fovereign prinoe.—-
The Gibelines confidered him as the chief of their
party 5
CAS [2
'tmceto, party; and tliofe who had been banifhed from their
•iftriim country ded to him for proteftion, and unanimoufly
lolons^ promifed, that if he could reftore them to their eftates,
they would ferve him fo effeftually that the fovereign-
ty of their country ihould be his reward. Flattered
by thefe promifes, he entered into a league with the
prince of Milan. He kept his army conflantly on
foot, employing it as beft fuited his own defigns. For
fervices he had done the pope, he was made lenator of
Home with more than ordinary ceremony ; but while
there, received news which obliged him to haften back
to Lucca. The Florentines entered into a war with
him, but Caflruccio fought his way through them ;
and the fupreme authority of Tufcany was ready to
fall into his hands, when a period was put to his life.
In May 1328, he gained a complete victory over his
enemies, who amounted to 30,000 foot and io,oco
horfe 5 in which 22,000 of them were llain, with the
lofs of not quite 1600 of his own men ; but as he
was returning from the field of battle, tired with the
aition, and covered with fweat, he halted a little, in
order to thank and carefs his foldiers as they palled }
when, the north wind blowing upon him, he was im¬
mediately feizcd with an ague, which he at firft ne¬
glected, but it carried him off in a few days, in the
44th year of his age.
Machiavel, who has written the life of Caftruccio,
fays, that he was not only an extraordinary man in his
own age, but he would have been fo in any other. He
was of a noble afpeCt, and of the molt winning addrefs.
He had all the qualities that make a man great ; was
grateful to his friends, juft to his fubjeCts, terrible to
his enemies. No man was more forward to encounter
dangers ; no man more careful to efcape them. He
had an uncommon prefence of mind, and often made
repartees with great fmartnefs. Some of them are re¬
corded, which difcover a fmgular turn of humour ;
and, for a fpecimen, we (hall mention three or four of
them.—Faffing one day through a ftreet where there
was a houfe of bad fame, he furprifed a young man,
who was juft coming out, and who, upon feeing him,
was all over blufhes and confufion : “ Friend, you
ftiould not be aftiamed when you come out, but when
you go in.”—One a/king a favour of him with a thou-
fand impertinent and fuperfluous words : “ Hark you,
friend when you would have any thing with me for
the future, fend another man to alk it.”—Another
great talker having tired him with a tedious dificourfe,
excufed himfelf at laft, by faying, he was afraid he had
been troublefome. “ No indeed (replied he), for I
did not mind one word you faid.”—He was forced to
put a citizen of Lucca to death, who had formerly
been a great inftrument of his advancement 5 and being
reproached by fomebody for having dealt fo feverely
with an old friend, replied, “ No, you are miftaken,
it was with a new foe.”—One of his courtiers, de-
fitous to regale him, made a ball and invited him to it.
Caftrucci© came, entertained himrelf anr ng the ladies,
danced, and did other things, which did not feem to
comport with the dignity of his rank. One of his
fnends intimating that fuch freedoms might diminilh
the reverence that ought to be paid him ; “ I thank
you for your caution ; but he who is reckoned wife all
the day, will never be reckoned a fool at night.”
CASrHUM doloris, in middle age writers, de-
51 1 CAS
notes a catafalco, or a lofty tomb of ftate, ereflcd in Caftrum
honour of fome perfon of eminence, ufually in the
church where his body is interred ; and decorated with cafUS Amif-
su ms, emblems, lights, and the like. fionis.
Ecclefiaftical writers fpeak of a ceremony of confe- l—"■■y- -J
crating a cajlrum do oris • the edifice was to be made
to reprefent the body of the deceafed, and the priefl:
and deacon were to take their polls, and fay the pray¬
ers after the fame manner as if the corpfe were actually
prefent.
CASTS. See Casting.
CASU CONSIMILI, in Law, a writ of entry granted
where a tenant, by courtefy or for life, aliens either
in fee, in tail, or for the term of another’s life. It is
brought by him in reverfion againft the perfon to whom
fuch tenant does fo alien to the prejudice of the rever-
fioner in the tenant’s lifetime.
Casu Provifo, in Law, a writ of entry founded on
the ftatute of Glouceiter, where a tenant in dower
aliens the lands flxe fo holds in fee or for life j and lies
for the party in reverfion againft the alliance.
CASUAL, fomething that happens fortuitoufly,
without any defign, or any meafures taken to bring it
to pafs.
CASUAL Revenues, are thofe which arife from forfei¬
tures, confifcations, deaths, attainders, &c.
CASUAL 1 he'Aopy, a denomination given to what is
more frequently called Casuistry.
CASUALTY, in a general lenfe, denotes an acci¬
dent, or a thing happening by ohance, not defign. It
is particularly ufed for an accident producing unnatu¬
ral death.
Casualty, in Scots Law. Cafualties of a fuperior,
are thofe duties and emoluments which a fuperior has
a right to demand out of his vailal’s eftate, over and be-
fides the conftant yearly duties eftablilhed by the red¬
dendo of his charter upon certain cafual events.
Casu lty, in Metallurgy. See Causalty.
CASUIST, a perfon who propofes to refolve cafes
of confeience. Efeobar has made a colletf ion of the
opinions of all the cafuiits before him. M. le Feore,
preceptor of Louis XJII. called the books of the ca~
fuifts the art of quibbling with God : which does not
feem far from truth, by reafon of the multitude of di-
fiinclions and fubtleties they abound withal. Mayer
has publiftred a bibliotheca of cafuifts, containing an
account of all the writers on cafes of confeience, ran¬
ged under three heads ; the firft comprehending the
Lutheran, the fecond the Calvinift, and the third the
Romifti cafuifts.
CASUISTRY, the dodlrine and fcience of con¬
feience and its cafes, with the rules and principles of
refolving the fame j drawn partly from natural reafon
or equity ; partly from authority of Scripture, the
canon law, councils, fathers, &c. To cafuiftry belongs
the decifion of all difficulties arifing about what a man
may lawfully do or not do j what is fin or not fin j
what things a man is obliged to do in order to difeharge
his duty, and what he may let alone without breach
of it.
CASUS amissionis, in Scots Law. In aftions prov¬
ing the tenor of obligations inextinguithable b) the
debtor’s retiring or cancelling them, it is necefiary for
the purfuer, before he is allowed a proof of the tenor,
to condefcend upon fuch a cafus atwffionis, or accident
I i 2 y by
Cafus Amlf-
fionis
I!
pat-Heads.
CAT . £ 25
by wblcb the writing was deftroyed, as (bows it was loft
while in the writer’s poffeflion.
CAT, in Zoology. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
Cat, in fea affairs, a fliip employed in the^ coal
trade, formed from the Norwegian model. It is di-
ftinguilhed by a narrow ftern, projetting quarters, a
deep wai/Ie, and by having ornamental figures on the
prow. Thefe veffels are generally built remarkably
ftrong, and carry from four to fix hundred tons, or,
in the language of their own mariners, from 20 to 30
keels of coals.
Cat, is alfo a fort of ftrong tackle, or combination
of pulleys, to hook and draw the anchor perpendicular¬
ly up to the cat-head. See CAT-Heads.
CAT'S- Eye, or Sun-ft one of the Turks, a kind of gem
found chiefly in Siberia. Cat’s-eye is by the Latins
called oculus call, and fometimes onycopalus, as having
white zones or rings like the onyx, and its colours
variable like opal, from which laft it differs chiefly by
its fuperior hardnefs. It is very hard, and femitranf-
parent, and has difterent points, from whence the light
is reflected with a kind of yellowifh radiation fome-
what fimilar to the eyes of cats, from whence it had
its name. The beft of them are very fcarce, and
jewellers cut them round to the greateft advantage.
One of thefe ftones, an inch in diameter, was in the
pofleflion of the duke of I ufcany.
Cat fifth, in Ichthyology. See Squalus, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
CAT Gut, a denomination given to fmall firings for
fiddles, and other inftruments, made of the inteftines
of (beep or lambs, dried and twilled together, either
fmgly, or feveral together. Thefe are fometimes co¬
loured red, fometimes blue, but are commonly left
whitiih or brownifh, the natural colour of the gut.
They are alfo ufed by watchmakers, cutlers, turners,
and other artificers. Great quantities are imported
into England, and other northern countries, from Ly¬
ons and Italy.
CAT-Hirpings, a purehafe of ropes employed to
brace in the fhrouds of the lower malls behind their
yards, for the double purpofe of making the Ihreuds
more tight, and of affording room to draw in the
yards more obliquely, to trim the fails for a fide-wind,
when they are faid to be clofe-hauled.
CAT-H ads, two ilrong fliort beams of timber, which
pro]eft almoll horizontally over the Ihip’s bows on
each fide of the bowfprit •, being like two radii which
extend from a centre taken in the direftion of the
bowfprit. That p rt of the cat-head which rells upon
the forecaftle, is fecurely bolted to the beams : the
other part projefts like a crane, as above defcribed, and
carries m its extremity two or three fmall wheels or
/heaves of brafs or ftrong wood, about which a rope,
"called the cat-fall, paffes and communicates with the
cat-block, which alfo contains three Iheaves. The
machine formed by this combination of pulleys is called
the Cat, which ferves to pull the anchor up to the cat¬
head, rvithout tearing the fhip’s fides with its flukes.
The cat-head alfo ferves to fufpend the anchor clear of
the bow, when it is neceffary to let it go : it is fup-
ported by a fort of knee, which is generally ornament¬
ed with fculpture. See Plate CXXXVI.
The cat-block is filled tyith a large and ftrong hood.
Catacom
2 1 CAT
which catches the ring of the anchor when it is to be Cat-He
drawn up.
CAT-Mint. See Mentha, Botany Index.
CAT-Salt, a name given by our fait-workers to a
very beautifully granulated kind of common fait. It
is formed out of the bittern, or leach brine, which runs
from the fait when taken out of the pan. When they
draw out the common fait from the boiling pans, they
put it into long wooden troughs, with holes bored at
the bottom for the brine to drain out j under thefe
troughs are placed veffels to receive this brine, and
acrofs them fmall flicks to which the cat-falt affixes it-
felf in very large and beautiful cryftals. i.his fait
contains feme portion of the bitter purging fait, is
very fharp and pungent, and is white when powder¬
ed, though pellucid in the mafs. It is u:td by fome
for the table, but the greateft part of what is made
of it is ufed by the makers of hard foap.
CAT-Silver. See MlCA.
CATACAUSTIC curves* in the higher geome¬
try, that fpecies of cauftic curves which are formed by
refleftion. See Fluxions.
CATACHRESIS, in Rhetoric, a trope which bor¬
rows the name of one thing to exprels another. Thus
Milton, deferibing Raphael’s defeent from the empy¬
real heaven to paradife, fays,
“ Down thither prone in flight,
“ He fpeeds, and through the vaft ethereal fky
Sails between worlds and worlds.”
CATACOMB, a grotto, or fubterraneous place for
the burial of the dead.
Some derive the word catacomb from the place wherd
fhips are laid up, which the modern Latins and Greeks
called cumber. Others fay, thatctfA? was ufed for ad, and
catacumbas for adtumbas: accordingly, Dadm fays, they
anciently wrote catatumbas, Others fetch the word
from the Greek, xetrec, and rvy&os, a hollow, cavity, or
the like.
Anciently the wrord catacomb was only underftood
of the tombs of St Peter and St Paul* and M. Chafte-
lain obferves, that, among the more knowing of the-
people of Rome, the word catacomb is never applied to
the fubterraneous buryir g-places hereafter mentioned,
but only to a chapel in St Sebaftian, one of the feven
ftational churches ; where the ancient Roman kalen-
dars fay the body of St Peter was depofited, under
the eonfulate of Tufcus and Baffus, in 258.
Catacombs of Italy ; a vaft affemblage of fubter-
rancous fepulchres about Rome, chiefly at about three
miles from that city, in the Via Appia j fuppoled to
be the fepulchre of the martyrs-, and which are vifited
accordingly out of devotion, and relicks thence taken
and difperfed throughout the catholic countries, after
having been firft baptized by the pope under the name
of fome faint. Thefe catacombs are faid by many to
be caves or cells wherein the primitive Chriilians hid
and affembled themfelves together, and where they in¬
terred fuch among them as were martyred. Each ca¬
tacomb is three feet broad, and eight or ten high j
running in form of an alley or gallery, and communi¬
cating with others: in many places they extend with¬
in a league of Rome. There is no mafonry or vault¬
ing therein, but each fupports itfelf: the two fides,
which
CAT I 253 ] CAT
ihtacombs. whibh we may look on as the panetes or walls, were
.-nr-^ the places where the dead were depolited \ which W'ere
laid lengthwife, three or four rows over one another, in
the fame catacomb, parallel to the alley. They were
commonly clofed with large thick tyles, and fometimes
pieces of marble, cemented in a manner inimitable by
the moderns. Sometimes, though very rarely, the
name of the deceafed is found on the tyle : frequently
a palm is feen, painted or engraven, or the cypher Xp,
which is commonly read pro Chrijlo. The opinion held
by many Proteilant authors is, that the catacombs are
heathen fepulchres, and the fame with the puticuli
mentioned by Feitus Pompeius j maintaining, that
whereas it was the practice of the ancient Romans to
burn their dead, the cuftom was, to avoid expence, to
throw the bodies of their Haves to rot in holes of the
ground j and that the Roman Chriftians, obferving at
length the great' veneration paid to relicks, refolved
to have a flock of their own : entering therefore the
catacombs, they added what cyphers and infcriptions
they pleafed j and then fhut them up again, to be
opened on a favourable oecafion. Thole in the fecret,
add they, dying or removing, the contrivance was for¬
got, till chance opened them at lafl. But this opinion
has even lefs of probability than the former. Mr
Monro, in the Philofophical TranfaBions, fuppofes the
catacombs to have been originally the common fepul¬
chres of the firft Romans, and dug in confequence of
thefe two opinions, viz. that {hades hate the light j
and that they love to hover about the places where the
bodies are laid.
Though the catacombs of Rome have made the
greateft noife of any in the world, there are fuch be¬
longing to many other cities. Thofe of Naples, ac¬
cording to Biihop Burnet, are much more noble and
fpacious than the catacombs of Rome. Catacombs
have alfo been difcovered at Syracufe and Catanea in
Sicily, and in the ifland of Malta. The Roman cata-
I combs take particular names from the churches in their
neighbourhood, and feem to divide the circumference
of the city without the walls between them, extending
their galleries everywhere under, and a vaft way from
it; fo that all the ground under Rome, and for many
miles about it, fome fay 20, is hollow. The largeft,
and thofe commonly fhown to flrangers, are the cata¬
combs of San Sebartiano, thofe of Saint Agnefe, and
the others in the fields a little off Saint Agnefe. Wo¬
men are only allowed to go into the catacombs in the
churchyard of the Vatican on Whitfun Monday, un¬
der pain of excommunication. There are men kept
conftantly at work in the catacombs. As foon as thefe
labourers difcover a grave with any of the fuppofed
marks of a laint upon it, intimation is given to the
cardinal camerlingo, w'ho immediately fends men of
reputation to the place, where finding the palm, the
monogram, the coloured gl&fs, &c. the remains of the
body are taken up with great refpe£t, and tranflated to
Rome. After the labourers have examined a gallery,
they flop up the entry that leads to it *, fo that moft
of them remain thus clofed up •, only a few being left
open to keep up the trade of {bowing them to flran¬
gers. This, they lay, is done to prevent people from
lofing themfelves in thefe fubterraneous labyrinths,
^hieh indeed has often happened j but more probably
to deprive the public of the means of knowing whither Catacomb.%
and how far the catacombs are carried. Catalaunh
The method of preferving the dead in catacombs " *
feems to have been common to a number of the ancient
nations. The catacombs of Egypt are flill extant
about nine leagues from the city oi Grand Cairo, and
two miles from the city of Zaccara. They extend
from thence to the pyramids of Pharaoh, which are
about eight miles diftant. They lie in a field covered
with a fine running land, of a yellowilh colour. The
country is dry and hilly j the entrance of the tombs is
choked up with fand ; there are many open, but more
that are flill concealed.
The bodies found in catacombs, efpecially thofe of
Egypt, are called mummies; and as their fleih was
formerly reckoned an efficacious medicine, they were
much fought after. In this work the labourers were
often obliged to clear away the fand for weeks toge¬
ther, without finding what they wanted. Upon co¬
ming to a little fquare opening of about 18 feet in
depth, they deicend into it by holes for the feet placed
at proper intervals •, and there they are lure of finding
a mummy. Thefe caves, or ’wells as they call them
there, are hollowed out of a white free-ftone, w'hich is
found in all this country a few feet below the covering
of fand. When one gets to the bottom of thefe, which
are fometimes 40 feet below the furface, there are fe¬
ver al fquare openings on each fide into pafl’ages of 10
or 15 feet wide \ and thefe lead to chambers of 15 or
20 feet fquare. Thefe are all hewn out in the rock j
and in each of the catacombs are to be found feveral
of thefe apartments communicating with one another.
They extend a great way under ground, fo as to be
under the city of Memphis, and in a manner to under¬
mine its environs. In fome of the chambers the w alls
are adorned with figures and hieroglyphics ; in others
the mummies are found in tombs, round the apartment,
hollowed out in the rock.
The Egyptians feem to have excelled in the art of
embalming and preferving their dead bodies $ as the
mummies found in the Egyptian catacombs are in a
better flate than the bodies found either in the Italian
catacombs or thofe of any other part of the world. See
Embalming and Mummy.
Laying up the bodies in eaves, is certainly the ori¬
ginal way of difpofing of the dead ; and appears to
have been propagated by the Phoenicians throughout^
the countries to which they fent colonies ; the inter¬
ring as we now do in the open air or in temples was
firft introduced by the Chriftians. When an ancient
hero died, or was killed in a foreign expedition, as his
body w'as liable to corruption, and for that reafon un- ,
fit to be tranfported entire, they fell on the expedient
of burning, in order to bring home the aftres, to oblige
the manes to follow ; that fo his country might not be
deftitute of the benefit of his tutelage. It was thus
burning feems to have had its original j and by degrees
it became common to all who could bear the expences
of it, and took place of the ancient burying : thus
catacombs became dilufed among the Hermans, after
they had borrowed the manner of burning from the
Greeks, and then none but Haves were laid in th#
ground. See Burial, &c.
CATALAUNI, callecLalib Durocatalauni, a town
>
CAT [ 254 ] CAT
fkta^auni of Gallia Relgica: Catalaum, the people. A name
r Jl rather of the lower age than of claffical antiquity.
. ,ata^ue‘. Now Chalons fur Mar?ie, in Champagne. E. Long.
4. 35. N. Lat. 48. 55.
CATADROMUS, from Kxrct and l run, in
antiquity, a ftretched Hoping rope in the theatres,
down which the funamhuh walked to (how their {kill.
Some have taken the word to lignify the hippodrome
■Or decurforium, wherein the Roman knights ufed to
exercife themfelves in running and fighting on horfe-
back. But the mo ft natural meaning is that of a rope
faftened at one end to the top of the theatre, and at
the other to the bottom, to walk or run down, which
was the higheft glory of the ancient fchanobates, or
funambuli. ° Elephants were alfo taught to run down
the catadromus. Suetonius fpeaks of the exploit of a
Roman knight, who paffed down the catadromus mount¬
ed on an elephant’s back.
CATAGOGION, a heathen feftival at Ephefus,
celebrated on the 22d of January, in which the devo¬
tees ran about the ftreets, dreffed in divers antic and
unfeemly manners, with huge cudgels in their hands,
and carrying with them the images of their gods} in
which guife they ravilhed the women they met with,
abufed and often killed the men, and committed many
other diforders, to which the religion of the day gave
a fandlion.
CATAGRAPHA, in antiquity, denote oblique fi¬
gures or views of men’s faces j anfwering to what the
moderns call profiles.
Catagrapha are faid to be the invention of Simon
Cleonseus, who firft taught painters to vary the looks
of their figures, and fometimes dire& them upwards,
fometimes downwards, and fometimes fidewards or
backwards.
CATALEPSIS, or Catalepsy, in Medicine, a
kind of apoplexy, or a drowfy difeafe, wherein the pa¬
tient is taken fpeechlefs, fenfelefs, and fixed in the
fame pofture wherein the difeafe firft feized him 5 his
eyes open, without feeing or underftanding. See Me¬
dicine Index.
C ATALOGUP.1, a lift or enumeration of the names
% of feveral books, men, or other things, difpofed accord¬
ing to a certain order.
Catalogues of books are digefted in different man¬
ners, fome according to the order of the times when
the books were printed, as that of Mattaire ; others
according to their form and fize, as the common book-
fellers catalogues •, others according to the alphabeti¬
cal order of the authors names, as Hyde’s catalogue
of the Bodleian library 5 others according to the al¬
phabetical order of matters or fubjefts, which are cal¬
led real or c/affical catalogues, as thofe of Liponius and
Hr audios •, laftly, others^ are digefted in a mixed me¬
thod, partaking of leveral of the former, as He
Seine’s catalogue of Cardinal Slufius’s library, which
is firft divided according to the fubje&s or fciences,
and afterwards the books in each are recited alphabeti-
eally.
The moft applauded of all catalogues is that of Thu-
anus’s library, in which are united the advantages of
a1! the reft. It was firft drawn up by the two Puteani
in the alphabetical order, then digefted according to
the fciences and fubjefts by Klim. Bullialdus, and pub-
liftied by F, Quefnel at Paris in 1679; anci reprinted,
though incorre&ly, at Hamburgh, in 1704* The Catalogs!
books are here ranged with juftnefs under their feveral Cata%«
fciences and fubjefts, regard being Hill had to the na- <^neStl
tion, fe<T, age, &tc. of every writer. Add, that only
the beft and choiceft books on every fubjedl are found
here, and the moft valuable editions. Yet the cata¬
logue of M. le Telliers«<frchbilhop of Rheims’s library,
made by M. Clement, is not inferior to any publilhed
in our age, either on account of the number and
choice of the books, or the method of its difpofition.
One advantage peculiar to this catalogue is, the mul¬
titude of anonymous and pfeudonymous authors de¬
tected in it, fcarce to be met with elfewhere. Some
even prefer it to Thuanus’s catalogue, as containing a
greater variety of claffes and books on particular fub-
jects.
The conditions required in a catalogue are, that it
indicate at the fame time the order of the authors and
of the matters, the form of the book, the number of
volumes, the chronological order of the editions, the
language it is written in, and its place in the library j
fo as that all thefe circumftances may appear at once
in the Ihorteft, cleareft, and exadleft manner poflible.
In this view all the catalogues yet made will be found
to be defective.
An anonymous French writer has laid down a new
plan of a catalogue, which fhall unite all the advanta¬
ges and avoid all the inconveniences of the reft.
The Jefuits of Antwerp have given us a catalogue
of the popes; which makes what they call their Pro-
pilceum.
CATALOGUE of the Stars, is a lift of the fixed ftars,
difpofed in their feveral conftellations •, with the longi¬
tudes, latitudes, &c. of each ; or according to their
right afeenfions, that is, the order of their paflingover
the meridian.
The firft who undertook to reduce the fixed flars
into a catalogue was Hipparchus Rhodius, about I 20
years before Chrift ; in which he made ufe of the ob-
fervations of Timocharis and Ariftyllus for about 180
years before him. Ptolemy retained Hipparchus’s ca¬
talogue containing 1026 fixed ftars ; though he him-
felf made abundance of obfervations, with a view to a
new catalogue, A. H. 140. About the year of Chrift
880, Albategni, a Syrian, brought down the fame to
his time. Anno 1437, Ulugh Beigh, king of Parthia
and India, made a new catalogue of 1022 fixed ftars,
fince tranilated out of Perfian into Latin by Dr Hyde.
The third who made a catalogue from his own obfer¬
vations was Tycho Brahe, who determined the places
of 777 ftars for the year 1600, which Kepler from
other obfervations of Tycho afterwards increafed to the
number of 1000 in the Rudolphine tables ; adding
thofe of Ptolemy omitted by Tycho, and of other au¬
thors ; fo that his catalogue amounts to above 1160.
At the fame time, William landgrave of Heffe, with
his mathematicians, Chriftopher Rothmannus and Ju-
ftus Byrgius, determined the places of 400 fixed ftars
by his own obfervations, with their places reftified for
the year 1593 ; which Hevelius prefers to thofe of
Tycho’s. Ricciolus, in his fiflronomia Rcformata, de¬
termined the places of 101 ftars for the year 1700,
from his own obfervations ) for the reft he followed
Tycho’s catalogue, altering it where he thought fit.
Anno 1667, Dr Halley, in the illand of St Helena,
obferved
stalogue
Le Stars,
CAT [2
obferved 350 fouthern ftsrs not vifible in our borizoxi.
•The fame labour was repeated by F Noel in 1710,
who publhhed a new catalogue of the fame liars con-
ftrutted for the year 1687.
Bayer, in his Uranainetria, publifhed a catalogue of
1160 liars, compiled chiefly from Ptolemy and Tycho,
in which every liar is marked with fome letter of the
Greek alphabet; the biggeli liar in any conllellation
being denoted by the flrit letter, the next by the fe-
cond, &c. and if the number exceeds the Greek al¬
phabet, the remaining liars are marked by letters of
the Homan alphabet, which letters are preferved by
Flamfteed, and by Senex on his globes. The cele¬
brated Hevelius compofed a catalogue of 1888 liars,
1553 of which were obferved by himfelf; and their
places were computed for the year 1660.
The ball and greateli is the Britannic catalogue,
compiled from the obfervations of the accurate Mr
Flamlieed j who for a long feries of years devoted
himfelf wholly thereto. As there was nothing want¬
ing either in the obferver or apparatus, we may look
on this as a perfect -work fo far as it goes. It is to
be regretted the impreflion had not paffed through his
own hands : that jnow extant was publilhed by autho¬
rity, but without the author’s confent : it contains
2734 liars. There was another publilhed in 1721?,
purluant to his tellamentj containing no lefs than 3000
liars, wuth their places rectified for the year 1689 : to
which is added Mr Sharp’s catalogue of the fouthern
liars not vifible in our hemifphere, adapted to the year
1726.
The firlt catalogue, we believe, that wras printed in
the new or fecond form, according to the order of the
right afeenfion, is that of De la Caille, given in his
Ephemerides for the ten years between 1733 and 1763,
and printed in 1733. It contains the right afeenfions
and declinations of 307 liars, adapted to the begin¬
ning of the year 1730. In 1737 De la Caille publilh¬
ed his Aftronomice Fundament a, containing a catalogue
of the right afeenfions and declinations of 398 liars,
likewife adapted to the beginning of 1730. And in
1763, the year after his death, was publilhed the Cce-
lum Aujlrale Stelliferum of the fame author 5 contain- .
ing a catalogue of the places of 1942 liars, all fituated
to the louthward of the tropic of Capricorn, and ob¬
ferved by him while he was at the Cape of Good
Hope in 1751 and 1732^ their places being alfo a-
dapted to the beginning of 1750. In the fame year
■was publilhed his Ephemerides for the ten years be¬
tween 1763 and 1773 \ in the introduction to which
are given the places of 31 3 zodiacal liars, all deduced
from the obfervations of the fame author 5 the places
adapted to the beginning of the year 1763.
In the Nautical Almanack for 1773, is given a ca¬
talogue of 387 liars, in right afeenfion, declination,
longitude and latitude, derived from the obfervations
of the late celebrated Dr Bradley, and adjulted to the
beginning of the year 1760. This fmall catalogue,
and the refults of about 200 obfervations of the moon,
are all that the public have yet feen of the multiplied
labours of this mod accurate and indefatigable obfer¬
ver, although he has now (1798) been dead upwards
of 36 years.
In 1773 was publilhed a thin volume, entitled, Opera
Inedit a 0 containing feveral papers of the late Tobias
5' 1 CAT
Mayer, and among them a catalogue of the right afeen- Catalans
lions and declinations of 998 liars, which may be oc- die Surs.
culted by the moon and planets •, the places being 'r~~J
adapted to the beginning of the year 17,6.
At the end of the firil volume of “ Aftronomical
Obfervations made at the Royal Obfervatory at Green¬
wich,” publilhed in 1776, Dr Malkelync, the prefent
altronomer royal, has given a catalogue of the places
34 principal liars, in right alccnlion and north polar
diitaoce, adapted to the beginning of the year 1770.
I hefe, being the refult of feveral years repeated ob¬
fervations, made with the utmolt care, and the bell in-
llruments, it may be prefumed are exceedingly accu¬
rate.
In 1782, M. Bode of Berlin publilhed a very ex-
tenfive catalogue of 3038 of the fixed liars, collected
from the obfervations of Flamileed, Bradley, Heve¬
lius, Mayer, De la Caille, Melfier, Monnier, D’Ar-
quier, and other altronomers; all adapted to the begin¬
ning of the year 1780 ; amd accompanied with a ce-
lellial atlas or fet of maps of the conllellations, engra¬
ved in a moll delicate and beautiful manner.
lo thefe may be added Dr Herfchel’s catalogue of
double liars, printed in the Phil. Tranf. for 1782 and
1783 ; Meflier’s nebulas and chillers of liars, publilhed
in the Connoijjance des Temps for 17845 and Herfchel’s
catalogue of the fame kind given in the Phil. Tranf.
for 1786.
In 1789 Mr Francis Wollallon publilhed “ A Spe¬
cimen of a General Aftronomical Catalogue, in Zones
of North-polar Diftance, and adapted to January 1,
1790.” Thefe liars are collefled from all the cata¬
logues before-mentioned, from that of Hevelius down¬
wards. This work contains five diilindl catalogues j
viz. Dr Malkelyne’s new catalogue of 36 principal
liars 5 a general catalogue of all the liars, in zones of
north polar dillance 5 an index to the general cata¬
logue 5 a catalogue of all the liars in the order in
which they pafs the meridian 5 and a catalogue of zo¬
diacal liars, in longitude and latitude.-
Finally, in 1792, Dr Zach publilhed at Gotha, Ta-
bulce Motuum Solis ; to which is annexed a ftew cata¬
logue of the principal fixed liars, from his own obfer¬
vations made in the years 1787, 1788, 1789, 1790.
This catalogue contains the right afcenlions and decli¬
nations of 381 principal liars, adapted to the begin¬
ning of the year 1 800. Hutton^s Math. DiB.
Befides thefe two methods of forming catalogues of
the liars, Dr Herfchel has propofed a new one, in
which the comparative brightnefs of the liars is accu¬
rately expreifed. It is long fince allrcnomers were firil
led to arrange the liars in clafles of diflerent magni¬
tudes by their various degrees of brilliancy or lullre.
Brightnefs and fize have at all times been confidered
as fynonymous terms 5 fo that the brighteft liars have
been referred to the clai’s comprehending thofe of the
firil magnitude 5 ar^d as the fubfequent orders of liars
have been fuppofed to decreafe in lullre, their magni¬
tude has been determined in the fame decreafing pro-
grefiion : but the want of fome fixed and fatisfactory
llandard of lullre has been the fource of confiderabie.
confufion and uncertainty in fettling the relative mag¬
nitudes of the liars. A liar marked l;2m. is luppo-
fed to be between the firil and fecond magnitude 5 but
2.1m. intimates, that the itar is nearly of the fecond
magnitude,
CAT
[
256
-Catalogue magnitude, and tliat It partakes fomewhat of tke luftre
«f the Star?. Q£ * ftar 0f the firft order. Such fubdivifions may be
1 * " of fome ufe in afcertaining ftars of the firft, fecond, and
third claffes •, but the expreffions 5m. 5.6m. 6.5m. 6111.
muft be very vague and indefinite. Dr Herfchel ob-
ferves that he has found them fo in fa£t *, and he there¬
fore confiders this method of pointing out the different
luftre of ftars as a reference to an imaginary ftandard.
If any dependence could be placed on this method of
magnitudes, ** it would follow, that no lefs than ri
ftars in the conftellation of the Lion, namely /3? «r, sr, |,
A, £, c, d, 54, 48, 72, had all undergone a change in
their luftre fince Llamfteed’s time : I or if the idea of
magnitudes had been a clear one, our author, who
marked /3 1.2m. and y 7m. ought to be underftood to
mean that $ is larger than y ; but we now find that
a&ually y is larger than /3. Every one of the eleven
ftars (fays Dr Herfchel) which I have pointed out
may be reduced to the lame contradiction.
Lhe author has pointed out the inftances of the in-
fuffieiency of this method, and of the uncertain con-
clufions that are deduced from it, in determining the
comparative brightnefs of ftars found not only in Mr
Flamfteed’s catalogue, but alfo in the catalogues of
other aftronomers. It is fufficiently apparent that the
prefent method of exprefling the brightnefs of the ftars
is very defeaive. Dr Herfchel therefore propofes a
different mode, that is more precife and fatisfaftory. _
“ I place each ftar (fays he), inflead of giving its
magnitude, into a Ihort feries, conftrufted upon the
order of brightnefs of the neareft proper ftars. For
inftance, to exprefs the luftre of D, I fay CDE. By
this ftiort notation, inftead of referring the ftar D to
an imaginary uncertain ftandard, I refer it to a precife
and determined exifting one. . C is a ftar that has a
oreater luftre than D, and E is another of lels bnght-
nefs than D. Both C and E are neighbouring ftars,
chofen in fuch a manner that I may fee them at the
fame time with D, and therefore may be able to com¬
pare them properly. The luftre of C is in thm
manner afeertained by BCD } that of B by ABC ;
and alfo the brightnefs of E by DEF ; and that of F
^ EFG- „ c a
“ That this is the moft natural, as well a? the molt
effectual way to exprefs the brightnefs of a ftar, and
by that means to detect any change that may happen
in its luftre, will appear, when we confider what is re-
quifite to afeertain fuch a change. We can certainly
not with for a more decifive evidence, than to be al-
fured, by aftual bifpeftion, that a certain ftar is now
no longer more or lefs bright than fuch other ftars to
•which it has been formerly compared •, provided we are
at the fame time affured that thofe other ftars remain
ftill in their former unaltered luftre. But if tlm ftar D
will no longer ftand in its former order CDE, it muft
have undergone a change •, and if that order is now to
be expreffed by CED, the ftar h* loft fome part of its
luftre : if, on the contrary, it ought now to be de¬
noted by DCE, its brightnefs muft have had fome ad¬
dition. Then, if we ftiould doubt the liability of C
and E, we have recourfe to the orders BCD and DEF>
which exprefs their luftre j or even to ABC and El G,
which continue the feries both ways. Now having
before u^ the feries BCDEF, or if neceffary even the
more extended one ABCDEFG, it will be unpoflible
] CAT
to miftake a change of brightnefs in D, when every Catalog
member of the feries is found in its proper order ex- ? ne S^,
cept D.”
In the author’s journal or catalogue, in which the
order of the luftre of the ftars is fixed, each ftar bears
its own proper name or number, e. g. “ the brightnefs
of the ftar 5 Leonis may be expreffed by /3 £ e Leonis,
or better by 94—68—17 Leonis j thefe being the
numbers which the three above ftars bear in the Bri-
tifti catalogue of fixed ftars.”
This method of arrangement occurred to Dr Her¬
fchel fo early as the year 17825 but he was diverted
from the regular purfuit of it by a variety of other af-
tronomical engagements. After many trials, he pro-
pofed, in the Tranfadtions of the Royal Society of
London for 1796, the plan which appeared to him the
moft eligible. It is as follows :—Inftead of denoting
particular ftars by letters, he makes ufe of numbers 5 and
in his choice of the ftars which are to exprefs the luftre
of any particular one, he dire&s his firft view to perfedt
equality. When two ftars feem to be fimilar both in
brightnefs and magnitude, he puts down their numbers
together, feparated merely by a point, as 3°*24 Leonis 5
but if two ftars, which at firft feemed alike in their
luftre, appeared on a longer infpedtion to be different,
and the preference ftiould be always decidedly in favour
of the fame ftar, he feparates thefe ftars by a comma,
thus, 41,94 Leonis. This order muft not_ be varied •,
nor can three fuch ftars, as 20, 40, 39, Librae, admit
of a different arrangement. If the ftate of the heavens
ftiould be fuch as to require a different order in thefe
numbers, we may certainly infer that a change has ta¬
ken place in the luftre of one or more of them. When
two ftars differ very little in brightnefs, but fo that the
preference of the one to the other is indilputable, the
numbers that exprefs them are feparated by a ftioit line,
as —17—70 Leonis, or 68—17—70 Leonis. When
two ftars differ fo much in brightnefs, that one or two
other ftars might be interpofed between them, and ftill
leave fufficient room for diftindtion, they are diftinguilh-
ed by a line and comma, thus, —, or by two lines, as
 41 Leonis. A greater difference than this is
denoted by a broken line, thus, — — *---29 Bootis.
the whole, the author obferves the marks and diftinc-
tions which he has adopted cannot poffibly be miftaken 5
a point denoting equality of luftre 5 u comma indica¬
ting the leaft perceptible difference ", a ftiort line to
mark a decided but fmall fuperiority 5 a line and com¬
ma, or double line, to exprels a confiderable and ftrik-
ing excefs of brightnefs 5 and a broken line to mark
any other fuperierity which is to be looked upon as of
no ufe in eftimations that are intended for the purpofe
of diredting changes.”
The difficulties that attend this arrangement are not
difguifed 5 but the importance and utility of it more
than compenfate for the labour which it muft neceffaril}
reouire. By a method of this kind, many difeoveries
of changeable and periodical ftars might probably have
been made, which have efcaped the moft diligent and
accurate obfervers. We might then, as the author fug-
gefts, be enabled to refolve a problem in which we are
all immediately concerned.
“ Who, for inftance, would not wifti to know what
degree of permanency we ought to aferibe to the lufti e
cf our fun l Not only the liability of our climates, but
the
CAT
I'logue
Stars.
the very exigence of the whole animal and vegetable
creation itfelf, is involved in the queftion. Where can
we hope to receive information upon this fubject but
from aftronomical obfervations ? If it be allowed to ad¬
mit the limilarity of ftars with our fun as a point efta-
bliihed, how neceiTary will it be to take notice of the
fate of our neighbouringyirnr, in order to guefs at that
of our own ! That Jlar, whicli among the multitude we
have dignified by the name offun^ to-morrow may fiow-
ly begin to undergo a gradual decay of brightnefs, like
/S Leonis, a Ceti, # Draconis, § Uribe majoris, and ma¬
ny other diminilhing ftars that will be mentioned in my
catalogues. It may fuddenly increafe, like the won¬
derful ftar in the back of Caftiopeia’s chair, and the no
lefs remarkable one in the foot of Serpentarius ; or gra¬
dually come on, like £ Geminorum, $ Ceti, £ Sagitta-
rii, and many other increafing ftars, for which I alfo
refer to my catalogues 5 and, laftly, it may turn into a
periodical one of 25 days duration, as Algol is one of
three days, $ Cephei of five, /3 Lyrae of fix, a Anti-
noi of feven days, and as many others as ar® of various
periods.”
Having thus explained the general principle on which
this catalogue is formed, as we find it in the author’s
firft memoir on the fubjeft, we muft refer the reader to
the doctor’s own account for Ks particular arrange¬
ment, obferving only that the catalogue fubjoined com¬
prehends nine conftellations, which are arranged in al¬
phabetical order, with the comparative brightnefs of the
ftars accurately ftated. In a fubfequent paper, publifli-
ed in the fame volume, he has completely verified the
utility of his method by experience, and (hewn that there
is no permanent change of luftre in the ftars. In the
notes to his firft catalogue he mentioned « Herculis as
a periodical ftar. By a feries of obfervations on this
ftar, compared with * Ophiuchi, which was moft con¬
veniently fituated for his purpofe, he has been able not
only to confirm this opinion, but to afeertain its period.
His obfervations are arranged in a table, by means of
which he determines that this ftar had gone through
four fucceflive changes in an interval of 241 days; and
therefore the duration of its period muft be about 60
days and a quarter. This fact concurs with other cir-
cumftances in evincing the rotatory motion of the ftars
tm their axes. “ Dark fpots, or large portions of the
lurface lefs luminous than the reft, turned alternately
in certain diredlions, either towards or from us, will ac¬
count far the phenomena of periodical changes in the
luftre of the ftars, fo fatisfaftorily, that we certainly
need not look out for any other caufe.” If it be al¬
leged that the periods in the change of luftre of fome
ftars, fuch as Algol, /Z Lyrae, 2 Cephei, and jj Antinoi,
are fliort, being only 3, 5, 6, and 7 days refpeftively j
while thofe of 0 Ceti, and of the changeable ftar in
Hydra, and that in the neck of the Swan, are long,
amounting to 331, 394, and 497 days 5 and that we
cannot aferibe phenomena fo different in their duration
to the fame caufe—it may be anfwered to this objec¬
tion, that the force of it is founded on our limited ac¬
quaintance with the ftate of the heavens. To the feven
ftars, the periodical changes of which were before
known, we may now add * Herculis, which performs
a revolution of its changes in 60 days.
“ The ftep from the rotation of « Herculis to that of
c Ceti is far lefs confiderable than that from the period
VOL.V. Parti.
f 257 1
CAT
of Algol to the rotation of a Herculis} and thus a link Catalogue
in the chain is now fupplied, which removes the objec-0* die Staiv
tion that arofe from the vacancy.” The rotation of
the fifth fatellite of Saturn is proved by the change ob-
fervable in its light j and “ this variation of light, ow¬
ing to the alternate expofition of a more or lels bright
hemifphere of this periodical fatellite, plainly indicates,
that the fimilar phenomenon of a changeable ftar arifes
from the various luftre of the different parts of its fur-
face, fuceeflively turned to us by its rotatory motion.”
Betides, we perceive a greater fimilarity between the
fun and the ftars, by means of the fpots that muft be
admitted to exift on their furfaces, as well as on that
of the fun.
Dr Herfchel farther obferves, that the ftars, befides
a rotatory motion on their axes, may have other move¬
ments •, “ fuch as nutations or changes in the inclina¬
tion of their axes j which, added to bodies much flat¬
tened by quick rotatory motions, or furrounded by
rings like Saturn, will eafily account for many newr
phenomena that then offer themfelves to our extended
CATALONIA, a province of Spain, bounded on
the north by the Pyrenean mountains, which divide it
from Fiance ; by the kingdom of Arragon and Va¬
lencia on the weft j and by the Mediterranean fea on
the fouth and eaft. It is 155 miles in length, and 100
in breadth. It is watered by a great number of rivers ^
the principal of which are the Lobregat, the Ter, and
the Segra. The air is temperate and healthy j but
the land is mountainous, except in a few places. It
produces, however, corn, wine, oil, pulfe, flax, and
hemp, fufficient for the inhabitants. The mountains
are covered with large forefts of tall trees, fuch as the
oak, the ever-green oak, the beech, the pine, the fir,
the chefnut, and many others ; w ith cork trees, flirubs,
and medicinal plants. There are feveral quarries of
marble of all colours, cryfial, alabafter, amethyfts, and
lapis lazuli. Gold duft has been found among the
fands of one or two of the rivers j and there are mines
of tin, iron, lead, alum, vitriol, and fait. They like-
wife fifti for coral on the eaftern coaft. The inhabi¬
tants are hardy, courageous, aftive, vigorous, and good
foldiers, but apt to be difeontented. The miquelets
are a font of foldiers which guard the paffes over the
mountains, and ought to protect travellers 5 but if they
are not paid to their minds, they feldom fail to pay
themfelves. The river Lobregat divides Catalonia in¬
to twro parts, the eaft and weft, according to their fi-
tuation. This province comprehends 17 vigueries or
territories ; twro of which are in Roufillon, and belong
to the French. The reft are fubjedf to the Spaniards.
The principal towns are Barcelona the capital, Tarra¬
gona, Tortofa, Lerida, Solfonia, Cardona Vich, Giro¬
na, Seu d’Urgel, Pui Cerda, and Cervera. Catalonia
was the laft province in Spain which fubmitted to Phi¬
lip in the Succeffion war.
CATAMENIA, in Medicine. See Menses.
CATAMITE, a boy kept for fodomitical pradti-
C AT ANA, or Catina, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Sicily, fituated op polite to AEtna, to the fouth-eaft ;
one of the five Roman colonies : anciently built by the
people of Naxus feven years after the building of Sy-
racufe, 728 years before Chrift. It was the country
Kk .f
CAT [2.
Gatana of Charondas the famous lawgiver. The town is ftill
k II called Catanea. See CATANEA.
. Cat^nea- CATANANCHE, Candia lions-foot. See
Botany Index.
CATANEA, or Catania, a city of Sicily, feated
” on a gulf of the fame name, near the foot of Mount
JEtna, or Gibel. It was founded by the Chalcidians
foon after the fettlement of Syracufe, and enjoyed
great tranquillity till Micro I. expelled the whole body
of citizens j and after replenifhing the town with a new
flock of inhabitants, gave it the name of /Etna: im¬
mediately after his deceafe, it regained its ancient
name, and its citizens returned to their abodes. Ca¬
tania fell into the hands of the Romans, among their
earlieft acquifitions in Sicily, and became the relidence
of a praetor. To make it worthy of fuch an honour,
it was adorned with fumptuous buildings of all kinds,
and every convenience was procured to fupply the na-
tural and artificial wants of life. It was deftroyed by
Pompey’s fon, but reftored with fuperior magnificence
by Auguflus. The reign of Decius is famous in thfe
hillory of this city, for the martyrdom of its patronefs
St Agatha. On every emergency her interceflion is
implored. She is pioufly believed to have pfeferved
Catanea from being overwhelmed by torrents of lava,
or fhaken to pieces by earthquakes ; yet its ancient
edifices are covered by repeated ftreams of volcanic
matter ; and almoft every houfe, even her own church,
has been thrown to the ground. In the reign of Wil¬
liam the Good, 20,000 Catanians, with their pallor at
their head, were deftroyed before the facred veil could
be properly placed to check the flames. In the lafl
century the eruptions and earthquakes raged with re¬
doubled violence, and Catania was twice demolilhed.
See iETNA..
The prefent prince of Bifcari has been at infinite
pains, and fpent a large fum of money, in working
down to the ancient town, 'which, on account of the
numerous torrents of lava that have flowed out of
Mount iEtna for thefe laft thoufand years, is now to
be fought for in dark caverns many feet below the pre¬
fent furface of the earth. Mr Swinburne informs us
that he defcended into baths, fepulchres, an amphithe¬
atre, and a theatre, all very much injured by the va¬
rious cataftrophes that have befallen them. They were
erefted upon old beds of lava, and even built with
fquare pieces of the fame fubftance, which in no m-
ftance appears to have been fufed by the contaft of
new lavas : The fciarra, or Hones of cold lava, have
conftantly proved as Hrong a barrier againft the flow¬
ing torrent of fire as any other Hone could have been,
though fome authors were of opinion that the hot mat¬
ter would melt the old mafs and incorporate with it.
This city has been frequently defended from the
burning ftreams by the folid mafs of its own rampaits,
and by the air comprelfed between them and the lava j
as appears by the torrent having ftopt within a fmall
diftance of the walls, and taken another direttion.
But when the walls were broken or low, the lava col-
le&ed itfelf till it rofe to a great height, and then
poured over in a curve. A fimilar inftance is feen at
the Torre del Greco near Naples, where the ftream of
liquid fire from Vefuvius divided itfelf into two branches,
and left a church untouched in the middle. There is
a well at the foot of the old walls of Catania, where
8 ] CAT
the lava, after running along the parapet, and then Catar<|
falling forwards, has produced a very complete lofty N
arch over the fpring. -w
The church here is a noble fabric. It is accounted
the largeft in Sicily, though neither a porch nor cupo¬
la has been erected, from a doubt of the folidity of the
foundations, which are no other than the bed of lava
that ran out of /Etna in 1669, and is fuppofed to be
full of cavities. The organ is much efteemed by con-
noiffeurs in mufical inflruments.
Catania, according to Mr Swinburne’s account, is
reviving with great Iplendour. “ It has already (he
fays) much more the features of a metropolis and royal
refidence than Palermo : the principal ftreets are wide,
ftraight, and well paved with lava. An obelilk of red
granite, placed on the back of an antique elephant of
touchftone, Hands in the centre of the great fquare,.
which is formed by the townhall, feminary, and cathe¬
dral. The cathedral eredled by the abbot Angerius
in the year 1094, was endowed by Earl Roger with
the territories of Catania and /Etna, for the imall ac¬
knowledgement of a glafs of wine and a loaf of bread
offered once a-year. It has fuffered fo much by earth¬
quakes, that little of the original flrufture eemains,
and the modern parts have hardly any thing except
their materials to recommend them, ihe other reli¬
gious edifices of the city are profufely ornamented, but
in a bad taffe. The fpirit of building feems to have
feized upon the people, and the prince of Bifcari’s ex¬
ample adds frefh vigour. It were natural to fuppofe
men would be backward in ere&ing new habitations,
efpecially with any degree of luxury, on ground fo of¬
ten fliaken to its centre, and fo often buried under the
a fires of a volcano ; but fuch is their attachment to
their native foil, and their contempt of dangers they are
habituated to, that they rebuild their heufes on the
warm cinders of Vefuvius, the quaking plains of Cala¬
bria, and the black mountains of fciarra at Catania :
it is however furprifing to fee fuch embellifirments la-
viihed in fo dangerous a fituation. There is a great
deal of activity in the difpofition of this people : they
know by tradition that their anceflors carried on a
flouriftring commerce *, and that before the fiery river
filled it up, they had a fpacious convenient harbour,,
where they now have fcarce a creek for a felucca ;
they therefore wilh to reflore thofe advantages to Ca¬
tania, and have often applied to government for af-
fiflance towards forming a mole and port, an underta¬
king their ffrength alone is unequal to j but whether
the refufal originates in the deficiencies of the public
treafury or the jealoufy of the other cities, all the pro-
jefts have ended in fruitlefs applications. The num¬
ber of inhabitants dwelling in Catania amounts to
30,000 the Catanians make it double : A confider-
able portion of this number appertains to the univerfi-
ty, the only one in the ifland, and the nurfery of all
the lawyers.” E. Long. 15. 19. N. Lat. 37. 30.
CATANZARO, a city in the kingdom of Naples,
the capital of Calabria Ulterior, with a bilhop’s fee.
It is the ufual refidence of the governor of the pro¬
vince, and is feated on a mountain, in E. Long. 18.
20. N. Lat. 28. 58.
CATAPHONICS, the feience which confiders the
properties of refledled founds. See Acoustics.
CATAPHORA, in Medicine, the fame as Coma.
CATAPHRACTA,
CAT [2
Ij'.taphvae- CATAPHRAGTA, (from xctlu, and tp^tnra, I for-
ta tif}i or arm), in the ancient military art, a piece of
i) . heavy defenlive armour, formed of cloth or leather,
|'a‘^a ma,‘ fortified with iron feales or links, wherewith fome-
times only the bread:, feme times the whole body, and
fometimes the horfe too, was covered. It was in ufe
among the Sarmatians, Perfians, and other barbarians.
The Romans alfo adopted it early for their foot j and,
according to Vegetius, kept to it till the time of Gra-
tian, when the military difeipline growing remifs, and
field exercifes and labour difeontinued, the’ Roman foot
thought the cataphrafta as well as the helmet too great
a load to bear, and therefore threw both by, choofing
rather to march againft the enemy bare-breafted j by
which, in the war vnh the Goths, multitudes were de-
ftroyed.
Ca TAP HR ACTJE Naves, fhips armed and covered in
fight, fo that they could not be eafily damaged by the
enemy. They were covered over with boards or planks,
on which the foldiers were placed to defend them the
rowers fitting underneath, thus fereened from the ene¬
my’s weapons.
CATAPHRACTUS, denotes a thing defended or
covered on all fides with armour.
Cataphractus, or CataphraElarius, more particu¬
larly denotes a horfeman, or even horfe, armed with a
cataphra£la. The cataphra&i equites were a fort of
cuiraffiers, not only fortified with armour themfelves,
but having their horfes guarded with folid plates of
brafs or other metals, ufually lined with Ikins, and
wrought into plumes or other forms. Their ufe was
to bear down all before them, to break in upon the
enemy’s ranks, and fpread terror and havock wherever
they came, as being themfelves invulnerable and fe-
cure from danger. But their difad vantage was their
unwieldinefs, by which, if once unhorfed or on the
ground, they were unable to rife, and thus fell a prey
to the enemy.
CATAPHRYGIANS, a feel in the fecond cen¬
tury, fo called as being of the country of Phrygia.
They w7ere orthodox in every thing, fetting afide thig,
that they took Montanus for a prophet, and Prifcilla
and Maximilla for true propheteffes, to be confulted in
[every thing relating to religion •, as fuppofing the Holy
Spirit had abandoned the church. See MonTanist.
CATAPLASMA, a poultice ; from KetlxTrXxB-trM,
Mino, to fpread like a plaller. Cataplafms take their
name fometimes from the part to which they are ap¬
plied, or effe£ts they produce •, fo are called anacol-
lema, frontale, epicarpium, epifpaJHcum, ve/icatormm ;
and vrhen muftard is an ingredient, they are called Ji-
napifms.
Thefe kinds of applications are fofter and more eafy
than plafters or ointments. They are formed of fome
Vegetable fubftances, and applied of fuch a confiftence
as neither to adhere nor run : they are alfo more ufe-
ful when the intention is eftetted by the perpetuity of
thie heat or cold which they contain, for they retain
them longer than any other kind of compofition.
When defigned to relax, or to promote fuppura-
tion, they (hould be applied warm. Their wrarmth,
moifture, and the obftru&ion they give to perfpira-
tion, is the method of their anfwering that end. The
proper heat, when applied warm, is no more than to
promote a kindly pleafant fenfation j for great heat
59 ] CAT
prevents the defign fir which they are ufed. They Cataplaima,
ihould be renewed as often as they cool. For relaxing
and fuppurating, none excel the white bread poultice,
made with the crumb of an old loaf, a fufficient quan¬
tity of milk to boil the bread in until it is foft, and
a little oil; which lall ingredient, befides preventing
the poultice from drying and Ricking to the Ikin,
alfo retains the heat longer than the bread and milk
alone would do. To preferve the heat longer, the
poultice, when applied, may be covered with a ftrong
ox’s bladder.
When defigned to repel, they {hould be applied cold,
and ought to be renewed 4s oft as they become warm.
A proper compofition for this end is a mixture of oat¬
meal and vinegar.
CATAPULT A, in antiquity, a military engine
contrived for the throwing of arrows, darts, and Rones
upon the enemy.—Some of thefe engines w'ere of fuch
force that they would throw Rones of an hundred
Weight. Jofephus takes notice of the furprifing effe&s
of thefe engines, and fays, that the Rones thrown out
of them beat down the battlements, knocked oft the
angles of the towers, and would level a whole file of
men from one end to the other, was the phalanx ever
fo deep. This w as called the
Battering CATAPULTA, and is reprefented on Plate
CXXXV. This catapulta is fuppofed to carry a
Rone, &c. of an hundred weight ; and therefore a
defeription of it will be fufficient to explain the
doctrine of all the reR } for fuch as threw Rones or
500 and upwards, wrere conflrufted on the fame prin¬
ciples.
The bafe is compofed of two large beams 2, 3. The
length of thefe beams is fifteen diameters of the bore
of the capitals 9. At the two extremities of each
beam, two double mortifes ate cut to receive the eight
tenons of two crofs beams, each of them four of the
diameters in length. In the centre of each of the
beams of the bafe, and near two-thirds of their length,
a hole, perfectly round, and 16 inches in diameter,
ffiould be bored ; thefe holes muR be exa&ly oppofite
to each other, and ftiould increafe gradually to the in-
fide of the beams, fo that each of them, being 16
inches on the outfide toW'ards the capitals 9* ftmuld be
lyi. at the opening on the infide, and the edges care¬
fully rounded off. T he capitals 9 are» ^ a manner,
the foul of the machine, and lerve to twiR and itrain
the cordage, which forms its principle or power of mo¬
tion. .
The capitals are either of caff brafs or iron ", each
confifting of a wheel with teeth, C 10, of 24: inches
thick. The hollow or bone of thefe wheels fhould be
11-i inches in diameter, perfectly round, and the edges
fmoothed down. As the fri&ion would be too great
if the capitals rubbed againft the beams by the extreme
{training of the cordage, which draws them towards
thefe beams, that inconvenience is remedied by the
means of eight friftipn wheels, or cylinders of brafs,
about the 13th of an inch in diameter, and an inch and
one fixth in length, placed circularly, and turning up¬
on axes, as reprefented at D 13, B 12. One of thefe
friction wheels at large with its ferew, by which it is
faftened into the beam, is reprefented at A.
Upon this number of cylindrical wheels the capitals
o muff be placed in the beams 2, 3, fo that the cylm-
y K k 2 ders
CAT [ 2fo ] CAT
Catapulta. dcrs do not extend to the teeth of the wheels, which
* mult receive a Itrong pinion 14. By means of this
pinion the wheel of the capital is made to turn for
ftraining the cordage with the key 15. The capital
wheel has a Itrong catch 16, and another of the lame
kind may be added, to prevent any thing from giving
way through the extreme and violent force of the
itrained cordage.
The capital piece of the machine is a nut or crols
pin of iron, 1 7, feen at C, and hammered cold into
its form. It divides the bore of the capitals exadtly in
two equal parts, and fixed in grooves about an inch
deep. This piece, or nut, ought to be about two
inches and one-third thick at the top 18, as reprefent-
ed in the fe6tion at B ; and rounded off and polilhed
as much as poffible, that the cords folded over it may
not be hurt or cut by the roughnefs or edges of the
iron. Its height ought to be eight inches, decreafing
gradually in thicknefs to the bottom, where it ought
to be only one inch. It muft be very exa&ly inferted
in the capitals.
After placing the two capitals in the holes of the
two beams in a right line with each other, and fixing
the two crofs diametrical nuts or pieces over which
the cordage is to wind, one end of the cord is reeved
through a hole in one of the capitals in the bafe, and
made fall to a nail withinfide of the. beam. The
other fide of the cord is then carried through the hole
in the oppofite beam and capital, and fo wound over
the crofs pieces of iron in the centre of the two capi¬
tals, till they are full, the cordage forming a large
Ikain. The tenfion or ftraining of the cordage ought
to be exactly equal, that is, the feveral foldings of the
cord over the capital pieces ftiould be equally ftrained,
and fo near each other as not to leave the leaft fpace
between them. As foon as the firft folding or Ikain of
cord has filled up one whole fpace or breadth of the
capital pieces, another muft be carried over it j and fo
on, always equally ftraining the end till no more will
pafs through the capitals, and the Ikain of cordage en¬
tirely fills them, obferving to rub it from time to time
wilh foap.
At three or four inches behind the cordage, thus
wound over the capital pieces, two very ftrong upright
beams 21 are raifed: tbefe are pofts of oak 14 inches
thick, croffed over at top by another of the fame foli-
dity. The height of the upright beams is 7^ diame¬
ters •, each fupported behind with very ftrong props
25, fixed at bottom in the extremities of the bafe 2, 3.
The crofs beam 24 is fupported in the fame manner by
a prop in the centre.
The tree, arm, or ftylus 22, ftiould be of found
ath. Its length is from 15 to 16 diameters of the bore
of the capitals. The end at the bottom, or that fixed
in the middle of the ikain, is 10 inches thick, and 14
broad. To ftrengthen the arm or tree, it ftiould be
wrapped round with a cloth dipped in ftrong glue like
the tree of a faddle, and bound very hard with waxed
thread of the fixth of an inch in diameter, from the
large end at bottom, almoft to the top, as reprefented
in the figure.
At the top of the arm, juft under the iron hand or
leceiver 27-, a ftrong cord is faftened, with two loops
twilled one within another, for the greater ftrength.
Into thefe two loops the hook of a brafs pulley 28 is
put. The cord 29 is then reeved through the pulley, Gatapul; ■ ;!P
and faftened to the roll 30. The cock or trigger 31, r tl
v'hich ferves as a ftay, is then brought to it, and Latara®t ^
made fail by its hook to the extremity of the hand 'r**1 1
27, in which the body to be difeharged is placed.
The pulley at the neck of the arm is then unhooked j
and when the trigger is to let it off, a ftroke muft be
given upon it with an iron bar or crow of about an
inch in diameter *, on which the arm dies up with a
force almoft equal to that of a modern mortar. The
culhion or ftomacher 23, placed exaftly in the middle
of the crofs beam 24, fhould be covered with tanned
ox-hide, and fluffed with hair, the arm ftriking againft
it with inconceivable force. It is to be obferved, that
the tree or arm 22 deferibes an angle of 90 degrees,
beginning at the cock, and ending at the ftomacher or
cufhion.
CATAPULTA for Arrows, Spears, or Darts. Some
of the fpears, &c. thrown by thefe engines, are faid to
have been 18 feet long, and to have been thrown with
fuch velocity as to take fire in their courfe.
ABCD is the frame that holds the darts or arrows, rig. j.
which may be of different numbers, and placed in dif¬
ferent diredlions. EF is a large and ftrong iron
fpring, which is bent by a rope that goes over three
pulleys, I, K, L } and is drawn by one or feveral men;
this rope may be faftened to a pin at M. The rope,
therefore, being fet at liberty, the fpring muft ftrike
the darts with great violence, and fend them, with
furprifing velocity, to a great diftance. This inftru-
ment differs in fome particulars from the defeription
we have of that of the ancients; principally in the
throwing of feveral darts at the fame time, one only-
being thrown by theirs.
CATARACT, in Hydrography, a precipice in the
channel of a river, caufed by rocks, or other obftacles,
flopping the courfe of the ftream, from whence the
water falls with greater noife and impetuofity. The
words comes from “ I tumble down with
violence ;” compounded of Kccra, “ down,” and gcarr*,
dejicio, “ I throw down.”—Such are the catara&s of
the Nile, the Danube, Rhine, &e. In that of Nia¬
gara, the perpendicular fall of the w-ater is 137 feet:
and in that of Piftil Rhaiadr, in North Wales, the fall i
of w-ater is near 240 feet froip the mountain to the
lower pool.
Strabo calls that a cataraB which we call a cafcade ;
and what w-e call a cataraB, the ancients ufually called
a catadupa. Herminius has an exprefs diflertation,
“ De admirandis mundi Cataraflis fupra et fubterra-
neis ;” where he ufes the word in a new fenfe; fig-
nifying by cataraft, any violent motion of the ele¬
ments.
Cataract, in Medicine and Surgery, a diforder of
the humours of the eye, by which the pupilla, that
ought to appear tranfparent and black, looks opaque,
blue, gray, brown, &c. by which vifion is varioufly
impeded, or totally deftroyed. See Surgery.
CATARO, a town of Dalmatia, and capital of the
territory of the fame name, w ith a ftrong caftle, and
a bifliop’s fee. It is fubje£l to Venice, and is feated
on a gulf of the fame name. E. Long. 19. 19. N. Lat,
42. 25.
CATARACTES, the trivial name of a fpecies oi
Larus. See Ornithology Index.
CATARRH,
CASTLE
PLATE rXXXV
fburn
7^.° 1.
(a/tsfrrrt
7T? 2.
27? 3.
C’afafiu/Ft?
C
Fig- J
E. A-fil cJl e//, /<H2^Z
c
(
1
CAT [ 261 ] CAT
atarrh
II,
ICatch-
Word.
CATARRH, in Medicine, a diftillacion or defluxion
from the head upon the mouth and afpera arteria,
and through them upon the lungs. See Medicine
Index.
CATASTASIS, in Poetry, the third part of the
ancient drama} being that wherein the intrigue, or
adlion, fet forth in the epitafis, is fupported, carried on,
and heightened, till it be ripe for the unravelling in
the cataftrophe. Scaliger defines it, the full growth of
the fable, while things are at a Hand in that confufion
to which the poet has brought them.
CATASTROPHE, in Dramatic Poetry, the fourtli
and laft part in the ancient drama j or that immediate¬
ly fucceeding the cataftafis: or, according to others,
the third only ; the whole drama being divided into
protafis, epitafis, and cataftrophe \ or in the terms of
Ariftotle, prologue, epilogue, and exode.
The cataftrophe clears up every thing, and is nothing
elfe but the difeovery or winding up of the plot. It
has its peculiar place : for it ought entirely to be con¬
tained, not only in the laft aft, but in the very conclu-
fion of it: and, when the plot is finilhed, the play
fhould be fo alfo. The cataftrophe ought to turn upon
a Angle point, or ftart up on a hidden.
The great art in the cataftrophe is, that the clearing
up of all difficulties may appear wonderful, and yet
eafy, Ample, and natural.
It is a very prepofterous artifice in fome writers to
fhow the cataftrophe in the very title of the play. Mr
Dryden thinks that a cftaftrophe refulting from a mere
change in the fentiments and refolutions of a perfon,
without any other machinery, may be fo managed as to
be exceedingly beautiful.
It is a difpute among the critics, whether the cata¬
ftrophe ftiould always fall out favourably on the fide of
virtue or not. The reafons on the negative fide feem
the ftrongeft. Ariftotle prefers a {hocking cataftrophe to
a happy one.—The cataftrophe is either fimple or com¬
plex. The firft is that in which there is no change in
the ftate of the principal perfons, nor any difeovery or
unravelling, the plot being only a mere paflage out of
agitation into quiet repofe. In the fecond, the princi¬
pal perfons undergo a change of fortune, in the man¬
ner already defined.
CATCH, in the mufical fenfe of the word, a fugue
in unifon, wherein, to humour fome conceit in the
words, the melody is broken, and the fenfe interrupted
in one part, and caught again or fupported by another ;
as in the catch in Shakefpeare’s play of the Twelfth
Night, where there is a catch lung by three perfons, in
which the humour is, that each who fings, calls and
is called knave in turn : Or, as defined by Mr Jack-
fon “ a catch is a piece for three or more voices,
one of which leads, and the others follow in the fame
notes. It muft be fo contrived, that refts (which
are made for that purpofe) in the mufic of one line
be filled up with a word or two from another line j
thefe form a crofs purpofe, or catch, from whence the
name.”
Catch-Ply. See Lychnis, Botany Index.
CATCH-Pote, (quafi one that catches by the pole'), a
term ufed, by way of reproach, for the bailiff’s follower
or affiftant.
CATCH-Word, among printers, that placed at the bot¬
tom of each page, being always the firft word of the Catch-
following page. Word
CATECHESIS, in a general fenfe, denotes an in- catechu-
ftruftion given any perfon in the firft rudiments of an
art or fcience j but more particularly of the Chriftian
religion. In the ancient church, catechefis was an
inftruftion given viva voce, either to children or adult
heathens, preparatory to their receiving of baptifm. In
this fenfe, catechejis Hands contradiftingufthed from
mystagogica, which were a higher part of inftruftiort
given to thofe already initiated, and containing the
myfteries of faith. Thofe who give fuch inftruftions
are called cateclnjls ; and thofe who receive them, cate¬
chumens.
CATECHETIC, or Catechetical, fomething
that relates to oral inftruftion in the rudiments of Chri-
ftianity.—Catechetic fchools were buildings appointed
for the office of the catechift, adjoining to the church,
and called catechumena : fuch was that in which Origen
and many other famous men read catechetical leftures
at Alexandria. See Catechumen.
CATECHISM, in its primary fenfe, an inftruc-
tion, or inftitution, in the principles of the Chriftian
religion, delivered viva voce, and fo as to require fre¬
quent repetitions, from the difciple or hearer, of what
has been laid. The word is formed from a
compound of Mra and q. &. circumfono ; alluding
to the noife or din made in this fort of exercife, or to
the zeal and earneftnefs wherewith things are to be in¬
culcated over and over on the learners.—Anciently the
candidates for baptifm were only to be inftrufted in
the fecrets of their religion by tradition, viva voce,
without writing j as had alfo been the cafe among the
Egyptian priefts, and the Britilh and Gauliffi druids,
who only communicated the myfteries of their theo-
logy by word of mouth.
Catechism is more frequently ufed in modern times
for an elementary book, wherein the principal articles ■
of religion are fummariiy delivered in the way of quef*
tion and anfwer.
CATECHIST, catecheta), he that cate-
chifes, i. e. he that inftrufts novices in the principles,
of religion.
Catechist more particularly denotes a perfon ap¬
pointed by the church to inftruft ihofe intended for
baptifm, by word of mouth, in the fundamental arti¬
cles of the Chriftian faith. The catechifts of churches
ivere minifters ufually diftinft from the bilhops and
prefbyters, and had their auditories or catechumena
apart. Their bufinefs was to inftruft the catechu¬
mens, and prepare them for the reception of baptifm.
But the catechifts did not conftitute any diftinft or¬
der of the clergy, but were chofen out of any other
order. The biffiop himfelf fometimes performed the
office ; at other times prefbyters, or even readers or
deacons, were the catechifts. Origen feems to have
had no higher degree in the church than reader, when
he was made catechift at Alexandria, being only 18
years of age, and confequently incapable of the dea- ■
conlhip.
CATECHU, in the Materia Medico, a name
given to the extraft otherwife known by the name
of Terra Japonica, or Japan earth. See ABECA and
Mimosa.
CATECHUMEN,
CAT [ 262 ] CAT
fiatechu-
raen
Category,
r
CATECHUMEN, a candidate for baptifm, or one
who prepares himfelf for the receiving thereof.
The catechumens, in church hiltory, were the low-
eft order of Chriftians in the primitive church. They
had feme title to the common name of Chriftian, being
a degree above pagans and heretics, though n .t con-
fummated by baptifm. They were admitted to the
ftate of catechumens by the impolition of hands, and
the fign of the crofs. The children of believing pa¬
rents were admitted catechumens, as foon as ever
they were capable of inftrudfion : but at what age
thofe of heathen parents might be admitted, is not fo
clear. As to the time of their continuance in this
ftate, there were no general rules fixed about it j but
the practice varied according to the difference of times
and places, and the readinefs and proficiency of the
catechumens themfelves.
There were four orders or degrees of catechumens 5
the firit were thofe inftrufled privately without the
■church, and kept at a diitance, for feme time, from the
privilege of entering the church, to make them the
more eager and defirous of it. The next degree were
the audientcs, fo called from their being admitted to
hear fermons, and the Scriptures read in the church,
but we^; not allowed to partake of the prayers. The
third fort of catechumens were the genii-Jieiientes, fo
called becaufe they received impofition of hands kneel¬
ing. The fourth order was the compeicntes et eletli, de¬
noting the immediate candidates for baptifm, or fuch
as were appointed to be baptifed the next approach¬
ing feftival } before which, ft rift examination was
made into their proficiency under the feveral ftages of
catechetical exercifes.
After examination, they were exercifed for twenty
days together, and were obliged to falling and con-
feflion : fome days before baptifm they went veiled *,
and it was cuftomary to touch their ears, faying, Ephh-
tha, i. e. be opened *, as alfo to anoint their eyes
with clay 5 both ceremonies being in imitation of our
Saviour’s praftice, and intended to fhadow out to the
catechumens their condition both before and after their
admiflion into the Chriftian church.
CATEGORICAL, in a general fenfe, is applied
to thofe things ranged under a Category.
Categorical aho imports a thing to be abfolute,
and not relative } in which fenfe it Hands oppofed to
hypothetical. We fay, a categorical prepetition, a cate¬
gorical fyllogifm, &c.
A categorical anfwer denotes an exprefs and per¬
tinent anfwer made to any queftion or objeftion pro-
pofed.
CATEGORY, in Logic, a feries or order of all
the predicates or attributes contained under any
genus*
The fchool philofophers diftribute all the objefts of
our thoughts and ideas into certain genera or claffes,
not fo much, fay they, to learn what they do not
know, as to communicate a diftinft notion of what
they do know •, and thefe clafles the Greeks called
CQte?o-ies, and the Latins predicaments.
Ariftotlemade ten categories, viz. fubftance, quantity,
quality, relation, aftion, paflion, time, place, fituation,
and h i nit, which are ufually expreffed by the follow¬
ing technical diftich :
Jlrbor, fex, fervos, ardore, refrigerat, uflcs, atf|^
Rare eras Jlabo, nec tumcatus era. Cater: ;i(,
CATEK. See Bengal.
C ATEN ARIA, in the higher geometry, the name
of a curve line formed by a rope hanging freely from
two points of fufpenfion, whether the points be hori¬
zontal or not. See Fluxions.
CATERPILLAR, in Zoology, the name of all
winged infefts when in their reptile or worm ftate.
See Entomology Index.
Method of Defraying CATERPILLARS on Trees.—-.
Take a chafing difh with lighted charcoal, and pla¬
cing it under the branches that are loaded with ca¬
terpillars, throw fome pinches of brimftone upon the
coals. The vapour of the fulphur, which is mortal
to thefe infefts, will not only deftroy all that are on
the tree, but prevent it from being infefted with
them afterwards. A pound of fulphur will clear as
many trees as grow on feveral acres. This method
has been fuccefsfully tried in France. In the Journal
Oeconomique, the following is faid to be infallible a-
gainft the caterpillars feeding on cabbage, and per¬
haps may be equally ferviceable againft thofe that in-
feft other vegetables. Sowr with hemp all the borders
of the ground w here you mean to plant your cabbage -y
and, although the neighbourhood is infefted with
caterpillars, the fpace enolofed with the hemp will be
perfeftly free, not one of the vermine will approach
it.
CATERPILLAR-Eaters, a name given by fome au¬
thors to a fpecies of worms bred in the body of the ca¬
terpillar, and which eat it's flefh ; thefe are owing to a
certain kind of fly that lodges her eggs in the body of
this animal, and they, after their proper changes, be¬
come flies like their parents.
M. Reaumur has given us, in his hiftory of infefts,
fome very curious particulars in regard to thefe little
worms. Every one of them, he obferves, fpins itfelf
a very beautiful cafe of a cylindric figure, made of a
very ftrong fort of filk ; thefe are the cafes in which
this animal fpends its ftate of chryfalis ; and they have
a mark by which they may be known from all other
animal produftions of this kind, which is, that they
have always a broad ftripe or band furrounding theif
middle, which is black when the reft of the cafe is
white, and white when that is blaek. M. Reaumur
has had the pains and patience to find out the reafon
of this Angularity, which is this : the whole flrell is
fpun of a filk produced out of the creature’s body ;
this at firft runs all white, and towards the end of
the fpinning turns black. 1 he outfide ot the cafe
muft neceffarily be formed firft, as the creature works
from within: confequently this is truly w hite all over,
but it is tranfparent, and Ihows the laid fpun or black
filk through it. It might be fuppofed that the whole
infide of the ftiell ftrould be black •, but this is not the
cafe : the whole is fafliioned before this black filk
comes ; and this is employed by the creature, not to
line the whole, but to fortify certain parts only ; and
therefore is all applied either to the middle, or to the
two ends omitting the middle 5 and fo gives either a
black band in t^e middle, or a blacknefs at both ends,
leaving the white in the middle to appear. It is not
. unfrequent
1C
!a
2
?<t »:iterpillar.
Eaters
1
CAT
Cathedral.
^ 'T* [ 263
unfrequent to find a fort offmal! cafes, lying about thedratkus ; and the prefbyters, who fat on either fide, Cathedral,
garden \ta ts, which move of themfelveS 5 when thefe were alfo called by the ancient fathers, Affeffores Epif- Citrine,
are opened, they are found to contain a fmall living coporum. The epifcopal authority did not reticle in the ' ^ ^
worm, i his is one of the fpecies of thofe caterpillar- bifhop alone 5 but in ail the prefbyters, whereof the
eaters; which, as foon as it comes out of the body of bifliop was prefident. A cathedral, therefore, original-
that animal, fpms itfelf a cafe .or its transformation ly, was different from what it is now ; the Chriltians,
long before that happens, and laves in it without food
till that change comes on 5 and it becomes a fly like
that to which it owed its birth.
CATERyA, in ancient military writers, a term
ufed in fpeaking of the Gaulifh or Celtiberian armies,
denoting a body of 6000 armed men. The word cc-
terua, or catervarius, is alfo frequently ufed by ancient
writers to denote a party or corps of foldiers in difor-
der or difarray} by which it hands diftinguifhed from
cohort or turma, which were in good order.
CATEbB^A, the Tilttkgrn.8^ Botany/^.
CA1H/EREIICS, in Pharmacy, medicines of a
cauftic nature, ferving to eat off fungous flefh.
CATHARINE. Knights of St CATHABJNEof Mount
Sinai, an ancient military order, erefted for the affift-
anee and protection of pilgrims going to pay their de¬
votion to the body of St Catharine, a virgin of Alex¬
andria, diflinguifhed for her learning, and faid to hare
fuffered martyrdom under Maximin. The body of
the martyr having been difeovered on Mount Sinai,
earned a great concourfe of pilgrims ; and travelling
being very dangerous, by reafon of the Arabs, an or-
der of knighthood was erected in 1063, on the mo¬
del of that of the holy fepulchre, and under the pa¬
tronage of St Catharine j the knights of which ob¬
liged themfelves by oath to guard the body of the
faint, keep the roads fecure, obferve the rule of St Ba-
fd, and obey their grand mailer. Their habit was
white, and on it were reprefented the inftruments of
martyrdom whereby the faint bad fuffered 5 viz. a half
wheel armed with fpikes, and traverfed with a fword
flamed with blood.
Catharine. Fraternity of St Catharine at Sienna, a
fort of religious fociety, inftituted in that city in ho-
nour of St Catharine, a faint famous for her revelations,
arm for h^r 1. r /-'■I • n 1 r ’
till the time of Conflantine, having no liberty to
build any temple : by their churches they only meant
their alfemblies 5 and by cathedrals, nothing more than,
confiftories.
CATHERINE Parr. See Parr.
Catherine I. Emprefs of Ruf/ia, a moll extraor¬
dinary perfonage, whofe hiflory deferves to be given
in detail. She was the natural daughter of a country
girl 5 and was born at Ringen, a fmall village upon the
lake Virtcherve, near Dorpt, in Livonia. The year
of her birth is uncertain ; but, according to her own
account, die came into the world on the 5th of April
1687. Her original name was Martha, which the
changed for Catherine when die embraced the Greek
religion. Count Rofen, a lieutenant-colonel in the
Swedilh fervice, who owned the village of Ringen,
fupported, according to the cuilom of the country,
both the mother and the child ; and was, for that rea-
fon, fuppofed by many perfons to have been her fa¬
ther. She loft her mother when ftie was but three
years old 5 and, as Count Rofen died about the fame
time, ftie was left in fo deftitute a fituation, that the
parifti-clerk of the village received her into his houfe.
Soon afterwards Gluck, Lutheran minifter of Marien-
burgh, happening, in a journey through thofe parts,
to fee the foundling, took her under his protection,
brought her up in his family, and employed her in at¬
tending his children. In 1701, and about the 14th
year of her age, (he efpoufed a dragoon of the Swedifti
garrifon of Marienhurgh. Many different accounts
are given of this tranfaftion : one author of great cre¬
dit affirms that the bride and bridegroom remained to¬
gether eight days after their marriage ; another, of
no lefs authority, afferts, on the contrary, that on the
morning of the nuptials her hufhand being fent with a
1 r 1 • 7 . , V T.— ui luc iiuuiicuj) iici iiuioana Dcinp lent witn a
or ler marriage with Jefus Chrift, whofe wedding detachment for Riga, the marriage was never confum-
rmg is itill preierved as a valuable relick. This fra- TnntPfJ. f| mnr»Vi ic + V. ^ ^  
rmg is (till preferved as a valuable relick. This fra
termty yearly endows a certain number of deftitute vir-
gms^ and has the privilege of redeeming annually two
criminals condemned for murder, and the fame num¬
ber of debtors, by paying their debts.
CATHARTICS, in Medicine, remedies which
promote evacuation by (tool. See Materia Me
dica.
CATHEDRA, in a general fenfe, a chair. The
word is more particularly ufed for a profeffor’s chair
and a preacher’s pulpit.
.. Cathedra is alfo ufed for the biftiop’s fee, or throne
m a church.
CATHEDRAL, a church wherein is a biftiop’s
lee or feat: See Church and Bishop. The word
comes from the Greek “ chair,” of **&£**,,
.A eo, • I fit.” The denomination cathedral feems to
Have taken its rife from the manner of fitting in the
ancient churches, or affemblies of primitive Chrifti-
IZ'' u jn6’ ihe counci1’ 1 e- elders and priefts,
XT16/ reJhytenumi at.their head was the biftiop,
- held the place of chairman, Cathedral is ox Ca-
mated. This much is certain, that the dragoon was
abfent when Marienburgh furrendered to the Ruffians,
and Catherine, who was referved for a higher fortune,
never faw him more.
General Bauer, upon the taking of Marienburgh,
faw Catherine among the prifoners *, and, being fmit-
ten with her youth and beauty, took her to his houfe,
where (lie fuperintended his domeftic affairs, and was
fuppofed to be his miitrefs. Soon afterwards (lie was
received into the family of Prince Menzikof, who was
no lefs (truck with the attraftions of the fair captive.
With him (he lived until 17045 when, in the 17th
year of her age, (he became the mi(lre(s of Peter the
Great, and won fo much upon his affections, that he
efpoufed her on the 29th of May 1711, The ceremo¬
ny was fecretly performed at Jawerof in Poland, in the
prefence of General Bruce ; and on the 20th of Fe¬
bruary 1712, it was publicly folemnized with great
pomp at Peter (burgh.
Catherine, by the mod unwearied aftiduity and un-
remitted attention, by the foftnefs and complacency
of her difpofition, but above all by an extraordinary
livelinefs
CAT t 2*54
Catherine. liveKncfs and gaity of temper, acquired a wonderful
  afcendency over the mind of Peter. The latter was
fubie£l to occafional horrors, which at times rendered
him gloomy and fufpicious, and raifed his paffions to
fuch a height as to produce a temporary madnefs. In
thefe dreadful moments Catherine was the only perlon
who durft venture to approach him j and fuch was the
kind of fafeination (he had acquired over his fenfes, that
her prefence had an inftantaneous effea, and the hrit
found of her voice compofed his mind and calmed his
agonies From thefe eircumftances (lie feemed necei-
fary not only to his comfort, but even to his very exig¬
ence ; the became his infeparable companion on his
journeys to foreign countries, and even in all his mili¬
tary expeditions.
The peace of Pruth, by which the Ruffian army
was refeued from certain deftruaion, has been wholly
attributed to Catherine, though (he was little more
than an inftrument in procuring the confent o( I eter.
The latter, in his campaign of 1711 agamft the 1 urks,
having imprudently led his troops into a difadvantage-
ous lituation, took the defperate refolution of cutting
his way through the Turkiffi army in the night. W ith
this refolution he retired to his tent in an agony ot
defpair, and gave pofitive orders that no one fliould be
admitted under pain of death. In this important
iunaure the principal officers and the vice-chancellor
Shaffirof affembled in the prefence of Catherine, and
drew up certain preliminaries in order to obtain a truce
from the grand vizier. In confequence of this deter¬
mination, plenipotentiaries were immediately difpatch-
ed without the knowledge of Peter, to the grand vi¬
zier, and a peace obtained upon more reafonable con¬
ditions than could have been expected. With thefe
conditions Catherine, notwithftandmg the orders iffued
by Peter, entered his tent, and prevailed upon him to
fign them. Catherine, by her conduft on this occa-
fion, acquired great popularity 5 and the emperor par¬
ticularly fpecifies her behaviour at Pruth as one of the
reafons which induced him to crown her publicly at
Mofcow with his own hand. This ceremony was per¬
formed in 1724-, and although defigned by Peter only
as a proof of his affeftion, was the principal caule of
her fubfequent elevation. . .. n
Her influence continued undimmiffied until a ffiort
time before the death of the emperor, when iomecir-
cumftances happened which occafioned fuch a coldnefs
between them as would probably have ended m a total
rupture, if his death had not fortunately intervened.
The original caufe of this mifunderftandmg arofe from
the following difeovery of a fecret connection between
Catharine and her firil chamberlain, whofe name was
JVTons. The emperor, who was fufpicious of this con-
neftion, quitted Peterffiurgh under pretence of remov¬
ing to a villa for a few days, but privately returned to
his winter palace in the capital. From thence he oeca-
fionally fent one of his confidential pages with a com¬
plimentary meffage to the emprefs, as if he had been
in the country, and with fecret orders to obferve her
motions. From the page’s information the emperor
on the third night, furprifed Catherine in an arbour of
the garden with her favourite Mens ; while his hitei,
Madame Balke, who was firft lady of the bedchamber to
the emprefs, was, in company with a page, upon the
\yatch without the arbour.
] CAT
Peter, whofe violent temper was inflamed by this Cat hem
difeovery, (truck Catherine with his cane, as well asV—
the page, who endeavoured to prevent him from en¬
tering the arbour, and then retired without uttering a
(ingle word either to Mons or his fitter. A. few days
after this tranfaftion thefe perlons were taken into
cuftody, and Mons was carried to the winter palace,
where no one had admiflion to him but I eter, who
himfelf brought him his provifions. A report was at
the fame time circulated, that they were imprifoned
for having received bribes, and making their influence
over the emprefs (ubfervient to their own mercenary
views. Mons being examined by Peter, in the pie-
fenee of Major-general Ufchacof, and threatened with
the torture, confefled the corruption which was laid
to his charge. He was beheaded ; his (liter received
five (trokes of the knout, and was bamffied into Sibe¬
ria j two of her fons, who were chamberlains, were
alfo degraded, and fent as common foldiers among the
Ruffian troops in Perfia. On the day fubfequent to
the execution of the fentence, Peter conveyed Cathe¬
rine in an open carriage under the gallows to which
was nailed the head of Mons. The emprefs, without
changing colour at this dreadful fight, exclaimed,
« What a pity it is that there is fo much corruption
among courtiers !” r ,
This event happened in the latter end 01 the year
1724*, and as it was foon follow ed by Peter’s death,
and Catherine upon her acceffion recalled Madame
Balke, it has been fufpe£(;ed that (he (hortened the
days of her hufband by poifon.. But notwithftanding
the critical utuation for Catherine in which he died,
and her fubfequent elevation, this charge is totally de-
(litute of the lead (hadow of proof } for the circum-
ftances of Peter’s diforder were too well known, and
the peculiar fymptoms of his laft illneis fufficiently
account for his death, without the neceffity of recurring
to poifon. . . , • r j
While Peter was yet lying m the agonies ot death,
feveral oppofite parties were caballing to difpofe of the
crown. At a confiderable meeting of many among
the principal nobility, it was fecretly determined, on
the moment of his diffolution, to arreft Catherine, and
to place Peter Alexievitch upon the throne. Bafievitz,
apprifed of this refolution, repaired in perfon to the
emprefs, although it was already night. “ My grief and
coniternation,” replied Catherine, “ render me inca¬
pable of aiding myfelf : do you and Prince Menzikof
confult together, and I rvill embrace the nwafurcs
which you (hall approve in my name.” Baflevitz find¬
ing Menzikof afleep, awakened and informed him ot
the preffing danger which threatened the emprefs and
her party. As no time remained for long deliberation,
the prince inflantly feized the treafure, fecured the
fortrefs, gained the officers of the guards by bribes and
promifes, alfo a few of the nobility, and the principal
clergy. Thefe partizans being convened m the palace,
Catherine made her appearance} (lie claimed the
throne in right of her coronation at Mofcow } flie ex“
pofed the ill effe&s of a minority } and promded, that,
“ f0 far from depriving the great duke of the crown,
(he would receive it only as a facrcd depofit, to be re-
ftored to him when (he fliould be united, m another
world, to an adored huffiand, whom (lie was now upon
the point of loung.”
CAT
feberine. The pathetic manner with which flie uttered this ad-
drefs, and the tears which accompanied it, added to
the previous diftribution of large fums of money and
jewels, produced the delired effeft : at the clofe of this
meeting the remainder of the night was employed in
making the neeelfary preparations to enfure her accef-
fion in cafe of the emperor’s death.
Peter at length expired on the morning of the 28th
of January 1725. This event being made known, the
fenate, the generals, the principal nobility and clergy,
haftened to the palace to proclaim the new fovereign.
The adherents of the great duke feemed fecure of fuc-
cefs, and the friends of Catherine were avoided as per-
fons doomed to deftru&ion. At this jundlure Ealfe-
vitz whifpered one of the oppolite party, “ The em-
prefs is miftrefs of the treafure and the fortrefs ; flie
has gained over the guards and the fynod, and many
ef the chief nobility *, even here flie has more followers
than you imagine $ advife therefore your friends to
make no oppofition as they value their heads.” This
information being rapidly circulated, Baflevitz gave the
appointed flgnal, and the two regiments of guards,
who had been gained by a largefs to declare for Ca¬
therine, and had already furrounded the palace, beat
to arms. “ Who has dared (exclaimed Prince Rep-
rin, the cemmander in chief), to order out the troops
without my knowledge ?” “ I, (returned General
Butterlin), without pretending to difpute your autho¬
rity, in obedience to the commands of my mofl; gra¬
cious miftrefs.” This ftiort reply wTas followed by a
dead filence. In this moment of fufpence and anxie¬
ty Menzikof entered, preceding Catherine, fupported
by the duke of Holftein. She attempted to fpeak, but
was prevented by fighs and tears from giving utterance
to her words : at length, recovering herfelf, “ I come
(flie faid), notwithftanding the grief which now over¬
whelms me, to affure you, that, fubmiflive to the will
*f my departed hufband, whofe memory will be ever
dear to me, I am ready to devote my days to the pain¬
ful occupations of government, until Providence ftiall
fummon me to follow him.” Then, after a ftiort
paufe, flie artfully added, “ If the great duke will
profit by my inftru&ions, perhaps I ftiall have the con-
folation, during my wretched widowhood, of forming
for you an emperor worthy of the blood and the name
of him whom you have now irretrievably loft.” “ As
this crifis (replied Menzikof) is a moment of fuch im¬
portance to the good of the empire, and requires the
*noft mature deliberation, your majefty will permit us
to confer, without reftraint, that this whole affair may*
be tranfa&ed without reproach, as well in the opinion
ef the prefent age as in that of pofterity.” Acting
as I do (anfwered Catherine), more for the public good
than for my owm advantage, I am not afraid to fub-
mit all my concerns to the judgment of fuch an en¬
lightened aflembly : you have not only my permiflion
to confer with freedom} but I lay my commands upon
you all to deliberate maturely on this important fub-
jeft, and I promife to adopt whatever may be the re-
fult of your decifions.” At the conclufion of thefe
words the affembly retired into another apartment, and
the doors were locked.
It was previoufly fettled by Menzikof and his party
that Catherine ftrould be emprefs ; and the guards,
>vho furrounded the palace with drums beating and
Vol. V. Part I.
[ 265 3
CAT
colours flying, effe&ually vanquiflied all oppofition. Catherm-.•
The only eircumftance, therefore, which remained, was
to give a juft colour to her title, by perfuading the af¬
fembly that Peter intended to have named her his fuc-
ceffor. For this purpofe Menzikof demanded of that,
emperor’s fecretary, whether his late mafter had left
any written declaration of his intentions ? The fecre¬
tary replied, “ That a little before his laft journey to
Mofcow he had deftroyed a will; and that he had fre¬
quently expreffed his defign of making another, but
had always been prevented by the reflection, that if
he thought his people whom he had raifed from a ftate
of barbarifm to a high degree of power and glorv,
could be ungrateful, he would not expofe his final in¬
clinations to the infult of a refufal 5 and that if they
recolle&ed what they owed to his labours, they would
regulate their conduft by his intentions, which he had
difclofed with more folemnity than could be manifeft-
ed by any writing.” An altercation now began in the
affembly j and fome of the nobles having the courage
to oppofe the acceflion of Catherine, Theophanes
archbilhop of Plefcoff called to their recolleftion the
oath which they had afll taken in 1722 to acknowledge
the fucceffor appointed by Peter; and added, that the
fentiments of that emperor delivered by the fecretary
were in effe6t an appointment of Catherine. The op-
pofite party, however, denied thefe fentiments to be
fo clear as the fecretary chofe to infinuate j and infift-
ed, that as their late monarch had failed to nominate
his heir, the eleftion of the new fovereign fliould re¬
vert to the ftate. Upon this the archbiftiop farther
teftified, that the evening before the coronation of the
emprefs at Mofcow, Peter had declared, in the houfe of
an Englifli merchant, that he ftiould place the crown
upon her head with no other view than to leave her
miftrefs of the empire after his deceafe. This attefta-
tion being confirmed by many perfons prefent, Men¬
zikof cried out, What need have we of any tefta-
ment ? A refufal to conform to ihe inclination of our
great fovereign, thus authenticated, would be both un¬
juft and criminal. Long live the emprefs Catherine !”
Thefe words being inftantaneoufly repeated by the
greateft part of thole who were prefent, Menzikof, fa-
luting Catherine by the title of emprefs, paid his firft
obeifance by killing her hand j and his example was
followed by the whole affembly. She next prefen ted
herfelf at the window to the guards and to the people,
who Ihouted acclamations of “ Long live Catherine !”
while Menzikof fcattered among them handfuls of
money. Thus (fays a contemporary) the emprefs wras
raifed to the throne by the guards, in the fame man¬
ner as the Roman emperors by the praetorian cohorts,
without either the appointment of the people or of the
legions.
The reign of Catherine may be confidered as the
reign of Menzikof, that emprefs having neither incli¬
nation or abilities to diredt the helm of government j
and Ihe placed the moft implicit confidence in a man
who had been the original author of her good for¬
tune, and the foie inftrument of her elevation to the
throne.
During her ftiort reign her life was very irregular^
{he was extremely averle to bufinefs; would frequent¬
ly, when the weather was fine, pafs whole nights in.
the open air j and was particularly intemperate in the.
L1 *fe
CAT [266
Catherine, ufe of tokay wine. Thefe irregularities, joined to a
u“~-v  cancer and a dropfy, kaftened her end 3 and Hie expi¬
red on the 17th of May 1727, a little more than two
years after her acccflion to the throne, and in about
the 40th year of her age.
As the deaths of fovereigns in defpotic countries are
feldom imputed to natural caules, that of Catherine
has alfo been attributed to poifon 3 as if the diforders
which preyed upon her xrame were not fufficient to
bring her to her grave. Some aflfert that fhe was poi-
foned in a glafs of fpirituous liquor 3 others by a pear
given her by General Diever. Sufpieions alio fell
upon Prince Menzikof, who, a fhort time before her
deceafe, had a triding mifunderftanding with her, and
who was accufed of naftening her death, that he might
reign with hill more abfolute power during the mino¬
rity of Peter 31. But theie reports deferve not the
leaft credit, and wrere merely diftated by the fpirit of
party, or by popular rumour.
Catherine was in her perfon under the middle fize,
and in her youth delicate and well formed, but inclined
to corpulency as Ihe advanced in years. She had a
fair complexion, dark eyes, and light hair, which (he
was always accuftomed to dye with a black colour.
She could neither read nor write : her daughter Eli¬
zabeth ufually figned her name for her, and particu¬
larly to her laid will and tell ament 3 and Count Ofter-
man generally put her {ignature to the public decrees
and difpatches. Her abilities have been greatly ex¬
aggerated by her panegyrifts. Gordon, who had fre¬
quently feen her, feemsof all writers to have repiefent-
ed her character with the greateft juftnefs, when 1m
fays, “ She was a very pretty well-looked woman, of
good fenfe, but not of that fublimity of wit, or rather
that quicknefs of imagination, which fome people have
believed. The great reafon why the czar was fo fond
of her, was her exceeding good temper 3 fhe never
was feen peevifh or out of humour 3 obliging and civil
to all, and never forgetful of her former condition ,
withal, mighty grateful.” Catherine maintained the
pomp of majefty with an air of eafe and grandeur
united 3 and Peter ufed frequently to expreis his ad¬
miration at the propriety with which fhe fupported her
high ftation, without forgetting that fhe was not born
to that dignity.
The following anecdotes will prove that fire bore
her elevation meekly 3 and, as Gordon afTerts, was
never forgetful of her former condition. When
Wurmb, who had been tutor to Gluck s children at
the time that Catherine was a domeftic in that clergy¬
man^ family, prefented hinrfelf before her after hei
marriage with Peter had been publicly folemnized,
fhe recollefted and addreffed him with great compla¬
cency, “ What, thou good man, art thou ftill alive !
I will provide for thee.” And fhe accordingly fettled
upon him a penfion. She was no lefs attentive to the
family of her benefactor Gluck, _who died a prifoner
at Mofcow 3 flie penfioned his widow 3 made his fou
a page ; portioned the twTo eldeft daughters 3 and ad¬
vanced the youngeft to be one of her maids of honour.
If we may believe Weber, fhe frequently inquired af¬
ter her firft hufhand 3 and, when fhe lived with Prince
Menzikof, ufed fecretly to fend him fmall fums of mo¬
ney, until, in 1705, he was killed in a fkirmiih with
the enemy.
] CAT
But the moft noble part of her chara&er was her Cart
peculiar humanity and compaftion fer the unfortunate.
Motraye has paid a handfome tribute to this excel¬
lence. “ She had, in fome fort, the govermnent of
all his (Peter’s) paffions 3 and even faved the lives of
a great many more perfons than Le Fort was able to
do : flie infpired him with that humanity which, m the
opinion of his fubjefts, nature deemed to have denied,
him. A word from her mouth in favour of a wretch,
juft going to be facrificed to his anger, would dilarm
him 3 but if he was fully refolved to fatisfy that paf-
fion he would give orders for the execution when fiie
was’abfent, for fear fire fhould plead for the viaim”
In a word, to ufe the expreffion of the celebrated Mu¬
nich, Etle etoit proprement ia rnedialnce entre le mo-
narque et fes fujetsl'1 • • ,
Catherine II. emprefs of Ruftia, whofc original
name was Sophia Augufta Frederica, was the daugh¬
ter of Chriftian Auguftus of Anhalt Zerbft, * imall
diftria in Upper Saxony, and was born in the cable of
•Zerbft, on the 23d of May 1729. She was educated
under the eye of her parents, along with her brother
Prince Frederic Auguftus, and at an early period dis¬
played a mafeuline fpirit. Elegant, inajeftic, and hand¬
fome in her perfon, her complexion exhimted the
union of the lily and the rofe, while a native dignity
was tempered by a fmile of beneficence. . .A u
early obferved, that fhe concealed under this a certain
aufterity of difpofition, and an ambition, v ic 1 ''as
even then confidered as excefhve, and pro.c afi,^.
wards to be infatiable. .
She foon learned all the fafliionable accomplifhments
of that day. In addition to her native language, _ fhe
wrote and converfed in French 3 of mufic (he acquired
a competent knowledge., and excelled particularly in
needlework, which fhe did not difdain to praclue after
her elevation to the throne. . ,
The emprefs Elizabeth, who had pitched upon lief
nephew the duke of Holftein Gotterp Oldenbourg for
her fucceffor, was alfo defirous to choofe a coniort for
him, and the princefs of Anhalt Zerbft was feleded
upon this occafion, when only fourteen years ot age.
She was chiefly indebted for fo unexpeded an honour
to the tender regard which her imperial majefty always
entertained for the memory of her uncle, who had
been her lover 3 and in an evil hour flie united the fate
of the prince, better known afterwards by the name of
Peter III. to that of the princefs of Anhalt Zerbft.
In confequence of a fpecial invitation, the future em¬
prefs repaired to St Peterfhurgh, accompanied by her
mother, and being admitted into the bofoxn of the
Greek church, the ceremonial of marriage, after fome
delay, took place 3 on which thefe auguft perfonages
were formally acknowledged, by her imperial majefty
and the fenate, as grand duke and duehefs of Ruflia.
Elizabeth, at the fame time, prefented them with the
palace of Oranienbaum, delightfully fituated on the
gulf of Cronftadt, as a fummer refidence 3 this had
formerly belonged to Menzikof, the favourite of Peter
the Great, who, in this capricious court, had been by
turns a pie-boy, a prince, and an exile.
The grand duke was far from being handfome 3 on
the contrary, his perfon was difagreeable, and almo
difeufting. His education had been greatly neglected,
and he was paffionately fond of military parade. ^ He-
CAT
tberine. oerick PrufTia was at once his friend and his model j
he kept up a fecret correfpondence with that monarch,
at the time when Ruffia was at open wrar with him ;
he was accuftomed in his cups to kneel before a picture
of his hero ; and, after quaffing a bumper, he would
exclaim, “ My brother ! we ffiall conquer the world
together.”
The firft moments of this union feemed to be pecu¬
liarly aufpicious. The illuftrious pair wrere accuftom¬
ed to withdraw themfelves daily, as if defirous to en¬
joy the pleafure of each other’s company, in preference
to the giddy diffipation of a court. It was perceived
at laid, that grandeur was not incompatible with hap-
pinefs, and that hymeneal felicity wras not confined to
plebeian life.
The emprefs hoped that the name and pretenfions of
Prince Iwan would be obliterated by the iiTue of the
grand duke, and the whole empire impatiently wifhed
for and now expefted an heir to the throne of Peter
the Great. It has fince been difcovered, that this
young couple occupied their time in a far different
manner than was then fufpe<Sled ! His highnefs, it
feems, retired from fociety on purpofe to perfect him-
1'elf in the Pruffian exercife, and his confort on thefe
eccafions participated in his diverfions, for he was ac-
cuftomed to make her ftand for hours together, as a
centinel, with a mufquet at her (boulder. This fpeeies
of entertainment did not altogether fuit the difpofition
of a young princefs of an ardent temperament, and her
highnefs accordingly began, in her own language, to
think “ that Are was made for fomething elfe.” Al¬
though (he did not love, (he at this period governed
her hufhand, and even concealed his foibles; imagin¬
ing at firft that (he could not reign but by means of
him, (he wifely determined to make him appear worthy
of a throne.
A marriage of eight years was not productive of any
iffue, and (trange fufpicions began to be entertained.
This alarmed the court, for a formidable rival, who
pofleffed a fuperior claim to the throne, (till exiited ; it
is true, he was in bondage, but in a country like Ruffia,
the interval might not be long between a dungeon
and a throne. The birth of a fon and daughter, foon
after this, put an end to all apprehenfions of this kind,
and tended not a little to give (lability to the empire.
The grand duke, who at times difcovered noble,
and even magnanimous fentiments, had about this pe¬
riod formed a mod unfortunate connexion with Eliza¬
beth Voronfoff, a lady of high rank, but neither cele¬
brated for her beauty nor her talents. He feldom faw
his confort in private, and all the hours that were not
occupied either by military exhibitions, or the plea-
fures of the table, were entirely devoted to his miftrefs.
The grand duchefs, on the other hand, is (aid to have
fpent much of her time in company with a young Pole,
whofe hiftory, like that of Catherine’s, has finee been
interwoven with the annals of Europe. This was
Count Poniatowlki, afterwards known as Staniffaus
Auguftus king of Poland. He was the third fon of a
grandee of the fame name, the favourite of Charles XII.
• of Sweden, by the princefs Ezator-ylka, who boafted
the pofieffion of the nobleft blood in Pola:-d, as (he
traced her defcent from the Jagellon, the ahcient fo-
vereigns of Lithuania. His perfon was of exquifite
fymmetry, his air noble, his manners agreeable j in
CAT
(liort, he pofieffed a charming exterior, and his mind, a
circumftance extremely rare, was no lefs graceful than
his perfon. At this period he was in no higher rtation,
than a gentleman in the fuite of the minifter plenipo¬
tentiary from England, who had formed an intimacy
with his family during a former miffion at Warfaw.
Being now taught to look higher, he returned to his
native country, and appeared foon after at Peterlhurgh,
as ambaflador from the king of Poland. In this new
capacity he did not forget to pay his refpe<5ts at the
little court of Oranienbaum, and the young plenipo¬
tentiary, with a view of ingratiating himfelf with the
grand duke, fmoked, drank, and praifed the king of
Pruffia. At length Paul Petrowifch received the Po-
liffi minifter with coolnefs, and he was aftually forbid¬
den to vifit at the palace. This, however, it is faid,
did not deter him from concealing the order of the
white eagle, and difguifing himfelf as a mechanic, un¬
der which aflumed quality he repaired one fummer’s
evening to the gardens, in the neighbourhood of the
gulf of Cronftadt •, but he was difcovered by his high¬
nefs, who ordered him to be brought before him, and,
after affefting to reprimand the captain of his guard
for his dilrefpeft to the reprefentative of a crowned
head, told him he was at liberty to depart.
From this moment the grand duchels is faid to have
changed both her fyftem and her conduft. She had
formerly afpired only to direct the counfels of the fu¬
ture emperor 5 (he now refolved, if poffible, to obtain
the crown for her fon, and the regency for herfelf.
Such a talk would have difeouraged a common mind,
for it was impoffible to achieve this without prevailing
on the emprefs to confent to dethrone her own nephew,
Bertuchef, the grand chancellor, who hated the heir
apparent, joined cordially in their fcheme ; and Eliza¬
beth, who herfelf had obtained the crown by means of
a revolution, was taught to tremble for her life, in
confequence of the defigns of her fucceffor, who was re-
prefented as having refolved to fhorten her days by
poifon. But a hidden and unexpected revolution in
the miniftry put an end to thefe intrigues; for Bef-
tuchef was driven into exile, and Poniatowlki recalled.
A long'and melancholy interval now enfued, during
which the ambition of the grand duchefs was rather
fufpended than annihilated. She, however, had re-
courfe to, and foothed her anguilh by means of books $
it was in her ftudy that (he laid the foundation of her
future greatnefs, and rendered herfelf in fome mea-
fure deferving of a throne. During her leifure mo¬
ments (he found means to gain partifans, and (he ac¬
quired the favour of the foldiery, who did duty around
her perfon, by means of her liberality and condefcen-
fion. Peter, on the other hand, to the perfonal exertions
of a common foldier, added the orgies of a debauchee.
Surrounded by his male and female favourites, he con¬
firmed whole days and nights in intoxication, and for¬
got that he was a prince. There were fome few mo¬
ments, however, when he appeared great, and even
magnanimous, but unfortunately they were of fliort
duration ; and it was his misfortune to have a weak
woman for his miftrefs, and an able and ambitious one
for his wife.
Such was the fituation of the court when Elizabeth
died, on the 5th of January 1762. This event, fo
productive of iaterefting eftefts, had been long forefeen
L 1 3 by
[ 267 1
Catherine,
CAT
t 268 ]
CAT
Catherine, by Catherine, who now began to a£t a more confpicuous
v ' part on the theatre of public affairs. Her forrow,
which appeared unbounded, was only equalled by her
devotion. She was cenftantly employed either at her
prayers in the cathedral, or occupied in public procef-
fions, during which fhe fcrupuloully adhered to all the
ceremonious practices of the Greek, church. The
courtiers were aftonilhed at the fudden change, and
affedted to lurvey it with contempt; but it impofed on
the populace, and the priefts were highly gratified with
the zeal of the emprefs, more efpecially as her confort
had always treated their mylleries with indignity.
Another delign, meditated with no lefs art, proved
unfuccefsful. She is faid to have made ufe of all her
eloquence to perfuade Peter, that he ought to leave
off the barbarous cuftom of being proclaimed emperor
by the army, in the fame manner as his predeceffors:
inftead of this, fhe propofed that his title fhowld be re-
cognifed by the fenate alone, and produced a fpeech
which fhe herfelf had compofed for the occafion j but
Godowitz, one of the favourites, and the only friend of
the new fovereign, perceived the fnare, and, partly ow¬
ing to his entreaties, and partly from an attachment to
every thing military, the foldiery were as ufual grati¬
fied with the ceremony of faluting the czar.
The grand duke now afeended the throne, by the
name of Peter III. and the commencement of the new
reign apppeared to be peculiarly aufpicious. The ca-
tallrophe, which terminated a fhort reign of fix months,
may be attributed to three apparently trifling, but, in
reality, irretrievable errors j for it is allowed on all
hands, that if they did not conftitute the original caufe,
they at leaf! afforded the pretext for his dethronement
and murder. The firft of thefe was, the fudden peace
with, and marked predile&ion for, the king of Pruflia,
certainly the greateft monarch of his age j the fecond,
an attempt to reform a barbarous and fanatical clergy,
whofe power Peter I. had curbed, but v'hofe perfons
he ft ill affe&ed to confider as facred j the third was, the
war again!! Denmark.
Let it be recollefted, however, in honour to his
memory, that the young monarch, immediately after
his elevation, threw open the ftate prifons, recalled
Munich, Biron, Leftock, and feveral others, who had
•ffended him during the late reign, from Siberia $ that
he limited the defpotifm of his officers, abridged his
tnvn power, by abolifhing a ftate inquifition, exercifed
under the name of the Secret Council of Chancery;
ifjd that he framed the memorable decree which en-
franchifed the nobles from compulfive fervice in the
army, and permitted them to travel without the royal
permiffion.
The following anfwcr to a letter from the king of
Pruffia, who had requefted him to be on his guard
againft the plot then meditating, conveys no unfavour¬
able opinion of his heart.
“ Touching the intereft you exprefs for my fafety,
I requeft you will reft contented. I am called the
father of my foldiers—they prefer a male to a female
government. I walk alone conftantly in St Peterfburgh
-if any mifehief is meditated, it would have been
kffefted long fince ; but I am a general benefactor. I
xepofe myftlf on the protection of heaven j trufting to
ffiat, I have nothing to fear.”
This falfe fecurity proved his ruin. While his mind
was occupied with plans of reform, and he afpired to Catheri;
rival, and even to excel, his illuftrious predeceffor,
whole name he had affumed, a perfon who had fworn
fidelity to him at the altar, and who owed allegiance
by the double ties of a wife and a fubjeCt, v'as actually
employed in planning a confpiracy, and organizing a
revolt, againft him. It has been faid that he intended
to have Ihut up his confort and fon in a convent. But
did a meditated imprifonment juftify treachery, trea-
fov, and murder ? On the other hand, it is known
that, fo far from this being the intention of Peter, he
was preparing for a journey to Holftein, and had ac¬
tually empowered his confort to aCt as regent during
his abfence.
The miftakes of the emperor did not efcape the eagle
eyes of his enemies. He purpofed to carry his guards
into Holftein, with a view to recover the poffeffions
wrefted from his anceftors. The regiments that had
hitherto done duty at the palace, and were inured to
the indulgences of the capital, revolted at the idea of
a foreign war ; they had been accuftomed to be go¬
verned by women, and they were taught to fix their
eyes on the confort of the czar.
It is not the leaft wonderful part of her conduCt,
that, previoully to the great cataftrophe now meditat¬
ing, Catherine contrived to appear abandoned by all-
the world. She knew how interefting a female, and
more efpecially an emprefs, appeared while in diftrefs j
and ffie took care to heighten the fenfibility of the
public, by burfting at times into a flood of tears. This
artful woman had found means to attach many perfons
to her deftiny : it muft be ©wmed, how'ever, that her
adherents were neither fo powerful, nor fo numerous
as to afford her any well founded hopes of fuccefs. She
had gained feveral fubalterns, and fome privates, of
the guards ; but her principal partifans confifted of the-
princefs D’Afchekof, niece to the new chancellor j
Prince Rozamoufki, who had rifen from obfeurity, ha¬
ving been originally a peafant •, Odart, an intriguing
Italian j and Panin, governor to the grand duke. The
arreft of Paffick, one of the confpirators, feemed to
lead to a difeovery, which would have proved fatal to
the malecontents j but this very circumftance induced
them to declare inftantly, and in the end crowned an
apparently rafli attempt with fuccefs.
The emprefs, who was afleep at the caftle of Peter*
ffioff, received intimation of their defign by a common
foldier, who foon after returned with a carriage and.
eight horfes. On the faith of this man, and accompa¬
nied only by a few peafants, a German female domef-
tic, and a French valet de chambre, flie arrived at
eight o’clock in the morning in the capital, and flop¬
ped oppolite the barracks of the regiment of Ifmailoff,.
There ffie addreffed the foldiers in an eloquent fpeech,
intermingled with lighs and tears, and actually found
means to perfuade them that fhe and her fon had but
that moment elcaped from the hands of affaffins, lent
by the emperor to murder them. This ftory, by agi¬
tating the paffions of the troops, had a wonderful ef-
feft on them, and they all fwore, with the exception
of only one regiment, to die in defence of her and the-
young archduke. On this the emprefs ordered a cru¬
cifix to hi brought, and commanded the priefts to ad-
minifter a new oath of allegiance. She afterwards re¬
paired to one of the principal churches, where fhe was
in A
CAT
t 269 ]
CAT
iltherine. met by tb« biibop of Novogorod and the clergy, and,
—y—' having returned thanks to Almighty God, afcended a
balcony, and prefented her fon to the people. In a
few hours {he was again feen, dreffed in the uniform of
the guards, riding at the head of a numerous and well-
appointed army againll; her hufband.
That unfortunate prince firit made a fhew of refift-
ance, and manned his Liliputian batteries, at Orani-
enbaum, with his Holftein guards, in order to oppofe
what appeared to him to be a contemptible fedition.
When it was too late, he attempted to get poiTeflion
of Croniladt. He might ftill have efcaped to Revel,
but the women in his galley v'ere apprehenfive of dan¬
ger, and the courtiers Ihuddered at the propofition of
old Munich, who wiihed them to aflilt the failors in
rowing.
On the firft intelligence of the plot this intrepid
warrior had repaired to his benefadlor, and advifed
him to march directly to the capital, at the head of his
German troops. “ I {hall precede you, (faid the ge¬
nerous veteran), and my dead body {hall be a rampart
to jour facred perfon.” But, on the other hand, the
emiflaries of the emprefs, bathing his hands in their
crocodile tears, deprecated refinance, magnified the
danger, and invited him to repofe in the inviolable fi¬
delity of his confort. In Ihort, on the 14th of July,
1762, he was taken pril’oner by the orders of his own
wife, to whom he had been married 14 years, prevail¬
ed on by the threats and entreaties of Count Panin to
renounce his crown, conveyed to the caftle of Rob-
fcha, and three days afterwards put to death. Of the
titled minions, who perpetrated this daring murder, one
carried the guilty marks of the czar’s fcimitar on his
forehead to the grave, and another, tortured for years
by the remembrance of the laft bloody fcene in the
tragedy of his expiring fovereign, exhibited a {hocking
fpeftacle of infanity and remorfe.
The emprefs, on her affumption of the now vacant
crown, notified the event to all the courts of Europe,
under her new name of Catherine Alexiewna II. But
there was {fill a competitor for the empire, and fufpi-
-cion never {lumbers near a throne. This was Prince
Iwan, fon to the princefs of Mecklenburg, and grand
nephew to Peter the Great and the emprefs Anna
Iwanowna, who had deftined him for her fucceffor j
but, in confequence of a former revolution, he was lei-
zed while yet an infant, and doomed to lead a life of
captivity. During 18 years of precarious exiftence,
he had been {hut up in the caftle of Schluffelbourg, and
never in all that time did he breathe the open air, or
behold the iky, but once. This prince was vifited by
Peter III. who finding him in an arched room, 20
feet fquare, determined to fet him at liberty 5 but,
alas! the youth, in confequence of his long and foli-
tary confinement, had been deprived of his fenfes. In
this fituation, the emperor determined to build a houfe
for him, with a convenient terrace, where he might
take the air daily within the fortrefs. Such, however,
are the changes of .fortune, that, in three weeks, he
himfelf was alfo precipitated from a throne, and expo-
fed to a violent death. This event was but the pre¬
lude to that of Iwan ; for, as orders had been given, in
cafe of an attempt to refeue him, that an end ftiould be
put to his life, and a real or pretended plot having
been hatched for this purpofc, the motives and details
of which have hitherto been involved in the moll pro- Catherine."
found obfeurity, the unhappy prince experienced the ,f
fame fate as his generous protector.
Catherine being now firmly feated on the throne,
wifely determined to divert the thoughts of the na¬
tion from the late horrid feenes, and fix them on
more agreeable objefts. Having foothed Pruflia, ac¬
quired a preponderance in the cabinet of Denmark,
long become an abfolute monarchy, and entered into
a league with the popular party in Sweden, not yet
bereft of its liberties, the cafi her eyes on Courland,
then governed by Prince Charles of Saxony, the fe¬
cund Ion of Auguftus III. king of Poland j and, find¬
ing that country admirably fituated for the increafe of
her prefent, and the extenfion of her future power,
{he, in 1762, expelled the lawful fovereign, and in-
vefted Biron, a creature of her own, v'ith the ducal
cap. Not content with this, the new duke, loon re¬
duced to the moft abjedl dependence, was prevented
from refigning his precarious power, and the ftates af-
fembled at Mittau were actually interdicted from no¬
minating a fucceffor. This, however, was only a pre¬
lude to far greater feenes, for Are had hardly dethron¬
ed one fovereign before Are undertook to create ano¬
ther. Auguftus II. or, as he is called by fome, Au¬
guftus III. of Poland, having died at Drefden, in 1763,
her imperial majefty did not let flip fo fair an opportu¬
nity for interfering in the appointment to the vacant
throne, and even placing one of her dependents on it.
Count Poniatowlki, on the elevation of Catherine, had
fent a friend to Peterlburgh, to found the difpofition
of the emprefs about his return to that capital, where
he naturally hoped to participate in her power, and
balk in the funftiine of the royal fmiles. But the more
prudent German, who was at this very moment medi¬
tating a fplendid provifion for him elfewhere, prohibi¬
ted the journey from political motives. Accordingly,
notwithftanding the oppofition of the grand chancellor
Beftucheff, and indeed of all her minifters, Ihe deter¬
mined to inveft him with the enfigns of royalty. The
head of the houfe of Brandenburg, fwayed by his ha¬
tred to Saxony and Auftria, or, what is ftill more
likely, the Pruflian eagle having perhaps, even now,
feented his future prey, Catherine was enabled to fend
10,000 men into Poland, who, encamping on the
banks of the Viftula, overawed the deliberations of
the diet, affembled on the 9th of May 1764, and pla¬
ced Staniflaus Auguftus on the throne. Thus, by the
appearance of a camp filled writh Ruffian mercenaries,
was violated one of the fundamental laws of the com¬
monwealth, eftabliffied ever fince the time of Sigif-
mund-Auguftus, two centuries before, in confequence
of which the election of a king is deemed void whilf
there are any foreign troops within the territories of the
republic 5 and fo juftly jealous were the ancient Poles
of their national independence, that the marlhal of the
diet, on thofe occafions, was accuftomed to requeft all
ambaffadors to abfent themfelves, as he could not be
anfwerable for the fafety of their pprfons.
Having conferred the crown of Poland, September
7. 1764, on an amiable and accompliftied prince, who,
on account of his youth, his poverty, and even his de- -
pendeace on Ruffia, would have been excluded from
that painful pre-eminence had the free fuffrage of the
nation been collected j and who was, in confequence
«£' •
C AT [ 270 ] CAT
Catherine. 0f the Hatred of his countrymen, ftill more fubjefted 25th of her reign, that Catherine may be laid to have Cnteris,'
 'to the dominion of the emprefs, the began to prepare attained the very fummit of her wilbes I here was no
a war againft the Turks, which was accordingly one who pretended to the throne, unlefs her ton Paul
' ‘ 1768. During this conteft the Greek Petrowitz, an amiable prince, who had attained las
for
declared     0
crofs was triumphant both by fea and land. On the
£rft of thefe elements her fleet, under Count Orloft,
entered the flraits of Gibraltar, and carried terror and
defolation among the iflands in the Archipelago, and
throughout the defencelefs {bores of Afia Minor j on
the fecond, her armies, under Galitzen and Roman-
zoff, achieved many important vi&ories, feized on the
fortrefs of Choczim, and prevailed on the Greek inha¬
bitants of Wallachia and Moldavia to ackno wledge her
as their fovereign.
In the mean time, however, a dangerous infu-rec-
tion broke out in the heart of her dominions, mitigat¬
ed by a Coffack of the name of Pugatfcheff, who pre¬
tended to be Peter III. After difplaying great valour
;and conliderable talents, which had enabled him, at
the head of raw and undifeiplined levies, to contend
againft veteran troops and experienced generals, this
unfortunate man was at length feized, enelofed in an
iron cage, and beheaded at Mofcow on the 21ft of Ja¬
nuary 1775-
A peace had been concluded on the 21ft of July, m
the preceding year, with the Porte, which proved
highly honourable to Ruflia •, but it was produdtive of
little benefit, for the liberty of navigating the Black
fea, and a free trade with all the ports of the Turkifh
empire, which would have afforded ineftimable advan¬
tages to a civilized people, was fcarcely of any confe-
quence to a nation unacquainted alike with commerce
and manufaftures.
Accordingly, we find her imperial majefty ft ill un-
fatisfied. Ambition, which in a female bofom is ever
infatiable, ftimulated her to attempt ne\v acquifitions,
and we learn vrith aftonifhment that her diplomatic ar¬
tifices proved infinitely more hoftile to the .1 urkifh
crefcent, than even her victorious arms. Scarcely had
four years elapfed, when, after an armed negociation,
a new treaty of pacification was agreed to by the re-
luCtant fultan, on the 21ft of March 17^9) con^e“
quence of which the Crimea was declared independent.
an event not calculated to clofe ancient jealoufies, but,
on the contrary, to produce frefh diffenfions, as^ it af¬
forded an opening into the very heart of the Turkifh
empire, and a ready pretext for future interference.
New claims and new conceflions immediately followed.
Ruflia infilled on eftablifhing confuls in the three pro¬
vinces of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Beffarabia, which
flie was accordingly permitted to ^ do by the treaty or
1781. Mortifying as this compliance was, it produ¬
ced but a fhort refpite. The emperor Jofeph was now
brought upon the political ftage, and the Roman and
Ruffian eagles, after hovering over the carcafs of the
Turkifh empire, and meditating to devour the whole,
were at laft content with a part of the prey. Ihe em¬
prefs, as it may be readily believed, was not inatten¬
tive to ber own interefts; and by the treaty of Con-
ftantinople, figned January 9. 1784, to Ruffia was
ceded the entire fovereignty of the.Crimea, which then
received its ancient name of Taurica, the ifle of Ta-
xnan, and part of Cuban.
it was now in the 58th year of her age, and the
33d year, without difplaying the leaft fymptom of am¬
bition, and who befides was fuperintended with the
moft watchful jealoufy. She had triumphed over a na¬
tion, fuppofed to be the natural enemy of Ruffia, both
by arms and negotiations, and fhe dazzled her barba¬
rous fubje&s with the blaze of her glory, for they were
eager to forget her errors, in order to contemplate a
grandeur wffiich foothed their national vanity. Know¬
ing the efteft of fplendour upon ignorance, fhe ufhered
in the year 1787 with a brilliant journey to Cherfon.
Accompanied thither at once by a court and an army,
with foreign ambaffadors, an emperor and a king in
her train, fhe intended to have afiumed the high-found¬
ing titles of Emprefs of the Eaft, and Liberator of
Greece. At Kiow, where ffie remained during three
months, fhe was received under triumphal arches, and,
having heard the petitions of the deputies from diftant
nations, and extended the walls of that city, fhe in-
feribed, with an arrogant anticipation, the follow ing
motto, in Greek charafters, on the quarter next to
Conftantinople : “ Through this gate lies the road to
Byzantium.” r r t •
Scarcely, however, had the emprefs, after vifiting
Mofcow, returned to her capital, than the lurk
thought proper to declare war. Her majefty, long
fince prepared for an event which was far from being
difpleafing, called forth the ftipulated fuccours of her
ally the emperor ^ and the combined army under the
Prince de Cobourg made itfelf mafter of Choczim, at
the end of a fiege of three months. Oczakow, aiter
a ft ill more obftinate refiftance, was taken by ftorm,
by tbe Ruffians alone. A diverfion, however, was
made by tlie king of Sweden, who, fubfidized with
Turkifh gold, and directed by Pruflian counfels, fought
his own battles at the expence of his ally. But the ex¬
ertions of this monarch vrere principally confined to the
indecifive naval aftions of Stoogland, in 'which both
parties claimed the victory, and this was foon after
followed by a convention for peace.
Difembarraffed from an attive, if not a powerful
enemy, the emprefs no longer confined her conqueft#
to the courfe of the Danube, but crowned the cam¬
paign with the capture of Ifmael, w’hich was taken by
ftorm on the 22d of December. On this oceafion
Suwarrow, one of her favourite generals, uifplayed a
horrid mixture of courage and cruelty, and thus pov-
ed, to a demonftration, that perfonal bravery is far
from being incompatible with tbe deadiieft revenge.
Incenfed at the gallant refiftance of the Turks, like
Caefar, he fnatched a ftandard from a fubaltern, and
planted it with his own hand on the walls of the city j
like Sylla, he doomed the vanquifhed to experience a
bloody profeription, and upvrards of 30,000 men, ■wo¬
men, and children, if we are to credit the boaftful ac¬
count of the barbarians themfelves, periffied by the
fword and bayonet of the unfparing Ruffians.
Inftead of regaining the Crimea, as had been ex-
pefted by the fultan, the fortrefs of Oczakow, and all
the territories between the rivers Bog and Enmftfft
were affiamed to the emprefs, who now found herleft
*■ nearer
2
CAT r 271 ] CAT
itherinf. nearer to that Byzantium, on which {he had fo eagerly
fixed her eye, by a whole campaign, than at the com¬
mencement of hoftilities.
Having concluded a final treaty of peace with the
Turk, on the 9th of January 1792, by which the ri¬
ver Dnieiter became the boundary of the two empires,
and was to be navigated by both, the emprefs had
more time to apply her attention to European politics.
Part of Poland had been difmembered and partitioned
during the year 1772, not only in contravention to the
general rights of nations, but in direct oppofition to
the moft folemn treaties on the part of Rufiia, Pruffia,
and Auitria. The revolution which took place in that
ill-fated country on May 3. 1791, and which afforded
the profpedt of a happy and liable government to the
remains of the republic, was the fignal of its annihila¬
tion. The imperial and royal fpoilers feized this op¬
portunity to fall once more in concert on their prey,
which they forced to expire under their talons, and
they have fince cut it into fhares, and attempted to
disfigure it by new names, left it fhould one day be
reclaimed by the lawful owners. After this infult to
humanity, Staniflaus, whom pofterity may acknow¬
ledge as an unfortunate, but furely not as a great
king, was forced foon after to abdicate, and allowed
to retire into obfeurity with his miftrefs, his children,
and a penfion.
Another great object bad for fome time engaged
the attention of Catherine and her cabinet. This was
the French revolution •, an event pregnant with confe-
quences that involved the claims, or, more properly
fpeaking, the exiftence of all the fovereigns of Europe.
With a treafury nearly exhaufted by the war with the
Ottoman Porte, which was not then terminated, and
at a diftance from the feene of action, the emprefs could
not well engage in the contelt j but fire readily enter¬
ed into the coalition, and foon after fubfidized her late
enemy the king of Sweden j but that enterprifing
prince met his fate, on the night of the 16th of March
1792, by the hand of an alfaffin.
Notwithftanding this fmifler event, the head of the
Greek church, compaffionating the fate of the pretend¬
ed father of the Chriftian world, promifed to exert her-
felf for the reftoration of Avignon to the holy fee.
She alfo launched forth a menacing manifefto againit
France, and prepared for a new war.
The emprefs has hitherto been contemplated in her
public character. It may not be amifs now- to fix our
eyes on the individual j to pay fome attention to the
fox of the fovereign, and, viewing majefty as it were
in an undrefs, behold the woman lurking behind the
princefs.
It might have been fuppefed, that in the neighbour¬
hood of the Hyperborean regions, the pafiions, if not
dormant would be at lealt moderate, and that the men
would confequently be temperate, and the women
«halte. The contrary, however, is the cafe : and it
is left to the philofopher to determine, whether the
double windows and heated rooms of St Peterfburgh,
added to an affectation of oriental manners, be not to
the full as critical, in refpect to female virtue, as the
climate of Naples and Turin. Certain it is, however,
that, during the reign of Catherine II. no remarkable
increafe of indecorum took place, and that any occafion-
al indiferetions appear to have made but little itnpref-
fion on the public mind.
Count Gregory Orloff, diftinguifiied in Ruflia by
the appellation of Gregorevitfch, was one of the hand-
fomelt men in the north. Gratitude and affeCtion both
confpired to procure him a favourable reception at
court: and from an obfeure condition he foon rofc to
the higheft offices of the ffate^ which he, in fa£t, go¬
verned. His opinion in the cabinet was liftened to
with deference, and he was invefted with the fupreme
military command. Still higher honours awaited him.
The emprefs-queen was folicited to grant him a diplo¬
ma of prince of the empire it was next in contempla¬
tion to decorate him with the titles of duke of Ingria
and Carelia, and the chancellor Beftueheff a£tually pro-
pofed to the emprefs that he fliould be admitted as the
partner of her bed and throne. But this fcheme was
blaited by the interferenee of Count Panin j who, not
content with his own remonftrances, invoked the inter-
pofitiou of Razumoffsky and Vorontzoft, and found
means to divert Catherine from her purpofe..
Soon after this the conduct of Orloff began to give
diffatisfadtion: for he abfented himfelf from court 5
went but feldom to the palace j refided principally in
the country j and, being extremely addidted to hunt¬
ing, dedicated whole weeks to the chafe of the bear.
Panin, who had frequently experienced his arrogance,
deemed this a happy opportunity to procure his dif-
grace. He accordingly introduced a young officer
named Viflenflcy, who, being diredted by the artful
minifter, behaved in fuch a manner as to give reafon
to believe that he wrould foon reign uncontroulled.
Pride, however, on this occafion fupplied the place of
affedtion, and Orloff fuddenly altering his condudt, his
rival was difmified with fuperb prefents, and invefted
with an employment that required his relidence in a re¬
mote province.
A new favourite foon after made his appearance in
the perfon of Vaftiltfchikoff, a fubaltern in the guards,
and advantage was taken of the abfence of Orloff to
introduce him at the hermitage. This officer was
young and handfome } but nature, which had been la-
viffi to his perfon, feems to have been at no pains with
his mind. Pie was immediately appointed chamber-
lain to the emprefs, enriched with fplendid prefents,
and treated with the moft flattering attention. In the
mean time Gregorevitfch, who had been appointed to
treat with the Turkiffi plenipotentiaries relative to a
peace, on hearing of this unexpedted event, inftantly
returned to the capital from Fokthiani, but was arreft-
ed at the gates of Peterfburgh, and ftripped of all his
employments. He, however, experienced the impe¬
rial bounty, and received, as a recompenfc for his lub-
miffion, the fum of 100,000 rubles in hand, a penfion
of 150,000 more, a magnificent fervice of plate j and,
to crown the whole, an eftate, with 6000 peafants upon
it, was made over to him.
Vaffiltfchikoff, during 2 2 months, enjoyed all the
diftindtion belonging to the reigning favourite ; but
at the end of that period he alfo found occafion to la¬
ment the inconftancy of fortune. This young man had
conducted himfelf with great prudence, for he had ne¬
ver abufed his influence. He poffeffed none of that
haughtinefs fo common to upftar^s y and he did not ap¬
pear
Catherine.
CAT [ 272 1 CAT
Catherine. pear eager to increafe his own fortune, or to diminifli and kept Lent with great ftri&nefs, living upon roots Catherine!
that of his rivals. Such was his moderation, that, ~~ Jl 1"'1“ —r— - -1 - j ^
his elevation excited no envy, fo his difgrace was un¬
accompanied by exultation. His faults are ftill un¬
known j and moil probably he had ceafed to pleafe.
His retreat, however, was accompanied by every mark
of refpeft *, and, as he repaired to Mofcow, the place
of his dcilined exile, he received prefents, on his jour¬
ney, which might be ityled imperial on account of
their magnificence.
No fooner was this change made public than Orloff
appeared once more on the icene, and was readmitted
to all his former influence. Suppoling Panin to be the
caufe of his late exile, he extorted a promife from his
royal miftrefs to difmifs him from his employments.
Her aflent was given with relu&ance j and the prayers
of the grand duke, who wras too generous to fuffer his
preceptor to fall a prey to the fufpieions of a man he
did not love, induced her to revoke her intentions.
In the mean time the manly air and elegant appear¬
ance of Potemkin make a great impreflion on an illu-
ftrious perfonage. Ihis officer had been bred in the
guards j and, perceiving on that memorable day when
the emprefs, mounted on a fine charger and dreffed in
regimentals, exhibited herfelf at the head of the troops,
that fhe had forgotten to place a plume in her hat, he
fnatched this decoration from his own, and prefented it
to the new fovereign. Neither this aflion, nor the
wrace with which it was performed, had efcaped unno¬
ticed } and the time was now arrived when his attach¬
ment was to receive an ample remuneradon.
The poit of favourite is almoft peculiar to Ruffia,
and was during many years confidered an official em¬
ployment. Ever fince 1730 nation had been go¬
verned by women, except during the fhort and unfor¬
tunate reign of Peter Ills In fine, it feemed to be
fanttioned, if not by a fundamental law of the empire,
at leaft by prefeription •, as four empreffes had fuccef-
fively confecrated it by their pradlice, and the age of
the laft Elizabeth made it be confidered in fome mea-
fure as a mere appendage to imperial grandeur.
Potemkin foon grew giddy with faccefs, and his
pride and prefumption keeping pace with his elevation,
he accordingly expofed himfelf to a number of dif-
agre’eable events. Boafting one day of the extent of
his power in prefence of Eount Alexis Orloff, the
brother of his predecelTor, he received a blow which
deprived him of an eye *, and Prince Gregory Orloff
having requelled his difmiflion, he was forced to repair
to Smolenfk, at once the place of his nativity and exile.
Such was his vexation, partly from the lofs of his eye,
and partly from his difgrace, that he actually enter¬
tained fome idea of turning monk •, but a fubmifive
letter produced his recal , and from that moment he
feemed to have dropped all thoughts of the cowl.
Ambition new appears to have taken complete pol-
feffion of the bofom of Potemkin; and this was amply
gratified, for his influence foon extended to every de¬
partment of the Hate, and he himfelf, after procuring
the difmiflion of Gount Zachar Chernicheff, became
vice-prefident at war, with a feat in the council. But
his afpiring hopes were not yet gratified, for he enter¬
tained ftill higher expedations.
With a view to the accomplilhment of thefe, he af-
feded to be once more feized with a fit of religion;
and water during that holy feafon. He alfo wearied 1
all the faints in the Greek calendar with his prayers;
went daily to confeffion ; and, having ielefted on this
occafion the fame prieft that afforded abfolution to a
great perfonage, he befought him to inform her, that
his alarmed confcience could no longer permit him to
indulge in an intercourfe, which, by marriage alone,
would ceafe to be criminal.
This projed, how ever, failed of fuccefs ; and, foon
after the emprefs’s return to Peterlburg (for it was at
Mofcow that it had been firft conceived), a young
man from the Ukraine, of the name of Zavadoffsky,
wras honoured with the imperial countenance, while the
haughty Potemkin received the cuftomary intimation,
“ that he muft prepare to travel.” Potemkin did not
dare to difobey, but he evaded the orde.r ; for, letting
out in great form, he proceeded a few miles towards
the place indicated for his frxile, but returned in the
courfe of next day, and placed himfelf in the evening
exactly oppofite to the emprefs as fhe was about to lit
down to whift. Every one expedled to behold fome
fignal mark of the imperial difpleafure; but, on the
contrary, Catharine, handing him a pack of cards, de-
fired the ex-favourite to cut in, obferving that he had
always been a fortunate player. His polls, his honours,
his influence, were all reftored to him, and he novr
occupied a new fituation about the perfou of her impe¬
rial majefty, for he became her friend.
In the mean time the bofom of the humble Zava¬
doffsky began to catch the flame of ambition; and, as
he wras jealous of the grandeur of Potemkin, he aimed
a deadly blow at his confequence. But the minifter
at war, become wily in his turn, warded it off, and
made it recoil on the head of his rival. Perceiving a
handfome young Servian officer of huffars, of the name
of Zoritch, who had repaired to Peterlburgh in fearch
of promotion, he prefented him with a captain’s com-
miffion, and in a few days he was perceived behind the
chair of the emprefs. A large eftate, the rank of ma¬
jor-general, and an immenfe fum of money, foon be¬
came the appanage of this fortunate youth ; but the
emprefs perceiving that he was ignorant, and being
difgufted at his want of accomplilhments, recommend¬
ed, as he could fpeak no language but that of the Ruf¬
fian boors, that he ffiould be fent abroad for improve¬
ment.
Fortune feems to have been in a playful mood when
ffie elevated Rimlky Korzakoff to the poll of chamber-
lain, and fucceflbr to the Servian. This man had ac¬
tually been a ferjeant in the guards; he was now de¬
claimed aid-de-camp general to the emprefs and pre¬
fented with the palace of Vaffiltfchikoff.
He proved to be a vain upftart, whole drefs exhibi¬
ted a profufion of diamonds, and whofe conduct was
fueh as could not fail to involve him in ruin. This
fpeedily occurred; for, being detected in a fecret cor-
refpondence with a lady, Ihe was baniffied from court,
and he vras obliged to repair to Mofcow.
The fame day that beheld his difgrace, witneffed
the good fortune of Lalkoi, a Pole by defeent, and
an officer of the body-guards by profeffion. The edu¬
cation of this young man had been negledled ; but this
defeft was in fome meafure remedied by the zeal and
attachment of an illuftrious perfonage, vho fuperin-
tended
CAT
erine. tended his Improvement; and in a fliort time he be-
1 came as remarkable for the fuperior elegance of his
manners, as the graces of his perfon : but, while in
the flower of his youth, and the very height of his fa¬
vour, he was attacked by a mortal difeafe, which cut
him off after a fhort illnefs. He died in the arms of
his miftrefs, who was inconfolable on the occafion, and
refufed to take any fuilenance during three whole days.
A maufoleum, the plan of which was fketched out by
an Englifh artift, attefted the refpe£t of the emprefs,
who burlt into tears on feeing it two years after. His
fortune he had bequeathed to her imperial majeity,
but fhe prefented it, with her aecuftomed generoflty,
to the filter of this handfome youth.
The next perfon who afpired to the poll of favourite
Was a young man educated in Scotland, and who had
become a fellow of the Royal Society of London. This
was Prince Dalhkoff, fon to the celebrated princefs of
the fame name, who had participated in the memora¬
ble revolution that levelled Peter III. with the dull.
A lieutenant of the name of Yermoloff anticipated
him, however, in this poll, to which he was railed by
the interell of Potemkin •, but, proving ungrateful to
his benefadlor, he was fuddenly difgraced, being re¬
placed by Momonoff, who attended her imperial ma-
jefiy during her journey to the Crimea. He fell in
love, however, with a lady of the court j and no foon-
er was the emprefs informed of this circumltahce, than
{he infilled on his marrying her immediately j after
which they were fent into exile at Mofeow.
Plato Zubolf, an officer of the horfe-guards, fupplied
his place. This afpiring young man, not content with
wealth and honours, affefted public employments j and
it is aflerted that the idea of the fecond divifion of
Poland originated with him. In a Ihort time he be¬
came omnipotent at Peterlburgh. He was decorated
with the title of prince j received the poll of grand
mailer of the artillery j all the admirals, generals, and
minillers of the empire, were to be feen at his levee,
bending lowly before him, and, if we are to believe
the author of a work of fome reputation, paying their
compliments at the fame time, in great form, to his
favourite monkey.
Catherine hitherto had only afforded empty promi-
fes to the enemies of France j but, at the mitigation
of Zuboff, flie now formed the defign of giving effec¬
tual affiltance to the confederated kings j and, as a
proof of her intentions, iffued orders for a fquadron of
men of war to join the Englilh fleet, and commanded
a levy of 6o,coo troops. She at the fame time profe-
cuted a war on the frontiers of Perfia, where her army,
Under the command of a- near relation of the grand
mailer of the artillery, had experienced a moll humi¬
liating defeat 5 and fine was now preparing to fend frelh
fuccours to his affiltance.
Such were the projects that occupied the mind of
Catherine, the overthrow of the French republic, and
the fubjugation of the diltant Perfians, when lire was
fmitten by the hand of death. This fortunate prin¬
cefs had hitherto enjoyed an almolt uninterrupted Hate
of good health during the whole of her long reign.
She was fometimes, indeed, fubjefl to a colic, and
her legs were now and then obferved to fwell; but
neither of thefe fymptoms were alarming.
On the morning of the oth of November Ihe rofe at
You V. Part L
r 273 1
cat
her ufual hour, and breakfalied on coffee according to Catherine*
cultom. Some time after Ihe retired to her clofet j and —v'—^
her long abfence affording caufe of fufpicion to her at¬
tendants, they entered the apartment, and found her
lying fpeeohlefs. Dr Rogerfon, her phylician, being
fent for, he treated her dileafe as an apoplexy, and
confiderable relief feemed to enfue after the applicatiott.
of the lancet. Rut the emprefs never entirely recover¬
ed her fenfes $ and did not utter a Angle w ord during
the remainder of her life, which was prolonged till tea
o’clock in the evening of November 10. 1797.
Thus, with her ufual good fortune, after a very
fliort illnefs, died Catherine II. emprefs of all the Ruf-
fias. During her youth flie had been extremely hand-
fome, but flie got fat as (he increafed in years j flie,
however, preferved a certain air of graeefulnefs, in¬
termingled with dignity, until the laft moment of her
life.
Her majefty in perfon was not above the middle fize j
but, being well proportioned, and carrying her head
high, flie appeared tall. Her forehead was open, her
nofe aquiline, her mouth agreeable, and her chin,
•without being ugly, was rather long. Her hair, in
which flie took great delight, was auburn, and her
eye-brows dark and thick. Her eyes, according to
fome, were blue, whilft others infill that they were of
a brown hue. Upon the whole, her phyfiognomy was
not deficient in expreffion; but flie had fuch a com¬
mand of her countenance, that no one could there dif-
cover the fecrets of her heart.
Her imperial majelly was accuftomed, on great oc-
cafions, to drefs in a fplendid manner, and to wear a
profulion of jewels. Being particularly fond of dia¬
monds, flie poffefied a prodigious number 3 and one in
particular was the largelt that ever had been feen in
Europe. Catherine, however, was accullomed in ge¬
neral to affedl the ancient Ruffian fafliions, for the moll
part wearing green, out of compliment to the nation,
tier hair was powdered but flightly. On the other
hand, her face was covered with rouge j and as.her
imperial majelty, like the ladies in the French court,
wore it in proportion to her rank, it is not to be won¬
dered if it was of a high colour.
The llridleil temperance was regularly preferved by-
Catherine, in a country, and at a court, where a little
deviation would not have given occafion to much fcan-
dal. A flight breakfall, a moderate dinner, and tw^o
or three glaffes of wine (for flie never indulged in flip¬
per), conftituted her ufual diet.
It is far more eafy to deferibe the emprefs than the
woman. The adls of the former have now become hi-
ftory, but thofe of the latter muff be left to the pen
of genius, that can analyze the fprings of human ac¬
tion.
ICmufi: be confeffed that both flie and the empire
appear to have been frequently a prey to favouritilin j
and this part of her conduct, by being connedled with
the happinefs of millions of her fubjetts, is highly cen-
furable.
As a fovereign flie Hands confpicuous. She iiv=
creafed the extent of Ruffia, and added not only new
countries, but new nations, to that mighty empire.
As a conqueror, her vidlories were numerous and bril¬
liant 5 the triumphed equally by fea and by land, and
had flie lived but ten years longer, might have realized
M M the
CAT
Catherine, the proud dream of her ambition, and
grandfon Conftantine fitting on the throne of the Ot¬
tomans. Her merit as a legiflator, too, is great j but
fhe would have been far more worthy of our admira¬
tion, had Ihe effcdled the generous idea of enfranchi-
fing all the peafantry of her immenfe dominions.
She was the only iovereign of Ruffia who ever exhi¬
bited a tafte for letters. This was not all j Ihe was an
author herfelf, and did not difdain to compofe little
treatifes for her grandchildren, whofe education Ihe fu-
perintended.
For mufic fhe alfo poffeffed an exquifite relifh, and
brought Gabrielli, and a number of fingers of great
note, from Italy, allowing them liberal falaries, and
treating them with great attention. Throughout the
whole of her long reign Catherine alfo evinced a mark¬
ed predileftion for painting. In the midft of a war
with the Turks fhe purchafed pi£tures in Holland, to
the amount of 60,000 rubles, all of which w ere loft in
confequence of a fliip’s being wrecked on the coaft of
Finland. This, however, rather ferved to ftimulate
her to frefh exertions, and her agents accordingly pro¬
cured whatever w as to be found in Italy wrorthy of no¬
tice. The Houghton collection from England was
alfo transferred, by an aft of her munificence, to the
fhores of the Baltic j and, while it added to her glory,
difgraced this nation in the eyes of foreigners.
Her conduft to learned men was truly worthy of a
woman of genius. She w'as proud of the correfpon-
ftence and friendihip of Voltaire*, fire invited Diderot
to her court, and lived with him, while there, in
habits of the utmoft familiarity ; to D’Alembert fire
looked up as to a fuperior being, and endeavoured, al¬
though in vain, to feduce him to refide at St Peterl-
burgh j but he poffeffed a haughty foul, was devoted
to liberty, and would not confent to degrade the
mind of a freeman, by refiding among a nation of
Haves.
To the honour of Catherine, fhe was extremely at¬
tentive to the education of her people, and inftituted a
prodigious number of fchools for their inftruftion. To
remove their prejudices againft inoculation, fhe herfelf
fubmitted to the operation, and thus hazarded her life
for her nation. Amidft the fchemes of grandeur, the
allurements of power, and the gratification of the paf-
fions, fhe found leifure to civilize and inftruft her fub-
jefts : this added not a little to her glory, as it con¬
tributed to the benefit of fo large a portion of the hu¬
man race ; but it will infenfibly operate againft a de-
fpotic government, by rendering the boors unfit for
their chains,“which they will fome day break, perhaps,
on the heads of the boyars, who at once enflave and
opprefs them. . ...
No woman could fo eafily forgive *, and in this point
of view her conduft muft be allowed to have poffeffed
a great fliare of magnanimity. She generoufly pardon¬
ed old Munich and Godowitz, the one the ccunfel-
lor, the other the favourite of Peter III. She even
admitted the former of thefe into her confidence, and
w'ould have conferred honours and preferments on the
latter *, but he loved his late fovereign, and with a no¬
ble fcorn fpurned at the proffered friendfliip of his fuc-
ceffor. To the miftrefs of Peter HI. although her
own rival, fhe granted her life, reftored her fortune,
Cathne
[ 274 ] CAT
beheld her and at length admitted her daughters to honourable fi- Gather:,
tuations at court.
No perfonage in our own times has attrafted a greater
fhare of cenfure and eulogium than Catherine $ and no
woman in any age ever exhibited more of the mafeuline
greatnefs of one fex, and the feminine weaknefs of an¬
other. As a female, fire appears at times the Have of
paflion, and the puppet of her courtiers *, but. w hile we
behold her diminifhing, in this point of view, into infig-
nificance, we look again, and contemplate the fove~
reign, towering like an immenfe coloffus, and with one
foot placed on Cherfon, and another at Kamtfchatka,
waving her iron feeptre over the fubjeft nations, and
regulating the deftiny of a large portion of mankind.
The frailties, however, of the woman will foon be
forgotten, while the glory that encircles the brows of
the legiflator and conqueror will long continue to daz¬
zle the eyes of an admiring world. The prefent age,
however, fhudders at the untimely fate of Peter and of
Iw an, and pofterity will not eafily pardon the degrada¬
tion of Staniflaus, the partition of Poland, and the maf-
faercs of Ifmailow' and of Praga.
CATHERINE, St, Order of, in modern hiftory, belongs
to ladies of the firft quality in the Ruffian court. It
was inftituted in 17*4 Catherine wife of Peter the
Great, in memory of his fignal efcape from the Turks
in 1711. The emblems of this order are a red crofs,
fupported by a figure of St Catherine, and laftened to
a icarlet firing edged with filver, on which are inferi-
bed the name of St Catherine, and the motto, Projide
et patria.
CATHERLOUGH, a town of Ireland, in the
county of Catherlough, and province of Leinfter }
feated on the river Barrow', 16 miles north-eaft of Kil¬
kenny. W. Long. 7. 1. N, Lat. 52. 45.
Catherlough, a county of Ireland, about 28 miles
in length, and eight in breadth ; bounded on the eaft
by Wicklow and Wexford, on the weft by Queen’s
county, on the north by Kildare, and on the fouth and
fouth-weft by Wexford. It contains 5600 houfes, 42
parifhes, five baronies or boroughs, and fends fix mem¬
bers to parliament, viz. two for the county, two for
Catherlough, and two for Old Leighlen.
CATHETER, in Surgery, a fiftulous inftrument,
ufually made of filver, to be introduced into the blad¬
der, in order to fearch for the ftone, or difeharge the
urine when luppreffed. See Surgery Index.
CATHET US, in Geometry, a line or radius falling
perpendicularly on another line or furface thus the
catheti of a right-angled triangle are the two fides that
include the right angle. . ,
CATHETUS oj incidence, in Catoptrics, a right Ime
drawn from a point of the objeft, perpendicular to the
reflefting line.
CATHETUS of Reflection, or of the Eye, a right line
drawn from the eye perpendicular to the retiefting
plane. ?
CATHETUS of Ob/'quation, a right line drawn per¬
pendicular to the fpeculum, in the point of incidence
or refieftion. .
Cathetus, in Architecture, a perpendicular line,
fuppofed to pafs through the middle of a cylindrical
body, as a ballufter, column, &c.
CA1HNESS. See CAIxB!iESS. CATH0UC)
((•'lolio
ill
I' iltO.
'-h—1
CAT [27
CATHOLIC, in a general fenfe, denotes any thing
that is univerfal or general.
CATHOLIC Church. The rife of herefies induced the
primitive Chriltian church to affume to itfelf the ap¬
pellation of catholic, being a charadteriltic todiftinguiih
itfelf from all feAs, who, though they had party
names, fometimes Iheltered themfelves under the name
of Chriftians.
The Romifh church diftinguilhes itfelf now by the
name of Catholic, in oppolition to all thofe who have fe-
parated from her communion, and whom Hie conliders
as heretics and fchifmatics, and herfelf only as the true
and Chriftian church. In the drift fenfe of the word,
there is no Catholic church in being, that is, no uni¬
verfal Chrillian communion.
CATHOLIC King, is a title which has been long here¬
ditary to the king of Spain. Mariana pretends, that
Reccarede firft received this title after he had deftroy-
ed Arianifm in his kingdom, and that it is found in the
council of Toledo for the year 589. Vafce afcribes
the origin of it to Alphonfus in 738. Some allege
that it has been ufed only fince the time of Ferdinand
and Ifabella. Colombiere fays, it was given them on
occafion of the expullion of the Moors. The Bollan-
difts pretend it had been borne by their predeceffors
the Vifigoth kings of Spain 5 and that Alexander VI.
only renewed it to Ferdinand and Ifabella. Others fay
that Philip de Valois firft bore the title j which was
given him after his death by the ecclefiaftics, on ac¬
count of his favouring their interefts.
In fome epiftles of the ancient popes, the title catho¬
lic is given to the kings of France and of Jerufalem, as
well as to feveral patriarchs and primates.
CATHOLICON, in Phartnacy, a kind of foft pur¬
gative eleftuary, fo called, as being fuppofed an univer¬
fal purger of all humours.
CATILINE, Lucius, a Roman of a noble family,
who, having fpent his whole fortune in debauchery,
formed the defign of opprefling his country, deftroy-
ing the fenate, feizing the public treafury, fetting
Rome on fire, and ufurping a lovereign power over his
fellow-citizens. In order to fucceed in this defign, he
drew fome young noblemen into his plot j whom he
prevailed upon, it is faid, to drink human blood as a
pledge of their union. His confpiracy, however, was
difcovered by the vigilance of Cicero, who-was then
conful. Upon which, retiring from Rome, he put
himfelf at the head of an army, with feveral of the
confpirators, and fought with incredible valour againft
Petreius, lieutenant to Antony, who was colleague with
Cicero in the confulthip j but was defeated and killed
in battle. See (Hi/lory of) Rome.—Salluft has given
an excellent hiftory of this confpiracy.
CATO, Marcus Portius, the cenfor, one of the
greateft men among the ancients, was born at Tufcu-
lum in the year of Rome 519, about the 232d before
Chrift. He began to bear arms at 175 and, on all
occafions, (bowed extraordinary courage. He was a
man of great fobriety, and reckoned no bodily exer-
cife unworthy of him. He had but one horfe for him¬
felf and his baggage, and he looked after and dreffed
it himfelf. At his return from his campaigns, he be¬
took himfelf to plough his ground ; not that he was
without (laves to do it, but it was his inclination. He
dreffed alfo like his (laves, fat down at the fame table
S3 CAT
with them, and partook of the fame fare. He did not
in the meanwhile negleft to cultivate his mind, efpe-
cially in regard to the art of fpeaking; and he em¬
ployed his talents, which were very great, in generouf-
ly pleading caufes in the neighbouring cities without
fee or reward. Valerius Flaccus, who had a country
feat near Cato, conceiving an efteem for him, perfuad-
ed him to come to Rome ; where Cato, by his own
merits, and the influence of fo powerful a patron, was
foon taken notice of, and promoted. He was firft of
all elefted tribune of the (bldiers for the province of
Sicily } he w as next made queftor in Africa under Sci-
pio. Having in this laft office reproved him for his
profufenefs to his foldiers, the general anfwered, that
“ he did not want fo exaft a queftor, but would make
war at what expence he pleafed; nor was he to give an
account to the Roman people of the money he fpent,
but of his enterprifes, and the execution of them.”
Cato, provoked at this anfwer, left Sicily, and return¬
ed to Rome.
Afterwards Cato was made praetor, when he fulfilled
the duties of his office with the ftrifteft juftice. He
conquered Sardinia, governed with admirable modera¬
tion, and W'as created conful. Being tribune in the
Trar of Syria, he gave diftinguifhed proofs of his valour
againft Antiochus the Great j and at his return flood
candidate for the office of cenfor. But the nobles,
who not only envied him as a new man, but dreaded
his feverity, fet up againft him feven powerful compe¬
titors. Valerius Flaccus, who had introduced him in¬
to public life, and had been his colleague in the con-
fulfhip, was a ninth candidate, and thefe two united
their interefts. On this occafion Cato, far from em¬
ploying foft wrords to the people, or giving hopes of
gentlenefs or complaifance in the execution of his of¬
fice, loudly declared from the roftra, with a threaten¬
ing look and voice, “ That the times required firm and
vigorous magiftrates to put a flop to that growing
luxury which menaced the republic w’ith ruin 5 cenfors
who would cut up the evil by the roots, and reftore
the rigour of ancient difcipline.” It is to the honour
of the people of Rome, that, notwithftanding thefe
terrible intimations, they preferred him to all his
competitors, who courted them by promifes of a mild
and eafy adminiftration ; the comitia alfo appointed his
friend Valerius to be his colleague, without whom he
had declared that he could not hope to compafs the
reformations he had in view. Cato’s merit, upon the
whole, wras fuperior to that of any of the great men
who ftood againft him. He was temperate, brave, and
indefatigable j frugal of the public money, and not to
be corrupted. There is fcarce any talent requifite for
public or private life which he had not received from
nature, or acquired by induftry. He was a great fol-
dier, an able ftatefman, an eloquent orator, a learned
hiftorian, and very knowing in rural affairs. Yet, with
all thefe accompliftnnents, he had very great faults.
His ambition being poifoned with envy, difturbed both
his own peace and that of the whole city as long as he
lived. Though he w-ould not take bribes, he was un¬
merciful and unconfcionable in amafling w-ealth by all
fuch means as the lawf did not punilh.
The firft aft of Cato in his new office, was naming
his colleague to be prince of the fenate : after which
the cenfors ftruck out of the lift of the fenators the
Mm2 names
Cato,
CAT [ 276 ] CAT
fiato. names of feven perfons , among whom tfas Lucius the
—sr—1 brother of T. Flaminius. Lucius, when conful, and
commanding in Gaul, had with his own hand murder¬
ed a Boian of diftin&ion, a deferter to ‘the Romans ;
and he had committed this murder purely to gratify
the curiofity of his pathic, a young Carthaginian, who
longing to fee fomebody die a violent death, had re¬
proached the general for bringing him away from
Rome juft when there was going to be a fight of gla¬
diators. Titus Flaminius, full of indignation at the
diihonour done to his brother, brought the affair be¬
fore the people ; and infifted upon Cato’s giving the
reafon of his proceeding. The cenfor related the fto-
ry ; and when Lucius denied the fa&, put him to his
oath. The accufed, refufing to fwear, was deemed
guilty j and Cato’s cenfure was approved. But no
part of the cenfor’s condudl feemed fo cruel to the
. nobles and their wives as the taxes he laid upon luxu¬
ry in all its branches j drefs, houfehold furniture, wo¬
men’s toilets, chariots, Haves, and equipage. Thefe
articles were all taxed at three per cent, of the real va¬
lue. The people, however, in general, were pleafed
with his regulations j infomuch that they ordered a
ftatue to be erefted to his honour in the temple of
Health, with an infcription that mentioned nothing of
his victories or triumphs, but imported only, that by
his wife ordinances in his cenforlhip he had reformed
the manners of the republic. Plutarch relates, that
before this, upon fome of Cato’s friends expreffmg
their furprife, that when many perfons without merit
er reputation had ftatues, he had none 5 he anfwered,
“ I had much rather it ihould be alked why the peo¬
ple have not erefted a ftatue to Cato, than why they
have.” Cato was the occafion of the third Punic war.
Being difpatched to Africa to terminate a difference
between the Carthaginians and the king of Numidia,
on his return to Rome he reported that Carthage was
grown exceftively rich and populous, and he warmly
exhorted the fenate to deftroy a city and republic, du¬
ring the exiftence of which Rome could never be fafe.
Having brought from Africa fome very large figs, he
ftiowed them to the confcript fathers in one of the
lappet? of his gown. “ The country (fays he) where
this fine fruit grows is but a three days voyage from
Rome.” We are told, that from this time he never
fpoke in the fenate upon any fubject, without con¬
cluding with thefe w'ords, “ I am alfo of opinion, that
Carthage ought to be deftroyed.” _He judged, that
for a people debauched by profperity, nothing was
more to be feared than a rival ftate, always powerful,
. and now from its misfortunes grown wife and circum-
fpeft. He held it neceffary to remove all dangers that
eould be apprehended from without, when the republic
had within fo many diftempers threatening her deftruc-
lion.
From the cenfor, dignified and fevere, the reader
ivill not perhaps be difpleafed to turn his view upon
Cato fociable and relaxed. For wefhould have a falfe
notion of him, if we imagined that nothing but a fad
aufterity prevailed in his fpeech and behaviour. On
the contrary, he w'as extremely free ; and often with
his friends at table intermixed the converfation with
ttiures di- }-ve]y difcourfes and witty fayings. Of thefe Plutarch
jiag co;[le£ted a pretty large number-, we lhall relate but
®ne, and make ufe of Balzac’s paraphrafe; and the
preface with which he introduces it. “ The very Gate/
cenfors, though fadnefs feemed to be one of the func-
tions of their office, did not altogether lay afide rail¬
lery. They were not always bent upon feverity j and
the firft Cato, that troublefome and intolerable honeft
man, ceafed fometimes to be troublefome and into¬
lerable. He had fome glimpfes of mirth, and fome
intervals of good humour. He dropped now and then
fome words that were not unplealant, and you may
judge of the reft by this. He had married a very hand-
fome wife $ and hiftory tells us that fire was extremely
afraid of the thunder, and loved her hulband well.
Thefe two paffions prompted her to the fame thing j
the always pitched upon her hulband as a fan&uary
againft thunder, and threw herfelf into his arms at the
firft noife ffie fancied ffie heard in the Iky, Cato, who
was well pleafed with the ftorm, and very willing to
be careffed, could not conceal his joy. He revealed
that domeftic fecret to his friends j and told them one
day, fpeaking of his wife, u that Hie had found out
a way to make him love bad weather j and that he ne¬
ver wras fo happy as when Jupiter was angry.” It is
worth obferving, that this was during his cenforlhip;
when he degraded the fenator Manlius, who would
probably have been conful the year alter, only for gi¬
ving a kifs to his wife in the day-time, and in the pre¬
fence of his daughter.
Cato died in the year of Rome 604, aged 85. He
wrote feveral works. 1. A Roman Hiftory. 2. Con¬
cerning the art of war. 3. Of Rhetoric. 4. A trea-
tife of Hulbandry. Of thefe, the laft only is extant.
Cato, Marcus Fortius, commonly called Cato Mi¬
nor, or Cato of Utica, was great-grandfon of Cato the
Cenfor. It is faid, that from his infancy he difeovered
by his fpeech, by his countenance, and even his child-
iffi fports and recreations, an inflexibility of mind j for
he would, force himfelf to go through with whatever
he had undertaken, though the talk was ill-fuited to
his ftrength. He was rough towards thofe that flat¬
tered him, and quite untra&able when threatened j was>
rarely feen to laugh, or even to fmile ; was not ealily
provoked to anger ; but if once incenfed, hard to be
pacified. Sylla having had a friendlhip for the father
of Cate, fent often for him and his brother, and talk¬
ed familiarly with them. Cato, who was then about
14 years of age, feeing the heads of great men brought
there, and obferving the fighs of thofe that were pre-
fent, alked his preceptor, “ Why does nobody kill
this man ?” Becaufe, faid the other, he is more fear¬
ed than he is hated. The . boy replied, Why then did
you not give me a fword when you brought me hither,
that I might have ftabbed him, and freed my country
from this flavery ?
He learned the principles of the Stoic philofophy,
which fo well fuited his charadter, under Antipater of
Tyre, and applied himfelf diligently to the ftudy of
it. Eloquence he likewife ftudied, as a neceffary means
to defend the caufe of juftice, and he made a very
confiderable proficiency in that fcience. To increafe
his bodily ftrength, he inured himfelf to fuffer the ex¬
tremes of heat and cold ; and ufed to make journeys
on foot and bare-headed in all feafons. Wrhen he was
fick, patience and abftinence -ft'ere his only remedies :
he ffiut himfelf up, and would fee nobody till he was
well. Though remarkably fober in the beginning of
CAT [ 277 ) CAT
his life, making it a rule to drink but once after fup-
-Y*—per, and then retire, h» infenfibly contrafted a habit
of drinking more freely, and of fitting at table till
morning. His friends endeavoured to excufe this, by
faying that the affairs of the public engroffed his at¬
tention all the day ; and that, being ambitious of
knowledge, he paffed the night in the converfation of
philofophers. Ciefar wrote, that Cato was once found
dead drunk at the corner of a ftreet, early in the morn¬
ing, by a great number of people who were going to
the levee of fome great man j and that when, by un¬
covering his face, they perceived who it was, they
blufhed for fhame : “ You would have thought (added
Casfar), that Cato had found them drunk, not they
him.” Pliny obferves, that by this redeftion Caefar
praifes his enemy at the fame time that he blames him.
And Seneca, his extravagant panegyriit, ventures to
aflert, that it is eafier to prove drunkennefs to be a
virtue, than Cato to be vicious. He affe&ed Angu¬
larity j and in things indifferent, to act direftly con¬
trary to the tafle and fafliions of the age. Magnani¬
mity and conftancy are generally afcribed to him} and
Seneca would fain make that haughtinefs and contempt
for others which, in Cato, accompanied thofe virtues, a
matter of praife. Cato, fays Seneca, having received a
blow in the face, neither took revenge ncr was angry j
he did not even pardon the affront, but denied that he had
received it. His virtue raifed him fo high, that injury
could not reach him. Pie is reputed to have been chafle
in his youth. His firll love was Lepidaj but when the
marriage was upon the point of being concluded, Me-
tellus Scipio, to whom fhe had been promifed, inter¬
fered, and the preference was given to him. This
affront extremely exafperated our Stoic. He was for
going to law with Scipio ; and when his friends had
diverted him from that deiign, by {bowing him the ri¬
dicule of it, he revenged himfelf by making verfes up¬
on his rival. When this firft flame fubfided, he mar¬
ried Attilia the daughter of Serranus, had two children
by her, and afterwards divorced her for her very indif-
creet conduft.
He ferved as a volunteer under Gallus in the wrar
of Spartacus ; and when, military rewards were offered
him by the commander, he refufed them, becaufe he
thought he had no right to them. Some yeafs after,
he went a legionary tribune into Macedonia under the
praetor Ruhrius : in which Ration he appeared, in his
drefs and during a march, more like a private foldier
than an officer : but the dignity of his manners, the
elevation of his fentiments, and the fuperiority of his
views, fet him far above* thofe who bore the titles of
generals and proconfuls. It is faid, that Cato’s defign
m all his behaviour was to engage the foldiers to the
love of virtue ; whofe affedlions he engaged thereby
to himfelf, without his having that in his intention.
“ For the fincere love of virtue (adds Plutarch) im¬
plies an affection for the virtuous. Thofe who praife
the worthy without loving them, pay homage to their
glory ; but are neith'fer admirers nor imitators of their
virtues.” When the time of his fervice expired, and
he was leaving the army, the foldiers were all in tears*,
fo effettually had he gained their hearts by his conde-
fcending manners and fharing in their labours. After
his return home, he was chofen to the queflorffiip ;
and had fcarce entered on his charge, when he made a
great reformation in the queflor’s office, and particu- Cfft*
larly with regard to the regifters. Thefe regifters,
-ivhofe places were for life, and through whofe hands
paffed inceffantly all the public accounts, being to aft
under young magiftrates unexperienced in bufinefs, af-
fumed an air of importance 5 and, inflead of afking or¬
ders from the queftors, pretended to direft and govern
as if they themfelves were the queftors. Cato reduced
them to their proper fphere.
One thing by which Cato extremely pleafed the
people, was his making the affaffins to whom Sylla
had given confiderable rewards out of the treafury for
murdering the proferibed, difgorge their gains. Plu¬
tarch tells us, that Cato was fo exaft in difeharging
the duties of a fenator, as to be always the firft who
came to the houfe, and the laft who left it j and that
he never quitted Rome during thofe days when the
fenate was to fit. Nor did he fail to be prefent at
every affembly of the people, that he might awe thofe
who, by an ill-judged facility, beftowed the public mo¬
ney in largeffes, and frequently, through mere favour,*
granted remiffion of debts due to the ftate. At firft
his aufterity and fliffnefs difpleafed his colleagues j
but afterwards they were glad to have his name to
oppofe to all the unjuft folieitations, againft which
they would have found it difficult to defend them¬
felves. Cato very readily took upon him the talk of
refuffng.
Cato, to keep out a very bad man, put in for thd
tribunate. He fided with Cicero againft Catiline,
and oppofed Gtefar on that occafion. His enemies
fent him to recover Cyprus, which Ptolemy had for¬
feited, thinking to hurt his reputation by f'o difficult
an undertaking j yet none could find fault with his
conduft..
Cato laboured to bring about an agreement between
Caefar and Pompey ; but feeing it in vain, he fided
with the latter. When Pompey was flain he fled to
Utica ; and being purfued by Ciefar, advifed his
friends to be gone, and throw themfelves on Ccefar’s.
clemency. His fon, however, remained with him j
and Statilius, a young man, remarkable for his hatred
to Csefar.
The evening before the execution of the purpofe
he had formed with regard to himfelf, after bathing,
he fupped with his friends and the magiftrates of thfe
city. They fat late at table, and the converfation
was lively. The difeourfe falling upon this maxim of
the Stoics, that “ the wife man alone is free, and that
the vicious are Haves;” Demetrius, who was a Peripa¬
tetic, undertook to confute it from the maxims of his-
fchool. Cato, in anfwer, treated the matter very am¬
ply j and with fo mush earneftnefs and vehenfence of
voice, that he betrayed himfelf, and confirmed the fu-
fpicions of his friends that he defigned to kill himfelf.
When he had done fpeaking, a melancholy filence en-
fued j and Cato perceiving it, turned the difeourfe to
the prefent fituation of affairs, expreffing his concern
for thofe who had been obliged to put to fea, as well
as for thofe who had determined to make their efeape
by land, and had a dry and fandy defert to pafs. Af¬
ter fupper, the company being difmiffed, he walked for
fome time with a few friends, and gave his orders to
the officers of the guard : and going into his chamber*,
he embraced his fyn and his friends with more than
ufuai
CAT [ 2
Cato, ufual tendernefs, wliich farther confirmed the fufpi-
cions of the refolution he had taken. Then laying
himfelf down on his bed, he took up Plato’s Dialogue
on the Immortality of the Soul. Having read for fome
time, he looked up, and miffing his fword, which his
fon had removed while he was at fupper, he called a
Have, and alked who had taken it away j and receiving
no pertinent anfwer, he refumed his reading. Some
time after, he alked again for his fword } and, without
ftiowing any impatience, ordered it to be brought to
him : but, having read out the book, and finding no¬
body had brought him his fword, he called for all his
fervants, fell into a rage, and ftruck one of them on the
mouth with fo much violence that he very much hurt his
own hand, crying out in a paffionate manner, “ What!
do my own fon and family confpire to betray me, and
deliver me up naked and unarmed to the enemy ?” Im¬
mediately his fon and friends rufhed into the room 5
and began to lament, and to befeech him. to change
his refolution. Cato raifing himfelf, and looking fiercely
at them, “ How long is it,” faid he, “ fince I have loll
my fenfes, and my fon is become my keeper ? Brave
and generous fon, why do you not bind your father s
hands, .that when Caefar comes, he may find me un¬
able to defend myfelf ? Do you imagine that without
a fword I cannot end my life ? Cannot I deftroy my¬
felf, by holding my breath for fome moments, or by
flriking my head againft the wall ?” His fon anfwer-
ed with his tears, and retired. Apollonides and De¬
metrius remained with him 5 and to them he addreffed
himfelf in the following words : “ Is it to watch over
me that ye fit filent here ? Do you pretend to force
a man of my years to live ? or can you bring any.
reafon to prove, that it is not bafe and unworthy of
Cato to beg his fafety of an enemy ? or why do you
not perfuade me to unlearn what I have been taught,
that, rejecting all the opinions I hav« hitherto, de¬
fended, I may now, by Caefar’s means, grow wifer,
and be yet more obliged to him than for life, alone ?
Not that I have determined any thing concerning my¬
felf-, but I would have it in my power to perform
what I ffiall think fit to refolve upon : and I fhall not
fail to a Ik your counfel, when I have occafion to act
up to the principles which your philofophy teaches.
Go tell my fon, that he ihould not compel his father
to what he cannot perfuade him.” They withdrew,
and the fword was brought by a young flave. Cato
drew it, and finding the point to be {harp } t .Now,
(faid he), I am my own mailer:” And, laying it
78 1 . c A .T
dow-n, he took up his book again, which it is re¬
ported he read twice over. After this he flept fo ^
foundly that he was heard to fnore by thofe who were
near him. About midnight he called twro of his freed-
men, Cleanthes his phyfician, and Butas whom he
chiefly employed in the management of his affairs.
The* laft he fent to the port, to fee v'hether all the
Romans were gone j to the phyfician he gave his hand
to be dreffed, which was fwelled by the blow he had
given his flave. This being an intimation that he
intended to live, gave great joy to his family. Butas
foon returned, and brought word that they were all
gone except Craffus, w'ho had ftaid upon fome bufi-
nefs, but was juft ready to depart. He added, that
the wind was high and the fea rough. Thefe words
drew- a figh from Cato. He fent Butas again to the
port, to know whether there might not be fome orte,
who, in the hurry of embarkation, had forgot fome
neceffary provifions, and had been obliged to put back
to Utica. It was now break of day, and Cato flept
yet a little more, till Butas returned to tell him, that
all w-as perfectly quiet. He then ordered him to (hut
his door; and he flung himfelf upon his bed, as if he
meant to finilh his night’s reft ; but immediately he
took his fword, and {tabbed himfelf a little below his
cheft > yet not being able to ufe his hand fo well by
reafon of the fwelling, the blow did not kill him. It
threw him into a convulfion, in which he fell from his
bed, and overturned a table near it. The noife gave
the alarm j and his fon and the reft of the family, en¬
tering the room, found him weltering in his blood, and
his bow-els half out of his body. The furgeon, upon
examination, found that his bowels were not cut; and
was preparing to replace them and bind up the wound,
when Cato, recovering his fenfes, thruft the furgeon
from him, and, tearing out his bowels, immediately
expired, in the 48th year of his age.
By this raftr att, independent of all moral or religious
confiderations, he carried his patriotifm to the higheft
degree of political phrenfy: for Cato, dead, could be of
no ufe to his country : but had he prefwrved his. life,
his counfel might have moderated Caefar’s ambition,
and (as Montefquieu obferves) have given a different
turn to public affairs.
CATOCHE, or Catochus, a difeafe, by which
the patient is rendered in an inftant. as immoveable as
a ftatue, without either fenfe or motion, and continues
in the fame pofture he was in at the moment of his
being feized. See Medicine Index.
Cato,.
Catochi
CATOPTRICS.
CATOPTRICS is that part of optics w-hich explains
the properties of refledled light, and particularly
that which is reflefted from mirrors.
Sect. I. Definitions.
As this and the other branches of OptIcs will be
fully treated under the colleftive word, we {hall, in the
prefent article, iff, Juft give a fummary of the prin¬
ciples of the branch, in a few plain aphorifms, with
fome preliminary definitions -, and, idly, Infert a fet
of entertaining experiments founded upon them.
4
1. Every poliflied body that reflects the rays of Definite
light is called a mirror, whether its furface be plane,
fpherical, conical, cylindric, or of any other form
whatever.
Di
Platf
2. Of mirrors there are three principally ufed in
optical experiments: The plane mirror, GHI, (fig.
C A T O P
I.-); the fpherical convex mirror, GHI, (fig. 2.) j- and
the fpherical concave mirror, GHI, (fig. 3.)
3. The point K, (fig. 2, 3.) round which the re-
fie&ing furface of a fpherical mirror is defcribed, is
called its centre. The line KH, drawn from its cen¬
tre perpendicular to its two furfaces, is the axis of the
mirror} and the point H, to which that line is drawn,
is its vortex.
4. The diftance between the lines AG and EG,
(fig. 1.) is called the angle of incidence, and the di-
ftance between EG and CG is the angle of reflection.
Sect. II. Aphoriftns*
a
n a plane 'p]ie Image DF, (fig. 1.) will appear as far be-
rror* hind the mirror as the objeCt AC is before it.
2. The image will appear of the fame fize, and in
the fame pofition as the object.
3. Every fuch mirror will refleCt the image of an
objeCt of twice its own length and breadth.
4. If the objeCt be an opaque body, and its rays fall
on the mirror nearly in direCt lines, there will be only
one image vifible, which will be reflected by the inner
furface of the glafs. Eut,
5. If the objeCt be a luminous body, and its rays
fall very obliquely on the mirror, there will appear to
an eye, placed in a proper pofition, feveral images ; the
firlt of which, reflected from the outer' furface of the
glafs, will not be fo bright as the fecond, reflected from
the inner furface. The following images, that are pro¬
duced by the repeated reflections of the rays between
the two furfaces of the glafs, will be in proportion lefs
vivid, to the eighth or tenth, which will be fcarce vi-
iible.
ipriral I* The image DF, (fig. 2.), will always appear be-
ivex kind it*
rror. 2. The image will be in the fame pofition as the
objeCt.
3. It will be lefs than the objeCt.
4. It will be curved, but not, as the mirror, fpheri¬
cal.
4
. In a
1 erical
4 icave
irror.
5. Parallel rays falling on this mirror will have the
focus or image at half the diitance of the centre K
from the mirror.
6. In converging rays, the diftance of the objeCt
muft be equal to half the diftance of the centre, to
make the image appear behind the mirror.
7. Diverging rays will have their image at lefs than
half the diftance of the centre. If the objeCt be placed
in the centre of the mirror, its image will appear at
one eighth of that diftance behind it.
1. That point where the image appears of the fame
dimenfions as the objeCt, is the centre of that mirror.
2. Parallel rays will have their focus at one half the
diftance of the centre.
3. Converging rays will form an image before the
mirror.
4. In diverging rays, if the objeCt be at lefs than
one-half the diftance of the centre, the image will be
behind the mirror, ereCt, curved, and magnified, as
DEF, (fig. 3.); but if the diftance of the objeCtbe
greater, the image will be before the mirror, inverted
and diminilhed, as DEF, (fig. 4.)
5. The fun’s rays falling on a concave mirror, and
heing parallel, will be collected in a focus at half the
TRIGS. 279
diftance of its centre, where their heat will be aug¬
mented in proportion of the furface of the mirror to
that of the focal fpot.
6. If a luminous body be placed in the focus of a
concave mirror, its rays being reflefted in parallel lines,
will ftrongly enlighten a fpace of the fame dimenfion
with the mirror, at a great diftance. If the luminous
objeCl be placed nearer than the focus, its rays will
diverge, and confequently enlighten a larger fpace.
It is on this principle that reverberators are con-
ftruCled.
IV. In all plane and fpherical mirrors the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
Sect. III. Entertaining Experiments,
s
I. Of all our fenfes the fight is certainly fubjeCt to I. Catop-
the greateft illufion. The various writers on optics trical iilu#
have defcribed a great number of inftanees in which ^on3,
it deceives us, and have conftantly endeavoured to in-
veftigate the caufes, to explain their effeCts, and to re¬
concile appearance with reality. We every day dif-
cover new' phenomena, and doubtlefs many more are
referved for pofterity. It frequently happens, more¬
over, that a difeovery which at firlt feemed of little
confequence has led to matters of the higheft import¬
ance.
Take a glafs bottle A (fig. 14.) and fill it with wa¬
ter to the point B ; leave the upper part EC empty,
and cork it in the common manner. Place this bottle
oppofite a concave mirror, and beyond its focus, that
it may appear reverfed, and before the mirror (fee
SeCt. II. aph. 3. 4. of a fpher. concave mirror,) place
yourfelf ftill further diftant from the bottle, and it will
appear to you in the fituation a, b, ct (fig. 13.)
Now it is remarkable in this apparent bottle, that
the water, which, according to all the laws of catop¬
trics, and all the experiments made on other objeCls^
fliould appear at a b, appears on the contrary at b ct
and conlequently the part a b appears empty.
If the bottle be inverted and placed before the mir¬
ror (as in fig. 16.), its image will appear in its natu¬
ral ere£l pofition ; and the wTater, which is in reality
at EC, w ill appear at a b.
If while the bottle is inverted it be uncorked, and
the water run gently out, it will appear, that while the
part EC is emptying, that of <2 in the image is filling y
and, what is likew ife very remarkable, as foon as the
bottle is empty the illufien ceafes, the image alfo ap¬
pearing entirely empty. If the bottle likewife be quite
full there is no illufion.
If while the bottle is held inverted, and partly emp¬
ty, fome drops of water fall from the bottom A to¬
wards EC, it feems in the image as if there wrere formed
at the bottom of that part a />, bubbles of air that rofe
from a to w hich is the part that feems full of water.
All thefe phenomena conftantly appear.
The remarkable circumftances in this experiment
are, firft, not only to fee an objeft where it is not, but
alfo where the image is not; and fecondly, that of two
objedls which are really in its fame place, as the fur¬
face at one place, and the other at another; and to
fee the bottle in the place of its image, and the w’ater
where neither it nor its image are.
IL Conftruft a box AE, of about a foot long, eight
inches
ago C A T O P
6 inches vide, and fix high 5 or what other dimenfions
II. Appear- provided it does not greatly vary
boundlefs Irora theie proportions.
vifta, On the infide of this box, and againft each of its
%• 5* op polite ends A and B, place a mirror of the lame
fize. Take off the quickfilver from the mirror that
you place at B, for about an inch and a half, at tne
part C, where you are to ttiaKe a hole in the box of
the fame fize, by which you may eafily view its infide.
Cover the top of the box with a frame, in which mult
be placed a tranfparent glafs, covered with gauze, on
the lide next the inner part of the box. Let there be
two grooves at the parts L and F to receive the two
painted feenes hereafter mentioned. On two pieces of
cut palteboard let there be Ikilfully- painted on both
fides (fee fig. 6. and 7.) any fubjeft you think proper j
as w’oods, gardens, bowers,- colonnades, &c. and on
two other pafteboards, the fame fubje&s on one fide
only j obferving that there ought to be on one of them
fome objedl relative to the lubjedl placed at A, that
the mirror placed at D may not relledt tne hole at C
#n the oppofite fide.
. Place the two boards painted on both, fides in the
grooves. E and F ; and thofe that are painted on one
lide only againlt the oppofite mirrors C and D j and
then cover the box wdth its tranfparent top. This
box Ihould be placed in a ftrong light to have a good
effeft.
When the eye is placed at C, and views the onjetts
on the infide of the box, of which fome, as we have
faid, are painted on both fides, they are fuecelfively
reflected from one mirror to the other j and if, for
example, the painting confills of trees, they will ap¬
pear like a very long villa, of which the eye cannot
difeern the end : for each of the mirrors repeating the
ebje&s, continually more faintly, contribute greatly to
7 augment the illufion.
III. Of a HI. Take a fquare box AECD, of about fix inches
fortification iong) and twelve high •, cover the infide of it with four
of immenfe , ^ m;rrors, which muff be placed perpendicular to
the bottom of the box CHFD.
S ' Place certain objefts in relief on the bottom of this
box *, fuppofe, for example, a piece of fortification,
(as fig. 9.) with tents, foldiers, &c. or any other fub-
(e£l that you judge will produce an agreeable effefl by
its difpofition when repeatedly refkaed by the mir¬
rors. .
On the top of this box place a frame of glafs, m
form of the bottom part of a pyramid, whofe bafe
AGEB is equal to the fize.of the box : its top ILN
muff form a fquare of fix inches., and ihould not be
more than four or five inches higher than the box.
Cover the four fides of this frame with a gauze, that
the infide may not be vifible but at the top ILN,
which Ihould be covered with a tranfparent glafs.
When you look into this box . through the glafs
LN, the mirrors that are diametrically oppofite each
ether, mutually reflefling the figures enclofed, the eye
beholds a boundlefs extent, completely covered with
thefe objefls ; and if they are properly difpofed, the
illufion will occafion no fmall furprife, and afford great
entertainment. *
Note, The nearer the opening ILN is to the top of
the box, the greater will be the apparent extent of the
4
TRIGS. I
fubjcft. The fame will happen If the four mirrefs I
placed on the fides of the box be more elevated. The
obje£b, by either of thefe difpofitions, will appear to
be repeated nine, twenty-five, forty-nine times, ;&c.
by taking always the fquare of the odd numbers of the
arithmetical progreffion 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. as is very eafy
to conceive, if we remember that the fubjedt enelofed
in tHe box is always in the centre of a fquare, compo-
fed of feveral others, equal to that which forms the bot¬
tom of the box.
Other pieces of the fame kind (that is, viewed front ' j
above) may be contrived, in which mirrors may be
placed perpendicular on a triangular, pentagon, or
hexagon (that is, a three, five, or fix-lided) plane.
AH thefe different difpofitions, properly dire&ed, as
well vith regard to the choice as pofition of the ob-
jefts, will conftantly produce very remarkable and
pleafing illufions.
If inffead of placing the mirrors perpendicular, they
were to incline equally, fo as to form part of a reverfed
pyramid, the fubjecl placed in the box would then
nave the appearance of a very extenfive globular or
many-fided figure. 8-
IV. On the hexagonal or fix-fided plane ABCDEFIV- Surp
draw fix femidiameters GA, GB, GC, GD, GE, GF j
and on each of thefe place perpendicularly two plane
miri'ors, which mull join exactly at the centre G, and fig. I(jJ
which placed back to back mull be as thin as poffible.
Decorate the exterior boundary of this piece (which is
at the extremity of the angles of the hexagon) with
fix columns, that at the fame time ferve to fupport the
mirrors, by grooves formed on their inner fides. (See
the profile H). Add to thefe columns their entabla¬
tures, and cover the edifice in fuch a manner as you
fhall think proper.
In each one of thefe fix triangular fpaces, contained
between two mirrors, place little figures of palleboard,
in relief, reprefenting fueh objefts as when feen in a
hexagonal form will produce an agreeable effedL To
thefe add fmall figures of enamel; and take particular
care to conceal, by fome objedt that has relation to
the fubjedl, the place where the mirrors join, which,
as we have faid before, all meet in the common centre
G.
When you look into any one of the fix openings of
this palace, the objects there contained being repeat¬
ed fix times, will feem entirely to fill up the whole of
the building. This illufion will appear very remark,
able } especially if the objcdls made choice of are-pro¬
perly adapted to the effedl that is to be produced by
the mirrors.
Note, If you place between two of thefe mirrors
part of a fortification, as a curtain and two demi-ba-
llions, you will fee an entire citadel, with fix baftions.
Or if you place part of a ball-room, ornamented with
chandeliers and figures in enamel, all thofe objedls
being here multiplied, will afford a very pleafing pro-
fpedt.
V. Within the cafe ABCD, place your mirrors, V. Opaq’
O, P, O, K, fo difpofed that they may each of them [?‘
make an angle of forty-five degrees, that is, that they renijere(j
may be half way inclined from the perpendicular, astrailfparc
in the figure. In each of the two extremities AB,fig. n
make a circular overture, in one of which fix the tube
GL,
CATOPTRICS,
GL, in the other the tube MF, and obferve that in
each of thefe is to be inferted another tube, as H and
I (a). _
Furmfh the firft of thefe tubes with an objeft-glafs
at G, and a concave eye-glafs at F. You are to ob¬
ferve, that in regulating the focus of thefe glalfes, with
regard to the length of the tube, you are to fuppofe
it equal to the line G, or vifual pointed ray, which
entering at the aperture G, is refle&ed by the four
mirrors, and goes out at the other aperture F, where
the ocular glafs is placed. Put any glafs you will in¬
to the two ends of the moveable tubes H and I ; and,
laftly, place the machine on a Hand E, moveable at the
point S, that it may be elevated or depreffed at plea-
fure.
When the eye is placed at F, and you look through
the tube, the rays of light that proceed from the objeft
T, palling through the glafs G, are fucceffively refleft-
ed by the mirrors O, P, £, and R, to the eye at F,
and there paint the objeft T in its proper fituation ;
and thefe rays appear to proceed direftly from that
objeft.
_ The two moveable tubes H and I, at the extremi¬
ties of each of which a glafs is placed, ferve only the
more to difguife the illulion, for they have no commu¬
nication with the interior part of the machine. This
inftrument being moveable on the ftand E, may be
dir eft ed to any objeft j and if furnilhed with proper
glalfes will anfwer the purpofe of a common perfpec-
tive.
The two moveable tubes H and I being brought
together, the machine is direfted toward any objeft,
and deliring a perfon to look at the end F, you alk
him if he fees diftinftly that objeft. You then fepa-
rate the two moveable tubes, and leaving a fpace be¬
tween them fufficient to place your hand, or any other
folid body j you tell him that the machine has the
power of making objefts vilible through the moft
opaque body 5 and as a proof you defire him then to
look at the fame objeft, when, to his great furprife, he
will fee it as diftinft as when there was no folid body
placed between the tubes.
Note, This experiment is the more extraordinary, as
| it is very difficult to conceive how the effeft is produced.
The two arms of the cafe appearing to be made to fup-
port the perfpeftivC glafs j and to whatever objeft it is
! e direfted, the effeft is ftill the fame.
JF-. the partition AB, make two apertures, CD,
«at X an^ of a foot high, and ten laches wide, and
'or. 12. ab°ut a foot diftant from each other. Let them be
at the common height of a man’s head ; and in each
of them place a tranfparent glafs, furrounded with a
frame, like a common mirror.
s . Behind this partition place two mirrors H and I,
inclined to it in an angle of forty-five degrees ; that
is, half way between a line drawn perpendicular to the
ground and its furface j let them be both 18 inches
Vol. V. Part I.
fquare : let all the fpaee between them be inclofed by
boards or pafteboard painted black, and well clofed, that
no light may enter : let there be alfo two curtains to
cover them, which may be drawn afide at pleafure.
When a perfon looks into one of thefe fuppofed
mirrors, inftead of feeing his own face, he will perceive
the objeft that is in front of the other ; fo that if two
perfons prefent themfelves at the fame time before thefe
mirrors, inftead of each one feeing himfelf, they will
reciprocally fee each other.
Note, Ihere ffiould be a fconce with a candle placed
on each fide of the two glaffes in the wainfcot, to en¬
lighten the faces of the perfons who look in them,,
otherwife this experiment will have no remarkable ef¬
feft.
This experiment may be confiderably improved by
placing the two glaffes in the partition in adjoining
rooms, and a number of perfons being previoufly pla¬
ced in one room, when a ftranger enters the other,
you may tell him his face is dirty j and defire him to
look in the glafs, which he will naturally do j and o»
feeing a ftrange face he will draw back j but return¬
ing to it, and feeing another, another, and another,
like the phantom kings in Macbeth, what his furprife
will be is more eafy to conceive than exprefs. After
this, a real mirror may be privately let dow n on the
back of the glafs j and if he can be prevailed to look
in it once more, he will then, to his further aftoniffi-
ment, fee his own face j and may be told, perhaps per-
fuaded, that all he thought he fawr before w as the mere
effeft of imagination.
How many tricks, lefs artful than this, have paffed
in former times for forcery, and pafs at this time in
feme countries for apparitions !
Note, W hen a man looks in a mirror that is pla¬
ced^ perpendicular to another, his face will appear
entirely deformed. If the mirror be a little inclined,
fo as to make an angle of 80 degrees (that is, one-
ninth part from the perpendicular), he will then fee
all the parts of his face, except the nofe and forehead*
If it be inclined to 60 degrees (that is, one-third part),
he will appear wdth three nofes and fix eyes : in fliort,
the apparent deformity will vary at each degree of in¬
clination $ and when the glafs comes to 45 degrees
(that is, half way down), the face w ill vaniffi. If, in¬
ftead of placing the two mirrors in this fituation, they
are fo difpofed that their junftion may be vertical,
their different inclinations will produce other effefts ;
as the fituation of the objeft relative to thefe mirrors
is quite different. The effefts of thefe mirrors, though
remarkable enough, occafions but little furprife, as
there is no method of concealing the caufe by which
they are produced.
VII. Make a box of wood, of a cubical figure,”
ABCD, of about 15 inches every way. Let it be ° '
fixed to the pedeftal P, at the ufual height of a man’s
head. In each fide of this box, let there be an open-
N n in?
(a) Ihefe four tubes muft terminate in the fubftance of the cafe, and not enter the infide, that they may not
hinder the efteft of the mirrors. The fourfold refteftion of the rays of light from the mirrors, darkens in feme
degree the brightnefs of the objeft *, feme light is alfo loft by the magnifying power of the perfpeftive. If, there¬
fore, inftead of the objeft-glafs at G, and concave eye-glafs at F, plain glaffes were fubftituted, the magnifying
power of the perfpeftive will be taken away, and the objeft; appear brighter.
282
C A T O P
ino- of an oval form, of ten inclies high, and feven
wide. _ .
In this box place two mirrors A, D, with their
backs againft each other j let them crefs the box in a
diagonal line, and in a vertical polition. Decorate
the openings in the lides of this box with lour oval
frames and tranfparent glalfes, and cover each of them
with a curtain, lo contrived that they may all draw up
together.
Place four perfons in front of the four fides, and at
equal diftances from the box, and then draw up the
curtains that they may fee themfelves in the mirrors j
when each of thein, initead of his own figure, v.iil
fee that of the perfon who is next to him, and who, at
the fame time, will feem to him to be placed on tne
oppofite tide. Xheir confufion will be the greater, as
it will be very difficult for them to difeover the mirrors
concealed in the box. X he reafon of this phenome¬
non is evident) for though the rays of light may be
turned afide by a mirror, yet as we have before laid,
I2 they always appear to proceed in right lines.
VIII. i'ae VIII. Provide abox ABt D of about two feet long,
perfpeefiave 15 inches wide, and 12 inches high. At the end
mirror, place a cun(Jave mirror, the focus of whofe paral-
17‘ lei rays is at 18 inches from the rtflefting furfaet . At
IJL place a pafteboard blacked, in which a hole is cut
fufficiently large to lee on the mirror H the object
placed at BEFD.
Cover the top of the box, from A to I, clofe, tnat
the mirror H may be entirely darkened, i nc other
part IB mult be covered with a glats, under which is
placed a gauze. ^
Make an aperture at G, near the top of the fide El>;
beneath which, on the infide, place, in fucceffion, paint¬
ings of different fubjedts, as villas, landfcapes, &c. fo
that they may be in front of the mirror H. Let the
box be fo placed that the objeft may be ftrongly illu¬
minated by the fun, or by wax lights placed under the
enclofed part of the box AI.
By this limple conffruftion the objefts placed at GD
will be thrown into their natural perfpeftive } and if
the fubjeas be properly chofen, the appearance will be
altogether as pleafing as in optical machines of a much
more complicated form.
Note, A glafs mirror ffiould be always here ufed,
as thofe of metal do not reprefent the objeas with
equal vivacity, and are befide fubjea to tarniffi. It is
alio neceffary that the box be fufficiently large, that
you may not be obliged to ufe a mirror whole focus
is too Ihort; for in that cafe, the right lines near the
border of the piaure will appear bent in the mirror,
which will have a difagreeable effed, and cannot be
j, avoided. . , -
1X. To fet IX. Xhe rays of a luminous body placed m the io-
fire to a cus 0f a concave mirror being refleaed in parallel lines,
combuftible j£ a £econ(j mirror be placed diametrically oppofite the
Xawfrft, il wil1’ by cplleaing thofe rays in its focus, fet
twoconcave fire to a combuftible body. i r> , .
mirrors, Place two concaVe mirrors, A and B, at about
fig-l8- 12 or 15 feet diftance from each other, and let the
axis of each of them be in the fame line. In the fo¬
cus C of one of them, place a live coal, and in the
focus D of the other fome gunpowder. With a pair
of double bellows, which make a continual blaft, keep
conftantly blowing the coal, and notwithftanding the
TRIGS.
diftance between them, the powder will prcfeutly take
It is not neceffary that thefe mirrors be of metal
or brafs, thofe made of wood or pafteboard gild¬
ed will produce the explofion, which has lomctimes
taken die ft at the diftance of 50 feet, when mir¬
rors of 18 inches, or two feet diameter, have been
This experiment fucceeds with more difficulty at
great diftances j which may proceed from the moft-
ture in a large quantity of air. It would doubtlefs
take effedf more readily, if a tin tube, of an equal dia¬
meter with the mirrors, were to be placed between
X. Behind the partition AB, place, in a pofition *ne real
fomething oblique, the concave mirror EF, which inutGPF™^
Ko at- Ipnrt tf-n inches in diameter, and its diftanee from 6
1UJU1CIU1UU   
be at leait ten inches in diameter, ana its diftanee horn
the partition equal to three fourths of the diftanee oi
its centre. . . .
In the partition make an opening oi ieven 01 eight
inches, either fquare or circular : it muit face the nur- -
ror, and be of the fame height with it. Behind this
partition place a ftrong light, lo difpofed that it may
not be leen at the opening, and may illumine an ob-
jed placed at C, without throwing any light on tne
mirror. . . . ,
Beneath the aperture in the partition place the ob¬
ject C, that you intend (hall appear on the outftde ot
the partition, in an inverted politiwn j and which we
will fuppofe to be a flower. Before the partition,
and beneath the aperture, place a little howerpot D,
the top of which fhould be even with the bottom oi
the aperture, that the eye, placed at G, may lee the
flower in the fame pofttion as if its llalk came cut ot
the pot.
Xake care to paint the fpace between the back pait
of the partition and the' mirror black, to prevent any
reflea ions of light from being thrown on the mirror j
in a word, fo difpofe the whole that it may be as little
enlightened as poflible. . _ ...
When a perfon is placed at the point G, he will
perceive the flower that is behind the partition, at the
top of the pot at D but on putting out his hand to
pluck it, he will find that he attempts to grafp a fha¬
lf in the opening of the partition a large double
convex lens of a fhort focus be placed, or, which is not
quite fo well, a bottle of clear water, the image of the
flower refleaed thereon will appear much more vivid
and diftindt.
Xhe phenomena that may be produced by means
of concave mirrors are highly curious and aftoniffimg. mn.
J3V their aid, fpeares of various kinds may be exhi¬
bited. Suppofe, for example, a perfon with a drawn
fword places himfelf before a large concave mirror, out
farther from it than its focus *, he will then fee an in¬
verted image of himfelf in the air, between him and
the mirror, of a lefs fize than himfelf. 11 he fteadily
prefent the fword towards the centre of the mirror,
an image of the fword will come out therefrom towards
the fword in his hand, point to point, as it were to
f,nce with him and by his puflnng the fword nearer,
the image will appear to come nearer him, and almo
to touch his breaft, having a linking effect upon him.
the mirror be turned 45 degrees, or one-eightn
round,
If
Catoptrics.
/v^u?; rx\:n7.
fig. 3.
D
/yy. 6\
Ftz/- £ •
y%./.
/^/y #
G
y^yV.
yyy. <9
I, N
F
y^y.^.
CATOPTRICS.
STUrul, tlie icflcfied image will go out perpendicular to
the direction of the fword prefented, and apparently come
to another perfon placed in the direction of the motion of
the image. If that perfon is unacquainted with the ex¬
periment, and does not fee the original fword, he will be
much furprifed and alarmed. This experiment may lie
another way diverfified, by telling any perfon, that at
fuch an hour, and in fuch a place, he fhould fee the ap¬
parition of an abfent or deceafed friend (of whole por¬
trait you are in pofiTeflion). In order te produce
this phantom, inilead of the hole in the partition AB
in the laft figure, there muft be a door which opens
into an apartment to which there is a confiderable de-
feent. Under that door you are to place the portrait,
which rnuil be inverted and ftrongly illuminated, that
it may be lively reflefled by the mirror, which muif
be large and well po'ifhed. Then having introduced
the incredulous fpeftator at another door, and pla¬
ced him in the proper point of view, you fuddenly
throw open the door at AB, when, to his great allo-
niihment, he will immediately fee the apparition of his
friend.
It will be objefted, perhaps, that this is not a per-
fe£l apparition, becaufe it is only vifible at one point
of view, and by one perfon. But it fhould be remem¬
bered, that it was an eftablifhed maxim in the laft cen¬
turies, that a fpedre might be vifible to one perfon
and not to others. So Shakefpeare makes both Ham¬
let and Macbeth fee apparitions that were not vifible
to others prefent at the fame time. It is not unlike¬
ly, moreover, that this maxim took its rife from cer¬
tain apparitions of this kind that were raifed by the
monks, to ferve fome purpofes they called religious y
as they alone were in poffeffion of what little learning
there then was in the world.
Opticians fometimes grind a glafs mirror concave in
ope direction only, as it is faid longitudinally •, it is in
fa6I a concave portion of a cylinder, the breadih of
which may be confidered that of the mirror. A per¬
fon looking at his face in this mirror, in the dire&ion
of its concavity, will fee it curioufly diftorted in a very
lengthened appearance ; and by turning the cylindri¬
cal mirror a quarter round, his vifage will appear di¬
ftorted another way, by an apparent increafe in width
only. Another curious and lingular property attends
this fort of mirror : If in a very near fituation before
it, you put your finger on the right hand fide of
your nofe, it will appear the fame in the mirror ; but
if in a diftant fituation, fomewhat beyond the centre
of concavity, you again look at your face in the mirror,
your finger will appear to be removed to the other of
left hand fide of your nofe. This, though fomething
extraordinary, will in its caufe appear very evident from
a fimall confideration of the properties of fpherical con¬
cave mirrors.
283
CAT
CAT
Ltoptro-
:wncy
CATOPTROMANCY, K.xr67rJ^0fixvTUx, a kind of
divination among the ancients j fo called, becaufe con¬
fiding in the application of a mirror. The word is
formed from xaravl^y, fp^ 'u/uvi, “mirror,” and pxv-
rux, divinatio, “ divination.” Paufanias fays, it was
in ufe among the Achaians • where thofe who were
fick, and in danger of death, let down a mirror, or
looking glafs fattened by a thread, into a fountain be¬
fore the temple of Ceres •, then looking in the glafs,
if they faw a ghaftly disfigured face, they took it as a
fure fign of death : on the contrary, if the fleflr ap¬
peared frefh and healthy, it was a token of recovery.
Sometimes glades were ufed without water, and the
images of things future reprefented in them. See
Gastrom \xcy.
CATROU, FrakCis, a famous Jefuit, born at Paris
in 1659. He was engaged for 12 years in the Jour¬
nal de Trevonx, and applied himfelf at the fame time
to other v'orks, which diftinguifhed him among the
learned. He wrote a general Hlftory of the Mogul
empire, and a Roman Hiftory, in which he was aftift-
ed by Father Rouille, a brother Jefuit. Catrou died
in 1737 and this laft hiftory was continued by Rou¬
ille, who died in 1740.
CATTERTHUN, a remarkable Caledonian poft
a few' miles n«rth of die town of Brechin in the county
of A.ngus in Scotland. Mr Pennant deferihes it as of
uncommon ftrength. “ It is (fays he) of an oval
form, made of a ftupendous dike of loofe white ftones,
tvhofe convexity, from the bafe within to that with¬
out, is 122 feet. On the outfide a bellow, made byCatterthufi,
the difpofition of the ftones, furrounds the whole. ^aui.
Round the bafe is a deep ditch, and below that about
100 yards, are veftiges of another, that wfent round
the hill. The area within the ftony mound is flat j
the axis, or length of the oval, is 436 feet, the tranf-
verfe diameter 200. Near the eaft fide is the foun¬
dation of a reffangular building •, and on moft parts
are the foundations of others fmall and circular : all
which had once their fuperftrud tires, the {belter of the
poiTeftbrs of the poft : there is alfo a hollow, now al-
moft filled with ftones, the well of the place.” There
is another fortification, but of inferior ftrength, in the
neighbourhood. It is called the Brawn Crrterthun,
from the colour of the ramparts, w hich are compofed
only of earth. It is of a circular form, and confifts
of various concentric dikes. On one fide of this riles
a fmall rill, w'hich, running down the hill, has formed a
deep gully. From t! 2 fide of the fortrefs is another
rampart, wdiich extends parallel to the rill, and then re ¬
verts. forming an additional poft or retreat. The mean¬
ing of the word Catter-thun is Camp-town; and Mr
Pennant thinks there might probably be the polls occu¬
pied by the Caledonians before their engagement at the
foot of the Grampian mountains with the celebrated
Agricola. See (IIft on/ of) Scotland.
CATTI, a people of Germany, very widely fprend,
on the eaft reaching to the river Sala, on the north to
Wcftphalia •, occupying, befides Heffe, the Wetterau,
and part of the tra£l on the Rhine, and on the banks
N n 2 of
Cfltti
Catullus.
CAT [2
af the river Lohne. The Hercynian foreft began and
ended in their country.
, CATTIVELLAUNI, anciently a people of Bri¬
tain, feated in the country which is now divided into
the counties of Hertford, Bedford, and Bucks. The
name of this ancient Britilh people is written in feveral
different ways by Greek and Roman authors, being
fometimes called Catti, Cafhi, Catticulcani, Cattiduda-
ni, Catticludani, &c. That they were of Belgic origin
cannot be doubted 5 and it is not improbable that they'
derived their name of Catti from the Belgic word
Katten, which fignifies illuflrious or noble, and that
the addition of Vellauni, which means on the banks of
rivers, might be given them after their arrival in Bri¬
tain, as deferiptive of the fituation of their country.
However this may be, the Cattivellauni formed one of
the moft brave and warlike of the ancient Britifh na¬
tions when Ceefar invaded Britain, and long after.
Caffibelanus, their prince, was made commander in
chief of the confederated Britons, not only on account
ef his own perfonal qualities, but alfo becaule he was
at the head of one of their braved; and moft powerful
tribes. In the interval between the departure of Cae-
far and the next invafion under Claudius, the Cattivel¬
launi had reduced feveral of the neighbouring ftates un¬
der their obedience j and they again took the lead in
oppofition to the Romans at their fecond invafion, un¬
der their brave but unfortunate Prince Caraftacus.
The country of the Cattivellauni was much frequent¬
ed and improved by the Romans, after it came under
their obedience. Verulamium, their capital, which
ftood near where St Alban’s now ftands, became a place
of great confideration, was honoured with the name
and privileges of a municipium or free city, and had
magiftrates after the model of the city of Rome. This
place was taken and almoft deftroyed by the infurgents
under Boadicea j but it was afterwards rebuilt, reftored
to its former fplendour, and furrounded with a ftrong
wall, fome veftiges of which are ftill remaining, Du-
rocobrivae and Magiavintum, in the fecond iter of An¬
toninus, were probably Dunftable and Fenny Strat¬
ford, at which places there appear to have been Ro¬
man Rations. The Salen* of Ptolemy, a town in the
country of the Cattivellauni, was perhaps fituated at
Salndy in Bedfordfnire, where feveral Roman antiqui¬
ties have been found. There were, befides thefe, fe¬
veral other Roman forts, Rations, and towns in this
country, which it would be tedious to enumerate. The
territories of the Cattivellauni made a part of the Ro¬
man province called Britannia Prima.
CATTLE, a collective word, which fignifies the
four-footed animals, which ferve either for tilling the
ground, or for food to man. They are diftinguilhed
into large or black cattle ; and into fmall cattle : of
the former are horfes, bulls, oxen, cows, and even
calves, and heifers j amongft the latter are rams, ewes,
/keep, lambs, goats, kids, &c. Cattle are the chief
Rock of a farm : they who deal in cattle are fly led
graziers.
CATULLUS, Caius Valerius, a Latin poet,
- born at Verona, in the year of Rome 666. The har-
jnony of his numbers acquired him the efteem and
friendlhip of Cicero, and other great men of his time.
Many of his poems, however, abound with grofs obfee-
idties. He wrote fatirical verfes againft Cedar, under
84 ] C A v
the name of Marmero. He fpent his whole life in a Catull®
ftate of poverty •, and died in the Hower of his age and ll
the height of his reputation. Jofeph Scaliger, Pafferat,,ava^
Muret, and Ifaac Voilius, have written learned notes
on this poet.
CATZ, James, a great civilian, politician), and
Dutch poet, was born at Browerlhaven, in Zealand,
in the year 1577. After having made feveral voy¬
ages, he fixed at Middleburg j and acquired by his
pleadings fuch reputation, that the "city of Dort chofe
him for its penfionary j as did alfo, fome time after,
that of Middleburg. In 1634, he was nominated pen¬
fionary of Holland and Weft Fridland j and in 1648,
he was elected keeper of the feal of the fame ftate, and
ftadtholder of the fiefs : but fome time after, he re-
figned thefe employments, to enjoy the repole which
his advanced age demanded. As the poft of grand
penfionary had been fatal to almoft all thole who had
enjoyed it, from the beginning of the republic till that
time, Catz delivered up his charge on his knees, be¬
fore the whole aiTembly of the ftates, weeping for joy,
and thanking God for having preferved him from the
inconveniences that feemed attached to the duties of
that office. But though he was refolved to fpend the
reft of his days in repofe, the love of his country en¬
gaged him to comply with the defires of the ftates, who
importuned him to go on an embaffy to England, in
the delicate conjuncture in which the republic found
itfelf during the proteftorate of Cromwell. At his
return, he retired to his fine country feat at Sorgvliet,
where he lived in tranquillity till the year 16bo, in
which he died. He wrote a great number of poems
in Dutch j moft of which are on moral fubjeds, and fo
efteemed, that they have been often printed in all the
different fizes 5 and, next to the Bible, there is no work
fo highly valued by the Dutch.
CATZENELLIBOGEN, a town of Germany, in
the lower part of the upper circle of the Rhine, with
a ftrong caftle. It is capital of a county of the fame-
name. E. Long. 7. 38. N. Lat. 50. 20.
CAVA, in Anatomy, the name of a vein, the largeft
in the body, terminating in the right ventricle of tire
heart. See Anatomy Index,
Cava, a confiderable and populous town of Italy,
in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Hither Principa-
to, with a biffiop’s fee. It is fituated at the foot of
Mount Metelian, in E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 40. 40.
CAVAILLAN, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Vauclufe, and formerly a bilhop’s fee. It is
fituated on the river Durance, in a fertile and pleafant
country, and 20 miles fouth-eaft of Avignon. E. Long.
4. 17. N. Lat. 43. 52.
CAVALCADE, a formal pompous march or pro-
ceffion iff horfemen, equipages, &c. by way of parade
or ceremony, to grace a triumph, public entry, or the
like.
CAVALCADOUR, or Cavalcadeur, ancient¬
ly denoted a riding mafter •, but at prefent is difufed
in that fenfe, and only employed to denote a fort of
equerries or officers who have the direCHon of princes
ftables. The French fay, ecuyer cavalcadeur of the
king, the duke of Orleans, &c. Menage writes it ca-
valcadour, and derives it from the Spaniffi cavalgador,
a horfeman.
CAVALCANTE, Guido, a nobleman of Floronce
C A V f 28
■alcante in the 13 th century, who having followed the party
of the Guelphs, experienced the changeablcnefs of for¬
tune'. He {bowed great ftrength of mind in his mif-
fortunes, and never neglected to improve his talents.
He wrote a treatife in Italian concerning flyle, and
fome verfes which are efteemed. His poem on the-
love of this world has been commented on by feveral
learned men.
CAVALIER, a horfeman, or perfon mounted on
horfeback : efpecially if he be armed withal, and have
a military appearance.
Anciently the word was retrained to a knight, or
miles. The French Hill ufe Chevalier in the fame
fenfe.
Cavalier, confidered as a faftion. See Britain,
N° 109.
Cavalier, in fortification, an elevation of earth of
different {hapes, fituated ordinarily in the gorge of a
baftion, bordered with a parapet, and cut into more
or lefs embrafures, according to the capacity of the
cavalier. Cavaliers are a double defence for the faces
of the oppofite baftion : they defend the ditch, break
ihe befiegers galleries, command the traverfes in dry
moats, fcour the falient angle of the counterfcarp,
where the befiegers have their counter batteries, and
enfilade the enemy’s trenches, or oblige them to mul¬
tiply their parallels : they are likewife very ferviceable
in defending the breach and the retrenchments of the
befieged, and can very much incommode the intrench-
ments which the enemy make, being lodged in the
baftion.
Cavalier, in . the manege, one that underftands
horfes, and is pradiifed in the art of riding them.
CAVALIERI, Bonaventure, an eminent ma¬
thematician in the 17th century, a native of Milan, and
a friar of the order of the Jeluati of St Jerome, was
profeffor of the mathematics at Bologna, where he pub-
lilhed feveral mathematical books, particularly the
“ Method of Indivifibles.” He was a fcholar of Ga¬
lileo. His Direclorium generate Uranometricum con¬
tains great variety of moft ufeful praftices in trigono¬
metry and aftronomy. His trigonometrical tables in
that work are excellent.
CAVALRY, a body of foldiers that charge on
horfeback. The word comes from the French, ca-
va/erie, and that from the corrupt Latin, caballus, a
horfe.
The Roman cavalry confifted wholly of thofe cal¬
led equ/tes, or knights, who were a diftindl order in the
diftribution of citizens.—The Grecian cavalry v'ere di¬
vided into rataphraBte and non cataphraffce, i. e. into
heavy and light armed.—Of all the Greeks, theThef-
falians excelled moft in cavalry. The Lacedaemonians,
inhabiting a mountainous country, were but meanly
furnifiied with cavalry, till, carrying their arms into
other countries, they found great occafion for horfes
to fupport and cover their foot. The Athenian caval¬
ry, for a confiderable time, confifted only of 96 horfe-
men : after expelling the Perfians out of Greece, they
increafed the number to 300 j and afterwards to 1 ^00,
which was the higheft pitch of the Athenian cavalry.
The Turkifti cavalry confifts partly of Spahis, and
partly of horfemen raifed and maintained by the Zaims
and Timariots.
The chief ufe of the cavalry is to make frequent
s 3 c a v
excurfions to difturb the enemy, intercept his convoys,
and deftroy the country : in battle to fupport and co¬
ver the foot, and to break through and tliforder the
enemy j alfo to fccure the retreat of the foot. For¬
merly, the manner of fighting of the cavalry was, after
firing their piftols or carabines, to wheel oft', to give
opportunity for loading again. Guftavus Adolphus
is laid to have firft taught the cavalry to charge through,
to march ftraight up to the enemy, w ith the fword
drawn in the bridle hand, and each man having fired
his piece, at the proper diftanee, to betake himfelf t®
his fword, and charge the enemy as was found moft ad¬
vantageous.
CAVAN, a town of Ireland, and capital of a coun¬
ty of the fame name, in the province of Ulfter, fituated
in W. Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 54. o.
Cavan, a county of Ireland, 47 miles in length and
23 in breadth j is bounded on the eaft by Monaghan,
and on the fouth by Longford, Weft-Meath, and Eaft-
Meath. It has but two towns of any note, viz. Cavam
and Kilmore. It fends five members to parliament >
two for the county, two for Cavan, and one for Kilmore.
It contains upwards of 8000 houfes, 37 parilhes, fevea
baronies, and two boroughs.
CAUCASUS, the name of a very high mountain of
Alia, being one of that great ridge which runs betwees.
the Black and Cafpian feas. Sir John Chardin de~
feribes this as the higheft mountain, and the moft:
difficult to pafs, of any he had feen. It has frightful
precipices, and in many places the roads are cut out of
the folid rock. At the time he paffed it, the moun¬
tain was entirely covered with fnow j fo that, in many
places, his guides behoved to clear the way with {ho¬
vels. The mountain is 36 leagues over, and the fum-
mit of it eight leagues in breadth. The top is perpe¬
tually covered with fnow j and our traveller relates,
that the two laft days he feemed to be in the clouds,
and was not able to fee 20 paces before him. Except¬
ing the very top, however, all the parts of Mount-
Caucafus are extremely fruitful ; abounding in honey,
corn, fruits, hogs, and large cattle. The vines twine
about the trees, and rife fo high, that the inhabitants
cannot gather the fruit from the uppermoft branches.
There are many ftreams of excellent water, and a
vaft number of villages. The inhabitants are for the
moft part Chriftians of the Georgian church. They
have fine complexions, and the women are very
beautiful.—In the winter they wear fnow fhoes in
the form of rackets, which prevent their finking in
the fnow, and enable them to run upon it with great
fwiftnefs.
CAUDEBEC, a rich, populous, and trading town,,
in Normandy, and capital of the territory of Caux. It
is feated at the foot of a mountain near the river Seine,,
in E. Long. o. 46. N. Lat. 40. 30.
CAUDEX, by Malpighi and other botanifts, is
ufed to fignify the item or trunk of a tree ; by Lin-
nmus, the ftoek or body of the root, part of which,
afeends, part defeends. The afeending part raifes it-
felf gradually above ground, ferving frequently for a.
trunk, and correfponds in fome meafure to the cau-
dex of former writers : the defeending part ftrikes
gradually downward into the ground, and puts forth
radicles or fmall fibres, which are the principal and
effential part of every root. The dsfeeading cau-
C A V r 286 ] C A V
‘Caiulex dex therefore correfponds to the radix of other bo-
tanifts. Agreeably to this idea, Linnaeus confiders
; "" . trees and (hrubs as roots above ground ■, an opinion
which is confirmed by a well known fact, that trees,
when inverted, put forth leaves from the defcending
caudex, and radicles or roots from the aicending. For
the varieties in the defcending caudex, fee the article
Radix.
CAUDIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sam-
■nium, on the Via Appia, betw een Galatia and Bcne-
Ventum: Caudinus, the epithet. The Caudimc Fur-
Cct, Furcatcr, were memorable by the difgrace of the
Romans \ being fpears difpofed in the form of a gal¬
lows under which prifoners of war were made to pafs,
and gave name to a defile or narrow pafs near Cau-
diuyn (Livy) •, where the Samnites wbliged the Ro¬
man army and the two confuls to lay down their arms
and pafs under the gallows, or yoke, as a token of fub-
jeftion.
CAVE, any large fubterraneous hollow. Thefe
Were undoubtedly the primitive habitations, before
men began to build edifices above ground. The pri¬
mitive method of burial was alfo to repofite the bodies
in caves, which feems to have been the origin of cata¬
combs. They long continued the proper habitations
of fhepherds. Among the Romans, caves (antra)
ufed to be confecrated to nymphs, who were wor-
fliipped in caves, as other gods were in temples. The
Perfians alfo war (hipped their god Mithras in a natu¬
ral cave confecrated for the purpofe bv Zoroafter.
Th e cave of the nymph Egeria is Hill fliov.n at Rome.
Kircher, after Gaffarellus, enumerates divers fpecies
of caves 5 as divine, natural, &c.—Of natural caves
fome are poffeffed of a medicinal virtue, as the Grot¬
to de Serpente j others are poifonous or mephitical;
fome are replete with metalline exhalations, and others
with waters. Divine caves Were thofe faid to affeft
the human mind and paflions in various ways, and
even to infpire with a knowledge of future events.
Such were the facred caverns at Delphi which in-
fpired the Pythia •, the Sibyl’s cave at Cumae, ftill
fhown near the lake Avernus; the cave of Tropho-
nius, &c.
Cave, Dr William^ a learned Englifh divine, born
in 1637, educated in St John’s College, Cambridge j
and fuccefhvely minifter of Hafely in Oxfordfhire, All¬
hallows the Great in J^ondon, and of Iflington. He
became chaplain to Charles II. and in 1684 was inflall-
ed a canon of Windfor. He compiled the Lives of the
Primitive Fathers in the threefirjl Centuries of the Church,
which is efteemed a very ufeful w'Ork *, and Hiftoria Li-
teraria, &c. in which he gives an exaft account of all
who had written for or againft Chriftianity from the
time of Chrift to the 14th century : which works pro¬
duced a very warm difpute between Dr Cave and M.
Le Clerc, who was then wwiting his Bihlrothepue Uni-
verfeUe in Holland, and who charged the doftor with
partiality. Dr Cave died in 1713.
Cave, Edward, printer, celebrated as the projector
of the Gentleman's MAGJZINE,—the firfl publication
of the fpecies, and fince
The fruitful mother of a thoufand more,
•was born in 1601. His father being difappointed of
fome fmall family expectations, was reduced to fol-
2
low the trade of fhoemaker at Rugby in Warwick- Cars
fhire. Tho free fchool of this place, in which his fon
had, by the rules of its foundation, a right to be in-
ftrufted, was then in high reputation, under the Rev.
Mr Holyoek, to whofe care molt of the neighbouring
families, even of the higheft rank, intrufted their fons.
He had judgement to difeover, and for fome time ge-
nerofity to encourage, the genius of young Cave ; and
wras fo well plcafcd with his quick progrefs in the
fchool, that he declared his refolution to breed him
for the univerfity, and recommend him as a fervitor to
fome of his fcholars of high rank. But profperity
which depends upon the caprice of others, is of fhort
duration. Cave’s fuperiority in literature exalted him
to an invidious familiarity with boys who were far
above him in rank and expectations •, and, as in un¬
equal aifociations it always happens, whatever unlucky
prank was played was imputed to Cave. W hen any
mifehief, great or fmall, was done, though perhaps
others boaited of the llratagem when it was luccefsful,
yet upon detection or mifearriage, the fault was fure to
fall to poor Cave. The harfh treatment he experien¬
ced from this fource, and w'hich he bore for a while,
made him at laid leave the fchool, and the hope of a
literary education, to feck fome other means of gaining
a livelihood.
Fie was firft placed with a colleCter of the excife 5
but the infolence of his miftrefs, who employed him
in fervilc drudgery, quickly difgufted him, and he w ent
up to London in quell of more fuitable employment.
Flo was recommended to a timber merchant at the
Bankfide : and w'hile he was there on liking, is faid to
have given hopes of great mercantile abilities: but this
place he foon left ; and w as bound apprentice to Mr
Collins, a printer of fome reputation, and deputy aider-
man. This was a trade for which men were formerly
qualified by a literary education, and which was plea-
fing to Cave, becaufe it furnifhed fome employment for
his fcholaftic attainments. Flere, therefore, he refolved
to fettle, though his mailer and millrefs lived in perpe¬
tual difeord, and their houfe was therefore no comfort¬
able habitation. From the inconveniences of thefe do-
meltic tumults he w'as foon releafed, having in only two
years attained fo much Ikill in his art, and gained fo
much the confidence of his mailer, that he w as fent
without any fuperintendant te conduCl a printing houie
at Norwich, and publifh a weekly paper. In this un¬
dertaking he met with fome oppofition, which produced
a public controverfy, and procured young Cave the
reputation of a writer.
His mailer died before his apprenticelhip was ex¬
pired, and he was not able to bear the perverfenefs of
his millrefs. Fie therefore quitted her houfe upon a
llipulated allowance, and married a young widow, with
whom he lived at Bow. When his apprenticelhip was
over, he worked as a journeyman at the printing-houfe
of Mr Barbar, a man much dillinguilhed and employ¬
ed by the Tories, whofe principles had at that time fo
much prevalence with Cave, that he was for fome
years a writer in Mill’s Journal. He afterwards ob¬
tained by his wife’s interell a fmall place in the poll-
ofhee but Hill continued, at his intervals of attend¬
ance, to exercife his trade, or to employ himfelf with
fome typographical bufinefs. He corredled the Gra-
dus ad Farnajfum ; and was liberally rewarded by the
Company
C A V [ 287 ] C A V
sve Company of Stationers. He wrote an Account of the
ll Criminals, which had for fome time a conlideraDle falej
-ivcat and publhhed many little pamphlets that accident
brought into his hands, of which it would be very dif¬
ficult to recover the memory. By the correfpondence
which his place in the poft-office facilitated, he pro¬
cured a country newfpaper, and lold their intelligence
to a journalift in London for a guinea a-week. He
was afterwards railed to the office of the clerk of the
franks, in which he acted with great fpirit and firm-
nefs; and often Hopped franks which were given by
members of parliament to their friends, becaufe he
thought fuch extenfion of a peculiar right illegal. This
raifed many complaints : and the inffuence that was
exerted againlt him procured his ejectment from office.
He had now, however, collected a fum fufficient for the
purchafe of a fmall printing-office, and began the Gen¬
tleman’s Magazine j an undertaking to which he owed
the affluence in which he palled the laft 20 years of his
life, and the large fortune which he left behind him.
When he formed the project, he was far from expecting
the fuccefs which he found ; and others had fo little
profpedt of its confequence, that though he had for fe-
veral years talked of his plan among printers and
bookfellers, none of them thought it worth the trial.
That they were not (fays Hr Johnfon) reffrained by
their virtue from the execution of another man’s defign,
was fufficiently apparent as foon as that defign began to
be gainful; for, in a few years, a multitude of maga¬
zines arofe, and periihed ; only the London Magazine,
fupported by a powerful aflbciation of bookfellers, and
circulated with all the art and all the cunning of trade,
exempted itfelf from the general fate of Cave’s inva¬
ders, and obtained though not an equal, yet a conlider-
able fale.
Cave now began to afpire to popularity; and be-
ing a greater lover of poetry than any other art, he
fometimes offered fubjeCts for poems, and propofed
prizes for the belt performers. The firff: prize was 50I.
ior which, being but newly acquainted with wealth,
and thinking the inffuence of 50I. extremely great, he
expefted the firff; authors of the kingdom to appear
as competitors, and offered the allotment of the prize
to the univerfities. But, wffien the time came, no name
was feen among the writers that had been ever feen
before j and the univerfities and feveral private men re¬
jected the province of affigning the prize. The deter¬
mination was then left to Dr Cromwell Mortimer and
Dr Birch 5 and by the latter the award was made,
which may be feen in Gent. Mag. vol. vi. p. 59.
Mr Cave continued to improve his Magazine, and
had the fatisfaction of feeing its fuccefs proportionate
to his diligence, till in 1 7 $ 1, his wife died of an afthma.
He feemed not at firfk much affected by her death, but
in a few days loft his fleep and his appetite, which he
never recovered. After having lingered about two
years, with many viciffiludesof amendment and relapfe,
he fell by drinking acid liquors into a diarrhoea, and
afterwards into a kind of lethargic infenfibility •, and
died Jan.. 10. 1754, having juft concluded the 23d an¬
nual collection.
. CAVEARE. See Caviare.
CAVEAT, in Law, a kind of procefs in the fpiri-
tual courts, to fto'p the proving of a will, the granting
tithes of adminiftration, &c. to the prejudice of an¬
other. It is alfo ufed to flop the inftitution of a clerk Gavc.it
to a benefice. , {1
CAVEAT1NG, in fencing, is the Ihifting the
fword from one fide of that ot your advenary to the
other.
CAVEDO, in commerce, a Portuguefe long mea-
fure, equal to 27AA Engliih inches.
CAVENDISH, Thomas, of Suffolk, the fecond
Englilhman that tailed round the globe, was defeended
from a noble family in Devonlhire. Having dilhpated
his fortune, he relolvcd to repair it at the expence of
the Spaniards. He failed from Plymouth with two
fmall Ihips in July 1586 ; paffed through the ftraits of
Magellan j took many rich piizes along the coafts of
Chili and Peru-, and near California, poffelfed himfelf
of the St Ann, an Acapulco Ihip, with a cargo ot im-
menfe value. He completed the circumnavigation of
the globe, returning home round the Cape of Good
Hope, and reached Plymouth again in September
1588. On his arrival, it is laid that his foldiers and
failors were clothed in lilk, his fails were damaik, and
his top-maft was covered with cloth of gold. His ac¬
quired riches did not laft long : he reduced himfelf, in
1591, to the expedient of another voyage 5 which was
far from being lb luccefsful as the former j he went no
farther than the ftraits of Magellan, w here the weather
obliging him to return, he died of grief on the coait
of BrafiL
Cavendish, Sir William, defeended of an ancient
and honourable family, was born about the year 1505,.
the fecond fon of Thomas Cavendifti of Cavendilh m
Suffolk, clerk of the pipe in the reign of Henry VI1L
Plaving had a liberal education, he w as taken into the
family of the great Cardinal Wolfey, w hom he lerved
in the capacity of gentleman-ulher of the chamber,
when that fuperb prelate maintained the dignity of a
prince. In 1 527, he attended his mafter on his fplen-
did embaffy to France, returned with him to England,
and w as one of the few who continued faithful to him
in his difgrace. Mr Cavendiih was with him when
he died, and delayed going to court till he had per¬
formed the laft duty of a faithful fervant by feeing his
body decently interred. The king w-as i'o far from
difapproving of his conduct, that he immediately took
him into his houfehold, made him treafurer of his-
chamber, a privy counieilor, and afterwards conferred
on him the order of knighthood. He was alfo ap¬
pointed one of the commiffioners for taking the fur-
render of religious houfes. In 1540, he was nominated
one of the auditors of the court of augmentations, and
foon' after obtained a grant of feveral confiderable
lordihipsin Hertfordfliire. In the reign of Edward VI.
his eftates were much increafed by royal grants in feven
different counties; and he appears to have continued
in high favour at court during the reign ©f t^ueen
Mary. He died in the year 1557. He was the foun¬
der of Chatfworth, and anceftor of the dukes of De¬
vonlhire. fie wrote “ The life and death of Cardmal-
Wolfey }” printed at London in 16074 reprinted in
1706, under the title of “ Memoirs of the great favour¬
ite Cardinal VVolley.”
Cavendish, William, duke of New^caftle, grandfon
of Sir William Cavendilh, was born in 1392. In
1610, he was made knight of the Bath; in 1620,
raifed to the dignity of a peer, by the title of Baron-
Ogle,.
C A V [28
Carendifh. Ogle, -anfl "Vifcount Mansfield j and in the third year
' * of King Charles I. created earl of Newcaitle upon
Tyne, and Baron Cavendifh of Bolefover. He was
after this made governor to the prince of Wales, af¬
terwards Charles II. When the firft troubles broke
cut in Scotland, and the king’s treafury was but indif-
fently provided, he contributed ten thoufand pounds,
and alfo raMed a troop of horfe, confiding of about
two hundred knights and gentlemen, who ferved at
their own charge, were commanded by the earl, and
honoured with the title of the prince's troop. He had
after this the command of the northern counties j and
was conftituted general and commander in chief of all
the forces that might be raifed north of Trent, and of
feveral counties fouth of that river. He afterwards
raifed an army of eight thoufand horfe, foot, and dra¬
goons •, with which he took fome towns, and gained
feveral important victories. On this he was advanced
to the dignity of marquis of Newcafife j but his ma-
iefty’s affairs being totally ruined by the raihnefs of
Prince Rupert, he, with a few of the principal officers
of the army, went abroad, and ftaid for fome time at
Paris 5 where, notwithftanding the vaft eftate he had
when the civil war broke out, his circumftances were
now fo bad, that himfelf and wife were reduced to the
neceffity of pawning their clothes for a dinner. He
afterwards removed to Antwerp, that he might be
nearer his own country \ and there, though under
great difficulties, refided for feveral years; but, not¬
withftanding his diftreffes, he was treated, during an
exile of eighteen years, with extraordinary marks of
diftin&ion. On his return to England at the Reftora-
tion, he was advanced to the dignity of earl of Ogle,
and duke of Mewcaftle. H<\fpent his time in a coun¬
try retirement, and was the patron of men of merit.
His grace died in 1670, aged 84. He wrote a trea-
tife on horfemanlhip, which is eiteemed: and fome co¬
medies, which are not.
Mr Granger obferves, that he was mafter of many
accomplilhments, and was much better qualified for a
•ourt than a camp j that he underftood horfemanlhip,
mufic, and poetry j but w as a better horfeman than
inufician, and a better mufician than poet.
Cavendish, Margaret, duchefs of Newcaftle, fa¬
mous for her voluminous productions, was born about
the latter end of the reign of James I. and w^as the
youngeft lifter of Lord Lucas of Colchefter. She
married the duke of Newcaftle abroad in 1645 ; and
on their return after the Reftoration, fpent the remain¬
der of her life in writing plays, poems, w ith the life
of her hulband, to the amount of about a dozen of fo¬
lios. “ What gives the belt idea of her unbounded
paffion for fcribbling (fays Mr Walpole), was her fel-
dom reviling the copies of her works, left, as fire faid,
it Ihould difturb her following conceptions. She died
in 1673.
Cavendish, William, the firft duke of Devonfhire,
$nd one,of the molt diftinguilhed patriots in the Bri-
tilh annals, w'as born in 1640. In 1677, being then
member for Derby, he vigoroufly oppofed the venal
meafures of the court; and, the following year, was
one of the committee appointed to draw up articles of
impeachment againft the lord-treafurer Danby. In
1679, being re-elefted to ferve for Derby in a new
parliament, Charles II. thought fit to make him a
8 ] C A V
privy counfellor} but he foon withdrew from the board, Cavendifc
with his friend Lord Ruffel, when he found that Popilh
intereft prevailed. He carried up the articles of im¬
peachment to the houfe of lords, againft Lord-chief-
juftice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and illegal proceed¬
ings in the court of king’s bench j and when the king
declared his refolution not to fign the bill for exclu¬
ding the duke of York (afterwards James II.) he mo¬
ved the houfe of commons, that a bill might be brought
in for the affociation of all his majefty’s Proteftant fub-
jefts. He alfo openly named the king’s evil counfel-
lors, and voted for an addrefs to remove them from
his prefence and councils for ever. He nobly appear¬
ed at Lord Ruflel’s trial, in defence of that great man,
at a time when it wras fcarce more criminal to be an
accomplice than a witnefs for him. The fame forti¬
tude, activity, and love of his country, animated this
illuftrious patriot to oppofe the arbitrary proceedings
of James II. 5 and when he faw there w7as no other
method of faving the nation from impending flavery,
he was the foremoft in the affociation for inviting over
the prince of Orange, and the firft nobleman who ap¬
peared in arms to receive him at his landing. He
was created duke of Devonlhire in 1694, by William
and Mary. His laft public fervice wras in the union
with Scotland, for concluding of which he was appoint¬
ed a cominiffioner by Queen Anne. He died in 1707,
and ordered the following infeription to be put on his
monument.
Willielmus dux Devon,
Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus,
Inimicus et Invifus Tyrannic.
William Duke of Devonfhire,
Of good Princes the faithful Subjeff,
The Enemy and Averfion of Tyrants.
Befides being thus eftimable for public virtues, his
grace was diftinguifhed by his literary aecompliffiments.
He had a poetical genius, which ihowed itfelf particu¬
larly in two pieces written with equal fpirit, dignity,
and delicacy: thefe are, an Ode on the Death of Queen
Mary j and an Allufion to the Archbiffiop of Cambray’s
Supplement to Plomer. Pie had great knowledge in
the languages, v'as a true judge in hiftory, and a critic
in poetry 5 he had a fine hand in mufic, an elegant
tafte in painting, and in architefture had a {kill equal
to any perfon of the age in which he lived. His pre-
deceffor, Sir John Cavendifh, was the perfon who kill¬
ed the famous Watt Tyler in 1381.
CAVETTO, in ArchiteBure, a hollow member,
or rsund concave moulding, containing a quadrant
of a circle, and having a quite contrary effeift to
that of a quarter round j it is ufed as an ornament in
cornices.
CAVEZON, in the manege, a fort of nofe band,
either of iron, leather or wood, fometimes flat, and
at other times hollow or twifted, clapt upon the nofe
of a horfe to wring it, and fo forward the fuppling
and breaking of the horfe.
CAVIARE, a kind of food lately introduced into ,
Britain. It is made of the hard roes of fturgeon *, * ^e.e
formed into fmall cakes, about an inch thick and threc^^'
or four inches broad. The method of making it is, .
by taking out of the fpawn all the nerves or firings,
then walking it in white wine or vinegar, and fpread*
ing
idre
C A U [
mg it on a table. It is then falted and preffed in a
ul.
fine bag •, after which it is cafed up in a veiTel with a
hole at the bottom, that if any moifture is left it may
run out. This kind of food is in great requefl among
the Mufcovites, on account of their three lents, which
they keep with a fuperftitious exa£tnefs $ wherefore
the Italians fettled at Mofcow drive a very great trade
in this commodity throughout that empire, there being
a prodigious quantity of fturgeon taken at the mouth
of the Wolga and other rivers which fall into the Caf-
pian fea. A pretty large quantity of the commodity
is alfo confumed in Italy and France. They get the
caviare from Archangel, but commonly buy it at fe-
cond hand of the Englith and Dutch.-—According to
Savary, the beft caviare brought from Mufcovy is pre-
. pared from the belluga, a fith eight or ten feet long,
caught in the Cafpian fea, which is much preferable
to that made of the fpawn of a fturgeon. A kind of
caviare, or rather faufage, is alfo made from the fpawn
•f fome other fithes j particularly a fort of mullet
caught in the Mediterranean. See Mugil and Bo-
TARGO.
CAVIDOS. See Cabidos.
CAVIL (cavillatio), is defined by fome a fallacious
kind of reafon, carrying fome refemblance of truth,
which a perfon, knowing its falfehood, advances in dif-
pute for the fake of victory. The art of framing fo-
phifms or fallacies is called by Boethius cavillatoria.
CAUK, or Cawk. See Barytes, Chemistry
and Mineralogy Index.
CAUKING, or CAULKING of a Ship, is driving a
quantity of oakum, or old ropes untwifted and drawn
afunder, into the feams of the planks, or into the in¬
tervals where the planks are joined together in the
flap’s decks or iides, in order to prevent the entrance
of water. After the oakum is driven very hard into
thefe feams, it is covered with hot melted pitch or
rofin, to keep the water from rotting it.
Among the ancients, the firft who made ufe of pitch
in caulking, were the inhabitants of Phaeacia, after¬
wards called Corfica. Wax and rofin appear to have
been commonly ufed previous to that period j and the
Poles at this time ufe a fort of unftuous clay for tbe
fame purpofe on their navigable rivers.
CAULKING Irons, are iron chiflels for that purpofe.
Some of thefe irons are broad, fome round, and others
grooved. After the feams are flopped with oakum,
it is done over with a mixture of tallow, pitch, and tar,
as low as the fhip draws water.
CAUL, in Anatomy, a membrane in the abdomen,
covering the greateft part of the guts j called, from its
ftru&ure. Reticulum, but moft frequently Omentum.
See Anatomy Index.
Caul is likewife a little membrane, found on fome
children, encompaffing the head when born.
Drelincourt takes the caul to be only a fragment of
the membranes of the foetus j which ordinarily break
at the birth of the child. Lampridius tells us, that
the midwives fold this caul at a good price to the advo¬
cates and pleaders of his time \ it being an opinion,
that while they had this about them, they fhould carry
with them a force of perfuafion which no judge could
withftand : the canons forbid the ufe of it ; becaufe
fome witches and forcerers, it fetms, had abufed it.! ^
VOL. V. Part I.
Cauli¬
flower
11.
Caul'e.
289 ] C A U
CAULIFLOWERS, in Gardening, a much efteem-
ed fpecies of cabbage. See Brassica.
CAURIS, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by fome
to the genus of ftiells called, by the generality of wri- '
ters, porcellana and concha venerea. It is from a falfo
pronunciation of this word cauris that thefe ftiells arc
called cowries. See POBCLLAIN-Shell, Conciiology
Index.
CAURSINES (Cauijini), were Italians that came1
into England about the year 123 5, terming themfelves
the pope's merchants, but driving no other trade than
letting out money; and having great banks in Eng¬
land, they differed little from Jews, fave (as hiftory fays)
they were rather more mercilefs to their debtors. Some
will have them called Courjines, quafi Caufa Urjim,
bearilh, or cruel in their caufes j others Caorjini or
Corjini, as coming from the ifle of Corfica : but Cowel
fays, they have their name from Caorftum, Caorji, a town
in Lombardy, where they firft pra&ifed their arts of
ufury and extortion 5 from whence fpreading them¬
felves, they carried their infamous trade through moft:
parts of Europe, and were a common plague to every
nation where they came. The then biftiop of London
excommunicated them j and King Henry III. banilh-
ed them from this kingdom in the year 1240. But,
being the pope’s folicitors and money changers, they
were permitted to return in the year 1250 j though in
a very fhort time they were again driven out of the
kingdom on account of their intolerable exactions.
CAUSA matrimonii prailocuti, in common
law, a writ that lies where a woman gives lands to a
man in fee to the intent he ftiall marry her, and he re-
fufes to do it in a reafonable time, being thereupon re¬
quired by the woman j and in fuch cafe, for not per¬
forming the condition, the entry of the woman into the
lands again has been adjudged lawful.
The hulband and wife may fue this writ againft an¬
other who ought to have married her.
CAUSALITY, among metaphyficians, the action
or power of a caufe in producing its effeft.
CAUSALTY, among miners, denotes the lighter,
fulphureous, earthy parts of ores, carried off in the ope¬
ration of walhing. This, in the mines, they throw in
heaps upon banks, which in fix or feven years they find
it worth their while to work over again.
CAUSE, that from whence any thing proceeds, or
by virtue of -which any thing is done : it ftands oppo-
fed to effedt. We get the ideas of caufe and effedt
from our obfervation of the viciftitude of things, while
we perceive fome qualities or fubftances begin to exift,
and that they receive their exiftence from the due ap¬
plication and operation of other beings. That which
produces, is the caufe 5 and that which is produced,
the effedt : thus, fluidity in wax is the effedl of a cer¬
tain degree of heat, which we obferve to be conftantly
produced by the application of fuch heat.
Ariftotle, and the fehoolmen after him, diftinguifli- Reid on the
ed four kinds of caufes j the efficient, the material, the AStive
formal, and the final. This, like many of Ariftotle’s '' •rs cf
diftindtions, is only a diftindtion of the various mean- ^an'
ings of an ambiguous word : for the efficient, the mat¬
ter, the form, and the end, have nothing common in
their nature, by which they may be accounted fpecies
of the fame genus ; but the Greek word, which we
O © - tranflate
Caufe.
C A U L 290 3 G A U
tranflate caufey had thefe four different meanings in
Ariilotle’s days, and we have added other meanings.
We do not indeed call the matter or the form of a
thing its caufe \ but we have final caufes, inflrumental
caufes, occafional caufes, and many others. Ihus the
word caufe has been fo hackneyed, and made to have
fo many different meanings in the writings of philofo-
phers, and in the difcourfe of the vulgar, that its ori¬
ginal and proper meaning is loft in the crowd.
With regard to the phenomena of nature, the im¬
portant end of knowing their caufes, befides gratifying
our curiofity, is, that we may know when to expect
them, or how to bring them about. This is very often
of real importance in life ; and this purpofe is ferved,
by knowing what, by the courfe of nature, goes be¬
fore them and is connefted with them j and this, there¬
fore, we call the caufe of fuch a phenomenon.
If a magnet be brought near to a mariner’s compafs,
the needle, which was before at reft, immediately be¬
gins to move, and bends its courfe towards the mag¬
net, or perhaps the contrary wray. If an unlearned
failor is afked the caufe of this motion of tne needle,
he is at no lofs for an anfwer. He tells you it is the
magnet} and the proof is clear : for, remove the mag¬
net, and the effeft ceafes 3 bring it near, and. the ef-
fe& is again produced. It is, therefore, evident to
fenfe, that the magnet is the caufe of this effeft*
A Cartefian philofopher enters deeper into the caufe
of this phenomenon. He obferves, that the magnet
does not touch the needle, and therefore can give it
no impulfe. He pities the ignorance of the failor.
The eflfeft is produced, fays he, by magnetic effluvia,
or fubtle matter, which paffes from the magnet to the
needle, and forces it from its place. He. can eve.n
{how you, in a figure, where thefe magnetic effluvia
iflue from the magnet, what round they take, and
what way they return home again. And thus he
thinks he comprehends perfeftly how, and by what
caufe, the motion of the needle is produced.
A Newtonian philofopher inquires what proof can
be offered for the exiftence of magnetic effluvia, and
can find none. He therefore holds it as a fiction, a
hypothefis 3 and he has learned that hypothefis ought
to have no place in the philofophy of nature. He
confeffes his ignorance of the real caufe of this motion,
and thinks that his bufinefs as a philofopher. is only
to find from experiment the laws by which it is regu¬
lated in all cafes. # . .
Thefe three perfons differ much in their fentiments
with regard to the real caufe of this phenomenon 3 and
the man who knows moft is he who is fenfible that he
knows nothing of the matter. Yet all the three fpeak
the fame language, and acknowledge that the came of
this motion is the attra&ive or repulfive power of the
magnet.
What has been faid of this, may be applied to every
phenomenon that falls within the compafs of natural
philofophy. We deceive ourfelves, if we conceive that
we can point out the real efficient caufe of any one of
The grandeft difcovery ever made in natural philo¬
fophy, was that of the law of gravitation, which opens
fuch a view of our planetary fyftem, that it looks like
fomething divine. But the author of this difcovery
was perfedly aware that he difcovered no real caufe,
but only the law' or rule according to which the un- Caufi
known caufe operates. ■“r
Natural philofophers, who think accurately, have a
precife meaning to the terms they ufe in the fcience 3
and when they pretend to Ihow the caufe of any phe¬
nomenon of nature, they mean by the caufe, a law' of
nature of which that phenomenon is a neceflary confe-
quence.
The whole objett of natural philofophy, as Newton
exprefsly teaches, is reducible to thefe two heads :
firft, by juft induction from experiment and obferva-
tion, to difcover the laws of nature 3 and then to apply
thofe laws to the folution of the phenomena of nature.
This was all that this great philofopher attempted, and
all that he thought attainable. And this indeed he
attained in a great meafure, with regard to the mo¬
tions of our planetary fyftem, and with regard to the
rays of light.
But fuppoilng that all the phenomena which fall
within the reach of our fenfes were accounted for from
general laws of nature juftly deduced from experience 3
that is, fuppofing natural philofcphy brought to its ut-
moft perfection 3 it does not difcover the efficient caufe
of any one phenomenon in nature.
The laws of nature are the rules according to which
the effefls are produced 3 but there muft be a caufe
which operates according to thefe rules. 'Ihe rules of
navigation never navigated a ftiip. Ihe rules of ar¬
chitecture never built a houfe.
Natural philofophers, by great attention to the courfe
of nature, have difcovered many of her laws, and have
very happily applied them to account for many pheno¬
mena : but they have never difcovered the efficient caufe
ef any one phenomenon 3 nor do thofe who have diftinft
notions of the principles of the fcience make any fuch
pretence.
Upon the theatre of nature we fee innumerable .ef¬
fects which require an agent endowed with active
power : but the agent is behind the feene. Whether
it be the Supreme caufe alone, or a fubordinate caufe
or caufes 3 and if fubordinate caufes be employed by
the Almighty, what their nature, their number, and
their different offices may be; are things hid, for wife
reafons, without doubt, from the human eye.. „
Cause, among civilians, the fame with adlion. See
Action.
Cause, among phyficians. The caufe of a difeafs
is defined by Galen to be that during the prefence of
which we are ill, and which being removed, the dil-
order immediately ceafes. The dodlrine of the caufes
of difeafes is called Etiology.
Phyficians divide caufes into procatar&ic, antece¬
dent, and continent.
ProcatarSiic CAUSE, (tfsena 7rge*aT«gxTotti), called alfo
primitive and incipient caufe, is either an occafion which
of its own nature does not beget a difeafe, but happen¬
ing on a body inclined to difeafes breeds a fever, gout,
Sec. (fuch as are watching, falling, and the like) 3 or
an evident and manifeft caufe, which immediately pro¬
duces the difeafe, as being fufficient thereto, fuch as is
a fword in refpeft of a W’ound.
Antecedent CAUSE, (kitm Tr^wjys/wevjj), a latent difpo-
fition of the body, from whence fome difeafe may
arife 3 fuch as a plethora in refpeft of a fever, a caco-
chymia in refped of a feurvy.
Continent,
C A U t 291 ] C A U
ufe Continent, Conjunct, or Proximate CAUSE, that princi-
II pie in the body which immediately adheres to the dif-
iclty-, eafe, and which" being prefent, the dii’eafe is alfo pre-
' fent •, or, which being removed, the difeafe is taken
away : fuch is the ftone in a nephritic patient.
CAUSEWAY, or Causey, a maflive conftruftion
of itones, flakes, and fafcines; or an elevation of fat
vifeous earth, well beaten •, ferving either as a road in
wet marfliy places, or as a mole to retain the waters
of a pond, or prevent a river from overflowing the
lower grounds. See Road.—The word comes from
the French chaujjee, anciently wrote chaulfee ; and that
from the Latin calceala, or calcata ; according to Som-
ner and Spelman, a calcando. Bergier rather takes the
word to have had its rife apeditum ca'ceis, quibus terun-
tur. Some derive it from the Latin calx, or French
chaux, as fuppoiing it primarily to denote a way paved
with chalk ftones.
Causeway, (calcetum or calcea), more ufually de¬
notes a common hard raifed way, maintained and re¬
paired with ftones and rubbiftv.
Devil's CAUSE lFA r, a famous work of this kind,
which ranges through the county of Northumberland,
commonly fuppofed to be Roman, though Mr Horfley
fufpefts it to be of later times.
Giant's CAUSEWAY, is a denomination given to a huge
pile of ftony columns in the diftrift of Coleraine in Ire¬
land. See GlANT's Caufeway.
CAUSSIN, Nicholas, furnamed the Juft, a French
Jefuit, was born at Troyes in Champagne, in the year
1580 j and entered into the Jefuits order when he was
26 years of age. He taught rhetoric in feveral of their
colleges, and afterwards began to preach, by which he
gained very great reputation. Fie increafed this re¬
putation by publiftiing books, and in time was prefer¬
red to be confeflbr to the king. But he did Hot dif-
charge this office to the fatisfa&ion of Cardinal Riche¬
lieu, though he difcharged it to the fatisfaftion of every
honeft man •, and therefore it is not to be wondered at
that he came at length to be removed. He died in the
Jefuits convent at Paris in i6f[i. None of his works
did him more honour than that which he entitled La
Cour Sainte. It has been printed a great many times $
and tranflated into Latin, Italian, Spaniffi, Portuguefe,
German, and Engliffi. He publifhed feveral other
books both in Latin and French.
CAUSTICITY, a quality belonging to feveral fub-
ftances, by the acrimony of which the parts of living
animals may be corroded and deftroyed. Bodies which
have this quality, when taken internally, are true poi-
fons. The caufticity of fome of thefe, as of arfenic, is
fo deadly, that even their external ufe is profcribed by
prudent phyficians. Several others, as nitrous acid, la¬
pis inf^malis or lunar cauftic, common cauftic, butter
of antimony, are daily and fuccefsfully ufed to confume
fungous fleffi, to open iffues, &c. They fucceed very
Well when properly employed and fkilfully managed.
The caufticity of bodies depends entirely on the
ftate of the faline, and chiefly of the acid, matters they
contain. When thefe acids happen to be at the fame
time much concentrated, and {lightly attached to the
matters with which they are combined, they are then
capable of afting, and are corrofive or cauftic. Thus
fixed and volatile alkalies, although they are themfelves
cauftic, become much more fo by being treated with
quicklime j becaufe this fubftance deprives them of Caufticity.
all their fixed air, or carbonic acid to which they owe
their mildnefs. By this treatment, then, the faline prin¬
ciple is more difengaged, and rendered more capable of
action. Alfo all combinations of metallic matters with
acids form falts more or lefs corrofive, becaufe thefo
acids are deprived of .all their fuperabundant water,
and are befides but imperfeflly faturated with the me¬
tallic matters. Neverthelefs, fome other circumltance
is neceflary to conftitute the caufticity of thefe faline
metalline matters. For the fame quantity of marine
acid, which, v-hen pure and diluted with a certain
quantity of Water, would be produftive of no harm,
{hall, however, produce all the effe&s.of a corrolive
poifon, when it is united with mercury in corrojive fnb-
hmate, although the fublimate (ball be difiblved in fo
much water that its caufticity cannot be attributed to
the concentration of its acid. This effeft is, by fome
chemifts, attributed to the great weight of the metal¬
lic matters, with which the acid is united ; and this
opinion is very probable, feeing its caufticity is nothing
but its diffolving power, or its difpofition to combine
with other bodies j and this difpofition is nothing elfe
than attraction.
On this fubjeft Dr Black obferves, that the com¬
pounds produced by the union of the metals with acids
are in general corrofive. Many of them applied to the
{kin deftroy it almoft as fail as the mineral acids $ and
fome of the moft powerful potential cauteries are made
in this way. Some are reckoned more acrid than the
pure acids themfelves j and they have more powerful
effefts when taken internally, or at leaft feem to have.
Thus we can take 10 or 12 drops of a foflil acid, di ¬
luted with water, without being difturbed by it j but
the fame quantity of acid previoufly combined with fil-
ver, quickfilver, copper, or regulus of antimony, will
throw the body into violent diforders, or even prove a
poifon, if taken all at once.
This increafed adivity was, by the mechanical phi-
lofophers, fuppefed to arife from the weight of the
metallic particles. They imagined that the acid was
compofed of minute particles of the flrape of needles or
wedges j by which means they were capable of enter¬
ing the pores of other bodies, feparating their atom?
from each other, and thus diffolving them. To thefe
acid fpiculce the metallic particles gave more force $
and the momentum of each particular needle or wedge-
was increafed in proportion to its increafe of gravity by
the additional weight of the metallic particle. But
this theory is entirely fanciful, and does not correlpond
with fafls. The activity of the compound is not in
proportion to the weight of the metal j nor are the
compounds always poffeffed of any great degree of a-
crimony : neither is it true that any of them, have a
greater power of deftroy ing animal fubftances than the
pure acids have.
There is a material difference between the powers
called Jlimuli and corrojives. Let a perfon apply to
any part of the {kin a fmall quantity of lunar cauftic,
and likewife a drop of ftrong nitrous acid, and he will
find that the acid a£ts with more violence than the
cauftic 5 and the diforders that are occafioned by the
compounds of metals and acids do not proceed from a
caujlicity in them, but from the metal affe&ing and
proving a famulus to the nerves : and that this is the
O o 2 cafe,
C A U
t 292 ]
CAY
Caufticity cafe, appears from their affe&ing fome particular ueryes
M of the body. Thus the compounds of antimony and
» y' - mercury with the vegetable acids, do not fhow the
fmalleft degree of acrimony; but, taken internally,
they produce violent convulfive motions over the whole
body, which are occaiioned by the metallic matter
having a power of producing this effec! 5 and the acid
is only the means of bringing it into a diffolved ftate,
and making it capable of afling on the nervous
fyftem. In general, however, the compounds of me¬
tallic fubftances with acids may be confidered as mild¬
er than the acids in a feparate ftate j but the acid is
not fo much neutralized as in other compounds, for it
is lefs powerfully attracted by the metal j fo that al¬
kaline lalts, abforbent earths, or even heat alone, will
decompound them •, and fome of the inflammable fub¬
ftances, as fpirit of wine, aromatic oils, &c. will at-
tradh the acid, and precipitate the metal in its metallic
form : and the metals can be employed to preci¬
pitate one another in their metallic form j fo that the
cohefton of thefe compounds is much weaker than
thofe formed of the fame acids with alkaline falts or
earths.
CAUSTICS, is an appellation given to fubftances
of fo hot and fiery a nature, that, being applied, they
confume, and as it were burn, the texture of the parts,
like hot iron.
Cauftics are generally divided into four forts j the
common tlronger cauftic, the common milder cauftic,
the antimonial cauftic, and the lunar cauftic. See
Pharmacy and Chemistry Index.
Caustic Curve, in the higher geometry, a curve
formed by the concourfe or coincidence of the rays of
light refledled from fome other curve.
CAUSUS, or Burning Fever, a fpecies of con¬
tinual fever, accompanied with a remarkable inflamma¬
tion of the blood.
CAUTERIZATION, the adt of burning or fear¬
ing fome morbid part, by the application of fire either
adlual or potential. In fome places they cauterize
with burning tow', in others with cotton or moxa, in
others with live coals *, fome ufe Spanilh wax, others
pyramidal pieces of linen, others gold or filver j Seve¬
rinus recommends flame blown through a pipe j but
what is ufually preferred among us is a hot iron.
Cauterizing irons are of various figures j fome flat,
ethers round, fome curved, &c. of all which wre find
draughts in Albucafis, Scultetus, Ferrara, and others.
Sometimes a cautery is applied through a capfula, to
prevent any terror from the fight of it. This method
was invented by Placentinus, and is deferibed by Scul¬
tetus. In the ufe of all cauteries, care is to be taken
to defend the neighbouring parts, either by a lamina,
defenfive plafter, or lint moiftened in oxycrate. Some-
limes the hot iron is tranfmitted through a copper can¬
nula, for the greater fafety of the adjoining parts.
The degrees and manners of cauterizing are varied
according to the nature of the difeafe and the part af¬
fected.
CAUTERY, in Surgery, a medicine for burning,
gating, or corroding any folid part of the body.
Cauteries are diftinguifhed into two claffes •, aftual
^nd potential : by aftual cauteries are underftood red
%ot inftruments, ufually of iron j and by potential cau¬
teries are underftood certain kinds of corroding medi¬
cines. See Pharmacy.
CAUTION, in the Civi/ and Scots Law, denotes,
much the fame with wrhat, in the law of England, is
called Bail.
CAUTIONER, in Scots Law, that perfon who
becomes bound for another to the performance of any
deed or obligation. As to the different kinds and ef¬
fects of cautionry, fee Law, Part III. N° clxxv. 19.
CAWK. See Cauk.
CAXA, a little coin made of lead mixed with fome
fcoria of copper, ftruck in China, but current chiefly
at Bantam in the illand of Java, and fome of the neigh¬
bouring illands. See (the Tab/e fubjoined to) Money.
CAXAMALCA, the name of a town and diftrift
of Peru in South America, where there was a molt
fumptuous palace belonging to the Incas, and a mag¬
nificent temple dedicated to the fun.
CAXTON, William, a mercer of London, emi¬
nent by the works he publifhed, and for being reputed
the firft who introduced and pradtifed the art of print¬
ing in England j as to which, fee Qthe Hi/lory of)
Printing.
CAYENNE, a rich town and ifland of South Ame-
and capital of the French fettlements there, is
Cautert
Cayemw
cl
bounded on the north by the Dutch colonies of Suri¬
nam, and fituated in W. Long. 53. ic. N. Lat. 50.
This fettlement was begun in 1646. A report had
prevailed for fome time before, that in the interior
parts of Guiana, there was a country known by the
name of El Dorado, which contained immenfe riches in
gold and precious ftones j more than ever Cortez and
Pizarro had found in Mexico and Peru j and this fa¬
ble had fired the imagination of every nation in Eu¬
rope. It is fuppofed that this was the country in queft
of which Sir Walter Raleigh went on his laft voyage j
and as the French were not behind their neighbours
in their endeavours to find out fo defirable a country,
fome attempts for this purpofe were likewife made
by that nation much about the fame time j which at
laft coming to nothing, the adventurers took up their
refidence on the ifland of Cayenne. In 1643, fome
merchants of Rouen united their ftock, with a defign
to fupport the new colony j but, committing their af¬
fairs to one Poncet de Bretigny, a man of a ferocious
difpofition, he declared war both againft the colonifts
and favages, in confequence of which he w as foon maf-
facred. This cataftrophe entirely extinguifhed the ar¬
dour of thefe aflociates j and in 1651 a new company
was eflablifhed. This promifed to be much more con-
fiderable than the former 5 and they fet out with fuch
a capital as enabled them to colleft 700 or 800 colo¬
nifts in the city of Paris itfelf. Thefe embarked on
the Seine, in order to fail down to Havre de Grace ;
but unfortunately the abbe de Marivault, a man of
great virtue, and the principal promoter of the under¬
taking, was drowned as he was flopping into his boat.
Another gentleman, w'ho was to have adted as general,
V'as affaffinated on his paffage, and 12 of the principal
adventurers who had promifed to put the colony into,
a flour hiring fituation, not only were the principal
perpetrators of this faft, but uniformly behaved in the
fame atrocious manner. At laft they hanged one of
their own number \ two died $ three were banifbed to
a
CAY
[ 293 ]
CAY
■yenne,
;aylus.
a dcfert if!and $ and the reft abandoned themfelves to
every kind of excefs. The commandant of the citadel
' deferted to the Dutch with part of his garrifon. The
favages, roufed by numberlefs provocations, fell upon
the remainder : fo that the few who were left thought
themfelves happy in efcaping to the Leeward iflands
in a boat and two canoes, abandoning the fort, ammu¬
nition, arms, and merchandife, fifteen months after they
had landed on the ifiand.
In 1663, a new company was formed, whofe capital
amounted only to 8750I. By the afliftance of the
miniftry they expelled the Dutch who had taken pef-
feffion of the ifiand, and fettled themfelves much more
comfortably than their predeceffors. In 1667 the ifiand
was taken by the Englilh, and in 1676 by the Dutch,
but afterwards reftored to the French : and finee that
time it has never been attacked. Soon after fome pi¬
rates, laden with the fpoils they had gathered in the
South feas, came and fixed their refidence at Cayenne j
refolving to eim 1oy the treafures they had acquired in
the cultivation of the lands. In t688, Ducaffe, an able
feaman, arrived with fome fhips from France, and pro-
pofed to them the plundering of Surinam. This pro-
pofal exciting their natural turn for plunder, the pirates
betook themfelves to their old trade, and almoft all the
reft followed their example. The expedition, hovrever,
proved unfortunate. Many of the aflailants were kill¬
ed, and all the reft taken prifoners and fent to the
Caribbee iflands. This lofs the colony has never yet
recovered.
The ifiand of Cayenne is about 16 leagues in cir¬
cumference, and is only parted from the continent by
two rivers. By a particular formation, uncommon in
iflands, the land is higher near the water fide, and low
in the middle. Hence the ifland is fo full of morafles,
that all communication between the different parts of
it is impoflible, without taking a great circuit. There
are fome fmall trafls of an excellent foil to be found
here and there j but the generality is dry, fandy, and
foon exhaufted. The only town in the colony is de¬
fended by a covert way, a large ditch, a very good mud
rampart, and five baftions. In the middle of the town
is a pretty confiderable eminence, of which a redoubt
has been made that is called the fort. The entrance
into the harbour is through a narrow channel •, and fhips
can only get in at high vrater, through the rocks and
reefs that are fcattered about this pafs.
The firft produce of Cayenne was the arnotto •, from
the culture of which the colonifts proceeded to that of
cotton, indigo, and laftly fugar. It w^as the firft of
all the French colonies that attempted to cultivate
coffee. The coffee tree was brought from Surinam in
1721 by fome deferters from Cayenne, who purcljafed
their pardon by fo doing. Ten or twelve years after
they planted cocoa. In the year 1752 there were
exported from Cayenne 260,541 pounds of arnotto,
8°,363 pounds of fugar, 17,919 pounds of cotton,
26,881 pounds of coffee, 91,916 pounds of cacao, 618
trees for timber, and 104 planks.
CAYLUS, Count DE, Marquis de Sternay, Baron
de Bronfac, was born at Paris in 1692. He was the
eldeft of the two fons of John Count de Caylus, lieu¬
tenant general of the armies of the king of France,
and of the marchionefs de Vilette. The count and
countefs, his father and mother, were very careful
of the education of their fon. The former inftru&ed
him in the profefiion of arms, and in bodily exercifes j
the latter watched over and foftered the virtues of
his mind, and this' delicate talk (he difcharged wdth
lingular fuccefs. The countefs was the niece of
Madame de Maintenon, and was remarkable both
for the folidity of her underftanding and the charms
of her wit. She was the author of that agreeable
book entitled “ The Recolleftions of Madame de
Caylus,” of which Voltaire lately publilhed an elegant
edition. The amiable qualities of the mother appeared
in the fon ; but they appeared with a bold and mi¬
litary air. In his natural temper he was gay and
fprightly, had a talle for pleafure, a ftrong paflion for
independence, and an invincible averfion to the fer-
vitude of a court. Such were the inftru&ors of the
count de Caylus. He was only twelve years of age
when his father died at Bruffels in 1704. After fi-
nifiiing his exercifes, he entered into the corps of the
Mufquetoires ; and in his firft campaign in the year
1709, he diftinguifired himfelf by his valour in fuch a
manner, that Louis XIV. commended him before all
the court, and rewarded him with an enfigncy in the
Gendarmerie. In 1711 he commanded a regiment of
dragoons, which was called by his own name ; and
he fignalized himfelf at the head of it in Catalonia. In
1713, he was at the liege of Fribourg, where he was
expofed to imminent danger in the bloody attack of th»
covered way. The peace of Raftadt having left him
in a ftate of inattivity ill fuited to his natural temper,
his vivacity foon carried him to travel into Italy} and
his curiofity was greatly excited by the wonders of that
country, where antiquity is ftill fruitful, and produces
fo many obje£ls to improve tafte and to excite admira¬
tion. The eyes of the count were not yet learned $ but
he was ftruck with the fight of fo many beauties, and
foon became acquainted with them. After a year’s
abfence, he returned to Paris with fo ftrong a paflion
for travelling and for antiquities, as induced him to
quit the army.
He had no fooner quitted the fervice of Louis, than
he fought for an opportunity to fet out for the Levant.
When he arrived at Smyrna, he vifited the ruins of
Ephefus. From the Levant he was recalled in Fe¬
bruary 1717 by the tendernefs of his mother. From
that time he left not France, but to make two excur-
fions to London. The Academy of Painting and Sculp¬
ture adopted him an honorary member in the year
1731; and the count, w-ho loved to realize titles, /par¬
ed neither his labour, nor his credit, nor his fortune,
to inftruft, aflift, and animate the artifts. He wwote
the lives of the moft celebrated painters and engra¬
vers that have done honour to this illuftrious academy j
and, in order to extend the limits of the art, which
feemed to him to move in too narrow a circle, he col-
lefted, in three different works, new fubje&s for the
painter, which he had met with in the works of the
ancients.
Such was his paflion for antiquity, that he wilhed
to have had it in his pow er to bring the whole of it
to life again. He law with regret, that the works
of the ancient painters, which have been difcovered'
in our times, are effaced and deftroyed almoft as foon
as they are drawn from the fubterraneous manfions
where they were buried. A fortunate accident, fur-
. nilhed
Caylus.
• I
CAY C29+] CEA
Crfy'as, niftied him with the means of Ihowing us the compo-
fition and the colouring of the piflures of ancient
Rome. The coloured drawings which the famous
Pietro Sante Bartoli had taken there from antique
pictures, fell into his hands. He had them engraved $
and, before he enriched the king of France’s cabinet
with them, he gave an edition of them at his own ex-
pence. It is perhaps the moll extraordinary book of
antiquities that ever will appear. The whole is paint¬
ed with a purity and a precifron that are inimitable j
we fee the livelinefs and the frelhnefs of the colouring
that charmed the Cmfars. There were only. 30 copies
publilhed y and there is no reafon to expedt that there
will hereafter be any more.
Count de Caylus was engaged at the fame time in
an enterprife itill more . favourable to Roman gran¬
deur, , and more intereiting to the French nation.
Colbert had framed the defign of engraving the Ro¬
man antiquitjies that are dill to be feen in the fouthern
provinces of France. By his orders Mignard the ar-
» chitedt had made drawings of them, which Count de
Caylus had the good fortune to recover. He refolved
to fmiih the work begun by Colbert, and to dedicate
it to that great miniiter ; and fo much had he this en¬
terprife at heart, that he.was employed in it during his
lait illnefs, and warmly recommended it to M. Mariette.
In 1747, Count Caylus wras admitted honorary mem¬
ber of the Academy of Belles Lettres j and then it
was that he feemed to have found the place for wh ch
-nature defigned him. The ftudy of literature now be-
•came his ruling paffion 5 he confecrated to it his time
and his fortune $ he even renounced his pleafures to
give himfelf wholly up to that of making fome difco-
very in the field of antiquity. But amidlt the fruits
of his refearch and invention, nothing fcemed more
flattering to him than his difeovery of encauflic paint¬
ing. A defcription of Pliny’s, but too concife a one
to give him a clear view of the matter, fuggefted the
idea of it. He availed himfelf of the friendfhip and
Ikill of M. Magault, a phyfician in Paris, and an ex¬
cellent chemift ; and by repeated experiments found
out the fecret of incorporating wax with divers tints
and colours, and of making it obedient to the pencil.
Pliny has made mention of two kinds of encauftic
painting praftifed by the ancients ; one of which was
performed with wax, and the other upon ivory, with hot
punches of iron. It was the former that Count Caylus
had the merit of reviving ; and M. Muntz afterwards
made many experiments to carry it to perfeftion.
In the hands of Count Caylus, literature and the
arts lent each other a mutual aid. But it w ould be
endlefs to give an account of all his works. He pub-
lilhed above 40 differtalions in the Memoirs of the
Academy of Belles Lettres. The artifts he was par¬
ticularly attentive to ; and to prevent their falling into
miftakes from an ignorance of coflume, which the
ableft of them have fometimes done, he founded a
rize of 500 livres, the ob}e£! of which is to explain,
y means of authors and monuments, the ufages of an¬
cient nations. In order that he might enjoy with the
whole world the treafures he had collefted, he caufed
them to be engraved, and gave a learned defcription of
them in a work which he embellilhed with 800 copper¬
plates.
The ftrength of his conftitution fecmed to give him
2
hopes of a long life ; but a humour fettling in one of Caylus (
his legs, which entirely deltroyed his health, he ex- ^ I!
pired on the 5th of September 1765, and by his death ¥
his family is extinct. The tomb ereftcd to the ho-
nour of Count Caylus is to be feen in the chapel of
St Germain 1’Auxerrois, and deferves to be remark¬
ed. It is perfectly the tomb of an antiquary. This
monument was an ancient fepulchral antique, of the
molt beautiful porphyry, with ornaments in the Lgyp-
tian tafte. From the moment he procured it, he had
deftined it to grace the place of his interment. While
he awaited the fatal hour, he placed it in his garden,
where he ufed to look upon it with a tranquil but
thoughtful eye, and pointed it out to the infpe&ion of
his friends.
The charafler of Count Caylus is to be traced in
the different occupations which divided his cares and
his life. In fociety, he had all the franknefs of a fol-
dier, and a politenefs which had nothing in it of de¬
ceit or circumvention. Born independent, he applied
to ftudies which fuited his tafte. His heart was yet
better than his abilities. In his walks he ufed fre¬
quently to try the honefty of the poor, by fending
them with a piece of money to get change for him.
In thefe cafes he enjoyed their confufion at not find¬
ing him } and then prefenting himfelf, ufed to com¬
mend their honefty, and give them double the fum.
He faid frequently to his friends, “ I have this day
loft a crown j but I was lorry that I had not an op¬
portunity of giving a fecond. The beggar ought not
to want integrity.”
CAYbTER, or CaysTRUS, in Ancient Geographyt
a river of Ionia, whole mouth Ptolemy places betw een
Colophon and Ephefus ; commended by the poets for
its fwans, which it had in great numbers. Its fource
was in the Montes Cilbiani, (Pliny). Ccystrius Cam¬
pus was a part of the territory of Ephtfus, Campi
Caystriani of Lydia were plains lying in the middle be¬
tween the inland parts and Mount Tmolus.
CAZEROM, or Cazeron, a city of Afia, in Per*
fia, fituated in E. Long. 70. N. Lat. 29. 15.
CAZIC, or Caziql’E, a title given by the Spaniards
to the petty kings, princes, and chiefs, of the feveral
countries of America, excepting thole of Peru, which
are called curatas. The French call them cafiques, a
denomination which they always give to the Tarta-
rian hordes.—The cazics, in fome places, do the office
of phyficians, and in others of priefts, as well as of
captains. The dignity of cazic among the Chiites, a
people of South America, does not defeend to chil¬
dren, but mtift be acquired by valour and merit. Ond
of the prerogatives attached to it is, that the cazic
may have three wives, while the other people are al¬
lowed only one. Mexico comprehended a great num¬
ber of provinces and iflands, which were governed
by lords called caAques, dependent on and tributary to
the emperor. Thirty of thefe vaffals are faid to have
been fo powerful, that they were able, each of them,
to bring an army of 100,000 men into the field.
CAZIM1R, a handfome town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Lublin, lituated on a hill covered with
trees, in E. Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 51.5*
CEA. See Ceos.
CEANOTHUS, New Jersey Tea. See Botany
Index,
CEBES,
C E C [ 295 ] C E C
>es, CEBES, of Thebes, a Socratic philofopher, author
cil- of the admired Table of Cebes ; or, “ Dialogues on the
Birth, Life, and Death of Mankind.” He flourifhed
about 405 years before Chrift.—The above piece is
feientioned by fome of the ancient writers, by Lucian,
D. Laertius, Tertullian, and Suidas : but of Cebes
himfelf we have no account, fave that he is once men¬
tioned by Plato, and once by Xenophon. The for¬
mer fays of him, in his “ Phsedo,” that he was a fa-
gacious invefligator of truth, and never aflented with¬
out the mcfl; convincing reafons : the latter, in his
“ Memorabilia,” ranks him among the few intimates
of Socrates, who excelled the reft in the innocency of
their lives. Cebes’s Tabula is ufually printed with
Epifletus’s Manuale.
CECIL, William, Lord Burleigh, treafurer of
England in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was the fon
of Richard Cecil, Efq. mafter of the robes to King
Henry VIII. He was born in the houfe of his grand¬
father, David Cecil, Efq. at Bourn in Lincolnfhire,
in the year 1520 j and received the rudiments of his
education in the grammar-fchool at Grantham. From
thence he was removed to Stamford 5 and about the
year 153?, was entered of St John’s College, Cam¬
bridge. Here he began his ftudies with a degree of en-
thufraftie application very uncommon in young gentle¬
men of family. At the age of 16 he read a fophif-
try leflure, and at 19 a voluntary Greek lefture,
which was the more extraordinary as being at a time
when the Greek language was by no means univer-
fally underftood. In 1541 he went to London, and
became a member of the fociety of Gray’s Inn, with
an intention to ftudy the law 5 but he had not been
long in that fituation before an accident introduced
him to King Henry, and gave a newr bias to his pur-
fuits. O’Neil, a famous Irifh chief, coming to court,
had brought with him two Irifn chaplains, violent bi¬
gots to the Romiffi faith 5 with thefe Mr Cecil, vifit-
ing his father, happened to have a warm difpute in
Latin, in which he difplayed uncommon abilities.
The king, being informed of it, ordered the young
man into his prefence, and was fo pleafed with his
converfation, that he commanded his father to find a
place for him. Pie accordingly requeued the rever-
fion of the cujlos hrevium, which Mr Cecil afterwards
pofleffed. About this time he married the ftder of
Sir John Cheke, by whom he was recommended to
the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somerfet and
proteftor.
Soon after King Edward’s acceftion, Mr Cecil came
into the poiTeflion of the office of cujlos brevmm, worth
about 240I. a-year. His firft lady dying in 1543, he
married the daughter of Sir Anthony Cook, direc¬
tor of the king’s ftudies. In 1547, he was appointed
bv the proteiflor mafter of requefts ; and foon after
attended his noble patron on his expedition againft
the Scots, and was prefent at the battle of Muflel-
burgh. In this battle, which was fought on the icth
of September 1 $47, Mr Cecil’s life rvas miraculoufly
preferved by a friend, who on pufhing him out of the
level of a cannon, had his arm fhattered to pieces.
The fight and judgement of his friend muft have been
as extraordinary as his friendfhip, to perceive the pre-
cife direftion of a cannon fhot •, unlefs we fuppofe,
that the ball was almoft quite fpent} in which cafe
the thing is not irhpoftible. The ftory is told in his Cecil,
life by a domeftic. In the year 1548, Mr Cecil was
made fecretary of ftate j but in the following year,
the duke of Northumberland’s faftion prevailing, he
fuffered in the difgrace of the protestor Somerfet, and
was fent prifoner to the Tower. After three months
confinement he was releafed ; in 1551 reftored to
his office j and foon after knighted, and fworn of
the privy council. In 1553 he was made chancellor
of the order of the Garter, with an annual fee of
100 merks.
On the death of Edward VI. Mr Cecil prudently
refufed to have any concern in NorthumbevlaUd’s at¬
tempt in favour of the unfortunate Lady Jane Gray ;
and when Queen Mary acceded to the throne, he was
gracioufly received at court j but not choofing to
change his religion, was difmiffed from his employ,
ments. During this reign, he was twice ele&ed knight
of the (hire for the county of Lincoln; and often fpoko
in the houfe of commons with great freedom and
firmnefs, in oppofition to the miniftry. Neverthelefs,
though a Proteftant and a patriot (that is, a courtier
out of place), he had the addrefs to fteer through a
very dangerous fea without fliipwreck.
Queen Elizabeth’s acceffion in the year 1558 im¬
mediately difpelled the cloud which had obfeured bis
fortunes and minifterial capacity. During the horrid
reign of her filler, he had conftantly correfponded
with the princefs Elizabeth. On the very day of her
acceffion, he prefented her with a paper containing
twelve articles neceflary for her immediate difpatch j
and, in a few days after, was fworn of the privy
council, and made fecretary of ftate. His firft advice
to the queen was, to call a parliament 5 and the firft
bufinefs he propofed after it was affembled was the
eftablilhmcnt of a national church. A plan of refor¬
mation was accordingly drawn up under his imme¬
diate infpeftion, and the legal eftablilhment of the
church of England was the confequence. Sir Wil¬
liam Cecil’s next important concern, was to reftore
the value of the coin, which had in the preceding,
reigns been confiderably debafed. In 1561, he was
appointed mafter of the wards and, in 1571, created
baron of Burleigh, as a reward for his fervices, par¬
ticularly in having lately ftifled a formidable rebellion
in the north. The following year he was honoured,
with the Garter, and raifed to the office of lord high
treafurer of England. From this period we find him
the primatn n.obile of every material tranfadlipn during
the glorious reign of Queen Elizabeth. Notwith-
ftanding the temporary influence of other favourites,
Lord Burleigh was, in fafl, her prime minifter, and the
perfon on whom (he chiefly confided in -matters of real
importance. Having filled the higheft and moft im¬
portant offices of the ftate for 40 years, and guided
the helm of government during the moft glorious pe¬
riod of Englifh hiitory, he departed this life on the
4th of Auguft 1598, in the 78th year of his age.
His body was removed to Stamford, and there depo-
fited in the family vault, where a magnificent tomb
was erefted to his memory.—Notwithftanding his
long enjoyment of fuch lucrative employments, he left
only an eftate of 4000I. per annum, 11,cool, in
money, and effects worth about 14,000!. He lived,
indeed, in a manner ffiitable to his high rank and im-
C E C C 206 ] C E I
Gecy, portance. He had four places of rehdence, viz. his
Cf;cllia• . lodgings at court, his houfe in the Strand, his feat at
Burleigh Park near Stamford, and his feat at Theo¬
bald’s. The laft of thefe was his favourite place of
retirement, where he frequently entertained the queen
at a vaft expence.
Lord Burleigh was doubtlefs a man of fingular abi¬
lities and prudence, amiable in his private charatter,
and one of the moft able, upright, and indefatigable
miniilers ever recorded in the annals of this king¬
dom. His principal works are, I. La Complainte de
. I'ame peckerejfe, or the Complaint of a fmful Soul, in
French verfe, in the king’s library. 2. Materials for
Patten’s Dianum exped. Scoticce, London, 1541, i2mo.
3. Slanders and lies malicioufly, grofsly, and impu¬
dently vomited out, in certain traiterous books and
pamphlets, againft two counfellors. Sir Francis Ba¬
con and Sir William Cecil. 4. A fpeech in parlia¬
ment, 1562, Strype’s Mem. vol. iv. p. 107. 5. Pre¬
cepts or direftions for the well ordering of a man’s
life, 1637, Harl. Cat. vol. ii. p. 755. 6. Meditations
on the death of his lady, Ballard’s Mem. p. 184.
7. Meditations on the date of England during the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, manufeript. 8. The execution
of juilice in England for the maintenance of public
and Chriftian peace, &c. Lond. 1581, 1583, Somer’s
trafts, 4th Colled, vol. i. p. 5. 9. Advice to Queen
Elizabeth in matters of religion and date, ib. p. 101,
106. 10. A great number of letters. See Peck’s
Dejiderata Curiofa, Howard’s collodions, &c. II. Se¬
veral pedigrees, fome of which are preferved in the
archbidiop of Canterbury’s library at Lambeth, N°
299,747-
CECILIA, St, the patronefs of mufic, has been
honoured as a martyr ever lince the fifth century.
Her dory, as delivered by the notaries of the Roman
church, and from thence tranferibed into the Golden
Legend and other books of the like kind, fays, that
fhe was a Roman lady, born of noble parents about
the year 295 : That, notwithftanding fhe had been
converted to Chridianity, her parents married her to
a young Pagan nobleman named Valerianus; who go¬
ing to bed to her on the wredding night, as the cujlom
isy fays the book, was given to underdand by his
fpoufe, that fhe was nightly vifited by an angel, and
that he mud forbear to approach her, otherwife the
angel wrould dedroy him. Valerianus, fomewhat trou¬
bled at thefe words, defired that he might fee his ri¬
val the angel *, but his fpoufe told him that was impof-
fible, unlefs he would confent to be baptized and be¬
come a Chridian. This he confented to; after which,
returning to his wife, he found her in her clofet at
prayer, and by her fide, in the drape of a beautiful
young man, an angel clothed with brightnefs. After
fome converfation with the angel, Valerianus told him
that he had a brother named Tiburtius, whom he
reatly v idled to fee a partaker of the grace which he
imfelf ad received. The angel told him that his
defire was granted, and that they fhould be both crown¬
ed with martyrdom in a fhort time. Upon this the
angel vanifhed, and was not long in diowing himfelf
as good as his word \ Tiburtius was converted, and
both he and his brother Valerianus were beheaded.
Cecilia was offered her life upon condition that fhe
would facrifice to the deities of the Romans j but die
I
refufed j upon wliich die was thrown into a caldron
of boiling u'ater, and fealded to death. Others fay,
that die was ftified in a dry bath, i. e. an enclofure from
whence the air was excluded, having a flow fire un¬
derneath it; which kind of death w-as fometimes in-
dicled by the Romans upon women of quality who
were criminals. Upon the fpot where her houfe flood,
is a church, faid to have been built by Pope Urban I.
who adminiitered baptifm to her hufband and his bro¬
ther : it is the church of St Cecilia at Traftevere j
within is a mod; curious painting of the faint, as alf®
a dately monument with a cumbent datue of her with
her face downwards. There is a tradition of St Ce¬
cilia, that die excelled in mufic j and that the angel
who was thus enamoured of her, was drawn from the
celedial regions by the charms of her melody : this hav
been deemed authority fudicient to making her the
patronefs of mufic and muficians. The legend of St
Cecilia has given frequent occafion to painters and
fculptors to exercife their genius in reprefentations of
her, playing on the organ, and fometimes on the harp.
Raphael has painted her finging with a regal in her
hands j and Domenichino and Mignard, finging and
playing on the harp.
CECROPS, the founder and fird king of Athens,
about the time of Mofes the law-giver of the He¬
brews. He was the fird who edablifhed civil govern¬
ment, religious rites, and marriage among the Greeks j
and died after a reign of 50 years. See Attica,
N° 4.
CEDAR. See Juniperus and Pinus, Botany
Index.
The fpecies of cedar famous for its duration, is that
popularly called the cedar of Lebanon (Pinus cedrus\
by the ancients cedrus tnagna, or the great cedar j alfo
cedrelate, Kt^^iXurri. See PlNUS, Botany Index.
CEDRENUS, George, a Grecian monk, lived in
the 1 ith age, and wrote, “Annals, or an abridged
Hidory, from the beginning of the World to the
Reign of Ifaac Comnenus emperor of Condantinople,
who fucceeded Michael IV. in 1057.” This work is
no more than an extract from feveral hidorians. There
is an edition of it, printed at Paris in 1647, with the
Latin verfion of Xylander, and the notes of Father
Goar a Dominican.
CEDRUS, the Cedar tree, Mahogany, &c. See
Juniperus, Pinus, and Swietenia, Botany Index.
CEILING, in ArchiteEiure, the top or roof of a
lowrer room 5 or a covering of plaifer over laths nailed
on the bottom of the joAls that bear the floor of the
upper room j or where there is no upper room, on joids
for the purpofe , hence called ceiling joi/is. The word
ceiling anfwers pretty accurately to the Latin lacunar^
“ every thing over head.”
Pladered ceilings are much ufed in Britain, more
than any other country : nor are they without their
advantages, as they make the room lightfome j are
good in cafe of fire \ dop the paflage of the dud ; lef-
fen the noife over head; and, in dimmer, make the air
cooler.
Ceiling, in fea language, denotes the infide planks
of a fliip.
CEIMELIA, from xu/ttu, “ to be laid up,” in an¬
tiquity, denotes choice or precious pieces of furni¬
ture or ornaments, referved or laid up for extraordi¬
nary
Ceinw
CEL [ 297 ] CEL
nelia nary occafiom and ufes j in which fenfe, facred gar-
11 ments, veflels, and the like, are reputed of the cei-
cbes' , melia of a church. Medals, antique Hones, figures,
^ manufcripts, records, &.c. are the ceimelia of men of
letters.
CEIMELIARCHIUM, the repofitory or place
where ceimelia are prefcrved.
CEIM EL IOPH YL AX,(from and
I keep), the keeper or curator of a colleftion of cei¬
melia j fometimes alfo denominated ceimeliarcha. The
ceimeliarcha, or ceimeliophylax, was an officer in the
ancient churches or monafteries, anfwering to wffiat
was otherwife denominated chartophylax, and cujlos ar-
chivorum.
CEL/ENAi,, in Ancient Geography, the capital of
Phrygia Magna, fituated on a cognominal mountain,
at the common fources of the Mgeander and Marfyas.
The king of Perfia had a ftrong place beneath the ci¬
tadel, by the fprings of the Marfyas, which rofe in the
market-place, not lefs in fize than the Mgeander, and
flowed through the city. Cyrus the younger had alfo
a palace there, but by the fprings of the Mseander,
which river paifed likewife through the city. He
had, moreover, an extenfive paradife or park, full of
wild beafts, which he hunted on horfeback for exercife
or amufement j and watered by the Mseander, which
ran through the middle. Xerxes was faid to have built
thefe palaces and the citadel after his return from his
expedition into Greece.
Antiochus Soter removed the inhabitants of Celsenae
into a city which he named, from his mother, Apamea j
and which became afterwards a mart inferior only to
Ephefus. See Apamea.
CELANDINE. See Chelidonium, Botany In¬
dex.
CELANO, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, in Farther Abruzzo. It is feated a mile from
the lake Celano, anciently Called Fucinus. E. Long.
13. 39. N. Lat. 41. $6. ' '
CELARENT, among logicians, a mode of fyllo-
gifm, wherein the major and conclufion are univerfal
negative propofitions, and the minor an univerfal af¬
firmative.
E. gr. cE None whole underftanding is limited can be
omnifcient.
/A Every man’s underftanding is limited.
rEnt Therefore no man is omnifcient.
CELASTRUS. See Botany Index.
In Senegal the negroes ufe the powder of the root
*f this plant as a fpecific again ft gonorrhoeas, which it
is faid to cure in eight or fometimes in three days, An
infufion of the bark of a fpecies of ftaff tree, which
grows in the ille of France, is faid to polfefs the fame
virtues.
CELEBES, an ifland in the Indian fea, fituated un¬
der the equator, and called by fome Macajfar. The
length and breadth have not been accurately comput¬
ed ; but the circumference, at a medium, is about 800
miles. It had formerly fix kingdoms, which are re¬
duced to one. The air is hot and moift, and lubjedl
to great rains during the north-waffi wands, which blow
from November to March, at which time the country
is overflowed, and for this reafon they build their
houfes on piles of wood ten feet high. The molt health-
Vol. V. Part I.
ful time is during the northern monfoons, which fel- Celebes,
dom fail blowing regularly in one part of the year., e erc~'
The chief vegetables are rice and cocoas 5 but they
have ebony, fanders, &c. Their fruits and flowers
are much the fame as in the neighbouring parts of the
Indies. They have pepper, fugar, betel, areca, the
fineft cotton, and opium. The natives have bright
olive complexions, and the women have fhining black
hair. They are thought to be very handfome by the
Dutch and Chinefe, who often purchafe them for
bedfellows. The men are induftrious, robuft, and
make excellent foldiers. Their arms are labres, and
trunks, from whence they blow poifoned darts, which
are pointed with the tooth of a fea-filh. Some like¬
wife ufe poifoned daggers. They w'ere the laft of the
Indian nations that were enflaved by the Dutch, which
could not be eftefted till after a long w ar. They teach
their children to read and write, and their charafters
have fome refemblance of the Arabic. Their religion
being Mahometan, the men indulge themfelves in many
wives and concubines. The employment of the wo¬
men is fpinning,'cookery, and making their own and
their huibands clothes. The men wear jewels in their
ears, and the women gold chains about their necks.
The inhabitants in general go half-naked, without any
thing on their head, legs, or feqt, and fome have no¬
thing but a cloth about their middle. The ftreeis of
the town Macaffar are fpacious, and planted w'ith tree*
on every fide. It Hands by the fide of the only large
river they have in the ifland. The Dutch have a fort
here, mounted with 40 guns, and garrifoned with 700
men. There is only one other town of note, called
Jampandam, where they alfo have a fort. The ifland
is not near fo populous as when the Dutch conquered
it j the men being hired for foldiers in moil of the
neighbouring countries.
The religion of thefe iflands was formerly idolatry.
They worlhipped the fun and moon. They facrificed
to them in the public fquares, having no materials
which they thought valuable enough to be employed
in raifing temples. About two centuries ago, fome
Chriftians and Mahometans having brought their opi¬
nions to Celebes, the principal king of the country
took a diflike to the national worfhip. Having con-
. vened a general affembly, he afeended an eminence,
when, fpreading out his hands towards heaven, he told
the Deity, that he would acknowledge for truth that
doftrine whofe minifters ftiould firft arrive in his domi¬
nions, and, as the winds and waves were at his com¬
mand, the Almighty would have himfelf to blame if
he embraced a falfehood. The affembly broke up, de¬
termined to wait the orders of heaven, and to obey the.
firft miffionaries that iliould arrive. The Mahometan*
were the moft active, and their religion accordingly
prevailed.
CELEBES, in Roman antiquity, a regiment of
bodyguards belonging to the Roman kings, eftahliflied
by Romulus, and compofed of 300 young men, cho-
fen out of the moft illuftrious Roman families, and ap¬
proved by the fuffrages of the curiae of the people,
each of which furniftied ten. The name comes from
celer, “ quick, ready j” and w-as given them becaufe
of their promptnefs to obey the king.
The ccleres always attended near the king',s perfon,
to guard him, to be ready to carry his orders, and t»
P p execut®
CEL r 298 ] CEL
Celeres, execute tl:em. In war they made the van-guard in
the engagement, which they always began firftj in re-
v treats they made the rear-guard.
Though the celeres were a body of horfe, yet they
usually difmounted, and fought on foot *, their com¬
mander was called tribune, or prefect of the celeres.
They were divided into three troops of too each,
commanded ny a captain called centurio: their tribune
was the fecond perfon in the kingdom.
Plutarch lays, Numa broke the celeres. If this be
true, they were loon re-eitablithed j for we find them
under mmt of the ucoeeding kings : w.lnefs the great
P a.us, who ex'died the larquins, and who was the
trio me of the celeres.
CEL EH I, in Boinny, the Engliih name of a variety
of the A.PIUM Gravkolens.
The feed of celeri ihould be Town at two or three
d derent times, the oe tei to continue it for ufe through
the wh >le feaion w tlioat running up to feed. 1 he
firft lowing Ihould be in the beginning of March, upon
a gentle hot-bed ; the fecond may be at the end of
the fame month, which ought to be in an open fpot
of light earth, where it may enjoy the benefit of the
fun ; the third time of fowing fhould be in the latter
end of April, or beginning of May, on a moifl foil ;
and if expofed to the morning fun only, it will be to
much the better, but it fhould n t be under the drip
of trees. The middle of May, fome of the p ants of
the firft fowing will be fit to tranfplant for blanch¬
ing.
The manner of tranfplanting it is as follows : after
having cleared the ground of weeds, you mult dig a
trench by a line about 10 inches wide, and 8 or 9
'inches deep, loofening the earth in the bottom, and
laying it level ; and the earth that comes out of the
trench fhould be equally laid on each fide the trench
to be ready to draw in again to earth the eeleri as it
advances in height. Thefe trenches fhould be made
at three feet diffance from each other •, then plant your
plants in the middle of the trench, at about rour or
five inches diftance, in one ftraight row, having be¬
fore trimmed the plants, and cut off the tops of the
long leaves : and as they are planted, you muft obferve
to clofe the earth well to their roots with your feet,
and to water them plentifully until they have taken
new root. As thefe plants advance in height, you
muft obferve to draw the earth on each fide clofe to
them, being careful not to bury their hearts, nor ever
to do it but in dry weather ; otherwife the plants will
rot. When your plants have advanced a confi erable
height above the trenches, and all the earth, which
was laid on the fides thereof, hath been employed in
earthing them up, you muft then make ufe of a fpade
to dig up the earth between the trenches, which muft
alfo be made ufe of for the fame purpofe, continuing
from time to time to earth it up’ until it is fit for ufe.
The laft crop fhould be planted in a drier foil, to pre¬
vent its being rotted with too much wet in the winter.
You will do well to cover your ridges of eeleri with
fome peafe-haulm, or fome fueh light covering, when
the froft is very hard, which wdll admit the air to the
plants i for if they are covered too clofe, they will be
very fubjeft to rot : by this means you will preferve
your eeleri till fpring •, but you muft remember to
take off the covering whenever the weather will per¬
mit, otherwife it will be apt to caui'e the celen to pipe Celeri
and run to feed. The eeleri, when full blanched, will II,
not continue good above three weeks or a month be-, e ^
fore it will rot or pipe ; therefore,, in order to con¬
tinue it good, you fhould have at leaft fix or feven dif¬
ferent feafons of planting, proportioned to the con-
fumption.
The other fort of eeleri, which is commonly called
ce/eriac, is to be managed in the fame maimer j ex¬
cepting that this Ihould be planted on the level ground,
or in very fhallow drills : for this plant feldom grows
above eight or ten inches high, lo requires but little
earthing up ; the great excellency of this being in the
fize of the root, which is often as large as ordinary
turnips.
The beft method to fave the feed of eeleri, is to
make choice of fome long good roots of the upright
eeleri, which have not been too much blanched, and
plant them out, at about a foot afunder, in a moift
foil, early in the fpring ; and when they run up to
feed, keep them fupported with flakes, to prevent
their being broken down with the wind : and in July,
when the feed begins to be formed, if the feafon fhould
prove very dry, it will be proper to give fome water
to the plant, which will greatly help its producing
good feeds. In Auguft thefe feeds will be ripe, at
which time it fhould be cut up, in a dry time, and
fpread upon cloths in the fun to dry ^ then beat out
the feeds, and preferve it in bags for ufe.
CELERI, Wild, (^Apium antardicum^, was found in
confiderable quantities by Sir Jofeph Tanks ana Er
Solander on the coaft of lerra del luego. It is like
the garden eeleri in the colour and diipofition of the
flowers, but the leaves are of a deeper green. The
tafte is between that of eeleri and pariley. It is a very
ufeful ingredient in the foup for ft amen, becaufe of its
antifeorbutic quality.
CELERIl Y, in Mechanics, the fwiftnefs of any
body in motion. It is alfo defined to be an affeclion
of motion, by which any moveable body runs through
a given fpace in a given time.
CELESTIN a religious order fo called from their
founder Peter de Mcuron, afterwards railed to the
pontificate under the name of Celeftin V. Ihis Peter,
who was born at Ifernia, a little town in the kingdom
of Naples, in the year 1215, of but mean parents, re¬
tired, while very young, to a folitary mountain, in
order to dedicate himfelf wholly to prayer and morti¬
fication. The fame of his piety brought feveral, out
of curiofity, to fee him 5 fome of whom, charmed with
his virtues, renounced the world to accompany him in
his folitude. With thefe he formed a kind of commu-
nitv in the year 1254: which was approved by Pope
Urban IV. in 1264', and ere&ed into a diftindt order,
called the hermits of St Damien. Peter de Meuron
governed this order till 1286, when his love of foh-
tude and retirement induced him to quit the charge.
In July 1 ',94, the great reputation of his ianefity rai-
fed him, though much againft his will, to the pontifi¬
cate. He then took the name of Celeftin V. and his
order that of Celeftms from him. By his bull he ap¬
proved iheir conftitutions, and confirmed all their mo-
nafteries to the number of 20. But he fat too fliort
time in the chair of St Peter to do many great things
for his order ; for having governed the church five
months
CEL [ 299 ]
months and a few days, and confidering the great bur- clergy,
den he had taken upon him, to which he thought him-
felf unequal, he folemnly renounced the pontificate in
a confiftory held at Naples. -
After his death, which happened in 1296, his order
made great progrefs not only in Italy, but in France
likewise : whither the then general Peter of Tivoli
fent 12 religious, at the requelt of King Philip tne
Fair, who gave them two monafteries; one in the fo-
reft of Orleans, and the other in the foreft of Com-
peigne at Mount Chartres, this order like wife paffed
into feveral provinces of Germany. Ihey have about
96 convents in Italy, and 21 in Fiance, under the title
•of priories.
The Celeflins rife two hours after midnight to fay
matins. They eat no tlelh at any time, except when
they are fick. They fait every Wednefday and Fri¬
day, from Falter to the feaft of the exaltation of the
holy crofs ; and, from that feaft to Falter, every day.
As to their habit, it eonfifts of a white gown, a ca-
puche, and a black fcapulary. In the choir, and when
they go out of the monaftery, they wear a black cowl
with the capuche : their fhirts are of ierge.
CELETES, or CeleTjE (from jcsAjk, « race-horfe)
in antiquity, denote Angle or fad die-hot fes, by way of
contradiftin£tion from thofe yoked or harneffed toge¬
ther, called bigarii, quadrigarh, &c. The fame de¬
nomination is alfo given to the cavaliers or riders on
horfeback •, and hence fome deduce celeres, the name
of Romulus’s guard.
CELEUSMA, or CeleuMa, in antiquity, the
(bout or cry of the feamen, whereby they animated
each other in their work of rowing. The word is
formed from xitevuv, to cal/, to give thejigna/.
■ Celeusma, was alfo a kind o*7 fong or formula, re-
hearfed or played by the matter, or others, to diredt
the ftrokes and movements of the mariners, as well as
to encourage them to labour. See Cellustes.
CELEUSTES, in Ancient Navigation, the boat-
fwain or officer appointed to give the ro\vers the fignal,
when they w ere to pull, and when to ftop. He is al¬
fo denominated epoheus, and by the Romans, portijcu*
lus ; fometimes Amply hortator,
CELIBACY, the ftate of unmarried perfons. Sca-
liger derives the word from the Greek Ke<ru, “ bed.”
and Hnquo, “ I leave others fav it is formed
from cedi beatitudo, q. d. the bleffedneft of heaven.
The ancient Romans ufed all means imaginable to
difeourage celibacy. Noihing was more ufual than
for the cenfors to impofe a fine on bachelors. Diony-
ftus Halicarnaffenfis mentions an ancient conftitution
whereby all perfons of full age were obliged to marry.
But the firft law of that kind, of which we have any
certainty, is that under Auguftus, called /ex Julia de
maritandii ordinibus. It was afterwards denominated
Papia Pobp ea, and more ufually Julia Papia, in re¬
gard of fome new fan&ions and amendments made to
it under the confuls Papius and Poppseus. By this
law, divers prerogatives were given to perfons who
had many children •, penalties impofed on thofe who
lived a Angle life, as that they Ihould be incapable of
receiving legacies, and not exceeding a certain propor¬
tion.
CELIBATE, the fame with celibacy, but it is
chiefly ufed in fpcaking of the Angle life of the Popilh
CEL
or the obligation they are under to abftain Celibate,
from marriage. In this fenfe we fay the law of ceu- ^
bate. Monks and religious take a vow of celibate $
and what is more, of chaftity.
The church of Rome impofes an univerfal celibacy
on all its clergy, from the pope to the loweft deacon
and fubdeacon. The advocates for this ufage pretend
that a vow of perpetual celibacy was required in the
ancient church as a condition of ordination, even from
the earlieft apoftolic ages. But the contrary is evi-
dent from numerous examples of biftiops and archbi-
fliops, who lived in a ftate of matrimony, w ithout any
prejudice to their ordination or their fun&ion. It is
generally agreed that moft of the apoftles were mar¬
ried. Some fay all of them, except St Paul and St
John. Others fay St Paul himfelf was married, be-
caufe he writes to his yoke-fellow, whom they inter¬
pret his wife. Be this as it will, in the next ages
after the apoftles, we have accounts of divers mar¬
ried biftiops, prefbyters, and deacons, without any re¬
proof or mark of difhonour let on them , e. g. \ alens,
prelbyter of Philippi, mentioned by Polycarp ; and
Chseremon, biftiop of Nilus. Novatus was a married
prefbyter of Carthage, as we learn from Cyprian; who
himfclf was alfo a married man, as Pagi confeffes
and fo was Csecihus the prefbyter who converted him ;
and Numidius, another prelbyter of Carthage, ihe
reply which the Romanifts give to this is, that all mar- .
ried perfons, when they came to be ordained, promi-
fed r.o live feparate from their wives by conlent, which
anfwmred the vow of celibacy in other perfons. But
this is not only faid without proof, but againft it. For
Novatus prefbyter of Carthage was certainly al owed
to cohabit with his w fe after ordination ; as appears
from the charge that Cyprian brings againit him, that
he had ftruck and abufeii his wife, and theret y cauied
her to mlfcarry. I here feems indeed to have been,
m fome cafes, a tendency towards lIic introduction of
L ch a law' by one or two zealots ; but the motion
was no fooncr made than it wras quaihed oy the au¬
thority of wiftr men. Rhus Eufebius obfewes, that
Pinvtus, biftiop of Gnoflus in Crete, was for lay g
the Taw of celibacy upon his brethren ; but Liony .s
bifinop of Corinth wrote to him, that, he ihould conli-
dev the weaknefs of men, and not impofe that heavy
burden on them. In the council of Nice, anno 325,
the motion was renewed for a law to oblige the cler¬
gy to abftain Tom all conjugal fociety with their w.ves,
vdiom they had married before their or dinatiun ; but
Paphnutius, a famous Egyptian biftiop, and one who
himfelf never wras married, vigorouliy declaimed a-
gainft it, upon which it was unanimouily rejedled. oo
Socrates and Sozomen tell the ftory ; to which all
that Valefius, after Bellarmin, has to fay, is, that he
fufpedts the truth of it. The council in Trullo, held
in 692, made a difference in this refpedl between bi-
fhops and preibyters ; allowing prefbyters, deacons,
and all the inferior orders, to cohabit with their wives
after ordination ; and giving the Roman church a
fmart rebuke for the contrary prohibition, but at the
fame time laying an injunction upon biftiops to live fe¬
parate from their wives, and appointing the wives to
betake themfelves to a monaftic life, or become de^-
coneffes in the church. And thus was a total cell: ate
eftablifhed in the Greek church as to biftiops, but not
P P 2 any
Celibate
C E L ty
any others. In the Latin church, the like eftablifh-
ment was alfo made, but by flow fteps in many places.
For in Africa, even bifhops themfelves cohabited with
their wives at the time of the council of Trullo. The
celibacy of the clergy, however, appears of an ancient
itanding, if not of command and neceflity, yet of
counfel and choice. But as it is clearly neither of di¬
vine nor apoflolical inftitution, it is at firft hard to con¬
ceive from what motive the court of Rome perfifted fo
very obftinately to impofe this inftitution on the cler¬
gy. But we are to obferve that this was a leading ftep
to the execution of the projeft formed of making the
clergy independent of princes, and rendering them a
feparate body to be governed by their own jaws. In
eft'ett, while priefts had children, it was very difficult
to prevent their dependence on princes, whofe favours
have fuch an influence on private men ; but having no
family, they were more at liberty to adhere to the
pope.
CELIDOGRAPHIA, the defcription of the fpots
which appear on the furfaces of the fun and planets.
See Astronomy.
CELL, {Celia) in ancient writers, denotes a place
or apartment ufually under ground, and vaulted,, in
which were ftored up fome fort of neceflaries, as wine,
honey, and the like j and according to which it was
called Celia Vinana, Ollearia, Mellaria, &c. The
word is formed from the Latin celare, to conceal.
Cella was alfo ufed for the lodge or habitation of
a common proftitute, as being anciently under ground,
hence alfo denominated fornix.
Intravit calidum veteri centnne lit pan ar,
Et cellam vacuam. Juv. Sat. vi. ver. 121.
On which place an ancient fcholiaft remarks, that the
names of the whores were written on the doors of their
feveral cells 5 by which w'e learn the meaning of in-
Jcripia cella in Martial, lib. xi. Ep. 46.
Cella was alfo applied to the bedchambers of do-
meftics and fervants; probably as being low and nar¬
row.—Cicero, inveigh ng againft the luxury of Anto¬
ny, fays the beds in the very cellae of his fervants were
fpread with pompous purple coverlets.
Cella is alfo applied to the members or apartments
of baths. Of thefe fhere were three principal, called
fn^idaria, tepidana, and caldaria; to which may be
added a fourth, called cella ajfa, and fometimesyWtf/o-
ria.
Cella likewife fignified the adyta, or inmoft and
moft retired parts of temples, wherein the images of
the gods to whom the edifices were confecrated were
preferved. In this fenfe we meet with cella Jovis, cel¬
la Concord'a;.
Cella is alfo ufed for a leffer or fubordmate fort of
monaftery dependent on a great one, by w'hich it was
erefted, and continues ftill to be governed. The great
abbeys in England had moft of them cells in places
diftant from the mother abbey, to which they were ac¬
countable, and from which they received their fupe-
riors. The alien priories in England were cells to
abbeys in Normandy, France, Italy, &c. The name
cell was alfo given to rich and conliderable monafteries
not dependent on any other.
Cell fignifies alfo a little apartment or chamber,
fuch as thole wherein the ancient monks, folitaries, and
o ] CEL
hermits, lived in retirement. Some derive the word Cell
from the Hebrew xba, i. e. “ a prifon, or place where ||
any thing is ffiut up.” ^Cdlare
The fame name is ftill retained in divers monafteries. v""1
The dormitory is frequently divided into fo many
cells or lodges. The Carthufians have each a feparate
houfe, which ferves them as a cell. The hall where¬
in the Roman conclave is held, is divided by parti¬
tions into divers cells, for the feveral cardinals to
lodge in.
Cell is alfo a name given to the little diviiions in
honeycombs, which are always regular hexagons. See
Bee.
Cell, in Botany, is applied to the hollow place be¬
tween the partitions in the pods, hulks, and other feed-
veffels of plants : according as there is one, two, three,
&c. of thefe cells, the veffid is faid to be unilocular,
bilocular, trilocular, &c.
Cells, in Anatomy, little bags, or bladders, wffiere
fluids or other matters are lodged j called loculi, cellu-
Ice, &c. Thus the cellulee adipofee are the little cells
where the fat is contained •, cellules in the colon, are
fpaces wherein the excrements are detained till void¬
ed, &c.
CELLAR {Cellarium), in ancient writers, denotes
the fame with cella, viz. a confervatory ot eatables or
drinkables.
Cellar differs from vault, as the latter is fuppofed to
be deeper, the former being frequently little oelow the
furface of the ground. In which fenfe, celianum alfo
differed from penus, as the former was only a ftorehoufe
for feveral days, the latter for a long time. 1 bus it
is the baftroperatae, a fort of ancient Cynics, aie faid
by St Jerome to carry their cellar about w ith them.
Cellarium alfo denoted an allowance of bread, wine,
oil, or other provifion, furnifhed out of t.:e cella, to
the ufe of the governor of the province and his officers,
&c. In which fenfe, the word amounts to much the
fame with annona.
Cellars, in modern building, are the loweft rooms
in a houfe, the ceilings of which ufually lie level with
the furface of the ground on w hich the houfe is built}
or they are fituated under the pavement before the
houfe, efpecially in ftreets and fquares.
Cellars, and other places vaulted under ground, were
called by the Greeks hypogesa: the Italians ftill call
them find:, del’i cafe.
CELLARER, or Cellerer, Cellerarius or Cella¬
ring), an officer in monafteries, to whom belong the
care and procurement of provifions for the convent.
The denomination is faid to be borrowed from the Ro¬
man law, where cellanus denotes an examiner of ac¬
counts and expences. Ulpian defines it thus : “ Cel¬
lerarius, id eft, ideo praepofitus ut rationes falvas fint.”
The celleranus was one of the four ohedientiarn, or
great officers of 'monafteries: under his ordering was
the pijlrinum or bakehoufe, and the hr annum or brew-
houfe. In the richer houfes there were particular
lands fet apart for the maintenance of his office, called
in ancient writings ad cibum monai horum. Ihe celie-
rarius was a great man in the convent. His whole
office in ancient times had a refpeft to that origin :
he was to fee his lord’s corn got in, and. laid up in
granaries *, and his appointment confifted in a certain
proportion thereof, ufually fixed at a thirteenth part
Celfus.
CEL [30
Cellarer of the -whole, together with a furred gown. The of¬
fice of cellarer then only differed in name from thofe
of bailiff and minftrel 5 excepting that the cellarer had
the receipt of his lord’s rents throughout the whole
extent of his jurifdiftion.
Cellarer was alfo an officer in chapters, to whom
belonged the care of the temporals, and particularly
the diifributing of bread, wine, and money, to canons,
on account of their attendance in the choir. In fome
places he was called cellarer, in others burfer, and in
others currier.
CELLARIUS, Christopher, was born in 1638,
at Smalcade in Franconia, of which town his father was
minifler. He was fucceffively re&or of the colleges
at Weymar, Zeits, and Merfbourg : and the king of
Pruffia having founded an univerfity at Halle in 1693,
he was prevailed on to .be profeffor of eloquence and
hiftory there, where he compofed the greateft part of
his works. His great application to ftudy hailened the
infirmities of old age •, for it is faid, he would fpend
whole days and nights together at his books, without
any attention to his health, or even the calls of nature.
His works relate to grammar, geography, hiftory, and
the oriental languages : and the number of them is a-
mazing. He died in 1707.
CELLINI, Benvenuto, an eminent flatuary, who
was bred a jeweller and goldfmith, but feems to have
had an extraordinary genius for the fine arts in gene¬
ral. He was cotemporary with Michael Angelo and
Julio Romano, and was employed by popes, kings,
and other princely patrons of fciences and arts, fo
highly cultivated in the days of Leo X. and Charles V.
fome of his productions being efteemed moft exqui-
fite. He lived to a very confiderable old age j and
his life, almoft to the laft, was a continued fcene of
adventure, perfeeution, and misfortune, truly wonder¬
ful. He wrote his own hiftory, which was not, how¬
ever, publifhed till the year 1730, probably on ac¬
count of the exceftive freedom with which he therein
treated many diftinguifhed perfonages of Italy and
other.countries. It was tranflated into Englifh by Dr
Nugent in 1771, to which the reader is referred, as it
will not admit of an abridgment fuitable to the defign
of this work.
CELLULAR, in a general fenfe, is applied to any
thing confiding of fingle cells.
Cellular Membrane. See Anatomy Index.
CELOSIA, Cock’s-comb. See Botany Index.
CELSIA. See Botany Index.
CELSUS, Aurelius Cornelius, a celebrated
phyfician of the firft century, who wrote eight books
on medicine, in elegant Latin. He ivas the Hippo¬
crates of the Latins; and Quintilian gives him a high
eulogium. The great Boerhaave tells us, that Celfus
is one of the befi: authors of antiquity for letting us
into the true meaning and opinions of Hippocrates •,
and that without him, the writings of this father in
phyfic would be often unintelligible, often mifunder-
ftood by us. He {hows-us alfo how the ancients cured
diftempers by friClion, bathing, &c. His eight books
de Medicine have been feveral time§ printed. The
Elzevir edition, in the year 16 to, by Vander Linden,
is the bell, as being entirely correfted from his manu-
feripts.
Czi sus, an Epicurean philofopher, in the fecond
]
CEL
century. Fie wrote a work againft the Chriftians, Celfus,
entitled, The True Difcourfe: to which Origen, at the , Cc
defire of Ambrofe hisfriend, wrote alearned anfwer. To
this philofopher Lucian dedicated his Pfeudomanies.
CELTAE, or Celtes, an ancient nation, by which
moft of the countries of Europe are thought to have
been peopled. The compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory
are of opinion that they were defeended from Gomer
the eldeft fon of Japhet, the fon of Noah. They think
that Gomer fettled in the province of Phrygia in Afia j
Afhkenaz his eldeft fon, or Togarmah his youngeft, or
both, in Armenia j and Riphath the fecond fon in Cap¬
padocia. When they fpread themfelves wider, they
feem to have moved regularly in columns without in¬
terfering with or difturbing their neighbours. The
defeendants of Gomer, or the Celtse, took the left
hand, infenfibly fpreading themfelves weftward towards
Poland, Hungary, Germany, France, and Spain j
while the defeendants of Magog, Corner’s brother mo¬
ving eaftward, peopled Tartary.
In this large European traft, the Celtes began to
appear a powerful nation under a regular monarchy,
or rather under feveral confiderable kingdoms. Men¬
tion is made of them indeed in lo many parts of Eu¬
rope, by ancient geographers and hiftorians, that Or-
tellius took Celtica to be a general name for the conti¬
nent of Europe, and made a map of it bearing this
title. In thofe parts of Afia which they poffeffed, as
well as in the different parts of Europe, the Celtes
went by various names. In Leffer Afia they ivere
known by the names of Titans and Sacks ; in the north¬
ern parts of Europe, by thofe of Cymmenans, Cym-
brians, &c. *, and in the fouthern parts they were cal¬
led Celtes, Gauls, or Galatians.
With refpe£t to the government of the Celtes wre
are entirely in the dark. All we know is, that the
curates, and afterwards druids and bards, were the in¬
terpreters of their laws ; judged all caufes whether cri¬
minal or civil and their fentence was reckoned fo fa-
cred, that whoever refufed to abide by it was by them
excluded from affifting at their facred rites j after
which no man dared to converfe with him: fo that this
punifhment was reckoned the moft levere of ail, even,
feverer than death itfelf.
They neither reared temples nor ftatues to the Dei¬
ty, but deftroyed them wherever they could find them,
planting in their Head large fpacious groves \ which,
being open on the top and fides, were, in their opi¬
nion, more acceptable to the divine Being, who is ab-
folutely unconfined. In this their religion feems to
have refembled that of the Perfees and dilciples of
Zoroafter. The Celtes only differed from them in
making the oak inftead of fire the emblem of the
Deity •, in choofing that tree above all others to plant
their groves with, and attributing feveral fupernatural
virtues both to its wood, leaves, fruit, and mifletoe j
all of which were made ufe of in their facrifices and
other parts of their worlhip. But after they had adopt¬
ed the idolatrous fuperftition of the Romans and other
nations, and the apotheofis of their heroes and prin¬
ces, they came to worlhip' them much in the lame
manner*, as Jupiter under the name of laran, which
in the Celtic fignifies thunder *, Mercury, whom fome
authors call Hens or Hefus, probably from the Celtic
haudh, which fignifies a dog, and might be the Anubis
In trims:
Celtes,
Ceitiberia.
L [ 3°2 1 G E M
But Mars was held in the of the river Iberus-, though fometimes the greatefl part Ccltiberlji
C E
latrans of the Egyptians,
greateft veneration by the warlike, and Mercury by
the trading, part of the nation. The care of religion
was immediately under the curates, fince known by
the name of druids and bards. Thefe were, as Cae-
far tells us, the performers of facrinces and all reli¬
gious rites, and expounders of religion to the people.
They alfo in!tru£led youth in all kinds of learning,
fuch as philofophy, aftronomy, aftrology, &c. 1 heir
doctrines were taught only by word of mouth, efleem-
inT them too facred to be committed to writing.—
Other more common fubjefts, fuch as their hymns to
their gods, the exploits of princes and generals in time
of war, and efpecially before a battle, were couched
in elegant verfe, and recited, or rather fung, on all
proper occafions j though even thefe were alfo kept
from vulgar eyes, and ehher committed to memory,
or, if to writing, the whole was a fecret to all the
laity. The latter indeed feems the moft probable, if
what Caefar hints be true ; namely, that thofe poetic
records were increafed in his time to fuch a bulk, that
it took up a young bard near ?o years to learn them
by heart. Diodorus tells us farther, that thele poets
ufed to accompany their fongs with inflrumental raunc,
fueh as thofe of organs, harps, and the like.-, and that
they were held in fuch veneration, that if in the time
of an engagement betw'een two armies, one of thefe
bards appeared, both fides immediately cealed fighting.
The reafon of this was, that they were univerfally be¬
lieved to be prophets as wrell as poets •, fo that it was
thought dangerous as well as injurious to difobey what
they fuppofed came from their gods. ihefe piophe-
tic philofophers kept academies, which were reforted
to, not only by a great number of their own youth,
but alfo of thofe from other countries, infomuch that
Ariftotle fays, their philofophy palled from thence in¬
to Greece, and not from Greece thither. Diodoius
likew’ife quotes a palfage from Hecateus, which is
greatlv in their praifs •, viz that the druids had fome
kinds of inftruments by which they could draw diftant
objects nearer, and make them appear larger and
plainer •, and by which they could dxfcover e\en feas,
mountains, and valleys, in the moon. But whatever
might be their learning, it is certain, that in procefs
of time they adopted feveral very barbarous cuftoms,
luch as facrihcing human vi&ims to their ends, as more
acceptable to them than thofe of any other animals.
And Diodorus tells us of another inhuman cullom they
ufed in their divinations, efpecially in great matters,
which was done by killing fome of their Hayes, or
fome prxfoners of war, if any they bad, with a fcimitar,
to draw the augury from the running of his blood from
his mangled limbs.
For the hi dory, &c. of the different Celtic nations,
fee the article Gaul, &c.
Cei.tes, certain ancient inftruments of a wedge¬
like form, of which feveral have been, difeovered in
different parts of Great Britain. Antiquaiians have
generally attributed them to the Celtse 5 but not agiee-
ing as to their ufe, diflinguifhed them by the above
unmeaning appellation. But Mr Whitaker makes it
probable that they were Britilh battle-axes. See
Battle-Ax^.
CELTIBERIA, in Ancient Geography, a country of
the Hither Spain, along the right or fouth-weft fide
2
of Spain was called by the name Ceitiberia. The peo- ^
pie were denominated Celtiberi, or the Celtse feated on
the Iberus. They were very brave and warlike ; their
cavalry in particular wras excellent. 1 hey wore a
black and rough cloak, the fhag of which was like
goats hair. Some of them had light bucklers like the
Gauls : others hollow and round ones like thofe of
other nations. They all wore boots made of hair, and
iron helmets adorned with crefts of a purple colour.
They ufed fwords which cut on both tides, and po¬
niards of a foot long. Their arms -were of an admi¬
rable temper, and are faid to have been prepared in
the following manner : they buried plates of iron un¬
der ground, where they let them remain till the ruff
had eaten the weakeft part of the metal, and the reft
was confequently hard and firm. Of this excellent iion
they made their fw'ords, which w’ere fo lining and
well tempered, that there was neither buckler .nor
helmet that could refill their edge. The Celtiberians
were very cruel towards their enemies and malefac¬
tors, but Ihowed the greateft humanity to their guefts.
They not only cheerfully granted their holpitality to
ftrangers, who travelled in their country, but were
defirous that they Ihould feek protection under their
roof.
CELT IS. See Botany Index.
CEMENT, in a general fenfe, any glutinous fub-
' fiance capable of uniting and keeping things together
in clofe cohefion. In this fenfe the word cement com¬
prehends mortar, folder, glue, See. but has been ge¬
nerally reltrained to the compofitions ufed for holding
together broken glaffes, china, and earthen ware. For
this purpofe the juice of garlic is recommended as ex¬
ceedingly proper, being both very ftro.ng, and, if the
operation is performed with care, leaving little or no
mark. Quicklime and the white of an egg mixed
together and expeditioufly ufed, are alfo very proper
for this puipofe. Dr Lewis recommends a mixture
of quicklime and cheefe in the following manner .
“ Sweet cheefe fhaved thin, and ilirred with boilmg-
hot water, changes into a tenacious ihme which does
not mingle with the water. Worked with frefti parti¬
cles of hot water, and then mixed upon a hot Hone
wbh a proper quantity of unfiacked lime, to the con-
fiftence of a paile, it proves a ftrong and durable ce¬
ment for wood, ftone, earthen ware, and glafs. Y\ hen
thoroughly dry, which will be in two or three days, it
is not in the leail aded upon by water. Cheefe barely
beat with quicklime, as direfted by fome of the che-
mifts for luting cracked glaffes, is not near fo effica¬
cious ” A compofition of the drying oil of Indeed
and white lead is alio ufed for the fame purpofes, but
is greatly inferior. . , -
CEMENT, in building, is ufed to denote any kind 0
mortar of a {Longer kind than ordinary. The cen^t
commonly ufed is of two kinds-, hot and cold, ihe
hot cement is made of rofin, bees-wax, brick-duff, and
chalk boiled together. The bricks to be. cemented
are heated, and rubbed one upon another, with cement
betw'een them. The cold cement is that above de-
feribed for cementing china, &c. which is fometimes,
though rarely, employed in building.. .
The ruins of the ancient Roman buildings are iound
to cohere fo ftrongly, that moft people have imagined
tuC
C E M [ 303
merit., the ancients were acquainted with forne kind of mor-
-y—J tar, which, in comparifon of ours, might juftly be call¬
ed cement; and that to our want of knowledge of the
materials they ufed, is owing the great inferiority of
modern buildings in their durability. In 177 ;, one
M. Loriot, a Frenchman, pretended to have difcover-
ed the fecret of the ancient cement, which, according
to him, was no more than a mixture of powdered quick-
lim: with lime which had been long flacked and kept
under water. The Hacked lime was firft to be made
up with fand, earth, brickduft, &e. into mortar after
the common method, and then about a third part of
quicklime in powder was added to the mixture. This
produced an almoft inflantaneous petrification, fome-
thing like what is called the felting of alaoa ler, but in
a much itronger degree ; and was poffefied of many
wonderful qualities needlefs here to relate, feeing it
has never been known to fucceed with any other per-
fon who tried it. Mr Anderfon, in his effays on agri¬
culture, has difeufied this fu >je6l at coniiderable length,
and feemingly with great judgment. He is the only
perfon we know who has given any rational theory of
the ufes of lime in building, and why it comes to be
the proper bafis of all cements. His account is in fub-
llanee as follows :
Lime Avhich has been Hacked and mixed with fand,
becomes hard and conli 'ent when dry, by a procels
fimilar to that which produces the natural JlalaBites
in caverns. Thefe are always formed by water drop¬
ping from the roof. By fome unknown and inexpli¬
cable procefs of nature, this water has diffolved in it a
final] portion of calcareous matter in a caujlic hate.
As long as the water continues covered from the air,
it keeps the eanh diflolved in it ; it being the natural
property of calcareous earths, when deprived of their
fixed air, to difiblve in water. But when the fmall
drop of water comes to be expofed to the air, the cal¬
careous matter contained in it begins to attract the
fixable part of the atmofphere. In proportion as it
does fo, it alio begins to feparate from the water, and
to reaffume its native form of limeftone or marble.
This procefs Mr Anderfon calls a cr^ Jlnil %nticn ; and
when the calcareous matter is perfectly cn/l'a/li-zed in
this manner, he affirms, that it is to all intents and
purpofes lime'none or marble of the fame confiflence as
before: and “ in this manner (fays he), within the
memory of man, have huge rocks of marble been form¬
ed near Matlock in DerbyHiive.” If lime In a cau ic
Hale is mixed with water, part of the lime will be dif-
fol ed, and will alfo begin to cryilallize. The water
which parted with the cry allized lime will then be¬
gin to a£l upon the remainder, which it could not dif-
folve before ; and thus the i rocefs will continue, either
till the lime be all reduced to an rff 'e, or (as he calls
it) cnjjtalhne Hate, or fome thing hinders the adlion of
the water upon it. It is this cryfiallization which is
obferved by the workmen when a heap of lime is mix¬
ed with water, and left for fome time to macerate. A
hard cruH is fo-med upon the furface, which is igno¬
rantly called f oPing, though it takes place in fummer
as v 11 as in winter, If therefore the hardnefs of the
lime, or its becoming a cement, depends entirely on
the formation of its cry als, it is evident that the per-
lection of the cement mult depend on the perfection
of the cry uals, and the hardnefs of the matters which
] C E M
are entangled among them. The additional fuMances Cement,
ufed in making of mortar, fuch as fand, brickduft, or **
the like, according to Mr Anderfon, lerve only for a
purpofe limilar to what is anfwered by Iticks put into
a velfel full of any faline folution, namely, to afford the
cryltals an opportunity of faftening themielves upon it.
If therefore the matter interpofed between the cryitals
of the lime is of a friable, brittle nature, Inch as brick-
duit or chalk, the mortar will be of a weak and imper-
fe£t kind ; but, when the particles are hard, angular,
and very difficult to be broken, fuch as thofe ol river
or pit land, the mortar turns out exceedingly good
and ttrong. Sea land is found to be an improper ma¬
terial for mortar, which Mr Anderfon aferibes to its
being lefs angular than the other kinds. That the
cryitallization may be the more perfect, he alfo recom¬
mends a large quantity of water, that the ingredients
be perfectly mixed together, and that the drying be as
How as poflible. An attention to thefe circuiruiances,
he thinks, would make the buildings of the moderns
equally durable with thofe of the ancients ; and from
what remains of the ancient Roman works, he thinks
a very ttrong proof of his hypothefis might be adduced.
The great thicknefs of their walls neceffarily required
a vait length of time to dry. Ihe middle of them
was computed of pebbles thrown in at random, and
which have evidently had mortar fo thin as to be pour,
ed in among them. By this means a great quantity
of the lime w'ould be diffolved, and the cryftallization
performed in the molt perfeCt manner ; and the inde¬
fatigable pains and perfeverance for which the Romans
were fo remarkable in all their undertakings, leave no-
room to doubt that they would take care to have the
ingredients mixed together as veil as pi ffiblc. The
confequence of all this is, that the buildings formed in
this manner are all as firm as if cut out of a tolid rock 5
the mortar being equally hard, if not more fo, than the
ftones themfelves.
Notwithftanding the bad fuccefs of thofe who have
attempted to repeat M. Loriot’s experiments, however,.
Dr Black informs us, that a cement of this kind is cer¬
tainly practicable. It is done, he lays, by powdering
the lime while hot from the kiln, and throwing it into
a thin pafte of fand and water ; which, not Hacking
immediately, abforbs the water from the mortar by de¬
crees, and forms a very hard mafs. “ It is plain, he
adds, that the ftrength of this mortar depends on ufing
the lime hot or freth from the kiln.”
By mixing together gypfum and quicklime, and
then adding wat er, we may form a cement of tolerable
hardnefs, and which apparently might be ufed to ad¬
vantage in making troughs for holding water, or lining
fmall canals for it to run in. Mr Wiegley fays, that
a good mortar or cement, which will not crack, may<
be obtained by mixing three parts of a thin magma of
flacked lime with one of powdered gypfum ; but adds,
that it is ufed only in a dry fituation. A mixture of
tarras with Hacking lime acquires in time a ftony hard¬
nefs, and may be ufed for preventing water from en¬
tering. See Mortar and Stucco.
Cement, among engravers, jewellers, &c. is the
fame with the hot cement ufed in building * ; and is* See the
ufed for keeping the metals to be engraven firm to the foregoing
block, and alfo for filling up what is to be chiffeled.
Cement, in Chemi/iry^ is uied to lignify all thofe
powdors-
article.
[
C E N
Cement powders ?md paftes with which any body is
11 rounded in pots or crucibles, and which are capable
Cenotaph. ^ ^ ^Ip 0f fire of producing changes upon that
body. They are made of various materials ; and are
ufed for different purpofes, as for parting gold from
filver, converting it into fteel, copper into brafs : and
by cementation more confiderabie changes can be ef-
feded upon bodies, than by applying to them liquids
of any kind j becaufe the aaive matters are then in a
ftate of vapour, and affifted by a very.confiderable de¬
gree of heat. _ f .
CEMENT which quickly hardens in water. This is
deferibed in the pofthumous works of Mr Hooke, and
is recommended for gilding live craw fifh, carps, &c.
without injuring the fifh. The cement for this pur-
pofe is prepared, by putting fome Burgundy pitch in¬
to a new earthen pot, and warming the velfel till it re¬
ceives fo much of the pitch as will flick round it, then
firewing fome finely-powdered amber over the pitch
■when growing cold, adding a mixture of three pounds
of linfeed oil, and one of oil of turpentine, covering
the veffel and boiling them for an hour over a gentle
fire, and grinding the mixture as it is wanted with as
much pumice-flone in fine powder as will reduce it to
the confidence of paint. The fifh being wiped dry,
the mixture is fpread upon it j and the gold leaf be¬
ing then laid on, the fifh may be immediately put
into water again, without any danger of the gold
coming off, for the matter quickly grows hard in the
CEMENT Pots, are thofe earthen pots ufed in the ce¬
mentation of metals.
CEMENTATION, the a& of corroding or other-
wife changing a metal by means of a Cement.
CEMETERY (Kft^T^isv,fromKoipcta, to “Jeep”)-,
a place let apart or confecrated for the burial of the
Anciently none w^ere buried in churches or church¬
yards : it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the
cemeteries were without the walls. Among the pii-
mitive Chrillians thefe were held in great veneration.
It even appears from Eufebius and lertullian, that,in
the early ages, they affembledfor divine worfhip in the
cemeteries. Valerian feems to have confifcated the ce¬
meteries and other places of divine worfhip, but they
were reilored again by Gallienus. . As the martyrs
were buried in thefe places, the Chriflians chofe them
for building churches on, when Conflantme efiablifhed
their religion * and hence fome derive the rule which
dill obtains in the church of Rome, never to confecrate
an altar without putting under k the relicks oi fome
faint. The practice of confecrating cemeteries is ot
fome antiquity. The bifhop walked round it in pi o-
ceffion, with the crofier or padoral daff m his hand
the holy water pot being carried before, out of which
the afperfions were made.
CENCHRUS. See Botany Index_
CENEGILD, in the Saxon antiquities, an expia¬
tory mulft, paid by one who had killed a man to the
kindred of the deceafed. The word is compounded
of the Saxon cinne, i. e. cognatio, “ relation,” and gild,
folutio, “ payment.”
CENOBITE. See Coenobite.
CENOTAPH, in antiquity, an empty tomb, eretl-
3°4 1 C E N ■
fur- ed by way of honour to the. deceafed. It is didingtmh'
ed from a fepulchre, in which a coffin was depofited.
Of thefe there were two forts-, one for thofe who ^
had, and another for thofe who had not, been honoured
with funeral rites in another place. _ #
The fign whereby honorary fepulchres were diftin-
guifhed from others, was commonly the wreck of a
fhip, to denote the deceafe of the perfon in fome foreign
country. ... r
CENSER, in antiquity, a vafe containing mcenfe
to be ufed in facrifices. Cenfer is chiefly uied in {peak¬
ing of the Jewifh worffiip. Among the Greeks and
Romans it is more frequently called thuribulum, AiWvw-
r<5, and acerra.
The Jewifh cenfer was a fmall fort of chafing difli,
covered with a dome, and iufpended by a chain. Jo-
fephus tells us, that Solomon made 20,000 gold cenfers
for the temple of Jerufalem, to offer perfumes in, and
50,000 others to carry fire in.
CENSIO, in antiquity, the aft or office of the cen-
for. See Census.
Cenfio included both the rating or valuing a man s
eilate, and the impofing mulfts and penalties.
CENSIO hajlaria, a puniffiment infli£led on a Roman
foldier for fome offence, as lazinefs or luxury, whereby
his hajia or fpear was taken from him, and confequent- ^
ly his wages and hopes of preferment flopped.
CENS^TUS, a perfon cenfed, or entered in the
cenfual tables. See Census.
In an ancient monument found at Ancyra, contain*
ing the aftions of the emperor Oflavius, we read,
Quo luftro civium Romanorum
Cenjita funt capita quadragies
Centum millia et fexaginta tria.
CENSITUS is alfo ufed in the civil law for a fervile
fort of tenant, who pays capitation to his lord for the
lands he holds of himf and is entered as fuch in the
lord’s rent roll. In which fenfe, the word amounts to
the fame with capite cenfus, or capite cenjitus. See CAP1TE
Cenfi.
CENSOR, (from cen/ere to “ think” or “judge )}
one of the prime magiftrates in ancient Rome. I heir
bufinefs was to regiller the effefls of the Roman citi¬
zens, to impofe taxes in proportion to what each man
poffe’ffed, and to take cognizance or infpeftion of the
manners, of the citizens. In confequence of this lail
part of their office, they had a power. to cenfure. vice
or immorality, by infli&ing fome public mark of igno¬
miny on the offender. They had even a power to
create the princJps fenatus, and to expel from the fenate
fuch as they deemed unworthy of that office. This
power they fometimes exerciied without fufficient
grounds; and therefore a law was at length paffed, that
no fenator ffiould be degraded or difgraced in any man¬
ner until he had been formally accufed and lound
guilty by both the cenfors. It was alfo a part of the
eenforian jurifdiclion, to fill up the vacancies m the
fenate, upon any remarkable deficiency in their num¬
ber ; to let out to farm all the lands, revenues, and
cuiloms, of the republic j and to contrad w ith artifi¬
cers for the charge of building and repairing ah the
public works and edifices both in Rome and the colo¬
nies of Italy. In all parts of their office, however,
they
Cenotapi
tlenfor.
I
C E N
-.for they were fubjecl to the jurifdi&ion of the people; and
’[ an appeal always lay from the fentence of the cenfors
' lure‘ to that of an affembly of the people.
rft The firft two cenfors were created in the year of
Rome 311, upon the fenate’s obferving that the con-
fuls were fo much taken up with war as not to have
time to look into other matters. The office continued
to the time of the emperors, who affumed the cenforial
power, calling themfelves morum praftth; though
Vefpafian and his fons took the title of cenfors. De-
cius attempted to reitore the dignity to a particular
magiftrate. After this we hear no more of it, till Con-
ftantine’s time, who made his brother cenfor, and he
feems to have been the laft that enjoyed the office.
The office of cenfor was fo confiderable, that for a
long time none afpired to it till they had paffed all the
reft j fo that it was thought furprifing that Craflus
ftiould be admitted cenfor, without having been either
sonful or praetor. At firft the cenfors enjoyed their
dignity for five years, but in 420 the dictator Mamer-
cus made a law reftraining it to a year and a half,
which was afterwards obfervcd very ftri£tly. At firft
one of the cenfors was eledted out of a patrician, and
the other out of a plebeian family ; and upon the death
of either, the other was difcharged from his office, and
two new ones eledled, but not till the next luftrum. In
the year of Rome 622, both cenfors were chofen from
among the plebeians; and after that time the office
was (hared between the fenate and people. After their
eleftion in the Comitia Centuriata, the cenfors pro¬
ceeded to the capitol, where they took an oath not to
manage either by favour or difaffedtion, but to adt e-
quitably and impartially throughout the whole courfe
of their adminiftration.
The republic of Venice s a cenfor of the man¬
ners of their people, whoL lafts fix months.
CENSORS of Books, are a body of dodtors or others
eftablifhed in divers countries to examine all books be¬
fore they go to the prefs, and to fee they contain no¬
thing contrary to faith and good manners.
At Paris, before the late revolution, the faculty of
theology claimed this privilege as granted to them by
the pope; but, in 1624, new commjffions of four doc¬
tors were created, by letters patent, the foie cenfors
of all books, and anfwerable for every thing contained
therein.
In England, we had formerly an officer of this kind,
under the title of licenfer of the prefs : but, (nice the
Revolution, our prefs has been laid under no fuch re-
ftraint.
CENSORINUS, a celebrated writer in the third
century, well known by his treatife De die Natali. This
treatife, which was written about the year 23 8, Gerard
Voffius calls a little book of gold ; and declares it to
be a moft learned work, of the higheft ufe and import¬
ance to chronologers, fince it connedts and determines,
with great exadtnefs, fome of the principal eras in pa¬
gan hiftory. It was printed at Cambridge, with the
notes of Lindenbrokius, in 1695.
CENSURE, a judgment which condemns fome book,
perion, or adtion, or more particularly, a reprimand
from a fuperior. Ecclefiaftical cenfures are penalties,
by which, for fome remarkable milbehaviour, Chriftians
are deprived of the communion of the church, or pro¬
hibited to exercife the facerdotal office.
Vol. V. Part I.
C E N
CENSUS, in Roman antiquity, an authentic decla¬
ration made before the cenfors, by the feveral fubjedts
of the empire, of their refpedtive names and places of
abode. This declaration was regiftered by the cen¬
fors ; and contained an enumeration, in writing, of all
the eftates, lands, and inheritances they poffelfed; their
quantity, quality, place, wives, children, domeltics,
tenants, (laves. In the provinces the cenfus ferved not
only to difeover the fubftance of each perfon, but
where, and in what manner and proportion, taxes
might be bed impofed. The cenfus at Rome is com¬
monly thought to have been held every five years ;■
but l)r Middleton hath (hown, that both cenfus and
luftrum were held irregularly and uncertainly at va¬
rious intervals. The cenfus was an excellent expedi¬
ent for difeovering the ftrength of the (late; for by it
they difeovered the number of the citizens, how many
were fit for war, and how many for offices of other
kinds ; how much each w as able to pay of taxes, &c.
It went through all ranks of people, though under dif¬
ferent names: that of the common people w as called
cenfus ; that of the knights, cenfus, recenfo, recognitio;
that of the fenators, ledlio, relc&io.—Hence alfo cenfus
came to fignify a perfon who had mad^fuch a declara¬
tion ; in which fenfe it w-as oppofed to incenfus, a per¬
fon w ho had not given in his eftate or name to be regi¬
ftered.
The cenfus, according to Salmafius, was peculiar -to
the city of Rome. That in the provinces was pro¬
perly called profcjjio and But this diftinc-
tion is not everywdiere obferved by the ancients them¬
felves.
CENSUS was alfo ufed for the book or regifter wherein
the profeffions of the people were entered : In wrhich
fenfe, the cenfus was frequently cited and appealed t»
as evidence in the courts of jultice.
Census is alfo ufed to denote a man’s whole fub¬
ftance or eftate.
CENSUS Senatorius, the patrimony of a fenator, which
was limited to a certain value ; being at firft rated at
800,000 fefterces, but afterwards, under Augultus, en¬
larged to 1,200,000.
CENSUS Equefer, the eftate er patrimony of a knight,
rated at 400,000 fefterces, which was required to qua¬
lify a perfon for that order, and without which no vir¬
tue or merit was available.
Census was alfo ufed for a perfon w'-orth ioo,co<»
fefterces, or who vras entered as fuch in the cenfual ta¬
bles, on his own declaration. In which fenfe, cenfug
amounts to the fame with c/ajjicus, or a man of the firft:
clafs ; though Gellius limits the eftate of thofe of this
clafs to 125,000 afies. By the Voconian lawr, no cen¬
fus was allowed to give by his will above a fourth part
of what he was worth to a woman.
Census was alfo ufed to denote a tax or tribute im¬
pofed on perfons, and called alfo capitation. See CA-
PITE Cenji.
CENSUS Dominicatus, in writers of the lower age,
denotes a rent due to the lord.
CENSUS DupHcatus, a double rent or tax, paid by
vaffals to their lord on extraordinary or urgent occa-
fions; as expeditions to the Holy Land, &c.
CENSUS Ecc/efee Romance, was an annual contribu¬
tion voluntarily paid to the fee of Rome by the feveral
princes of Europe.
Si
( 3°5 1
CENT,
C E N [ 306 ] C E N
CENT, fignifies properly a hundred, being an a-
Centena bndgement of the word centum; but is often ufed in
commerce to exprefs the profit or lofs arifing from the
—y—fale of any commodity : fo that when we fay there is
10 per cent, profit, or 10 per cent, lofs, upon any mer-
chandife that has been fold, it is to be underftood that
the feller has either gained or loft 10I. on every 100I.
of the price at which he bought that merchandife ;
which is T’^ of profit, or T'o of lofs, upon the total of
the fale.
CENTAUR, in Jljironomy, a part or moiety of a
fouthern conftellation, in form half man half horfe j
ufually joined with the wolf. The word comes from
formed of pungo; and resugof, bull;
q. d. bu/l-pncker. The ftars of this conftellation, in
Ptolemy’s Catalogue, are 37 ; in Tycho’s 45 and in
the Britannic Catalogue, with Sharp’s Appendix, 35.
CENTAURS, in Mythology, a kind of fabulous
monitors, half men and half horfes.—The poets pre¬
tend that the Centaurs were the fons of Ixion and a
cloud •, the reafon of which fancy is, that they retired
to a caftle called which fignifies “ a cloud.”—
This fable is differently interpreted : fome will have
the Centaurs t(Thave been a body of fhepherds and
herdfmen, rich in cattle, who inhabited the mountains
of Arcadia, and to whom is attributed the invention
of bucolic poetry. Palsephaetus, in his book of incre-
dibles, relates, that under the reign of Ixion, king cf
Theffaly, a herd of bulls on Mount Theflaly run mad,
and ravaged the whole country, rendering the moun¬
tains inacceffxble 3 that fome young men who had
found the art of taming and mounting horfes, under¬
took to clear the mountains of thefe animals, which
they purfued on horfeback, and thence obtained the
appellation of Centaurs. This fuccefs rendering them
infolent, they infulted the Lapitha?, a people of Thef¬
faly : and becaufe when attacked they fled with great
rapidity, it was fuppofed they were half horfes and
half men.—The Centaurs in reality were a tribe of
Lapithae, who inhabited the city Pelethronium adjoin¬
ing to Mount Pelion, and firit invented the art of
breaking horfes, as is intimated by Virgil.
CENTAUREA, Greater Centaury. See Bo¬
tany Index. There are 61 fpecies belonging to this
genus. The root of one of them, called glaji folia, is an
article in the materia medica. It has a rough, fome-
what acrid tafte, and abounds with a red vifeid juice.
Its rough tafte has gained it franc efteem as an aftrin-
gent, its acrimony as an aperient, and its glutinous
quality as a vulnerary : but the prefent practice takes
very little notice of it in any intention. Another of
the fpecies is the cyanus or blue bottle, which grows
commonly among corn. The expreffed juice of this
flower ftains linen of a beautiful blue colour, but is not
permanent. Mr Boyle fays, that the juice of the in¬
ner petals, with a little alum, makes a beautiful per¬
manent colour, equal to ultramarine.
Lefer CENTAURT. See Gentiana, Botany Index.
CENTELLA. See Botany Index.
CENTENARIES, or Centenario, in the middle
age, an officer who had the government or command,
with the adminiftration of juftice, in a village. The
centenarii as well as viearii were under the jurifdi&ion
and command of the court. We find them among the
Franks, Germans, Lombards, Goths, &c.
CentenarIUS was alfo ufed for an officer who had Centttu
the command of 100 men, moft frequently called a du»
Centurion. II
Centenaries, in monafteries, was an officer wdio -'Cl^
had the command of 100 monks.
CENTENINUM ovum, among naturalifts, de¬
notes a fort of hen’s egg much fmaller than ordinary,
vulgarly called a cock's egg ; from which it has been
fabuloufly held that the cockatrice or bafilifk is pro¬
duced. The name is taken from an opinion, that thefe
are the laft eggs which hens lay, having laid ico be¬
fore 3 whence centeninum, q. d. the hundredth egg.—-
Thefe eggs have no yolks, but in other refpefts dif¬
fer not from common ones, having the albumen, cha-
lazes, membranes, &c. in common with others. In
the place of the yolk is found a little body like a fer-
pent coiled up, which doubtlefs gave rife to the fable
of the bafililk’s origin from thence. Their origin is
with probability aferibed by Harvey to this, that the
yolks-in the vitellary of the hen are exhaufted before
the albumina.
CENTER, or Centre, in a general fenfe, Cgni-
fies a point equally diftant from the extremities of a
line, figure, or body. The word is formed from the
Greek K£vrg«», a point.
CENTRE of an Arch. Under the article Bridge,
the different forms of arches have been particularly
confidered.
Under this article, it comes very properly to be af-
certained in what manner the arch-ftones are fupported
till the arch is completed, and the moft commodious
and leaft expenfive manner in which this , can be ac-
complilhed. When the fpan is fmall, and upon a li¬
mited fcale, as cellars, and vaults below ground, the
foundation of the fide walls is dug out, the earth round¬
ed off betwixt, the arch thrown over upon it, and the
earth Is afterwards dug out and carried away. This
muft have been done on any account. By this method
the Wood and workmanihip are laved 3 but it is only in
particular inftances that this can be done. When the
arch to be call is on land, and at no great height above
the furface of the earth, a frame for fupporting the
arch-ftones can be raifed from the earth, and bound
together, frequently, with a great profulion of wood,
which on account of the fmallnefs of the arch is not
taken into account 3 but, w hen the fpan is great, or at
a great height above the furface of the earth, the ex¬
pence of a frame formed in the fame manner, would
be enormous, and in many cafes impradlicable 3 but
whether the arch be great or fmall, high or low, a pro¬
per economy ought to be obferved ; and the lefs the
expence in wrood and workmanfbip incurred, fo much
the more advantage to thofe concerned, and the pur-
pofe being obtained, fo much more credit is due to the
engineer.
It is again to be confidered, on the other hand, that
in order to fave fome expence, either in w ood or work-
manlhip, the frame or center, as we {hall call it, is
made too flight, and fo unconnedfed in its parts, that
the preffure of the arch-ftones is greater than it can
fupport. The whole work is brought down, and the
faving on the one part produces a more ferious lofs on
the other 3 fo that both the workmen and proprietors
agree, that it is better that the centre be too ftrong
than too w eak \ better have too much w'ood in it than
to®
C E N [ 507 3 C E N
too little. To a [Tift the mechanic in this important
affair, is the defign of treating this article with parti¬
cular attention j for which purpofe we {hall be at pains
to acquire every affiftance that can be colle&ed, from
the moft experienced engineers, and from the refearches
and experiments of the moft diftinguilhed philofophers
who have treated of fnch arts as may enable us to elu¬
cidate the fubjeft, and make it worth the attention of
engineers and mechanics who may have occafion to ex¬
ert their genius in that line.
In the firft place, it will be neceffary to confider
the weight to be fupported: 2dly, The quantity of the
materials to be ufed, that lhall be of ftrength fufficient
to fupport fuch a weight : 3dly, The moft effeftive
method to apply thefe materials, as fupported by the
moft approved authorities, or pratftifed by the ableft
engineers. The weight to be fupported is the arch-
ftones. Suppofe an arch of 20 feet fpan, (fee figures for
the arches, a new figure being unneceffary). It has
been fhown under the article Bridge, that the arch
can be raifed to 30 degrees and upwards, without the
fupport of the center j after which it begins to reft
Upon the frame of which the center is compofed, if
the arch is a femicircle, or femiellipfe \ if a fegment
of a circle, it will prefs fooner upon the center, and the
more fo the Tatter the arch is. ift, Suppofe a femi¬
circle $ then there is 120 degrees of the arch to be fup¬
ported by the center, the diameter fuppofed is 20 feet.
One hundred and twenty degrees will meafure
20.94393 feet; but as it is advifable to give the ad¬
vantage to the center, we call it 21 feet in an arch of
20 feet fpan. If the ftone is of a durable and hard
quality, perhaps an arch-itone of 12 or 14 inches might
be of fufficient ftrength ; yet it is not probable that
any one would think of lefs than 18 inches for the thick-
nefs of the arch ; for it will not have too heavy an
appearance if it ftiould be two feet thick. We fhall
calculate the weight at 18 inches fquare; the thicknefs
of the ftone is not here to be confidered, as the weight
of the whole is to be fupported till the key-ftone is
driven : the fpecific gravity of good freeftone is 2.532,
the folid feet in an arch of 120 degrees ; the fpan 20
feet is 21 feet, nearly as above. The ftone 18 inches
fquare by 21 feet gives 47.2^ folid feet; the weight
by the above fpecific gravity is 7477.30761b. avoirdu-
poife, about 66.7^3 cwt. being the weight that one
rib of the center frame muft fuftain, without warping,
or by the preffure on its haunches make it rife in the
Crown ; neither muft it fink under the preffure : in
either cafe the confequences would be fatal, either in
feaufing the arch to give way, upon ftriking out the cen¬
ter, or in weakening it in fuch a manner as to (horten
it-, durability ; being twifted in its {har>e, the equili¬
brium would be deftroyed, and the confequence would
be either to fpring the key-ftone, or, if that was pre¬
vented by the weight above it, the fame weight would
Caufe it to yield at about, or a little above, 30 degrees
from the fpriny of the arch. From all which the nc-
oe nty of ihe ftrength and firmnefs of the center frame
is e vi dent.
If she arch exceeds 20 feet, fuppofe $0, the weight
'"'d1 evidently become greater, and an additional
fir ng;b neceffary on that account ; and likewtfe on
ace up' of its greater extent, the frame that would be
fcuficien jy firm at 20 feet would be hippie at 50. To
prevent any error on this account, another calcula- Ckutet.
tion for 50 feet will become neceffary. In the fpan —"Dr““
of 50 the arch of 120 degrees meafures 52.36 feet ;
fuppofe the arch-ftone, 2i§- feet deep by 2, is five fuper-
ficial feet, multiplied by 52.36 is 261.8 folid feet, and
at the above fpecific gravity gives 41429.7154748 lb.
avoirdupoife, equal to 369.908 cwt. Here the weight ;s
increafed upon the center frame, in the proportion of
66.5 to 369.9, that is, more than five times, befides
what allowance it will be neceffary to make for the dif¬
ference of the ftiffnefs of the center frame; both which
will be confidered in their proper places.
Let us now confider what will be the increafe of
weight upon a fpan of 100 feet. The rife of the
arch, before it preffes on the center frame in a femi¬
circle, being in the fame proportion, the arch of 120
degrees in 100 feet fpan meafures 104.719 feet; the
arch-ftone may be fuppofed abundantly ftrong of 4
feet length, for the depth of the arch, and 3 feet broad,
which makes a fuperficies of 12 feet, and multiplied by
104.719 gives I 256.628 folid feet, the fpecinc gravity,
that is, the ftone is fuppofed of the fame durability
gives 198,861.381 lb. avoirdupoife, equal to i775-54'8
cwt. about five times more weight than upon the arch
of 50 feet fpan. If the arch is 130 feet fpan, 120 de¬
grees meafurc 136.13556 feet. Suppofe the arch-
ftone 5 feet, as in the areh-ftones of the bridge over
the Dee at Aberdeen, at leaft they are between 4I-
and 5 feet. The Aberdeen granite is a very hard
ftone, and perhaps exceeds the fpecific gravity above.
The areh-ftone is here fuppofed to be 5 feet by 3, equal
to 15 fquare feet, multiplied by 136.13556, gives
2042.0334 folid feet. According to the above fpecific
gravity, the weight to be fupported till the key-
ftone is drove, is 2885.2838 cwt. The weight of
the key-ftone in the whole of the above may be de¬
duced.
As center-frames muft likewife be ufed for iron
bridges, wc lhall confider them, and take the fpan 236
feet, ftill fupporting a femicircle,
It may be proper to take the weight that it would
be if the arch ivere the fegment of a circle, the fpan of
the arch 236, the height above the fpring of the arch,
or the verfed fine of the arch, 34 feet, in which cafe
the diameter of the circle would be 444 feet nearly ;
the arch-ftones in this fegment would prefs upon the
center-frame, at about 18 feet from the fpring of the
arch. Suppofe the arch-ftone 5 feet by 4, equal to
2o fuperficial feet, the whole meafure of the arch is
444.154 lineal feet, the folid content is 4131.84 feet,
and weight 318.689 tons ; but the weight of the iron
was only 260 tons. It may not be improper here to
obferve, that in a ftone bridge of that fpan, 5 feet of
arch-ftone would be too fmall to fuftain the arch. It
may perhaps be admitted, that it would be fufficient
to fupport its own weight ; and if fo, the arch be¬
ing fmootbed above, a fecond arch of a five-feet ftone
may be thrown over above it. Thefe two together
may form a ftronger arch than a ftone of ten feet depth
would do. And thus a ftone arch may be extended
to any fpan, and made of abundant ftrength ; and ex¬
perience has ffiown its durability to withftand the
weather. Thus the old London bridge has perform¬
ed its faithful ferviees to the public for her- years :
that it was an incumbrance in paffing up and down
Q,q 2 the
C E N [ 3c
Center, the river, and clumfy in its conftru&ion, were owing
■—V   to the tafte of the times. Perhaps few will be found
that would be willing to infure an iron bridge againft
the ruin occafioned by the weather for the fame time,
or perhaps much above one-hall that time.. But this
is not a fit place to enter into the full difcuflion of
this fubjeft. To return to the weight preffing upon a
center-frame. Having now taken a view of the weight
to be fupported, it comes next to be conlidered what
ftrength of wood is neceffary to refill this force, and
the moll proper and commodious manner of combining
the parts. To determine this, we mull have recourle
to fuch experiments as have been made for trying the
ffrength of different fpecies of Hone and wood.
Experiments have been made to afcertain the llrength
of timber, and many of them appear to have been con¬
duced with great care and attention. Some of thefe
the reader will find colleCed and detailed under the
article STRENGTH of Materials. We lhall here Hate
the refult of fome of the curious experiments which
were inllituted by the count de Buffon to afcertain
this point. According to thefe experiments, the batten
of five inches iquare, whole length was 14 feet, and
which fupported a weight of 5300, which may be call¬
ed its breaking force, Ihould have double the llrength
of a batten of 28 feet long. But it has a great deal
more. The latter by the experiment is equal.to 1775
only $ whereas the half of 53 30 Butitisto.be
confidered, that the power of the lever is in proportion
to its diilance from the fulcrum j this power arifing from
the weight of the log, is the weight of one foot of wood
afting as a weight at a diilance from the fulcrum. Phe
log increafes in its power to break by its length . 12
inches of this log, five inches fquare, weighs about
10.4 lb. fomewhat more or lefs j and 10.41b.. at 13 feet
diilance, aCs with a force of 135*2 lb.: this.we confi-
der the lall term ; and o, the point of fra&ure, is the firll
term : the firll and lall term, multiplied by half the
number of terms, are equal to the fum of all the terms j
that is, i3ir.2x64-> amount 878.81b. added to 1775,
equal 2653.8 ; fo near to the half, that the difference
may eafily be accounted for, from the real weight of
the wood on which the experiment was made *, and
our taking the weight from tables of fpecific gravity,
or the fuppofed 60 lb. lo take another example, a
batten of nine feet is double the ilrength of one of the
fame fize of 18 feet long. The weight that breaks a
batten of nine feet, five inches fquare, is 83“8 lb. •, the
half is 4134 : but by the experiment, 37001b. break
the batten at 1 8 feet. N. B. The weight being laid
upon the middle, 9? Is ^lie number of terms, one-half
is 4.625. Seventeen feet one-half is 8-^ ; 10.41b. mul¬
tiplied “by 84-, is 102 X 4-625, half the number of
terms, is 471.234-3700, is 1171.23, fomewhat great¬
er, but which is fo near, that the (mailed accident for
failure, not difcernible in the woo !, will occafion the
difference. Now to reduce the experiment of this
given fize to any other of greater dimenfions 3 fuppofe
one foot : fimilar folids of the fame altitude are to one
another as their bafes 3 that is, 2 3, the bafe of the five
inch fquare, is to 144, the bafe of the 1 2 inch, fquare,
as the weight that would break the batten of nine feet,
to the weight that will break another of the fame nine
feet length, and of one foot fquare ( 3. 6. El. 1 2.), that
is, as the bafe 25 is to the weight 8308, fo is 144 to
e ] . e e n
478541b. 3 equal 2x3.8125 ton, and the proportion as CentM,
above, for greater or lefs length of logs or fpars. As we
have no experiments made of logs of 1 2 inches fquare 3
unlefs there is fomething in the texture of the fibres,
in pieces of different diameters, ive have every reafon
to conclude, the above proportion will give the pro¬
per llrength of the material ufed. It mull, however,
not be forgot, that the pieces upon which the ex¬
periments were made, were nicely eholen for the pur-
pofe. It vdll fcarcely be praflicable to find a piece of
12 inches fquare, and even of nine feet length, equally
well adapted to bear a proportionable llrain 3 and much
more difficult to find a piece of Hill greater length.
Thefe experiments and proportions afford a fafe crite¬
rion for proper limits to be attended to in pra6iice. In
this, we do not mean to apply fuch a load upon the
beam as Avill break it 3 we intend the beam to fupport
the load, without giving way or yielding to it.
In the fame experiments, we are told by the author,
that two-thirds of the Aveight broke the beam in
the fpace of two months 3 that one-half the weight
gave a fet or bend which it did not recover, but Ihew-
ed no farther tendency to break 3 that one-third of the
weight, after long continuance, did not give it a fet 3
but the weight being removed, the beam returned to
the fame polition as before it was loaded. Betwixt one-
third and the half of load or weight that would break
the beam, is the ftrength Ave allot to it for permanent
ufe. Before Ave proceed to put the above obfervations
into full pradlice, let us examine whether the log is
neceffary to be fquare to give it the greateft ft.rength :
practice, in a great meafure, determines that it is not.
It is, however, neceffary to inquire Avhat breadth to a
given depth is fufficient as a maximum that Ave ought
not to exceed 5 or Avhat is the minimum that we may
ufe, fo as not to lofe the principal intended effeft.
Belidor has made a feries of experiments on the.tranf-
verfe ftrength of bodies, which are detailed in his
Science dcs b’genieurs, but the fpars are only , of one
inch, not exceeding tAvo inches in breadth or thicknefs.
Among thefe, we feleft one fpar tAvo inches breadth, one
inch depth, and i 8 inches length 3 Avhich at the medium
of three trials Avas broken, lying loofe at. both ends,
by 80 3 lb. Another one inch board, tAvo inches deep,
and 18 inches long, broke with the force of 15801b. 3
nearly in the pioportion of the fquare of the depth,
being only a diminution of 20 lb. weight. In the pre-
fent caff, the quantity of matter is the fame in both. •
It may therefore be concluded from this experi¬
ment, that a batten of any depth, and one-half bieadth,
is equally ftrong in that pofition as if it had. been
fquare timber 3 and that the ftrength is according to
the depth, if the breadth is only fuch as that it does
not yield in that dire£lion. And hence the advan¬
tage in point of economy 3 for if the piece is fet upon
its edge, fuppofe nine inches deep and one. broad,
provided that by draining the piece in depth, it lhall
not yield in the lateral direftion, it Avill bear as much
•drain as if nine inches fquare. The experiment may
be performed upon a fmall dale. Suppofe five inches*
and one inch broad, the thin feaion may be enclofed
at different diftances Avith pieces fisre inches iquare.
Suppofe at the diltances of 1, 2, 3, &c. fig. 1. Plate
CXXXVIII. and the weight applied that, broke the
five inch fquare of the length, of 14 feet, vi'A* 5300 ^
AU
C E N [ 309 ] C E N
ter. All the experiments which have been alluded to above
—• were made upon fcantling of found oak. But it has
already been obferved, that in praftice, fueh pieces can¬
not always, if at all, be feie<Eted. But the praftical
mechanic, confining himfelf to between one-third and
one-half of the abfolute ifrength, according as his
judgement direfts him, refpe&ing the foundnefs of the
piece he ufes •, there can be no doubt, that, upon oc-
cafions, he will be convinced, that he cannot, vdth
fafety, allow even one-third of the abfolute ilrength,
but mull take it confiderably below that proportion.
As to other fpecies of wood, trials have alfo been
made •, and the refult from different experiments has
occafioned fome deviation. We are told that Buffon
makes fir about ^%ths of the ftrength of oak, Parent
4~°ths, and Emerfon ^ds j all of them different. The
difference between Buffon and Parent is Toth j between
Parent and Emerfon is ^th ; and between Buffon and
Emerfon is -fth. It is eafy to conceive that the differ¬
ent ftates of the wood, and different circumftances in the
fame fpecies of fir and oak, will make a confiderable
difference 5 although the fame perfons were employed
on the fame materials, the experiments would probably
vary ; much more, may it be allowed that at different
times different ftates of the wood muft make the re-
fults different.
The experiments made by different perfons vary in
their amount. Belidor’s experiments agree one part
with another, and fo do Buffon’s, but differ in their
refults from Belidor’s. Belidor’s flips of oak are only
of one inch fquare, and Buffon’s are from four to eight
inches fquare, and from 7 to 28 feet in length. W hen
the one is reduced to the ftandard of the other, they
do not agree : the difference may arife from various
caufes. We know that there is a difference in the
ftrength of oak of different growths, and from differ¬
ent foils, as well as in other fpecies of wood 5 there is
likewife a difference in the degree of feafoning of the
•wood. Buffon gives the weight of his v'ood, Belidor
does not. If Buffon’s log or batten, four inches fquare,
weighs about 6olb. that is, about 77^- JL^e f°l‘d foot;
whereas a folid foot of dry oak will not weigh above
6olb. j but Buffon acknowledges that his wood was in
the fap, as vapours iffued at bolh ends in the bend¬
ing. Thefe differences may make all the odds in the
breaking, unlefs the proportion was eftablifhed to be,
as the fquares of the diameter of the battens ; but this
is aot the cafe, for in Buffon’s experiments, the
fquare of four, to the fquare of five of the feven feet
batten, the breaking force is 830clb. *, but the ex¬
periment gives it 11525^ that of fix inches fquare
16: 36 :: 5312.n952 ; exp. 18950. In- the feven inch
fquare 16 : 49.53 1 2.16 268 •, exp. 32200. In the eight
inch fquare 16.64.531 2: '■> exP- 47^49, the dif¬
ference between the four and five inch fquare is one-thud
part of the experiment weight; the difference between
the four and fix, is fomewhat more than one-third the
experiment weight *, and in the feventh, the difference
is a little lefs than half the experiment weight; be¬
tween the feventh and the eighth the difference is
greater than half the experiment weight.
There is likewife a difterence at the different lengths;
for it does not appear that the different lengths bear a
proportion to their parts j a batten of four inches fquare
of feven feet length, is expe&ed to be double tbe ftrength Center,
of one of the fame dimenfions of 14 feet length 5 that "'"l—
is, the one of 14 feet length is expedled to break
wdth one half of the -weight that breaks the feven
feet batten ; but we find it much lefs j but when it
is confidered that the weight of the materials adding
at a greater diftance from the centre of motion, this
muft be taken into the account, and added to the
v'eight of the breaking force. For example, the bat¬
ten of five inches fquare and 12 inches length,
w'eighs 13.3681b. at the rate of 771b. per folid foot..
This weight, aiding upon the batten of 14 feet, taking
the amount of the whole in an arithmetical ratio, is
13.368 X 32t,= 701.51b. adding upon the whole, add-
ad to 5300, the breaking force 6001. The breaking
force, at feven feet, is 11525; one half is 5762.2.5,.
one twenty-fourth part greater than the half. The
batten of fix inches fquare, the breaking force at 14
feet is 7475, the weight of 12 inches of this batten is
19.251b. at 771b. per folid foot; the aiding force of this
vreight at 14 feet length is 19.25X524-, is 1010.625,
added to 7475, equal to 8485625. Now the break¬
ing force of feven feet length is 18950 ; one half is
9475, the difference is 989, that is, nine and a half
times lefs than the half. In the feven inch batten of
feven feet length, the breaking force is 32,2001b. and
of 14 feet length, the breaking force is 13,225. The
weight of 12 inches of the feven inch fquare is 260 2lb.
adding upon the 14 feet length, is 13 70.5-{-1322.5=:
146001b. which is one-ninth lefs than the half. A-
gain, 12 inches of the eight inch batten weighs 34.21b.
at 77lb. per folid foot, adling upon the 14 feet length,
is 17961b. added to T9775, the force that broke it at
14 feet length, is 215751b. about one-tenth part lefs
than the half of 47,6491b. which broke it at feven feet
length. From the above comparifon, it may be al¬
lowed, that the difference of the force that broke the
fpar at feven feet, and that which broke it at 14, fo
far as it differs from the half, is accounted for upon
philofophical principles; and when we confider that
the fpars or battens cannot be fuppofed to be mathema¬
tically exaid in their meafure, and that a difference in
point of breaking, may be accounted for from that
caufe ; but further, it may be obferved that the
weight of the materials is not equal in the folid
foot. For example, the fpar four inches fquare, and fe-
veral feet in length, weighs 6olb. ; that is, at the rate'
of 77 iqlb. per folid or cubic foot, the eight feet fpar
at the rate of 76. nib. do.; the nine feet fpar at the rate'
of 77 feet; the 10 feet fpar at the rate of 75.6 ; the
I 2 feet fpar at the rate of 751b. per cubic foot; which
difference of weight, with the difference of exaid ma¬
thematical meafure, may fully account for all the dif¬
ference that takes place in the manner of accounting
for the above-mentioned difference of the weights of
breaking at 7 and 14 feet; as alfo the difference that
takes place between 8 and 1 6 ; 9 and i 8, &c. The
experiments being made upon green wood, cannot be
approved of; they ought to have been made of fueh
feafoned wood as is fitted for mechanical purpofes, of
which none of this kind can be ufed ; or if experi¬
ments are made with unfeafened wood, as being or the
greateft ftrength, they ought likewife to have been made
with dry wood feafoned for ufe. A cubic foot of dry
•ak,
C E N
oak will not weigh much above 60 lb. Thofe fpars
upon which the experiments were made, muft have been
very green, and very unfit for mechanical purpofes,
which gives an unfair account of the llrength, when
in a proper ftate for ufe. But experiments were made
with wood of different weights, which may be fuppofed
better feafoned For example, the feven feet fpar that
weighs 56 lb. that is, 72 lb. per cubic foot j the nine
feet fpar is at 71 lb. per folid foot, and the 10 feet fpar
at 73.81b. per folid foot, none of which are feafoned
wood. And yet it is not mentioned which of thefe
C E N
were ufed. This may be adduced as a very good rea« Center
fon why the variations were fo great.
We {hall now confider the force in bruifing mate¬
rials, according as we may be directed by experiments
made in this way. And ift, upon that of ftone, which
will in fome meafure lead to the preffure in the fame'
direction upon other materials.
The experiments feledted from M. Gauthey, engi*
neer, in erefting the bridge of Chalons fur Saone, (tom.
iv. Rosier Journal de JJhyJlque^ November 1774), are
now to be confidered.
t 310 1
Experiments Se/e&td.
Hard Stone
Soft Stone
{
L
Length «i
the Stone.
8
8
8
9
9
18
18
Breadth.
Lines.
8
12
16
16
18
18
24
Superficie-.
64^
96 ^
128^
I44.I
l62.I-|-
432--i
Force.
lb.
46
164
281
35
53
i83
Upon each
fquare line.
iot
27
35i
3t
5
K
124
Proportion.
12
24
36
4
4v
9
12
Difference
tit
TW
z
» S
TF
1 I
vg-
In general, the force is greater as the furfaces in-
creafe, but a regular proportion to fix upon a theory
is not found} but the laft line in the table, the weight
that cruflies the 432.3 furface, muft be greater than
J31, the ftone being of the fame quality: if in the pro¬
portion of 8 L to 124, the eruftiing weight will be
272.7 inftead of 131.
The meafures here taken are cubic, and the prefiing
force is upon cubic lines, the thicknefs one line; where
the preffure is upon a fquare foot, it is likewife to be
underftood one foot deep, or upon a cubic foot 5 the
ftone ufed, he terms Givry Jlone, of which he gives its
abfolute force to be 870911, that it will bear 6635521b.
In the cubic foot of foft ftone the ftrength is 2488521b.
The proportional force of the hard and foft is 2^ to 1.
A cubic foot of a ftone fixed in a wall, and project¬
ing one foot, was broken by a force of 55728 lb. And
a cubic foot of foft, by 10080 lb. the proportion 54
to 1.
A cubic foot of hard ftone, fupported upon two ful-
crums at 1 foot diftance, was broken by 2056321b. fu-
fpended from its middle j and the foft by 38592, the
proportion about 54 to 1.
In fine, a cubic foot of the hard ftone was torn afun-
der by 45,5001b j and the foft by 15,850 lb. the pro¬
portion 24 to I. Thus far Gauthey’s account.
It is to"be obferved, that the above table does not
ftridtly correfpond with itfelf} for the proportion up-
-on the fquare line, or — of an inch, in place of ic-f
is upwards of 11. Now the increafe of force which
crulhes 96 fquare lines, and 128 one line thick, is
7.8 oz. nearly upon the fquare line, that is a little more,
than 4 of 35 oz. upon the fquare line j then as 128
fquare lines is to 4496 oz. fo is 144 fquare lines to 5058,
to which add one-fifth, viz. 10114, this makes 60694
upon the fquare inch, and this multiplied by 144, the
fquare inches in a foot, is 874,022.4 oz. but M?
Gauthey fays, that the fquare foot of furface of one
foot deep, is of the ftrength of 870,911 lb.
Again, there are 20,736 fquare lines in a fquare inch,
the force upon a furface of 64 fquare inches, being about
11.5 upon each fquare line, is 238,464 oz. upon the
fquare foot. Upon the furface of 96 lines, 27 oz. to
the fquare line, gives 559,872 to the fquare foot.
Upon the furface of 128 lines, 354 to the fquare
line, is 878,806 to the fquare foot, the proportion of
238,46402. to 870,911 is about 534 nearly, and of
559,872 to 870,911 is 4 nearly 5 but by the experi¬
ment the number 870, 911 is lbs. upon the fquare foot)
the other numbers'are only ozs. The variation between
the fir(t difference, and between the prefling force of
60694 oz. upon the fquare inch, makes in that propor¬
tion 874,022 oz. The increafe of force from one fquare
inch, to one fquare foot, muft be part of what the
above experiment upon the fquare foot produces. Fur¬
ther experiments upon this therefore become neceffary.
In the mean time, we have no reafon to doubt the ex¬
periment upon the fquare foot, or upon the fmaller parts 5
intermediate experiments only can make them accord.
One example adduced is of confequence. A pillar irt
the church of All Saints, in Angers, of 24 feet height,
and 11 inches fquare, fupports a weight of 60,coo lb.
that is 4 being added 85685.9 upon the fquare foot,
which is faid not to be 4 Part tbe load that would
crufh it. From this it is evident, that the load it fup¬
ports exceeds the weight of an arch of 50 feet fpan,
of a femicircular form 5 the arch-ftones being 24 feet
long, or depth qf the arch, and 2 feet in breadth. It
is afferted under the article Bridge, that inftead of an
arch 4 °f the opening or 1 o feet thick, that a pier of 2
feet thick would be fuffieient, but that it is given twice
the length of the arth-ftone, that is 5 feet thick in place
2
GEN [ 3i
iter, of 10; but from ibis example, it is five times thicker than
neceffary, and has therefore fuperabundant ftrength,
allowing even for the force of a current. How fuper-
fluous then will thefe clumfy piers be reckoned, whofe
foie eff'eft is a ufelefs obftrudtion to the water ! But as
our principal defign at prefent is upon the ftrength of
wood, in profecution of this inquiry, we have paid par¬
ticular attention to the ftrength of this material, in the
tranfverfe dire&ion, in fo far as it can be fupported by
experiment. Before we proceed to make particular
application to its ufe, it will be neceflary to confider
its ftrength or power of refiftance in its breadth and
thicknefs. In this it may be with fafety averred that
fuch force as will bruife or crufti its fibres, although
only of or ^ °f an inch 3 the fame weight conti¬
nued will produce the fame effedl upon the next ftra-
tum, till the whole piece is bruifed, and its cohefive
power overcome. This is fbpported by the experi¬
ments of celebrated mechanicians, as thofe of Buffon,,
Mufchenbroek, Bouguer. Mufchenbroek, in his EJfai
de Physique, fays, that a piece of found oak of an
inch is torn afunder by 1150 lb. 3 and that a plank 12
inches broad, and 1 thick, will juft bear 189,168 lbs.
Thefe give for the cohefion of an inch 15,755, and
15,763 lbs. Bouguer in his Trade de Navire fays, that
it is very well known that a rod of found oak, of ^ inch
fquare, can be torn afunder by 1000 lb. 3 this gives
16,000 for the fquare inch. Bouguer fpeaks with
certainty, that ^ inch fquare of found oak can be torn
afunder by looclb. If we reduce the above propor¬
tions of the experiment, it will appear, that the force
will be much greater than 16,000, to tear afunder a
piece of found oak of one inch fquare. It muft in the
mean time be allowed, that Buffon’s experiments be¬
ing upon a larger fcale, can be followed with more fe-
curity than thofe upon a fmaller fcale.
But, after all, we have not yet got fufficient data to
form a criterion for an arch 3 nor can this be expedled
till we have more precifely afcertained the ftrength of
an arch above a right line, parallel to the horizon.
In the firft place, as an arch is in form, one part of
it towards the perpendicular, and the other towards a
horizontal line 3 the force that it will fuftain, is between
that force that a body will carry in the perpendicular,
and that which produces a frafture upon any material
m the horizontal direction. If the perpendicular is
greater than the horizontal line, it will have more of
the ftrength of the bruifing force, than of the tranf¬
verfe fratture 3 and the force may be exprefled by the
ratio compounded of the bruiiing or crufhing force,
and that of the tranfverfe fradture 3 or not improperly
txpreffed, as it has been denominated by others, the
abfolute and relative force.
Unfortunately we have not yet a fufficient variety
of experiments to afcertain the abfolute force, as thofe
made are only upon a fmall fcale 3 and the number is
not adequate to form a proportion of the increafe for
the force that will cruffi a piece of wood of tTo, or, as
the French philofophers have done moft this way, we
take their meafure TV of an inch, or one line, and
fiom that to an inch 3 but the force required is found
to be greater than that of the Iquare of the diameter,
as alfo the force to produce a tranfverfe fradlure, or to
give the relative ftrength. This increafes in a greater
i ] C E N
ratio than that of the fquare of the diameters; for in
the above experiments, the weight that broke a batten
4 inches fquare, was to that weight which broke an 8-
ineh fquare batten, each of the length of 7 feet, more
than double of the fquare of 4 to the fquare of 8 as
above 3 we are, therefore, much limited as to an exadl
procedure.
At the fame time, by keeping the experiments in
viewr, and the obfervations made upon them, w-e {hall be
able to give fuch a ratio, as to the neeeffary ftrength,
as will furniffi the ingenious artift with a pretty fure
principle to adl upon, and prevent his ufing fuperfiuous
materials, either in their application to horizontal right
lines, or inclined in the right-lined direction, or in
curves.
If we attend to the weight that crufhes one inch of
found oak, by Mufchenbroek’s experiments, we find that
it is 17,3301b. but, if computed from the increafe, being
as the fquares of the diameters, it is only 16,000 lb. but
it has been found as above, that the power to break, or
make a tranfverfe fracture in the fame wood, of the fame
length, of different diameters, if a confiderable differ¬
ence in diameters is taken, the difference of weight-
is twice that produced by the fquare of the diame¬
ter. This comparifon makes the proportion between
the ftrength of ftone, and that of wood, to be as
17,300 is to 6048, or 1 to 2^ nearly. Thus we
may with a fuffieient degree of accuracy fubftitute
the one for the other in point of ftrength, and form a
proportion between the arch and the ftrenglh of a
horizontal line. As feveral experimentalifts agree,
that a fquare inch of wood can be cruffied or pulled a-
funder with a weight of between 16,000 and 17,3001b.
and that a piece of wrood one inch fquare, 18 inches in
length, can be broken by 4061b. or at 12 inches by
609, or at 6 inches by 1218 3 attending to the addi¬
tion as mentioned above, which has been proved by
comparifon of experiments, to be upon the principle of
the lever. If, then, the geometrical mean is taken be¬
tween the elevation of the arch, as preffure or abfblute
ftrength, and the length of the horizontal line, this
mean w ill be the ftrength of the arch above the hori¬
zontal line 3 for it is evident, that ib much as the piece
of w'ood is elevated towards the perpendicular, fo much
the nearer it approaches to its abffilute ftrength, and
by fo much as the arch is flatter or the piece of wrood
lefs inclined, the nearer it is to a ftraight line, and fp
much the more reduced to its relative ftrength 3 the
pofition of the arch, therefore, muft be in the ratio-
compounded of thefe two.
Having now eftabliftied the principles, let us en¬
deavour to apply them to practice, in forming a cen¬
ter or fupporting an arch, to produce the intended cur¬
vature or mould for an arch of any intended fpan, and
at the (ame time, have ftrength to fupport the fame.
Several. ingenious artifts have not only formed, but
have written and laid down principles for forming thefe
moulds, both with regard to ftrength and economy 5 at
the fame time we have not found any that have treated
the fubjebl upon principles that are fully eftablifhed.
We have, therefore, been the more particular, accord¬
ing to the principles laid down, ift, We have affigned
the weight to be fupported, as eftablifhed by uncon¬
troverted principles; And, 2dly, eftabliftied the ftrength
#
C E N [ 312 ] C E N
Center.
of wood as to its thicknefs of diameter, that is fuffi-
cient to fu'ftain fuch weight; which we have fupported
by the moft approved experiments, comparing one
with the other j and in the third place, we have conft-
dered the effefts when the materials are applied in the
horizontal diredlion, or elevated in any degree toward
the perpendicular.
In a work of this kind, it is not only neceffary to
lay before our readers well grounded principles, and a
well fupported theory, but along with thefe, the dif¬
ferent opinions, and various modes ufed by the moft
diftinguilhed artifts, who have exhibited their plans to
the public, together with the principles on which they
■were founded, and the fuccefs they have met with, in
anfwering the purpofes propofed.
Among the moft diftinguiflied who have treated this
fubjedt, we may conilder Pitot, a member of the Aca¬
demy of Sciences, who wrote about the beginning of
the laft century. His method undoubtedly {hows con-
fiderable ingenuity ; but, at the fame time, we muft
obferve that he has been rather too profufe in the quan¬
tity of materials which he has employed.
To lay his plan of operation before our readers,
we (hall give a hgure {bowing the conftrudlions. The
arch of the circle or ellipfe being formed j as little
©r no weight lies upon the center, till between 30
and 35 degrees of the arch, a ftretcher is extended
at this height, to the fame height on the oppoiite fide 5
two ftruts fupport this ftretcher from the fpring of
the arch •, upon the upper part of the ftretcher, imme¬
diately above, or a little within the upper end of the
trufs on each fide, two fpars joining upon the king-poft,
fpring from about the middle of the arch, the ftretcher
being divided into four parts. Another ftrut fprings
from the rife of the arch, meeting the ftretcher at this
fourth part, from each fide of the arch j thefe laft ftruts
are joined by a tie-beam, which gives additional ftrength
to the firft ftretcher j upon thefe, on the upper fide of
the ftretcher, two fpars join the king-poft, a little be¬
low the other 5 thefe fpars are joined by bridles or
crofs fpars, from the circular arch, to the lower ftrut •,
ribs of the fame formation being placed at proper dif-
tances, according to the width of the bridge, and join¬
ed by bridging joints, which may be ©f greater or leffer
ftrength, according to the fpan of the arch, and of
confequence the weight it has to fupport. Pitot is the
firft writer who has given us any account of the method
of forming frames, according to the above general de-
feription. If no refts are left at the fpring of the arch,
as a bafe for the center to reft upon j let AB, fig. 1.
Plate CXXXVIII. be the ends of two planks raifed
from the foundation, upon which the center may reft ;
let CD be the ftretcher, extended about 35 or 40 de¬
grees from the fpring of the arch ; or, as little weight
refts upon the center till that height, the ftretcher may
be as high as 45 degrees \ let AE, AG, BD, BG be
the two ftruts on each fide ■, from each extremity of the
center, let BE, AE, be fixed to the ftretcher near C
and D, and AG, BG, at \ of CD their ftretcher or
tie-beam GG, equal to one-half of CD, the bridles, 1,
2, 3, &c. from A to C, and from B to D, are intend¬
ed to prevent the arch from yielding from A to C,
and from B to D. The ftruts EF, EF, meeting the
king-poft K in F, and the interior ftruts GH, GH,
meeting the king-poft in H, fupport the bridles 4, 5, Cents;
6, on each fide of the king-poft j their ufe is to ftiffen
the frame of the center, which fupports the upper and
more weighty part of the arch.
The arch for which Pitot allots this center, is of Co
feet fpan 5 and the arch ftones feven feet in length, the
weight of a folid cubic foot he makes i6olb. The
Portland ftone is admitted to weigh i6olb; but we
do not find any other freeftone of iuch weight. It is
however to be confidered, that the Paris foot is 12.788
of our inches •, that is, a little more than I2|ths of our
meafure, which will make a difference of the weight up¬
on the foot 5 as alfo their lb. is lighter than ours about
1.2 oz. by which the ftone here mentioned is not bet¬
ter than ours. In a matter of this kind, fuch exaft-
nefs is not neceffary. As was propofed, we firft con-
fider the weight to be fupported by the frame j and here
it is evident from the figure that no {train lies upon the
frame below C j the arch is raifed, or can be raifed to
this height, before the frame is fetj therefore the per¬
pendicular C c determines the limits of the abfolute
preffure upon the frame. The triangle Q. e c preffes
on the frame, and the triangle C fg adds to the la¬
teral preffure; the weight of the arch, that actually
prefles upon the frame, is contained between the per¬
pendicular lines C c, D d; no more can prefsupon the
center frame. The part of the arch below C will reft
upon the abutment raifed upon the pier j but if it is
infilled that there is a preffure upon the lower part of
the center frame, what can only poflibly reft, or prefs
upon it, muft be contained between the parallels C c
and f g i although it will be admitted, that the arch
can be raifed to the height C, without the center
frame } but to indulge fuch as fay it is not advifable
to do it, we will admit what lies between thefe paral¬
lels to prefs upon the frame. Now to determine the
weight of thefe parts of the arch, the diftance be¬
tween the perpendiculars C c, D ^ is 53 feet j the arch-
ftone is 7 feet, and admit it to be three feet broad,
53 X 7 X 3 X i6olb.=r 178,0801b.
To determine the area between the two parallels
C c,fg, the line fg perpendicular to the diameter
AB, is 134, the bafe is 9^, and C f perpendicular to
it is 7 feet, the area is 334 feet-, Cc the bafe of the
triangle Cfc is 7.2, and f c h ) the area is 25, the
difference is 84. If this difference had been the ex-
cefs of the triangle Qfc above the triangle C fg, it
would have been a preffure upon the frame j but as it
is the reverfe, the preffure is upon the abutment. This
diftinftion is requilite to be taken notice of, that an
unneceffary expence of wood and workmanftiip be not
expended where it is unneceffary -, as well as its being
unworkman-like, or having an appearance of ignorance
in the engineer.
Let us now inquire, what ftrength of materials is
fufficient to fupport this weight. It has been laid
down as a principle, that the parts of wood in au
arch act upon one another by their abfolute ftrength ;
but are liable to the tranfverfe frafture -, in proportion to
the length of the piece, in a fpan of 60 feet, the length
of the piece may be 7 feet without fenfibly impairing
its ftrength, in reducing it to the round; and experiment
gives the relative ftrength of 7 feet to be 476491b.
by 8 inches fquare. It has been formerly illuftrated
l
C E N [ 313 I GEN
from experiments, that the ftrength Is according to
the depth, with this precaution, that the breadth or
thicknefs be fuch, that it is prevented from warping,
the abfolute hrength being nearly, by laft experiment
mentioned, as the fquares of the depth. The abfolute
ftrength to the relative force has been found nearly 60
to 1, although by fome it is faid to be only 42 to 1 j
the abfolute hrength of the plank 12 inches broad by
one thick, is 189163 lb. ; if two inches, it would be no
more than 189163 lb. If it had been 8 inches fquare,
then every 7 feet of the arch might be broken with
the weight 1891631b. ; but the whole weight of the
arch is only 1780801b. that is, 11080 lefs weight than
what that part of the frame would bear; but 7 feet is
only about one-feventh part of 53 ; the frame is there¬
fore of fufficient ftrength to fupport the whole weight
of the arch when equally divided along its whole
length. This is not the cafe with the center frame of
an arch, as it is loaded at one place, and not at an¬
other j it is therefore apt to yield between the parts
where the load is laid •, that is, it may rife in the mid¬
dle, and thus change the form of the arch ; for the
center frame is not only intended to fupport the arch,
but likewife to preferve its true form j for this caufe
fome flruts may be necefiary to prevent its putting the
arch out of fhape. To remedy this, where the arch
begins to prefs upon the frame at C, draw the chord
line C r, fig. 2. which a&s as a tie-beam to the arch,
from C at 35 degrees to c at 51 degrees, as, beyond
this, if the arch frame had been permitted to alter its
lhape, it would begin to be reftored to it, at leaft
the force would tend that way. At that part of the
arch, where its vreight begins to flatten the frame, as
at 2, draw the ftretcher 2, 2, which likewife a&s as a
tie-beam, and gives fupport to the bridle 1, on one
fide, and to 3 the bridle upon the other fide, from D d;
and thus the arch c d vs> prevented from finking by
the tie-beams ed. This will effe&ually prevent any
warping or yielding of the frame, notwithftanding the
enormous load from the fize of the arch-ftones.
But it is neceflary to attend to the relative ftrength
of different kinds of timber of which frames may be
conftrufted. The relative proportion of the ftrength
of oak and fir has been afeertained by different expe¬
riments j and although the refults do not exaftly agree,
yet the mean or leaft proportion may be taken. Let
us take that of Buffon. Now to reduce a frame of
oak to one of fir of equal ftrength, divide 8 inches,
the diameter of the oak, by the relative ftrength
of fir •, this gives inches. Allow i-J inches. The
depth of the frame will then be 94- inches by or -§•
inches in breadth ; that is, 94 by 2-4 inches. In this
way the ftrength of the fir arch is rendered equal, and
by the additional allowance fuperior, to the oak in
ftrength, and of lefs expence in wood and workman-
fhip.
We have here taken the moft fimple method of in-
Veftigation and computation, that every mechanic,
whether fcientific or not, can eafily follow it in every
ftep, and judge of the propriety or impropriety of what
is advanced.
It will now be neceffary to follow Mr Pitot in efti-
tnating the quantity of materials which he allows.
•* he ring of his arches-cop.fills of pieces of oak 12 inches
Vol, V. Part I.
broad and fix thick. The ftretcher CD Is 12 Inches
fquare, the {training piece GG is likewife 12 inches
fquare, the lower ftruts 10 inches by 8 ; the king-poft
12 inches fquare, the upper ftruts 10 by 6, the ridges
20 by 8, French meafure. Pitot allows the fquare
inch to carry 8650 lb. that is, one half of the abfolut#
ftrength, which is afeertained by experiment to be
17300 lb. nearly, and not by the fquare of the diame¬
ter, which would be only 16000 lb. But on account
of knots he reduces it to 7200 lb. per inch. He then
computes the whole load upon the frame to be
7075201b. which is the weight of the whole arch-
ftones, fuppofing each to be 3 feet broad, and the whole
to prefs upon the frame. This comes fo very near,,
that it would be needlefs to difpute about the difterence.
We have fhown that no more than 1780801b. preifes
upon the frame j but we are not fo fully fatisfied as
to the weight that refts upon the center. Pitot fup-
pofes it to be 4~4ths of the whole weight j but be has
aftigned no reafon for this conjecture. Mr Couplet
affumes that it preffes by -yths. Another writer, who
makes fome comment upon the wLole, fays that ^ths
is nearer the truth than -Jths, but gives no reafon for
his opinion, which feems to be equally vague as the
other. 1 he preffure here allowed, and the reafon of
afligning fuch a preffure, have been already explained.
Our readers, therefore, have it in their power to ex¬
amine the principles, and decide for themfelves.
It has been afferted by fome, that the arch does not
prefs upon the center frame below C. At the fame
time, were we inclined to difpute this opinion, we
might ftate our objeffion in the following manner :
Suppofe the area of the triangle C cf was equal to
the area of the triangle C fg, fo that the friftion above
would make the triangle Q* c f reft upon the fide cf;
and as the triangle <Zfg is greater than Q. cf m the
proportion of 33^ths to 254-d, the cohefion of the parts
will determine the intermediate fpace between C c and
gf to reft upon the abutment as has been faid, and
not on the perpendicular, unlefs a feiffure is made in
the direftion gf in which cafe it would be detached
from the lateral preffure, and fo reft upon the center.
As this is not the cafe, any plea for a preffure below
C is entirely removed 5 and a method to determine with
precifion the actual preffure upon the center frame is
fliewn. If the arch is the center of a circle or an ellipfe,
a frame fo much ftronger is neceffary, as more of the
arch preffes upon the frame ; but the method of deter¬
mining the ftrength is the fame as here laid down. A
fecond figure of the ellipfe and another calculation
are required. It is here to be underftood, that the
frame calculated for is only one rib ; and the weight
it fupports is that of the arch-ftones, between the pa¬
rallels C g, D //, to three feet in breadth. If, therefore,
the bridge is 42 feet broad, it requires 14 ribs of the
above ftrength. Thefe are joifted over with planks,
fuppofe of tw'o inches thick, and upon thefe the arch-
ftones are laid, equally carried on from C and D, and
rifing equally on each fide, till the key-ftone is fet, in
which ftate they remain, till the engineer judges it
proper to flacken the frame, by ftriking out the wedges
at the refts, A and B, (or as the French ufe logs be¬
tween the frame and arch), fo far as to allow the arch-
ftones to prefs upon one another, by the equilibrated
K r curvature
Center*
C E N
t 3H 1
C E N
Center, curvature of the arch •, after which, it being found, that
   ' the arch is perfeaiy juft and fecure, the frame is en¬
tirely removed. In the frame, fig. 2. the tie-beams
are not taken into the account for ftrength, the arch
being abundantly ftrong without them. Their ule is
merely to ftiffen the frame, on account of the manner
in which the weight is laid on. In an elliptic arch,
it has been mentioned that it is feme what different,
requiring more ftrength and the binding likewiie dif¬
ferent. In what are termed elliptic arches, _ few or
none are ftriftly fo, the true elliptic curve being dif¬
ficult to form on fo large a feale. It may therefore be
acceptable to our readers, and alfo to the ingenious me¬
chanic, if we give the form of an eibpie that vill
anfwer nearly to the elliptic equation, and upon an
univerfal plan, eafy of conftruftion. The greater
_und leffer axes of the ellipfe being given, divide the
excefs of the greater axis above the leffer into three
equal parts: fet off two of thefe from the center of
the greater axis each way ; upon this enhance de-
feribe an equilateral triangle on each fide of the
greater axis, and produce the fides of the triangle both
ways from the vertex of thefe triangles, to the extremi¬
ty of the leffer axis j deferibe two arches till termina¬
ted by the fides of the triangle produced gives the flat
part of the ellipfe. At the interfeahm of the produced
fades of the triangle as a center, with the diftance of
the extremity of the greater axis, defenbe an arch
which will meet the other arch, and complete the ellipte.
Let AB, fig. 3- be the greater axis 6o’ ancYrrVhe
leffer axis 40, be drawn at right angles, bifeamg
one another in C. Set off AF 40, upon AB, then
the excefs FB is 20, which divide into three parts ; let
off two of thefe from C to G and H upon GII de¬
feribe the equilateral triangles GHK, GHL ; produce
KG KH to any indefinite length, which may be cut
by the arch drawn through D and E •, from the centers
KL at the interfe&ions GH, and didance AB, let the
other part of the ellipfe be deferibed • thus an umveroa
method of deferibing a beautiful ellipfe, and fo juft that
it anfwers the elliptic equation exceedingly near, at
leaft till it becomes very flat ^ •
A fecond form of a center frame defenbed by Fitot,
is adapted to an elliptical arch. The conftrucffion differs
nothing from the former, only the two upper ftruts are
parallel ; the ftrength as in the former is fuperabun-
dant, which is eafily accounted for, from not know¬
ing the real weight that lies upon the frame, or by
confidering the whole weight, of the arch to reft upon
the frame. Both this and the former, Pitot has con-
fidered as divifible into three pieces, which renders it
more manageable in erecting, particular y m aige
fpans. See fig. 4. . -
Fontana has given a defcription of a very neat frame
confifting of two pieces, the upper and the lower. 1 he
ftruts x 2, 1 2 taken from fig. 4. leave a reprefentatum
of Fontana’s frame. Different conftruftions being laid
before our readers, the ingenious artift may improve
the hints that have been thrown out •, and thus iorm a
more Ample, or better conftruftion.
We {hall now feleff draughts of the moft approved
ren'er frames that we are able to colled ; and make
fueh remarks upon them as may occur. Iig. 5- ex¬
hibits a form, which the experienced engineer vill
readily allow to be neat and ingenious ; but there is
much more wood and work expended than is necefiary.
It is divided into two parts, the bafe or ftretcher LL,
of the upper part, refting upon the lower part of the
frame, the greateft part of which at leaft muft appear
quite fuperfluous. The lower refts, EF, appear only
neceffary to prevent the ftretcher LL from yielding,
and thereby allowing the arch to lofe its true curva-
The general maxim of conftrudion adopted by Pcr-
ronet, a celebrated French architect, is to make the
trufs confift of feveral courfes of feparate truffes, in¬
dependent, as he fuppofes, of each other, and thus to
employ the united fupport of them all. Each trufs
fpans over the whole diftance of the piejs. eon
fills of a number of ftruts, fet end to end, fo as to
form a polygon. By this confirudion, the angles of
the ultimate trufs lie in lines pointing towards the
center of the curve. It is the invention of Perrault, a
phyfician and archited, and was pradiled by Mandiaid
de Sagonne at the great bridge of Moulms.
In the centering of the bridge of Cravant, fig. 6.
the arches are elliptic. The longer axis or fpan 15.
60 feet, the femi-tranfverfe axis or rife 20 ieet. lire
arch-ftones weigh 1761b. per foot, and are four feet
in length, which is the thicknefs of the arch. . 1 e
trufs beams were from 15 to 18 feet long, and 9 Juc.u s
deep by 8 broad. The whole frame was cpnftruded ot
oak. The diftance between the trufies, which were
five in number, feet. The whole weight of he
arch amounted to 13 50,000 lb. which is nearly equJ .
600 tons, making 112 tons for the weight cn each
trufs. Ninety tons of this muft be allowed leally to
profs the trufs ; but a great part of the prelluie is ml-
tained by the four beams which make the feet of th e
trufs, joined in pairs on each fide The diagona of
the parallelogram of forces drawn for thefe beams is to
one of the fides as 36c to 285. Ihen sboiaH^^o.i7^
tons the weight on each foot. I he leFion o£ each s
144 inches. Three tons may be laid with perfect
fafety on every inch *, and the amount of tins is 432
tons/which is fix times more than the real preiime on
* the foot-beams in their longitudinal dnedion 1
abfolute ftrength of each foot-beam ^ equal to 2 6
tons. But being more advantageouliy placed, the dia¬
gonal of the parallelogram of forces which corieippncs
to its pofition is to the fide as_ 438 to .85. 1 h s
equal to 58-/0 tons for the ftram on each foot, which
is not much above one-fourth of the preffure n is able
to bear. This kind of centering, therefore, undoubted¬
ly poffeffes the advantage of kiperabund^t ftrength.
The upper row of ftruts_ is quite iufncient j nothing is
wanted but to procure ftiffnefs for it. „
In his executing the bridge at Neuidy, fig. 7;
feet fpan, and only 30 feet nfe j the arch 5 feet th
his ftrut-beams are 17 by 14 inches of hze, and k gj.
i q by nine, the ftrut-beams placed m three parallel pmy-
gons/ each abutting upon the kmg-poft he ufes th«
binders or bridges of 9 inches fquare. I bis arch is re¬
markable for it? flatnefs. The account Perronet gives
of his fuccefs with this frame, and the effects it produ
ced in his work, areas follows Notwithftanding ^
different improvements he had made upon his center
frame, he here found that it funk 13 ^bes> be^
flfutet:
C E N t 3
nter. tlie key-floncs were fet, and that the crown rofe and
funk as the different courfes were laid. At 20 Courfes
on each fide, with a load of 16 tons upon the crown, it
funk an inch j when 20 more courfes were laid, it funk
half an inch more, and continued finking as the work
advanced. When the key-ftone was fet, it had funk
13 inches *, and, as it funk at the crown, and in the ad¬
vance to the crown, it rofe at the haunches, fo as to
open the upper parts of the joints almoft an inch j
•which gradually lefiened towards the crown, and of
eonfequence the joints in the lower part opened as the
Upper part was compreffed. This no doubt ihowed a
fupplenefs in the frame, and at the fame time inatten¬
tion in the architefl, to load the crown when he perceiv¬
ed it finking with having already too much weight upon
it. If he had obferved the crown to rife, it would then
have been proper to give it additional weight.
Let us now attend to the defcription of the centre
frame of the bridge of Orleans, fig. 8. The architect
to this bridge was Hupeau ; and it is univerfally al¬
lowed to be an elegant ffruclure. The arch ffones are
fix feet in length, the form is elliptical, the fpan xoo
feet, and rife 30. Hupeau died before any of the
arches were complete. The center-frame had been
placed, and fome rows of the arch laid. Upon his de-
mife, Perronet fucceeded as architecff, and finiffied the
bridge. As the work advanced, he found that the
frown of the center rofe *, he then found it fink as re¬
markably, which ftiowed that there was fome defeft :
he inferted the long beam AB, on each fide j he then
found the frame fufficiently itiff $ for this made a
change in the nature of the ftrut.
Having taken a view of the pra&ice of the French
architefts, as to their form and efFe6ls, let us direeff:
©ur attention to thofe of our own country, which are
well worthy of notice. We {hall only name fome that
have ufed tradings, and among thefe we find the cen¬
ter-frame of Blackfriars bridge, fig. 9. The fpan here
is ido feet •, the form is elliptical, the arch-ftones from
the haunches feven feet, near the key-ftone not quite
fo much, as they decreafe in length from the haunch
to the key-ftone.
A particular dt reription of this arch is not necef-
.fary •, a view of the figure will {how the ufe of the dif¬
ferent parts \ it may be fufficient to obferve, that when
the arch-ftone was placed, it had changed its ftiape only
One inch, and when the frame was taken out, the arch
remained firm without any finking of confequence. The
great arch did not link above one inch, and none of
them above an inch and a half 5 whereas thofe already
mentioned funk by the fupplenefs of the frame 13
inches, and fome of them 9 inches more when the frame
was removed.
Different methods are employed for eafing the frame,
or difengaging it from its weight. We {hall give a
Ihort defcription of Mr Mylne’s method of placing
and difengaging his center-frame from the mafon-work.
Each end of the trufs was mortified into a plank of oak
cut in the lower part as in the figure •, a fimilar piece
of oak was placed to receive vhe upper part of the polls.
The blocks relied upon thefe ports, but were not mor-
tifed into them, pieces of wood being interpofed. The
upper part of this block was cut fimilar to the lower
part of the other j the wedge E, being intended to
5 ] C E N
be driven betwixt them, was notched as in the figure,
and filled up with fmall pieces of wood, to prevent the
wedge from Hiding back by the weight of the arch 5
which, it will appear from the figure, would have been
the cafe : the event proved the fabl. When the centre,
was to be ftruck, the inferted pieces of wood were
taken out, and the wedge, which was prepared for dri¬
ving back by being girt with a ferule round the top,
was removed by a piece of iron driven in with the
head fo broad as to cover the whole of the wood. A
plank of wood was prepared armed with iron in the
fame manner at the one end, and fufpended fo that it
could freely aft in driving back the wedge to any di{-
tance, however fmall, with certainty. Thus, by an
equal gradation, the centre was eafed from the arch,
which appeared to have been fo equally fupported
throughout the whole of the operation, and the arch-
ftones fo properly laid, that it did not fink above one
inch •, and thus it was evident that the centre might
be entirely removed, having completely aniwered the
purpofe.
The above examples may be confidered as fufficient
to ffiow the effefts of the truffed arches, which have
been employed by the French architefts. We
{hall now take the liberty of fuggefting lome hints
which may tend to improve the conilruftion, and re*'
medy the faults and failures that have occurred in
practice.
Truffed arches for center frames being found expe*
dient in navigable rivers, and almoft in every river
which is apt to be raifed by rains, or other rife in the
river, the frame is apt to be endangered or carried oft',
to the great rifle of bringing down the arch, and ruin¬
ing the work before it is finiftied. In arches where
there is no fuch danger, the frame may be properly fe-
cured by polls from below, which are made to abutt
upon thefe parts of the arch where the greateft ftrain
muft fall.
In the centre ufed by Pitot we have only to com¬
plain of an unneceffary expenditure of wood and work-
manlhip. We have already {hewn what ftrength of
oak is neceffary, and have reduced that ftrength of
oak to an equal ftrength of fir-wood for the ring of
his frame, which alone ought to have the ftrength re¬
quired to be fully adequate to the load j but as this
weight muft be gradually applied, the frame muft like-
vife have fuch a degree of firmnefs as to form the ex-
aft mould of the arch that is intended. And, for this
purpofe, it muft be prevented from yielding in any
part of its arch. Now, as it has been made to appear,
that the frame fupports no part of the arch till it rife
from the fpring to about 35 degrees, if a femicirele,
and fo in proportion for a fegment of a circle ; in an
ellipfe, to a part fimilar according to the nature of that
curve ; the fupporting ftruts and ties can be more par¬
ticularly direfted to fupport that part of the arch
which produces the greater ftrain upon the center. In
fig. 2. where the neceffary ftrength for Pitot’s arch is
pointed out, the frame of fir requifite to ftiffen the
frame, is 9^ by 2L. The tie-beam C c is joined to
thofe parts of the arch, where the ftrain being greateft,
would tend moft to raife it in the crown The ftrength
of this tie-beam being 9-i by 2’, and its length 25 feet,
would require a weight of 30495 lb. to make the tranf-
R r 2 verfe
Center'
t 316 ]
C £ N
tester, verfc fra&ure j one-third of this at the bridle 1, 3, is
fufficient to refill the drain at that part of the arch :
and the abutment, being according to the principles
laid down under the article Bridge, prevents the pof-
fibility of its rifmg at the haunches 5 but if not formed
according to thefe *principles, the two tie-beams 6 c
D d are joined by a third tie-beam 2, 2 with its bridle
3, 4. Fig. 4. is Pitot’s centering for his elliptic arch:
the ilrength of fig. 2. may fuffice to this by giving the
ring and tie-beams **n inch more depth.
Fig. 6. reprefents two centerings ufed by Perronet \
A is that uled by him in ere&ing the bridge at No-
<mnt, and B that at Maxence ) they differ little from
one ’another. That at Nogent is 90 feet by 28 of
height. The fpan of the latter being greater, we {hall
here confider the weight to. be fupported. This is the
arch from A to C, whioh is an arch of 47 45 • J-he
meafurement is 42 feet 5 the arch-itones 4"5'> and fup-
pofing them 3 feet broad, they would amount to 567.9
folid feet, which, at i6olb. per foot, is equal to
90866.881b. This is little more than one-half of the
’ femicircular arch} and, although it is flatter, the
weight is fo much lefs, that no additional ftrength is
neceffary to be given to the frame, fig. 2. for the 60
feet fpan. There is likewife abundance of ftrength of
materials for the 90 feet arch j but on the greater ex-
tent, that it may be rendered more ftiff, a tie-beam
4, 3, 4 may be added on each fide of the arch, as
reprefented by the dotted line.
It is fcarcely neceffary to make any farther calcula¬
tions on the centering ufed by Perronet. It appears,
that notwithftanding the fuperabundance of wood em¬
ployed, they were lo fupple as when ufed upon an ex¬
tended arch, they rofe and funk fo much, that.the arch
was changed from its intended form by a radius of fe-
veral feet. Thefe changes took place in erefting the
bridges at Nogent and Maxence, which are reprefented
in fig. 6. Perronst, it would appear, was not. fatil-
fied with thefe •, and, convinced of their infufficiency,
changed the form of the frame of the bridge at Neu-
illy. But this form is far from anfwering the pur-
pofe; for, when the arch-ftones began to prefs upon
the centering, it yielded to the weight. He then loaded
the crown to prevent its rifing there, butit .ftill funk 5. he
added more weight to the crown, it continued finking
as the work advanced. When the key-ftone was fet, it
bad funk more than 13 inches, and it was found to have
raifed the haunches-, for when the centering was
flackened, the arch ftill funk for about 9 inches more.
The arch-ftones being raifed at the haunches, the joints
were of neceflity opened j for the preffure from the
erown, when the centering was removed, forced them
again into contact, by which the arch flattened to fuch a
degree, that from an arch intended to have a. radius of
X ro feet, it flattened till part of it was. as if formed
from a radius of 244 feet. It here appeared to be let-
tied, from which a confiderable deformity mult ap¬
pear in the ftru£ture j which deformity took its rile
from two evident caufes: the want of firmnefs m the
centering, and the bridge not properly loaded at the
haunches. It is evident, that if the load at the haunches
is only equal to the weight of the arch-ftones irom
ihe place where they begin to reft on the centering to the
«rown of the arch, the preffure of the arch could never
C E N
overcome itfelf or its equal weight upon the haunches ;
much more, if the weight upon the haunches, be-
Ccmai
fore it comes to prefs upon the centering, was made
to exceed that part of the arch that did prefs upon it,
the load upon the crown of the arch would have re-
ftored the figure of the centering. It feems to be a
ft range overlight, that Perronet, when, he faw that his
centering was rifing at the haunches, did not apply, his
loading to this part of the arch, by which he might
have reflored it to its equilibrium before his center was
{truck, and before his lime had loft the band j if this
is ©nee done, it is allowed that it does not again re¬
cover it.
From the whole of this it appears evident^ that fill-
ing up the haunches to a proper height, fo as to make
a firm abutment to the prefling part of the arch, ferves
two good purpofes. It a6ts as an abutment to tho
center frame, in preventing its finking by the load as
the work advances j and likewife prevents the arch-
ftones at the haunches being raifed from their beds j
for it is only a£ted upon by a force confiderably lefs
than what they have a power to refill. Having now
fecn the defeds of this centering, and animadverted
on the manner of executing the work, let us now ex¬
amine the weight of this arch, and what refiftance.
would have prevented its change in ftiape, and pre^
ferved its intended form. ^
The part of the arch that preffes upon the center, i£
from C to C, fig. 10. an arch of 36 degrees, and mea-
fures 94^ feet nearly the ftones 5 feet in length, and
breadth 3, make 1979.035 folid feet, X i6olb. the
weight of a folid foot, make the whole weight
316645.881b. Allow each beam of the trufs to bo
7 feet, and its abfolute ftrength, to tear it at 12 inches
deep, by one inch thick, 189163 j the abfolute power
of tranfverfe fradlure, 954161b. The ftrength of the
arch is the mean of thefe, or ratio compounded j taking
one-third of each, the geometrical mean .is 442851b.
that each 7 feet can fultain when formed int« an arch ;
there are 13 times 7 in 94 feet, equal to a power of
582764, to fultain the weight of 316645.68 if equally
diftributed. But this not being the cafe, a tie-beam
of about 30 feet marked c cy d d, will prevent the arch
yielding to the preffure. It is fupported at <? by the
ftruts Ee, h /i; and thefe by the joint fupport of ef, hf
tied at k. The whole center frame is fupported by the
upright polls CC, DD. Two wedges A and B are
placed acrofs between two blocks which are fitted for
a reft to the frame. When it is required to be flacken¬
ed, and the frame withdrawn from the arch, they allow
it to reft by its own preffure. This, it mull appear
obvious, ought to be done when the key-ftone is fet be¬
fore the lime has begun to be dry and folid. .
The center frame of the bridge of Orleans is repre*
fented fig. 8. It has been already noticed in this un¬
dertaking, that Perronet fucceeded Hupeau. As the
work advanced, he found the arch and frame to fink,
and trying his ordinary mode of loading the crown of
the arch, he was now taught by experience to ftrengthen
his center frame, and happily fucceeded by continuing
his ftrut. By forming the bafe of the triangle I, 2,3s
on each fide, his frame was rendered fufficiently ftiff,
and the inner part below AB, AB became luperfluous.
The weight that preffes upon this frame is great boftr
CEN t3J7l CEN
on acconnt of the flatnefs of the arch, and the length
of the arch-ffone. The preffing arch is an arch of 57
degrees •, it meafurcs 88.87 feet, X 6 the length of the
arch-ftone, and by 3 in width, makes 1599.66 folid
feet X 160 lb. the weight of a folidfoot, gives 255945.61b.
The length of each plank of the trufs being 7 feet,
depth 12 inches by 2 inches thick, the ftrength is
189163 lb. The weight for every 7 feet in length of
the arch, one-third of this 63054-3-lb. in 88 feet, there
is 12 times 7, that is 63054.3 -f- 12 = 756,65216. to
fupport 255945.6 lb. more than 3 times ftronger, with¬
out taking into account the ftrength of the arch, be¬
ing the mean of the fplitting force and tranfverfe fec-
tion : the tie-beams, as in fig. 7. will be of abundant
ftrength to ftiffen the frame.
The next we take notice of is, the trufs frame, fig. 9.
ufed by Mr Mylne, at Blackfriars bridge, London.
This.is fupported by ties and ftruts in fuch a manner,
that no finking took place during the mafon work go¬
ing on, although the arch-ftones at the haunches were
7 feet, gradually leffening to the crown of the arch $
and, when the frame was ftruck, which was done by a
very ingenious method, by the wedges of the con-
ftrudlions as in the figure, in place of finking 9 inches,
it did not fink above 1, which may w ell be accounted
for by the compreftion of the mortar } whether a
fmaller quantity of materials might not have anfwered
the fame purpofe, fuch as fig. 7. vre (hall refer to the
judicious reader, or to the ingenious artift who may
have occafion to depend upon fuch frames for fup¬
port of this work, or a tie-beam between 1 and 3
on each fide, reprefented by the dotted line. As there
is a ftrain upon the frame at r, s, let thefe tie-beams be
fupported by the ftruts « 3, £ 3 on ea»h fide, and tied
at 4, 4 as reprefented by the dotted line 4, 4. It does
not appear that what lies between the dotted line
4, 4 £ bears any part in the fupport or ftiffnefs of
the frame, and therefore becomes unneceflary ; nor
does it appear, that the different beams ufed as king-
pofts are of fo much advantage for ftrengthening the
irame, as tie-beams would be. At the fame time, thofe
ufed by Mr Mylne are employed with fo much judge¬
ment, that none of their effedls are mifapplied. This can¬
not be faid of any of the frames ufed by the French
architefts, even of that ufed at the bridge of Orleans.
They are not often employed by the Britilh archi-
tedts 5 they rather prefer a tie-beam at the fpring of
the arch from one fide to the other. This, however,
might be as judicioufly applied at the height where
the arch begins to reft upon the frame, efpecially if
the fhoulders are properly loaded or filled up, fo as
to be a counterpoife to the arch-ftones, that reft upon
the frame. In this eafe they effectually prevent the
necefiity of a tie-beam, as a diameter at the fpring of
the arch ; and from the fpring proper fupports may be
given at the upper tie-beam, and from it to any part of
the arch, where the greateft ftrain lies.
Having from the examples adduced, and the obferva-
tions made upon them, found center-frames of fuffici-
ent ftrength to fupport arches of very extenfive fpans,
and even greater extent than they have yet been ap¬
plied 5 it may be faid, why not continue thefe frames
for the bridge, without the very great additional ex-
pence of throwing a ftene arch over them The ma¬
fon would anfwcr, that the ftone was more durable,
and had other advantages, particularly as to neatnefs,
when once thrown, and freed from the uncouth truffes
and tie-beams neceffary in the wooden frame. The
carpenter would reply, that if wood was not fo du¬
rable as ftone, it could be raifed at much lefs expenee j
and, when it failed in any part, it could be replaced at
a fmall expence, and made to laft longer than a ftone
arch j which latter, when it fails, requires as much ex‘-
pence as at firft, and even more, in clearing off the
rubbifli of its decayed and now ufelefs materials.
As to neatnefs, the frame of wood vies with the arch of
ftone in elegance, and is erefted at half the expence,
and even lefs. But now lince iron materials are in¬
troduced in place of ftone, there is room for experi¬
ments with regard to neatnefs and extent of fpan.
We ihall here fuppofe the carpenter exhibits this
plan. Let AB be a fpan of 60 feet, (fig. 11.) the
arch a femicircle, the abfolute ftrength of oak a plank
12 inches by one is 1891631b. Let the arch be com-
pofed of pieces 5 feet long, 12 inches deep, and 2
inches broad*, a fecond arch joining to this, of the fame
depth and breadth in elofe contadl, but the joints of
the one to the middle of the other, like brick-build¬
ing, or as the carpenters exprefs it breaking-joints
The abfolute ftrength of this arch is, before the two
truffes are joined, more than 84 ton, as may be col-
lefted from the calculations above, which is more than
3 times what can ever come upon it. The beauty of
this arch would be hurt by placing ftruts below t*
ftiffen it, for which there is not the fmalleft occafion 5
for it can be ftiffened to better advantage above the
arch. But this is not practicable in center-frames.
Let the road-way be CDEF, refting upon the per¬
pendicular fupport I, 2, 3, &c. As the carriage
aCts upon thefe in the oblique direction, tranfepts
from the arch in a radial direction, give them the ad¬
vantage of equal preffure upon the arch. Each of
thefe perpendiculars is mortifed into ftiort pieces, that
will form into an arch, the pieces all abutting one
upon another, and forming a fillet over the arch, and
projecting fo far, that the faces of an architrave of
any order may be formed along the face of the arch,
which adds both to its ftrength and beauty. Thus
there is formed a rib, 12 inches deep and 4 thick, with
its fillet over it 4 inches deep and fix inches broad,
to cover the faces of the architrave. Suppofe the arcH
44 feet wide, 7 of thefe ribs may give a ftrength not-
inferior to the ftrength of ftone or any metal j but it
will be faid, it will not be fo durable. It is well-
known how long wood lafts in the roofs, and joifts of
flooring, and even when it forms a part of the wall
of a houfe built of brick. The interftices between
thefe perpendicular bearings of the wood may be
built up with brick j even brick on edge, or brick thick,
will render its prefervation equal to what it is in a
houfe, and will preferve it from the bad effeCls of wet
and dry *, and the lower part of the ribs covered with
a thin lining. A door being left in the fide to ob-
ferve at different times any failure in the wood, it may
be repaired without interrupting the paffage by the
bridge. It ought to be fo covered above, that water-
may be prevented from going through to the injury of
the bridge,. It has been formerly mentioned, in fpeak-
in£_
Center.
GEN [ 31
Ing of the proportional ftrengtli of oak and fir, and by
the calculation it appeared, that fir plank 134- inches,
is equal in ftrength to oak of 12 inches. And thus a
framing of wood does not much exceed the expcnce
of centering either a ftone or iron bridge 5 and is not
inferior even in elegance.
The fpan here propofed is only 60 feet. But an arch
of 600 feet may be required, which muft have a center¬
ing to fupport the weight and preferve the figure 5 the
fize of that center frame can be made of ftrength equal,
and even to exceed the weight it has to fupport. It
can be rendered ftiff by the method propofed for the
60 feet arch. This, therefore, will be a bridge that
will fupport any weight that can be laid upon it, and
may be of any figure, elliptical, or at the plealure of
the architeft, any other curve which may be required.
It may be framed in a fimilar manner to thqfe formed
of iron, but it is natural to fuppofe that one aich over
the other will be equally ftrong and more eafily pre-
ferved from the weather, conitrucled in the way de-
feribed above. . . .
In the Ample wooden bridges not curved, it is only
neceffary to refer to fig. 7- where the ft ruts E c,fhg,
will be a fupport for planks, that wall form a ftraight
■bridge, joining fo many ribs as are neceffary for the
bridge according to its breadth.
The joints may be fecured from opening by dove¬
tailed pieces being inferted acrofs the joints on the in-
fide of the rib ; the abutments prevent the ends of
the arch from flying out. I he preffure above coming
upon it obliquely, may be faid to tend to make it rife
at the crown, efpecially when of a great fpan. In the
center-frame, the only manner of preventing this is
by ftruts and tie-beams judicioufly applied.. Here the
rife may be prevented more effeftually without hurt¬
ing the ornamental part of the arch. In the abutment,
which muft be of mafon-work, let a beam be built in¬
to the wall, the ends at G and K projefting 1 foot,
correfponding to each rib, the road-way formed by the
beam DE 5 let a tie-beam GD, KE, join thele in the
manner the carpenter knows to be the moft fecure $
from this tie-beam, let the radial ftruts be mortifed in¬
to the fillets at G, K, formerly deferibed, inftead of the
perpendiculars there named, and perpendiculars join¬
ing the road-way CPEF, and refting on the tie-beam
GD, KE, fuppbrted by the radial ftruts 4, 5, 6, as
in the figure. Thus the crown of the arch cannot
rife without lifting up the whole body of the abut¬
ment at each end, and it cannot fink till the weight
laid upon it is fufficient to crufh the materials of which
the arch is eompofed. In this manner a neat and ele¬
gant arch is procured, that may at a Imall comparative
expence be kept up for centuries. Here is then a
choice of three fpecies of arches, that may vie with
each other in point of ftrength. With the laft none
may compare in point of. elegance, and m duration
perhaps not inferior to the iron bridge.
CENTER of Gravity, in Mechanics, that point about
which all the parts of a body do in any fituation exact¬
ly balance each other. 1 .
CENTER o f Motion, that point which remains, at reft,
while all the other parts of a body move about it.
CENTER of a Sphere, a point in the middle, from
which all lines drawn to the furface are equal.
8 ] C E N
Hermes Trifmegiftus defines God an intellectual
fphere, whole center is everywhere, and circumference
nowhere. _ _
CENTESIMA usura, that wherein the intereft in
a hundred months became equal to the principal, i. e.
where the money is laid out at one per cent, per month $
anfwering to what in our ftyle would be called 1 2 per
cent, for the Romans reckoned their intereft not by
the year, but by the month.
CENTESIMATION, a milder kind of military
punifhment in cafes of delertion, mutiny, and the like,
when only every hundredth man is executed.
CENTILO^UIUM, denotes a collection of ICO
fentences, opinions, or layings.
The centiloquium of Hermes contains 100 apho-
rifms, or aftrological fentences, fuppofed to have been
written by fome Arab, falfely fathered on Hermes
Trifmegiftus. It is only extant in Eatin, in which it
has feveral times been printed.'—The centiloquium of
Ptolemy is a famous aftrological piece, frequently con¬
founded with the former, confifting like wife of. 100
fentences or do&rines, divided into Ihort aphorifms,
entitled alfo in Greek xac^r#?, as being the fruit or re-
fult of the former writings of that celebrated altrono-
mer, viz. his quadripartitum and almagejlum ; or rather,
by realon that herein is Ihown the ule of aftrological
calculations.
CENTIPES, in Zoology. See Scoi.opendra.
CENTIPED worm, a term ufed for fuch worms
as have a great many feet, though the number does
not amount to IOC, as the term feems to import.—
M. Malouet relates the hiftory of a man, who, for
three years, had a violent pain in the lower part of
the forehead near the root of the nole j at length, he
felt an itching, and afterwards fomething moving with¬
in his noftril, which he brought away with his finger j
it was a worm of the centiped kind, an inch and a
bdf long, which run fwiftly. It lived five or fix days
among tobacco. T he patient was free of his pain
ever after. IVIr Littre mentioned a like cafe in 1
of a larger centiped voided at the nofe, after it had
thrown the woman, in whofe frontal finus it was, into
convulfions, and had almoft deprived her of her rea-
fon.
CENTLIVRE, Susanna, a celebrated comic wri¬
ter, was the daughter of Mr Freeman of Holbeaeh,
in Lincolnftiire j and had fuch an early turn for poe¬
try, that it is faid Ihe wrote a fong before {he was
feven years old. Before ftie was twelve years of age,
(he could not only read Moliere in French, but enter
into the fpirit of all the characters. Her lather dying,
left her to the care of a ftep-mother, whofe treatment
not being agreeable to her, ftie determined, though al¬
moft deftitute of money and every other necefiary, to
go up to London to feek a better fortune than what
ftie had hitherto experienced. As fhe was proceeding
on her journey on foot, ftie was met by a young gen¬
tleman from the univerfity of Cambridge, the after¬
wards well-known Anthony Hammond, Efq. who was
fo extremely ftruck with her youth and beauty, that
he fell inftantly in love with her 5 and inquiring into
the particulars of her ftory, foon pr«vailed upon her
unexperienced innocence to feize on the protection e
offered her, and go with him to Cambridge. After
1 ® fome
Center
Centa
2
CENTER.
PLATE CXXXVUL
tt’ Arctuhald Sculpt
CE NTKK
plate rxxxn
\\
x:x^_
nrjrcJtzbaM Sculpt
CEN t 3*9 3 C E N
itlivre, fome months cohabitation, he perfuaded her to come
ituer. t0 London, -where, in a flrort time, Die was married
to a nephew of Sir Stephen Fox. But that gentleman
not living with her above a twelvemonth, her wit and
beauty foon procured her a fecond hufband, whofe
name was Carrol, and who was an officer in the army ;
but he having the misfortune to be killed in a duel
about a year and a half after their marriage, ffie be¬
came a fecond time a widow. For the fake of fupport
(lie now applied to her pen, and became a votary of
the mufes •, and it is under this name of Carrol that
fome of her earlier pieces were publiffied. Her firft
attempt was in tragedy, in a play called the Perjured
Hufband; yet natural vivacity leading her afterwards
to comedy, we find but one more attempt in the buf-
kin, among 18 dramatic pieces which fhe afterwards
wrote.
In 1706, ffie wounded the heart of one Mr Jofeph
Centlivre, yeoman of the mouth, or, in other words,
principal cook to her majelly, who married her •, and,
after paffing feveral years happily together, ffie died
at his houfe in Spring Garden, Charing-crofs, in De¬
cember 1723.
This lady for many years enjoyed the intimacy and
efteem of the moil eminent wits of the times, viz. Sir
Richard Steele, Mr Rowe, Budgell, Farquhar, Dr
Sewell, &c. •, and very few authors received more to¬
kens of efteem and patronage from the great. With
regard to her merit as a writer, it mutt be allowed
that her plays do not abound with wit, and that the
language of them is fometimes even poor, enervate, in¬
correct, puerile ■, but then her plots are bufy and well
conducted, and her characters in general natural and
well marked.
CENTNER, or Docimastic Hundred, in Me¬
tallurgy and AJJaying, is a weight divifible, firtt into a
hundred, and thence into a greater number of other
fmaller parts ; but though the word is the fame both
with the aiTayers and metallurgifts, yet it is to be un-
derftood as expreffing a very different quantity in their
different acceptation of it. The weights of the metal¬
lurgies are eafily undertlood, as being of the common
proportion •, but thofe of the affayers are a thoufand
times fmaller thnn thefe, as the portions of metals or
ores examined by the affayers are ufually very fmall.
The metallurgiffs, who extrad: metals out of their
ores, ufe a weight divided into a hundred equal parts,
each part a pound j the whole they call a centner or
hundred weight ; the pound is divided into thirty-two
parts, or half ounces *, and the half ounce into two
quarters of ounces, and thefe each into two drachms.
Ihefe divifions and denominations of the metallur¬
gifts are eafily underftood j but the fame words, though
they are equally ufed by affayers, with them exprefs
very different quantities ; for as the centner of the
metallurgies contains a hundred pounds, the centner
of the aflayers is really no more than one dram, to
which the other parts are proportioned.
As the affayers weights are divided into fuch an ex-
tieme degree of minutenefs, and are fo very different
hom all the common weights, the affayers ufually
make them themfelves in the following manner, out of
imal) fftver, or fine folder plates, of fuch a fize, that the
mark of their weight, according to the divifion of the
dram, which is the doctmaftic or affaying centner, may Centner
be put upon them. They firft take for a bafis one II
■weight, being about two-thirds of a common dram : Force'
this they mark (64 lb.). I hen having at hand fome
granulated lead, vaffied clean, well dried, and lifted
very fine, they put as much of it into one of the fmall
diffies of a fine balance as will equipoife the (641b.)
as it is called, juft mentioned : then dividing the gra¬
nulated lead into very nice halves, in the two feales,
after taking out the firft filver weight, they obtain a
perfeft equilibrium between the two feales •, they then
pour the granulated lead out of one difh of the feales,
and inftead of it put in another filver weight, which
they make exadlly equiponderant with the lead in the
other fcale, and mark it (321b.). If this fecond weight,
when firft put into the fcale, exceed by much the
weight of the lead, they take a little from it by a very
fine file j but when it comes very near, they ufe only a
whetftone to wear off an extremely fmall portion at a
time. When it is brought to be perfeftly even and
equal to the lead, they change the feales to fee that
error has been committed, and then go on in the fame
manner till they have made all the divifions, and all
the fmall weights. Then to have an entire centner or
hundred weight, they add to the (64 lb.) as they call
it, a 32lb. and a 41b. and weighing againft them one
Imall weight, they make it equal to them, and mark it
(roo.). This is the docimaftical or affaying centner,
and is really one dram.
CENTO, in poetry, a work wholly compofed of
verfes or paffages promilcuoufly taken from other au¬
thors, only dilpofed in a new form and order. — Pro-
ba Falconia has written the life of jefus Chrift in cen¬
tos taken from Virgil. Alexander Rofs has done the
like in his Chriftiades, and Stephen de Pleure the
fame.
CENTONARII, in antiquity, certain of the Ro¬
man army, who provided different forts of fluff called
centones, made ufe of to quench the fire which the
enemy’s engines threw’ into the camp.
Thefe centonarii kept with the carpenters and other
officers of artillery.
CENTRAL forces, the powers which caufe a
moving body to tend towards, or recede from, the
centre of motion- See Mechanics.
CENTRAL Rule, a rule difeovered by Mr Thomas
Baker, whereby to find the centre of a circle defigned
to cut the parabola in as many points as an equation
to be conftructed hath real roots. Its principal ufe
is in the conftrudlion of equations, and he hath applied
it with good fuccefs as far as biquadratics.
The central rule is chiefly founded on this property
of the parabola, that, if a line be inferibed in that
curve perpendicular to any diameter, a reft angle
formed of the fegments of the infeript is equal to the
rectangle of the intercepted diameter and parameter of
the axis.
The central rule has the advantage over Carter and
De Latere’s methods of conftrufting equations, in
that both thefe are fubjeft to the trouble of preparing
the equation by taking away the fecond term.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE, that force by which all
bodies that move round any other body in a curve en¬
deavour to fly off from the axis of their motion in a
tangent:
C E N
r
3^
Cintrifuga! tangent to the periphery of the curve, and that in
Fo'ce, every part of it. See MECHANICS.
Machine! CENTRIFUGAL-Machine, a very curious machine, in-
1 t vented by Mr Erfkine, for railing water by means of
a centrifugal force combined with the preflure of the
atmofphere.
It conlifts of a large tube of copper, &c. in the form
of a crofs, which is placed perpendicular in the water,
and reds at the bottom on a pivot. At the upper
part of the tube is a horizontal cog-wheel, which
touches the cogs of another in a vertical polition j fo
that by the help of a double vrinch, the whole ma¬
chine is moved round with very great velocity.
Near the bottom of the perpendicular part of the
tube is a valve opening upwards 5 and near the two
extremities, but on the contrary lides of the arms,, or
crofs part of the tube, are two other valves opening
outwards. Thefe two valves are, by the. afliftance
of fprings, kept fhut till the machine is put in motion,
w'hen the centrifugal velocity of the water forces them
open, and difeharges itfelf into a cillern or refer voir
placed there for that purpofe.
On the upper part of the arms are two holes, which
are clofed by pieces ferewed into the metal of the
tube. Before the machine can work, thefe holes mull
be opened, and water poured in through them, till
the whole tube be full: by. this means all the air will
be forced out of the machine, and the water fupport-
ed in the tube by means of the valve at the bottom.
The tube being thus filled with water, and the
holes clofed by the ferew caps, it is turned round by
means of the winch, when the water in the arms of
the tube acquires a centrifugal force, opens the valves
near the extremities of the arms, and flies out with a
velocity nearly equal to that of the extremities of the
faid arms.
The above defeription will be very eafily underltood
bv the figure we have added on Plate CXXXVII.
which is a perfpeclive view of the centrifugal machine,
erefted on board a fhip. ABC is the copper tube.
D, a horizontal cog-wheel, furnilhed with.twelve cogs.
E, a vertical cog-wheel, furnifhed with thirty-fix cogs.
F, F, the double winch, a, the valve near the bot¬
tom of the tube, b, b, the two pivots on which the
machine turns, c, one of the valves in the crofs piece j
the other at */, cannot be feen in this figure, being on
the other fide of the tube. . e, e, the two holes through
which the water is poured into the machine. . GH, the
ciftern or refervoir. I, I, part of the {hip s deck.
The diftance between the two valves, c, d, is fix feet.
The diameter of thefe valves is about three inches:
and that of the perpendicular tube about feven.inches.
If we fuppofe the men who work the machine can
turn the winch round in three feconds, tho machine
will move round its axis in one fecond ; and confe-
quently each extremity of the arms will move with a
velocity of 18.8 feet in a fecond. Therefore a column
of water of three inches diameter will iflue through
each of the valves with a velocity of 18.8 feet in a fe-
eond : but the area of the aperture ©f each of the valves
is 7.14 inches which being multiplied by the velocity
in inches =225.6, gives 1610.784 cubic inches, the
quantity of water difeharged through one of the aper¬
tures in one fecond $ fo that the whole quantity dif-
^harged in that fpace of time through both the aper-
o ] C E N
tures is =3221.568 inches ; or 193294.08 cubic incheJCectrJj j
in one minute. But 60812 cubic inches make a tun. Ma«
beer-meafure j confequently, if we fuppofe the centri- Cent!! I
fugal machine revolves round its axis m one fecond, it u—J]
will raife nearly 3 tuns 44 gallons in one minute : but
this velocity is certainly too great, at leaft to be held
for any conliderable time *, fo that, when this and other
deficiencies in the machine are allowed for, two tuns
is nearly the quantity that can be raifed by it in one
minute.
It will perhaps be unncceffary to obferve, that as
the water is forced up the perpendicular tube by th®
preflure of the atmofphere, this machine cannot raifl*
water above 32 feet high.
An attempt was made to fubftitute this machine in
place of the pumps commonly ufed on fliipboard j but
the labour of working was found to be fo great as to
render the machine inferior to the chain-pump. A
confiderable improvement, we apprehend, would be, to
load with a weight of lead the ends of the tubes
through which the water iffues, which w ould make the
machine turn with a great deal more eafe, as the cen¬
trifugal force of the l^d would in fome meafure aft the
part of a fly.
CENTRIPETAL force, that force by which a
body is everywhere impelled, or any how tends, to¬
wards fome point as a centre. See Mechanics.
CENTR1SCUS, in Ichthyology, a genus of fiihes be¬
longing to the order of amphibia nantes. See Ichhiy-
ology Index.
CENTRONIA, in Natural Hijlory, a name by
which the echini marini have been diftinguifhed. Dr
Hill makes them a diftinft clafs of animals living under
the defence of Ihclly caverings formed of one piece,
and furnifhed with a vaft number of fpines moveable at
the creature’s pleafure.
CENTUMCELLiE, in Ancient Geography, Tra.
jan’s villa in Tufcany, on the coaft, three miles from
Algae } with an excellent port, called Trajanus Partus,
(Ptolemy) *, and a faftitious ifland at the mouth of the
port, made wdth a huge block of. (lone, on which two
turrets rofe, with two entrances into the bafon or har¬
bour, (Rutilius). Now Civita Vecchia. E. Long. 12.
30. N. Lat. 420.
CENTUMVIRI, in Roman antiquity, judges ap¬
pointed to decide common caufes among the people :
They were chofen three out of each tribe 5 and though
five more than a hundred, were neverthelefs called cen-
tumvin, from the round number centum a hundred.
CENTUNCULUS. See Botany Index.
CENTURION, among the Romans, an officer in
the infantry, who commanded a century, or a hun¬
dred men. .
In order to have a proper notion of the centurions,
it muft be remembered, that every one of the thirty
manipuli * in a legion was divided into two or dines, or*S((f
ranks j and confequently the three bodies of the hz-mpd
ftati, principes, and triarii, into 20.orders a piece, as
into 10 manipuli. Now, every manipulus was allowe
two centurions, or captains, one to each order or cen¬
tury : and, to determine the point of priority between
them, they w'ere created at two different eleftions.
The 30 who were made firft always took the precedency
of their fellows ; and therefore commanded the right-
hand orders, as the others did the left. .Lhe triarii,
Il
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t
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aaune
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Wdrrfiibald Sculpt
C E 1ST [ 321 1 C E O
turiaa or pliant, fo called from tlieir weapon tlie pilum, being
II efteemed the moft honourable, had their centurions
itar?- elefted firft, next to them the principes, and afterwards
the haftati j whence they were called primus et fecundus
pilur, primus et fecundus princeps, primus et fecundus ha-
Jlatus ; and fo on. Here it may be obferved, that primi
erdines is fometimes ufed in hiftorians for the centu¬
rions of thefe orders ; and the centurions are fome-
times ftyled principes ordinum, and principes centurionum.
We may take notice too what a large field there lay
for promotion: firft through all the orders of the ha-
llati; then quite through the principes; and afterwards
from the laft order of the triarii to the primipilus, the
moil honourable of the centurions, and who deferves
to be particularly deferibed. This officer, befides his
title of primipilus, went under the feveral titles of dux
lefonis, preefecius legionis, primus centurionum, and pri¬
mus centurio ,• and was the firit centurion of the triarii
in every legion. He prefided over all the other centu¬
rions, and generally gave the word of command by or¬
der of the tribunes. Befides this he had the care of
the eagle or chief ftandard of the legion ; hence,
o.quilce prceeffe, is to bear the dignity of primipilus j
and hence aquila is taken by Pliny for the faid office.
Nor was this flation only honourable, but very profit¬
able too: for he had a fpecial ftipend allowed him, pro¬
bably as much as a knight’s eftate 5 and, w hen he left
that charge, w'as reputed equal to the members of the
equeflrian order, bearing the title of primipilarius, in
the fame manner as thofe who had difeharged the
greatefl civil offices were ityled ever after, confulares,
cenforii, <b’c.
CENTURIPfE, Centoripa, or Centuripe, in
Ancient Geography, a town in the fouth-wefl of the ter¬
ritory of Etna, on the river Cyamaforus : Now' Centorbi
or Centurippi. It was a democratical city, which, like
Syracufe, received its liberty from Timoleon, Its in¬
habitants cultivated the fine arts, particularly feulpture
and engraving. In digging for the remains of antiqui¬
ties, cameos are nowhere found in fuch abundance as
at Centurippi and its environs. The fituation of the
place is romantic : it is built on the fummit of a vail
group of rocks, which was probably chofen as the moil
difficult of accefs, and confequently the propereft in
times of civil commotion. The remains ftill exilling
of its ancient bridge are a proof of its having been a
confiderable city. Cicero fpeaks of it as fuch, It wras
taken by the Romans, plundered and oppreffed by
Verres, deflroyed by Pompey, and reftored by Octa¬
vius, who made it the refidence of a Roman colony.
CENTURY, in a general fenfe, any thing divided
into, or confiding of, a hundred parts.
The marquis of Worcefter publifhed a Century of
inventions, (for a fpecimen of which, fee Acoustics,)
and Dr Hooke has given a decimate of inventions, as
part of a Century, of which he affirmed himfelf mailer.
It is remarkable, that both in the century of the form¬
er, and the decimate of the latter, we find the princi¬
ple on which Savary’s fire or fleam engine is founded.
See STEAM- Engine.
Century, in antiquity. The Roman people, when
they w-ere affembled for the eleffing of magillrates,
enafting of laws, or deliberating upon any public af¬
fair, w'ere always divided into centuries, and voted by
centuries, in order that their votes might be the more
Vox. V. Part I.
eafily colle&ed, whence thefe affemblies were called Century
comitia centuriata. The Roman cohorts were alfb di-
vided into centuries. See Centurion and Cohort. ,
Century, in Chronology, the fpace of 100 years.
This method of computing by centuries is generally
obferved in church hiilory, commencing from the time,
of our Saviour’s incarnation : in which fenfe wre fay
the firft century, the fecond century, &c.
CENTURIES of Magdeburg, a famous ecclefiaflical
hiftory, ranged into 13 centuries, carried down to the
year 1298, compiled by feveral hundred proteflants of
Magdeburg, the chief of whom was Flavius Illyricus.
CENTUSSIS, in Roman antiquity, a coin contain¬
ing 100 affes.
CENTZONTLI, in Ornithology, the Mexican
name of the Turdus polyglottus. See Turdus, Orni¬
thology Index.
CEODES, in Botany, a genus of the dioecia or¬
der, belonging to the polygamia clafs of plants. There
is no calyx ; the corolla is monopetalous, with a fliort
turbinated tube j the flamina are ten fubulated fila¬
ments ; the antheraj roundifh.
CEORLES, the name of one of the claffes or or¬
ders into which the people were dillinguilhed among
the Anglo-Saxons. The ceorles, who were perfons
completely free, and defeended from a long race of
freemen, conflituted a middle clafs between the la¬
bourers and mechanics (who were generally {laves, or
defeended from ilaves), on the one hand, and the no¬
bility on the other. They might go where they plea-
fed, and purfue any way of life that w'as moll agreeable
to their humour •, but fo many of them applied to agri¬
culture, and farming the lands of the nobility, that
a ceorl was the moil common name for a hufbandman
or farmer in the Anglo-Saxon times. Thefe ceorls,
however, feem in general to have been a kind of gentle¬
men farmers ; and if any one of them profpered fo
well as to acquire the property of five hydes of land,
upon which he had a church, a kitchen, a bell-houfe,
and great gate, and obtained a feat and office in the
king’s court, he w'as elteemed a nobleman or thane.
If a ceorl applied to learning, and attained to prieft’s
orders, he was alfo confidered as a thane 5 his were-
gild, or price of his life, was the fame, and his tefti-
mony had the fame weight in a court of juftice. When
he applied to trade, and made three voyages beyond
fea, in a {hip of his own, and wdth a cargo belonging
to himfelf, he was alfo advanced t@ the dignity of a
thane. But if a ceorl had a greater propenfity to arms
than to learning, trade, or agriculture, he then became
the fitheunman, or military retainer, to fome potent
and warlike earl, and w as called the hufcarle of fuch an
earl. If one of thefe hufcarles acquitted himfelf fo
w'ell as to obtain from his patron either five hydes of
land, or a gilt fword, helmet, and breaftplate, as a re¬
ward of his valour, he was likewife confidered as a
thane. Thus the temple of honour flood open to thefe
ceorls, w hether they applied themfelves to agriculture,
commerce, letters, or arms, which were then the only
profeffions efteemed’worthy of a freemen.
CEOS, Cea, Cia, or Cos, in Ancient Geography,
one of the Cyclades, lies oppofite to the promontory
of Achaia called Sunium, and is 50 miles in compafs.
This iiland is commended by the ancients for its fertility
aftd the richnefs of its paftures. The firft filk fluffs, if
S f Pliny
CEP L’ 322 ] C E It
Ctus pHny and Solinus are to be credited, were wrought
H . here. Ceos was particularly famous for the excellent
Cephalic ^ Jt produce(1< it was firft peopled by Ariftaeus, the
Mecuexces. A^o]lo and Cyrene, wh0 being grieved for the
death of his fon Aftason, retired from Thebes, at the
perfualion of his mother, and went over with fome
Thebans to Ceos, at that time uninhabited. Diodorus
Siculus tells us, that he retired to the ifland of Cos j
but the ancients, as Servius obferves, called both thefe
illands by the name of Cos. Be that as it will, the
ifland of Ceos became fo populous, that a law prevail¬
ed there, commanding all perfons upwards of fixty to
be poifoned, that others might be able t:o fubfift j fo
that none above fixty were to be feen in the ifland,
being obliged, after they arrived at that age, either
to fubmit to the law, or abandon the country, together
with their effeas. Ceos had, in former times, four fa¬
mous cities, viz. Julis, Carthaea, Coreflus, and Pra.-
effa. The two latter were, according to Pliny, {wal¬
lowed up by an earthquake. The other two flounfhed
in Strabo’s time. Carthtea Hood on a rifing ground,
at the end of a valley, about three miles from the fea.
The fituation of it agrees with that of the preient town
efZea, which gives name to the whole ifland. _ The
ruins both of Carthaea and Julis are ftill remaining j
thofe of the latter take up the whole mountain, and are
called by the modern inhabitants Polis, that is, the city.
Near this place are the ruins of a {lately temple, with
many pieces of broken pillars, and Hatties of moil ex-
quifite workmanfhip. The walls of the city were of
marble, and fome pieces are Hill remaining above 12
feet in length. Julis was, according to Strabo, the
birthplace of Simonides, Bacchylides, Erafiftratus, and
Arifto. The Oxford marbles tell us, that Simonides,
the fon of Leoprepis, invented a fort of artificial me¬
mory, the principles of which he explained at Athens ;
and add, that he was defeended of another Simonides,
who was a poet no lefs renowned than himfelf. One
©f thefe two poets invented thofe melancholy verfes
which were fung at funerals, and are called by the
Latins nccnice. Strabo fays, that, the Athenians, ha¬
ving befieged the city of julis, raifed the fiege, upon
advice that the inhabitants had refolved to murder all
the children under a certain age, that ufeful perfons
might not be employed in looking after them. Ceos
was, with the other Greek iflands, fubdued by the Ro¬
mans, and bellowed upon the Athenians by.Mark An¬
tony the triumvir, together with /Egina, linos, and
fome other adjoining iilands, which were all reduced
to one Roman province by Velpafian. Hie ifland is
now called Ze#.
CEP A, the Onion. See Allium, Botany Index.
CEPHALANTHUS, Button-wood. See Bo¬
tany Index. . .
CEPHALIC, in a general meaning, fignifies any
thing belonging to the head. . .
CEPHALIC Medicines, are remedies for dilorders ot
the head. Cordials are comprehended herein, as are
alfo whatever promotes a free circulation of the blood
through the brain. r re
Except when the diforder arifes from exceis of heat,
or an inflammatory difpofition in the head, moift topi-
cals fliould never be ufed, but always dry ones..
To rub the head after it is fliayed proves an mftan-
taneous cure for a cephalagia, a fluffing of the head,
and a weaknefs of the eyes, arinng from a wean and Lepiuli*!
relaxed {late of the fibres. And as by every freffi j
evacuation of the humours their quantity is not only
leffened, but alfo their recrementitious parts derived ;
thither, the more frequently the head is ffiaved, the
larger quantity of humour is difeharged •, fo that the
frequent {having of the head and beard is likewife a
perpetual blifler j and in as much as it is ufeful, it is a
cephalic.
CEPHALIC Vein, in Anatomy, creeps along the arm
between the ikin and the mufcles, and divides it into
two branches } the external goes down to the wrift,
where it joins the bafilica, and turns up to the back of
the hand; the internal branch, together with a fmall
one of the bafilica, makes the mediana.
The ancients ufed to open this vein for diforders of
the head, for which reafon it bears this name •, but a
better acquaintance with the circulation of the blood
informs, us that there is no foundation for fuch a no-
tion.
CEPHALENIA, or Cefhallenia, an ifland of
the Ionian fea, between Ithaca and Zacynthus, known
in Homer’s time by the names of Samos and Epirus
Melsena, is about eighty miles in length, forty m
breadth, and a hundred and thirty in compais. It had
anciently four cities, one of which bore the name of
the ifland. Strabo tells us, that in his time there were
only two cities remaining } but Pliny {peaks of three j
adding, that the ruins of Same, which had been de«
ftroyed by the Romans, were ftill in being. Same
was the metropolis of the ifland, and is fuppofed to
have flood in the place which the Italians call Porto
Guifcardo. The names of the four cities were, accord¬
ing to Thucydides, Same, Prone, Cranii, and Pals.
This ifland was fubdued by the Thebans, under the
conduct of Amphitryo, who is faid to have killed Pte-
relas, who then reigned here.. W hile Amphitryo was
carrying on the war in Cephalenia, then called Samos,
one Cephalus, a man of great diilindtion at Athens,
having accidentally killed his wife Procris in {hooting
at a deer, fled to Amphitryo, who, pitying his cafe,.,
not only received him kindly, but made him governor,
of the ifland, which henceforth was called Cephale¬
nia. After it had been long in fubjeftion to. the
Thebans, it fell under the power of the Macedonians,,
and wras taken from them by the Attolians, who held
it till it was reduced by M. Fulvius Nobilior, who
having gained the metropolis after a four months-
fiege, fold all the citizens for Haves, adding the whole
ifland to the dominions of the republic. Now called
Cephalonia.
CEPHALONIA, the capital of an ifland of the
fame name, fituated in the Mediterranean, near the
coaft of Epirus, and fubjeft to the Venetians. E.
Long. 21. N. Lat. 30. 30.
CEPHEUS, in fabulous hiilory, a king of Arcadia,,
onwhofehead Minerva faftening one of Medufa’shahs,,
he was rendered invincible.
Cepheus, in AJironorrny, a conflellation of the north¬
ern hemifphere. See Astronomy Index.
CERAM, an ifland in the Indian ocean, between
the Molucca iflands on the north, and thofe of Am-
boyna and Banda on the fouth, lying between E.
Long. 126. and 129. in S. Lat. 3. It is about
130 Diiffis long, and 60 broad y and here the Dutch
[feram
II
n'berus.
C E R [ 3:
Lave a fortrefs, which keeps the natives in fubjec-
tion.
CERAMBYX, in Zoology, a genus of infects, of the
beetle kind, belonging to the order of infe&a coleop-
tera. See Entomology Index.
CERASTES, in Zoology, the trivial name of a
fpecies of Anguis and Coluber. See Ophiology
Index.
CERASTIUM, Mouse-ear. See Botany Index.
CERiVSUS. See Prunus, Botany Index.
CERATE, in Pharmacy, a thickilh kind of oint¬
ment, applied to ulcerations, excoriations, &c. See
Pharmacy Index.
CERATION, the name given by the ancients to
the fmall feeds of ceratonia, uled by the Arabian phy-
ficians as a height to adjuft the doles of medicines j as
the grain weight with us took its rife from a grain of
barley.
Ceration, or Ceratium, was alfo a filver coin, equal
to one-third of an obolus.
CERATOCARPUS. See Botany Index.
CERATONIA, the Carob Tree, or St John's
bread. See Botany Index. The pods of this plant
are called St John's bread, from an ill founded afier-
tion of fome writers on Scripture, that thefe were the
locufts which St John ate with his honey in the wilder-
nefs.
CERATOPHYLLUM. See Botany Index.
CERA UNI A, Ceraunias, or Ceraunius La-,
pis, in Natural Hijlory, a fort of flinty Hone, of no
certain colour, but of a pyramidical or wedge-like fi¬
gure 5 popularly fuppofcd to fall from the clouds in the
time of thunder-ftorms, and to be poflefled of divers
notable virtues, as promoting fleep, preferving from
lightning, Stc. The word is from the Greek Kigxvto?,
thunderbolt. The ccraunia is the fame with what is
otherwife called the thunder-ftone, or thunder-bolt j
and alfo fometimes fa^itta or arrow’s head, on ac¬
count of its ftiape. The cerauniae are frequently con¬
founded with the ombme and brontiae, as being all
fuppofed to have the fame origin. L he generality
of naturalifts take the ceraunia for a native ftone,
formed among the pyrites, of a faline, concrete, mi¬
neral juice. Mercatus and Dr Woodward aflert it to
be artificial, and to have been fafhioned thus by tools.
The ceraunia, according to thefe authors, are the heads
t>f the ancient weapons of war, in ufe before the in¬
vention of iron 5 which, upon the introduction of that
metal, growing into difufe, were difperfed in the fields
through this and the neighbouring country. Some
of them had pofhbly ferved in the early ages for axes,
others for wedges, Others for chiffels 5 but the greater
part for arrowr-heads, darts, and lances. The ceraunia
is alfo held by Pliny for a white or cryftal coloured
gem, that attrafted lightning in itfelf. What this
■was, is hard to fay. Prudentius alfo fpeaks of a yellow
ceraunia •, by which he is fuppofed to mean the car¬
buncle or pyropus.
CERBERA. See Botany Index.
CERBERUS, in fabulous hiftory, a dreadful three¬
headed maftiff, born of Typhon and Echidna, and pla¬
ced to guard the gates of hell. He fawned upon thofe
^rho entered, but devoured all who attempted to get
back. He was, however, maftered by Hercules, who
dragged him up to the earth, when, in ftruggling, a
13 ] C E R
foam dropped from his mouth, which produced the Cerbertt?
poifonous herb called aconite or wolf's bane. II ^
Some have fuppofed that Cerberus is the fymbol of eiea ’ A
the earth, or of all-devouring time j and that its three
mouths reprefent the prefent, paft, and future. The
victory obtained by Hercules over this moniler de¬
notes the conqueft which this hero acquired over his
paflions. Dr Bryant fuppofes that Cerberus was the
name of a place, and that it fignified the temple of
the Sun 5 deriving it from Kir Abor, the place of light.
This temple was called alfo Tor-Caph-El, which was
changed to T£<*jj<p«eAef j and hence Cerberus was fup¬
pofed t<* have had three heads. It was likewife called
Tor-Keren, Turris Regia ; whence from rgi/j,
three, and xx^tiDot, head.
CERCELE, in Heraldry. A crofs cercele is a crofj-
which, opening at the ends, turns round both ways like
a ram’s horn. See Cross.
CERCIS, the Judas tree. See Botany Index.
CERCOPITHECI, in Natural Hijlory, the name
given by Mr Ray to monkeys, or the elafs of apes with
long tails. See Simia, Mammalia Index.
CERDA, John Lewis de la, a learned Jefuit of
Toledo, wrote large commentaries on Virgil, which
have been much efteemed j alfo feveral other works.
He died in 1643, aged 80.
CERDONIANS, ancient heretics, who maintained
moft of the errors of Simon Magus, Saturninus, and
the Manichees. They took their name from their
leader Cerdon, a Syrian, who came to Rome in the
time of Pope Hyginus, and there abjured his errors j
but in appearance only ; for he was afterwards con-
vifted of perfifting in them, and accordingly cafl: out
of the church again. Cerdon afferted two principles,
the one good and the other evil} this laft, according
to him, was the creator of the world, and the god that
appeared under the old law. The firft, whom he call¬
ed unknown, was the father of Jefus Chrifl:; who, he
taught, was incarnate only in appearance, and was
not born of a virgin •, nor did he fuffer death but in
appearance. He denied the refurreftion, and rejected
all the books of the Old Teftament, as coming from
an evil principle. Marcion, his difciple, fucceeded him
in his errors.
CEREALIA, in antiquity, feafts of Ceres, inftitu-
ted by Triptolemus, fon of Celeus king of Eleufine in
Attica, in gratitude for his having been inrtrufted by
Ceres, who was fuppofed to have been his nurfe, in
the art of cultivating corn and making bread.
There were two feafts of this kind at Athens; the
one called Eleufinia, the other Thcfmophoria. See the
article Eleusinia. What both agreed in, and was
common to all the cerealia, was, that they were cele¬
brated with a world of religion and purity 5 fo that
it was efteemed a great pollution to meddle, on thofe
days, in conjugal matters. It was not Ceres alone
that was honoured here, but alfo Bacchus. The vic¬
tims offered were hogs, by reafon of the wafte they
make in the produffs of the earth : whether there
was any wine offered or not, is matter of much de¬
bate among the critics. Plautus and Macrobius feem
to countenance the negative fide j Cato and Virgil the
pofitive. Macrobius fays, indeed, they did not offer
wine to Ceres, but viulfum, which was a compofition
of vine and honey boiled up together: that the fa- •
S f a crifice
C E R
[ 324 ]
C E R
Ceremo¬
nial.
Cerealia crifice made on the 21ft of December to that goddefs
" and Hercules, was a pregnant fow, together with
cakes and mulfum •, and that this is what Virgil means
by Mi/i Baccho. The cerealia paffed from the Greeks
to the Romans, who held them for eight days fuccef-
fively \ commencing, as generally held, on the fifth
of the ides of April. It was the women alone who
were concerned in the celebration, all dreffed in white:
the men, likewife in white, were only fpeftators.
They ate nothing till after funfet \ in memory of
Ceres, who in her fearch after her daughter took no
repaft but in the evening.
After the battle of Cannae, the defolation was fo
great at Rome, that there were no women to cele¬
brate the feaft, by reafon they were all in mourning ;
fo. that it was omitted that year.
Cerealia, in Botany, from Ceres, the goddefs of
corn } Linnaeus’s name for the larger efculent feeds of
the graffes : thefe are rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats,
millet, panic grafs, Indian millet, holcus, zizania, and
maize. To this head may be likewife referred dar¬
nel Qlohum') $ which, by preparation, is rendered efcu¬
lent.
CEREBELLUM, the hinder part of the head.
See Anatomy Index.
CEREBRUM, the Brain. Its ftruaure and ufe
are not fo fully known as fome other parts of the
body ; and different authors confider it in various man¬
ners. However, according to the obfervations of tbofe
moil famed for their accuracy and dexterity in anato¬
mical inquiries, its general ilruaure is as. given in A-
Natomy Index.
Dr Hunter obferves, that the principal parts of the
medullary fubilance of the brain in idiots, and mad¬
men, fuch as the thalami nervorum opticorum, and me*
duiia oblongata, are found entirely changed from a me¬
dullary to a hard, tough, dark-coloured fubftance,
fometimes refembling white leather.
CEREMONIAL (ceremomale) a book in which
is prefcribcd the order of the ceremonies to be obfer-
ved in certain actions and occafions of folemnity and
pomp. The ceremonial of the Roman church is call¬
ed ordo Roma mis. It was publiihed in 1516 by the
bifliop of Corcyra j at which the college of cardinals
were fo fcandalized, that fome of them voted to have
the author as well as book burnt, for his temerity in
expofing the facred ceremonies to the eyes of profane
CEREMONIAL, is alfo ufed for the fet or lyftem of
rules and ceremonies which cuftom. has introduced for
regulating our behaviour, and which perfons pradffife
towards each other, either out of duty, decency, or el-
vility.
Ceremonial, in a more particular fenfe, denotes
the manner in which princes and ambafladors uied to
receive and to treat one another. There are endjels
difputes among fovereigns about the ceremonial : fome
endeavouring to be on a level, and others to be fupe-
rior ; infomuch that numerous fchemes have been pro-
pofed for fettling them. The chief are, 1. To accom¬
modate the difference by compromife or alternation j
fo that one fliall precede now, the other the next
time ; or one in one place, and the other in another .
2. By feniority •, fo that an elder prince in years fliall
precede a younger, without any other diftinction,
Thefe expedients, however, have not yet been accept-Ceremojf
ed by any, except fome alternate princes, as they are ^jjl ,
called, in Germany. _ *
Ceremonial is more particularly ufed in fpeakmg
of the laws and regulations given by Mofes relating
to the worftiip of God among the ancient Jews. In
this fenfe it amounts to much the fame with what
is called the Levitical law, and _Hands contradiftin-
guiflied from the moral as well as judicial law.
CEREMONY, an affemblage of feveral aftions,
forms, and circumftances, ferving to render a thing
more magnificent and folemn.
In 1646, M. Ponce publifhed a hiftory of ancient
ceremonies, tracing the rife, growth, and introdudlion
of each rite into the church, and its gradual advance¬
ment to fuperftition therein. Many of them wTere
borrowed from Judaifm; but more feemingly from Pa-
ganifm. Dr Middleton has given a fine difeourfe on
the conformity between the Pagan and Popifli cere“
monies, which he exemplifies in the ufe of inccnic,
holy water, lamps, and candles, before the flumes of
faints votive gifts or offerings round the flinnes of
the deceafed, &c. In effedt, the altars, images, croffes,
proceflions, miracles, and legends y nay, even the very
hierarchv, pontificate, religious orders, &.c. of the pre-
fent Romans, he foows, are all copied from their hea¬
then anceftors.—We have an ample and magnificent
account of the religious ceremonies and cuftoms of all
nations in the world, reprefented in figures defigned by-
Picart, with hifforical explanations, and many curious
differtations. .
Majler of the CEREMONIES, an officer mftituted by
King James I. for the more honourable reception of
ambaffadors and ftrangers of quality. He wears about
his neck a chain of gold, with a medal under the
crown of Great Britain, having on one fide an em¬
blem of peace, with this motto, Beati pacifici i and on
the other, an emblem of war, with Vieu et mon droit ^
his falary is 300!. per annum.
JJMant Majler of the CEREMONIES, is to execute
the employment in all points, whenfoeyer the mafter of
the ceremonies is abfent. His falary is 141I. 13s. 4d»
per annum. , .
Martial of the CEREMONIES, is their officer, being
fubordinate to them both. His falary is 100I. per an¬
CERENZA, a town of Italy,, m the kingdom of
Naples, and in the Hither Calabria, with a biffiop ^
fee. It is feated on a rock, in E. Long. 17. 5. N. Lat-
39CERES, a pagan deity, the inventor or goddefe.
of corn j in like manner as Bacchus was of wine.
According to the poets, fhe was the daughter ot Sa¬
turn and Ops, and the mother of Proferpine, whom
ffie had by Jupiter. Pluto having ftolen away Pro¬
ferpine, Ceres, travelled all over the world m quell of
her daughter, by the help of a torch, which the had.
lighted in Mount Attna. .
As Ceres was thus travelling in fearch of her daugh¬
ter, ffie came to Celeus king of Eleufis, and under¬
took to bring up his infant fon Triptolemus. Being/
defirous to render her charge immortal, flie fed him.
in the day-time with divine milk, and in the nig it co¬
vered him with fire. Celeus obferving an unuiua-,
improvement in his fon, refolyed to watch ms mu e^,.
C E R [ 325 ] e E R
Ceres to 'which end he hid himfelf in that part of the houfe
|| where Hie ufed to cover the child with fire : but when
c®rm' he faw her put the infant under the embers, he cried
thian5‘ , out and difcovered himfelf. Ceres puniflied the curio-
fity and indifcretion of the father with death. After¬
wards Hie taught the youth the art of fowing corn and
other fruits, and mounted him in a chariot drawn by
winged dragons, that he might traverfe the world, and
teach mankind the ufe of corn and fruits. After this,
having difcovered, by means of the nymph Arethufa,
that Proferpine was in the infernal regions, fhe applied
to Jupiter, and obtained of him that Proferpine ihould
be refiored, on condition that Ihe had tailed nothing
during her ftay in that place : but it being difcovered,
by the information of Afealaphus, that, as ftie was
walking in Pluto’s orchard, {he had gathered an apple,
and had tafted of fome of the feeds, Ihe was for ever
forbidden to return. Ceres, out of revenge, turned
Afealaphus into an owl. At length, Jupiter, to miti¬
gate her grief, permitted that Proferpine fhould pafs
one half of the year in the infernal regions with Pluto,
and the other half with her mother on earth.
Cicero fpeaks of a temple of Ceres at Catanea in
Sicily, where was a very ancient ftatue of that goddeis,
but entirely concealed from the fight of men, every
thing being performed by matrons and virgins.
CERET, a town of France in Rouflillon, with a
magnificent bridge of a fingle arch. It is feated near
the river Tec, in E. Long. 2. 46. N. Lat. 42. 23.
CERE US, in Botany. See Cactus.
CERIGO, an iftand in the Archipelago, anciently
called Cytherea ; noted for being the birthplace of He¬
len, and, as the poets fay, of Venus. At prefent there
is nothing very delightful in the place j for the coun¬
try is mountainous, and the foil dry. It abounds in
hares, quails, turtle, and excellent falcons. It is about
50 miles in circumference, and had formerly good
towns ; but there is now none remaining but that which
gives name to the ifiand. This is ftrong both by art
and nature, it being feated on a craggy rock. The
inhabitants are Greek Chriftians, and fubjeft to the
Venetians, who keep a governor there, whom they
change every two years.
CERINES, a town in the ifiand of Cyprus, with a
good caftle, a harbour, and a biftiop’s fee. E. Longi
•33. 35. N. Lat. 3 v 22.
CERINTHE, Honeywort. See Botany Index.
CERINTHIANS, ancient heretics, who denied
the deity of Jefus Chrift.—They took their name
from Cerinthus, one of the firft hcrefiarchs in the
church, being contemporary with St John. See CEt
Rinthus.
They believed that Jefus Chrift was a mere man,
born of Jofeph and Mary 5 but that, in his baptifm,
a celeftial virtue defeended on him in form of a dove ;
by means whereof he was confecrated by the Holy
Spirit, and made Chrift. It was by means of this ce-
leitial virtue, therefore, that he wrought fo many mi¬
racles •, which, as he received it from heaven, quitted
him after his paflion, and returned to the place whence
it came \ fo that Jelus, whom they called a pure rnan,
really died, and rofe again *, but that Chrifi, who was
diftinguilhed from Jefus, did not fuffer at all. It was
partly to refute this fed! that St John wrote his go-
fpel. They received the gofpel of St Matthew, to
countenance their doctrine of circumcifion, from Chrift’s thl^s
being circumcifed 5 but they omitted the genealogy.
They difearded the epiftles of St Paul, becaufe that - - t—
apoftle held circumcifion aboliftied.
CERINTHUS, a herefiarch, cotemporary with the
apoftles, aferibed the creation not to God, but to an¬
gels. He taught that Jefus Chrift was the fon of Jo«.
leph, and that circumcifion ought to be retained under
the gofpel.. He is looked upon as the head of the
converted Jews, who raifed in the church of Antioch
the tumult of which St Luke has given the hiftory in
the 15th chapter of the A£ts. Some authors alcribe
the book of the Apocalypfe to Gerinthus j adding, that
he put it off under the name of St John, the better to
authorife his reveries touching' Chrift’s reign upon
earth : and it is even certain that he publilhed fome
works of this kind under the title of See
Apocalypse.
CEROPEGIA. See Botany Index.
CERTHIA, in Ornithology, the Creeper or Ox*
EYE, a genus belonging to the order of picae. See
Ornithology.
CERTIFICATE, Trial by, in the law of Eng¬
land, a fpecies of trial allowed in fuch cafes where the
evidence of the perfon certifying is the only proper
criterion of the point in difpute *. For when the fa ft * See Trial*-
in queftion lies out of the cognizance of the court, the
judges muft rely on the folemn averment or informa¬
tion of perfens in fuch a llation as affords them the
moft clear and competent knowledge of the truth. AaBlackJi.
therefore fuch evidence, if given to a jury, muft have^0OTWe/?f*
been conclufive, the law, to lave trouble and circuity,
permits the faft to be determined upon fuch certificate
merely. Thus, 1. If the iffue be whether A was ab~
fent with the king in his army out of the realm in time
of war, this (hall be tried by the certificate of the ma'-
refchal of the king’s hoft in writing under his feal^;
which fhall be fent to the juftices. 2. If, in order to
avoid an outlawry, or the like, it was alleged that
the defendant was in prifon, ultra jnare, at Bourdeaux,
or in the fervice of the mayor of Bourdeaux, this ftiould
have been tried by the certificate of the mayor, and
the like of the captain of Calais. But when this was*
law, thofe towns were under the dominion of the
crown of England. And therefore, by a parity of
reafon, it flioukl now hold, that in fimilar cafes arifing
at Jamaica or Minorca, the trial ftiould be ’by certifi¬
cate from the governor of thofe illands. We alfo find:
that the certificate of the queen’s meffengers, fent to-
fummon home a peerefs of the realm, was formerly-
held a fufficient trial of the contempt- in refufing to
obey fuch fummons. 3. For matters within the realm j
the e-uftoms of the city of London {hall be tried by
the certificate of the mayor and aldermen, certified by*
the mouth of their recorder, upon a furmife from the.
party alleging it, that the cuitom ought to be- thus
tried 5 elfc it muft be tried by the.country : As, the
cuftom of diftributing the effects of freemen deceafed j.
of enrolling apprentices, or that he who is free of
one trade may ufe another 3 if any of thefe, or other
fimilar points come in iffue. 4. The trial of all cuf-
toms and praftice of the courts {hall be by certificate*
from the proper officers of thofe courts refpeftively. 4-
Cervical
Veil'd.
C E R [326
Certificate and vhea returned was made on a writ by the fheriff or
under fheriff, fhall be only tried by his own certificate.
CERTIORARI, in Law, a writ which iflues out
; of the chancery, directed to an inferior court, to call
up the records of a caufe there depending, in order
that juftiee may be done. And this writ is obtained
upon complaint, that the party who feeks it has re¬
ceived hard ufage, or is not like to have an impartial
trial in the inferior court. A certiorari is made re¬
turnable either in the king’s bench, common pleas, or
in chancery.
It is not only ufed out of the court of chancery,
but likewife out of the king’s bench ; in which laft
mentioned court it lies where the king would be cer¬
tified of a record. Indictments from inferior courts,
and proceedings of the quarter-feflions of the peace,
may alfo be removed into the king’s bench by a cer¬
tiorari : and here the very record muff be returned,
and not a tranfeript of it 5 thought ufually in chancery,
if a certiorari be returnable there, it removes only the
tenor of the record.
CERTITUDE, confidered in the things or ideas
■which are the obje&s of our underffanding, is a ne-
ceffary agreement or difagreement of one part of our
knowledge with another : as applied to the mind, it
is the perception of fuch agreement or difagreement j
or fuch a firm well-grounded aflent, as excludes not
only all manner of doubt, but all conceivable poflibili-
ty of a miftake.
There are three forts of certitude, or aflurance, ac¬
cording to the different natures and circumftances of
things. I. A phyfical or natural certitude, which de¬
pends upon the evidence of fenfe} as that I fee fuch
or fuch a colour, Or hear fuch or fuch a found $ nobo¬
dy queftions of the truth of this, where the organs, the
medium, and the obje£t, are rightly difpofed. 2. Ma¬
thematical certitude, is that arifing from mathematical
evidence •, fuch as, that the three angles of a triangle
are equal to two right ones. 3. Moral certitude is that
founded on moral evidence, and is frequently equiva¬
lent to a mathematical one 5 as that there was former¬
ly fuch an emperor as Julius Caefar, and that he wrote
the commentaries which pafs under his name 5 becaufe
]
C E
the hiftorians of thefe times have recorded it, and no
man has ever difproved it fince: this affords a moral
certitude, in common fenfe fo great, that one would be
thought a fool or madman for denying it.
CERTOSA, a celebrated Carthufian monaftery,
in the territory offthe Pavefe, in the duchy of Milan,
four miles from Pavia: its park is furrounded with a
wall 20 miles in circumference •, but there are feveral
fmall towns and villages therein.
CERVANTES. See Saavedra.
CERVERA, a town of Spain in Catalonia, feated
an a fmall river of the fame name, in E. Long. 1.9.
N. Lat. 41. 28. .
CERVIA, a fea port town of Italy, m Romagna,
with a bifhop’s fee, feated on the gulf of Venice, in
E. Long. 13. 5. N- Lat. 44. 16. r
CERVICAL nerves, are feven piir of nerves, lo
called, as having their origin in \.he cervix, or neck.
CERVICAL Veffels, among anatomifts, denote the ar¬
teries, veins, &lc. which pals through the vertebree and
ittufcles of the neck up to the Ikull.
CERVIX, in Anatomy, properly denotes the hind
part of the neck •, as contradiltinguilhed from the fore
part, which is c.'AS.o.A jugulum, or the throat. (_
Cervix of the Hcapula, denotes the head of the
fhoulder blade, or that upper procefs whofe finus re¬
ceives the head of the humerus.
Cervix of the Uterus, the neck of the uterus, or that
oblong canal or paflage between the internal and exter¬
nal orifices, which receives and enclofes the penis like
a ffieath, whence it is alfo called Vagina.
CERUMEN, a thick, vifeous, bitter, excrementi-
tious humour, feparated from the blood by proper glands
placed in the meatus auditonus, or outer .paflage of
the ear.
CERUSS, White Lead, a fort of calx of lead
siade by expofing plates of that metal to the vapour of
vinegar. See Chemistry Index.
Cerufs as a medicine, is uied externally, either mix¬
ed in ornaments or by fprinkling in on old greeting
and watery ulcers, and in many diieafes of the fkin. If,
when it is reduced into a fine.powder, it is received in
with the breath in infpiration, and carried down into
the lungs, it caufes incurable afthmas; Inftances of
the very pernicious effetls of this metal are too often
feen among thofe perfons who work lead in any form,
but particularly among the workers in white lead.
The painters ufe it in great quantities j and that it
may be afforded cheap to them, it is generally adul¬
terated with common whiting.
CERVUS, or Deer, in Zoology, a genus of qua¬
drupeds belonging to the order of Pecora. See Mam¬
malia Index.
Serves Vo/ans, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given
by authors to the ftag-fly, or horned beetle, a very
large fpecies of beetle with horns Hoped, and fome-
thing like thofe of the flag.
CERYX, in antiquity. The ceryces were a fort of
public crier appointed to proclaim or publith tilings
aloud in affemblies. The ceryx among the Greeks an-
fwered to the preeco among the Romans. Our. criers
have only a fmall part of their office and authority.
There were two kinds of ccryccs, civil and facred.
The former were thole appointed to call affemblies,
and make filence therein •, alfo to go on meffages, and
do the office of our heralds, &c. Ihe facred ceryces
were a fort of priefts, whofe office was to proclaim fi*
lence in the public games and facrifices, publifh the
names of the conquerors, proclaim feafts, and the like.
The priefthood of the ceryces was annexed to a parti¬
cular family, the defeendants of Ceryx, fon of Eumol-
pus. To "them it alfo belonged to lead folemn vic¬
tims to {laughter. Before the ceremonies began, they
called filence in the affembly, by the formula, EvCpnyu-
XI <r;ye tm? i<?a J anfwered to the favete hngurs of
the Romans. When the fervice wras over, they dif-
miffed the people with this formula, Axuv utpirts, lie,
miffa cf.
CESARE, among logicians, one of the modes, ol
the fecond figure of fyllogifms j the minor propofition
of which is an univerfal affirmative, and the other two
univerfal negatives: thus,
Ce No immoral books ought to be read j
Sa But every obfeene book is immoral j
Re Therefore no obfeene books ought to be read.
' CESENA,
Cervij
, I!
Ceiare..
C E S [ 327 ] GET
gefena CESENA, a town of Romagna in Italy, with a
II biftiop’s fee, fubjeft to the pope, and feated on the
ICeffion. rjver Savio, in E. Long. 12. 46. N. Lat. 44. 8.
' CESPITOSiE PLANTS (from cefpes, turf or fod),
are thofe plants which produce many Items from one
root, and thence form a clofe thick carpet on the fur-
face of the earth. *
CesPITOSJE Paludes, turf bogs.
CESSATION, the a& of intermitting, difcontinu-
ing, or interrupting, the courfe of any thing, work,
action, or the like.
CESSATION of Anns, an armiftice or occafional truce.
See Truce.
When the commander of a place finds things redu¬
ced to an extremity, fo that he muft either furrenderr
#r facrifice the garrifon and inhabitants to the mercy
of the enemy, he plants a white flag on the breach,
or beats the chamade *, on which a ceffation of arms
and hoftilities commences, to give roem for a capitu¬
lation.
CESSIO BONORUM, in Scots Law, the name of
that a&ion by which an infolvent debtor may apply for
liberation from prifon, upon making over his whole
real and perfonal eftate to his creditors.
CESSION, in Law, an aft by which a perfon fur-
renders and tranfmits to another perfon a right which
belonged to himfelf. Ceflion is more particularly ufed
in the civil law for arvoluntary furrender of a perfon’s
effefts to his creditors to avoid imprifonment. See the
article Bankrupt.
In feveral places the ceflxon carried with it a mark
of infamy, and obliged the perfon to wear a green
cap or bonnet j at Lucca, an orange one : to neglect
this wras to forfeit the privileges of the CeJJion. This
was originally intended to fignify that the ceflionary
was become poor through his own folly. The Italian
lawyers defcribe the ceremony of ceflion to confilt in
ftriking the bare breech three times againfl: a flone,
called Lapis Vituperii, in prefence of the judge. For¬
merly it confifted in giving up the girdles and keys in
court : the ancients ufing to carry at their girdles the -
chief utenlils wherewith they got their living 5 as the
fcrivener his efcritoire, the merchant his bag, &c.
The form of eeflion among the ancient Gauls and Ro¬
mans was as follows : The ceflionary gathered up dull:
in his left hand from the four corners of the houfe, and
Handing on the threfhold, holding the door-poll in his
right hand, threw the duA back over his (boulders •, then
gripping to his fliirt, and quitting his girdle and bags,
he jumped with a pole over a hedge 5 hereby letting Ceiloti
the world know that he had nothing left, and that £etejacj1
when he jumped, all he was worth was in the air with ■ ' [
him. This w^as the ceflion in criminal matters. In
civil cafes, it was fufficient to lay a broom, a fwitch,
or a broken firaw, on the threftiold ; this was called
chrenecruda per durpillum et fefucam.
Cession, in the ecclefiaflical law, is when an ec-
clefiaAical perfon is created a bifliop, or when a par-
fon of a pariflv takes another benefice, without difpen-
fation, or being otherwife qualified. In both thefe
cafes their fir A benefices became void by ceflion, •with¬
out any refignation j and to thefe livings that the per¬
fon had, who was created bilhop, the king may pre-
fent for that time, whofoever is patron of them 3 and
in the other cafe the patron may prefent : but by dif-
penfation of retainder, a bilhop may retain fome or
all the preferments he was entitled to before he was
made bifliop.
CESTRUM, Bastard Jasmine, See Botany
Index.
CESTUI, a French word, fignifying he or him,
frequently ufed in the Engliih law writings. Thus,
Cejiui qui trujl, a perfon who has lands, &c. commit¬
ted to him for the benefit of another 3 and if fuch per¬
fon does not perform his trufl, he is- compellable to it
in chancery. Cefui qui vie, one for whofe life any
lands, &c. are granted. Cejiui qui ufe, a perfon to
whofe ufe any one is infeoffed of lands or tenements.
Formerly the feoffees to ufes were deemed owners of
the land, but now the poffeflion is adjudged in cefui
qui ufe.
CESTUS, among ancient poets,, a fin© embroidered
girdle faid to be worn by Venus, to which Homer
aferibes the power of charming and conciliating love.
The word is alfo written cfuni and cejion : it comes
from x.wa;, a girdle, or other thing embroidered or
wrought with a needle 3 derived, according to Servius,
from xemo, pungere ; whence alfo incefus, a term ufed
at firA for any indecency by undoing the girdle, &c,
but now reArained to that between perfons near a-kin.
See Incest.
CETACEOUS, an appellation given to the fillies
of the whale kind. See Cetology.
CETE, the name of Linnaeus’s feventh order of
mammalia, comprehending the MoNODON, Bal-ena,
Physeter, and Delphinus. See Cetology.
CETERACH, the trivial name of a fpecies of A-
splentum. See Asplenium, Botany Index,
CETOLOGY.
■Suition
T TNDER this general title is comprehended the hi-
the title ^ ftory of that divilion of marine animals, which
w the Linnaean arrangement conllitutes the feventh or¬
der of the clafs mammalia. This is the order cete or
whales. Ray and Willoughby have included this or¬
der of animals under the clafs of fillies. Ray, in his
arrangement of fifhes, divides them into two principal
feftions. The one comprehends thofe fiflies which are
furnilhed with lungs for refpiration 3 and the other,
thofe which breathe by means of gill?, and may be
a
■range-
■nt of
res by
y.
confidcred as truly fiflies. In the former feftion are ~
included the cetaceous fiflies 3 and the reafons which -
he afiigns for arranging them in this manner are, that
they agree in external form with fiflies 3 that they are
entirely naked,, or covered only with a fmooth Ikin 3
and that they live entirely in the water, and have all ^
the aftions of fiflics. Although this tribe of animals Of whale?
refembles fiflies, not only in manners and habits, but by Lin-
alfo in being inhabitants of the fame element, Lin- nseuV
meus thought proper to clafs them with the mammalia,.
•ft
Treated of
feparately.
6
■ Their hi-
ftory im¬
portant,
7
"but defi¬
cient.
8
Reafons.
Sotnrces of
informa¬
tion.
ro
Name li-
tnited.
C E T O
©u account of the fimllarity of their internal ftrufture,
liaving a double heart and warm blood, and refpiring
like them by means of lungs.
Mr Pennant, in his Britilh Zoology, has objetfed
to the claffification of cetaceous animals with the mam¬
malia, as Linnaeus has done, becaufe, “ to have pre-
ferved the chain of beings entire, he fays that Linnaeus
fliould have made the genus phoccc oryefl/r, and that of
the t rich ecus or manatt, immediately precede the whale,
thofe being the links that conncft the mammalia or
quadrupeds with the fhh 3 for the feal is in refpeft to
its legs the moft imperfect' of the former clafs 3 and in
the nianati the hind feet coalefce, affuming the form
of a broad horizontal tail.” On this account, Mr Pen¬
nant has arranged the cetaceous order of animals un¬
der his clafs'of fifties, including them under the fiift
divifion of that clafs. Por the fame reafons we have
feparated them from the clafs of fifties 3 but although
they refemble the quadrupeds, which compote chit-fty
the clafs mammalia, in being warm-blooded, and in the
funftions of circulation and refpiration 3 yet, as they
poifcfs char afters fo totally diftinft from any of the
mammalia, we judged it more natural to fepavate them
alfo from this clafs, and to treaty of them in the prefent
article. This tribe of animals is alfo entitled to a fe-
parate treatife, both on account of the intereft to be
derived from their natural hiftory, and on account of
their importance in a commercial view.
The hiftory of cetaceous animals, as well as that of
the other inhabitants of the ocean, cannot be expefted
to be complete. They are beyond the reach of the
naturalift, from the nature of the element m which
they live 3 and even when he is favoured with a tran-
fient glimpfe, the rapidity of their motions precludes
the poflibility of obtaining much accurate knowledge
of their manners and habits. But the abode of the
whale is the moft inacceflible parts of the ocean. . i he
frozen regions of the north and fouth are his chief re¬
treat—regions fo inhofpitable, as to forbid the approach
of the moft hardy naturalift with all his zeal and ar¬
dour, and to be vifited only by the adventurous fisher¬
man, prompted by the hope of gain. 1 o the latter,
chiefly, we are indebted for what knowledge we poi-
fefs of this tribe of animals. And from men who had
a very different objeft in view, who, in this hazaidous
trade, had to ftruggle with the fevereft feafous, in a
climate where the rigour of winter rarely relaxes, in¬
formation on this fubjeft could neither be accurate nor
extenfive. This, however, was the. principal fource
from which the earlier writers on this department ot
natural hiftory derived their information. Such were
Sibbald, Martens, Dudley, Klein, and Anderfon, who
compofed their deferiptions from the relations and me¬
moirs which were communicated to them by fiftiermen
and voyagers. Hence have originated thefe erroneous
and inaccurate details which have been introduced in¬
to the works of naturalifts. .
The name of Cete, as the word which is derived
from the Greek language originally fignifies, was given
indiferiminately to all marine animals of extraordinary
fize. It has been limited by later naturalifts to that
tribe of fifties which are diftinguifhed from other fifties
by the funftions of refpiration and circulation, and by
being viviparous. Thefe are now included under the
general term cetaceous fifties. Befide the diferimma-
L O G Y.
tive marks of refpiration, circulation, and being vivi- Intrckv
parous, others may be mentioned. In the cetaceous
fifties the Ikin is not covered with fcales as in other 11
fifties ■ there are one or two orifices in the upper part Different
of the head for difeharging water 3 the lateral fins from other
are furnilhed with articulations as in the human hand,Whf:s^
and the tail is horizontal. There is another remark- jn ^
able difference between the cetaceous aud other fifties,
in the greater quantity of blood, and the thick cover¬
ing of fat or blubber, for which the former are di-
ftinguiftied. And confidering the temperature of the
climate, and the element in which thefe animals live,
this feems to be a wife and neceffary provifion of na- 13
ture. The great quantity of blood produces a greater and quan
degree of heat, and the fpongy porous mafs of blubber,^
being from its nature a flow conductor of heat, is an ex-
cellent defence againft the rigour of the feafons in the
polar regions. , , r
In the following treatife, we propofe to lay before
our readers, ift, The Claffification and Natural Hiftory
of Cetaceous Fifties 3 2d, Their Anatomy and Phyfio-
logry , and, laftly, The Hiftory of the Whale Fiftiery
as an object of trade. Thefe ftiall be the fubjects of
three chapters.
Chap. I. Of the Clarification and Natural Hifiorj
of Cetaceous Fijhes.
Cetaceous fifties have been divided into four claffes, ciaffes for;
the charafters of which are taken from the want of
teeth from the ftruaure of the teeth, and from their
petition in one or both jaws. The follow ing table ex¬
hibits the charadters of thefe claffes, with a tranflation
oppofite for the fake of the Englifti reader.
1 ft, BaL-ENA, or Whale.
In place of teeth there are
horny plates in the up¬
per jaw.
d MONODON, or Unicorn Fifh.
Dentium loco lamina cornea
in maxilla fupenore.
Dens unicus out duo in par¬
te antica maxilla fupen-
oris hori%ontaliter exfer-
ti.
One or tw'o teeth horizon¬
tally inferted in the an¬
terior part of the upper
jaw.
3d, PHYSETER, or spermaceti Whale.
Dentes veri in maxilla infe- Teeth in the lower jaw,
riore ; aliquot vero plani, but fcarcely confpicuous
yix confpicui in maxilla in the upper jaw.
Juperiore.
4th, Delphinus, or Dolphin.
Dentes in utraque maxilla, j Teeth in both jaws. j.
Each of the four claffes which we have now enume- Genera,
rated and characterized, comprehends only a fingle ge¬
nus, the characters of which are as follows :
Genebic Chabactees.
I ft Genus, Baljena, or Whale.
Maxilla fuperior dentium
loco, laminis corneis in-
JlruBa ; fifiula duplex in
vertice.
The upper jaw is fur mill¬
ed with horny plates in
place of teeth, and there
are two blow-holes on
the top of the head.
2d,
C E T O
2d Genus, MoNODON, or Umcorn-Fi/h.
LOGY.
Dens unicus out duo, longi
aut breves, reBi vel re-
curvi, in parte antica
maxillce fuperioris exfer-
ti; JiJlula in occipite.
3d Genus, Physeter, or Spermaceti Whale.
Dentes veri et vijibi/es in
maxilla inferiore, in qui-
bufdam vero maxilla fu-
perior dentibus planis
vix confpicuis inJlruBa ;
JiJlula in angulo fuperiore
rojlri.
4th Genus, Delphinus, or Dolphin.
Maxilla utraque dentata ;
JiJlula in fronte.
16
lleric
I 17
traders.
t..
nption,
329
In the anterior part of the
upper jaw there is one
or two teeth which are
either ftraight or cur¬
ved, long or fhort $ the
fpout in the back part
of the head.
The teeth diftinftly feen
in the lower jaw, but
fcarcely vifible in the
upper jaw ; the fpout in
the upper part of the
forehead.
Both jaws are fumiihed
with teeth j the fpout in
the forehead.
Class I. BALiENA.
Genus ift, Bal^ena, or Whale.
The body is naked, elliptical, or of an oblong coni¬
cal (hape, and of a black or brownilh colour.
The head is very long, laterally compreffed, and di-
minHhing towards the beak. The opening of the mouth
is very large. The jaws are nearly equal, and without
teeth j but in place of teeth, the upper jaw is furnifh-
ed on both fides with horny plates, tranfverfely dif-
pofed. The lower jaw is anteriorly of an oval or
roundifh form, broader than the upper jaw, and having
a furrow on the margin for receiving the horny plates.
The eyes are fmall $ they are placed near the infertion
of the lateral fins. The ears are alfo fmall, and are
fituated behind the eyes.
In fome of the fpecies the anterior part of the body
is plicated or folded underneath.
The penis is enclofed in a (heath. The female is fur-
nUhed with two mammas 5 and the organs of generation
are placed between them. Behind them is the anus.
There are three or four fins; two lateral fins, one at
the extremity of the tail, which is placed horizontally.
The dorfal fin is often wanting.
* Species which have no Dorfal Tin.
f ? CXL. r, Bal^ena Mysticetus, the Greenland, or large
T Whalebone Whale.
Trench, Baleine Tranche. Baleine de grande bale ;
Spaniards, Vallena ; Whalljfifch, by the Germans j
Whallvifeh, Dutch j Hvaffch, Slctback, by the Nor¬
wegians •, Hvalfjk, by the Swedes •, Slitchebach,
Sandhual, by the Danes ; Vatufkalr, by the Iceland¬
ers j and Arbeh, Arbavirlefoak, by the Greenlanders.
In this fpecies the jaws are nearly of equal length j
the lower is of an oval form, and broad in the middle j
the back is fpotted, black and white.
This is the larged of animals known. The body,
from a fide view, appears of an elliptical form. The head
Vql. V. Part I.
is very nearly equal to one-third of the whole length Clafiifica-
of the body. It is as it were compofed of two inclined tion, &.c^
planes joined together under a larger or fmaller angle, ’ f
and has fomething the appearance of the roof of a fmall
houfe.
In the middle of the line formed by the junction of Blow-holes,
the two inclined planes, there rifes a large tubercle, in
which are fituated the fpouts or blow-holes oppofite to
each other, and curved in the (hape of the letter S. The
jaws are nearly equal in length ; the lower is broader
towards the middle of its length than the upper} and
befides, it fpreads out and has membranous coverings,
which terminate in a broad deep furrow, which is de¬
ft ined to receive the horny teeth of the upper jaw.
When the jaws are clofe, the opening of the mouth
folds upwards towards the orbit of the eyes, and ex¬
hibits by its inflexion the curved form of a fickle. 20
The want of teeth is fupplied by about 500 horny Whalebone*
laminae. This is the fubflance called whalebone. They
are attached to the upper jaw on both fides, and fup-
ported at the bafe by a kind of bone which extends the
whole length of the roof of the mouth. They are ar¬
ranged tranfverfely, and in an oblique direction. Each
of them is from three to five feet long, is thickeft at
the bafe, tapers towards the point, is a little curved,
and terminates in a fringe of long hair which hangs
about the tongue. Towards the two extremities of
each row, there are befides many other fmall laminae,
which are of a fquare form, of the thicknefs of a writing
quill, and about four inches long. Thefe latter are
arranged in the fame direftion as the former j but are
of a fofter fubftance, and do not come fo clofe to each
other. 2t
The tongue is foft and fpongy, ftrongly attached to Tongue.,
the lower jaw, and rounded at the extremity. On the
upper fide it is white, but on the fides it is marked
with black fpots. It is often 10 feet broad and 18 feet
long. w
The eyes are placed very low, at the broadeft part of Eyes,
the head, juft above the angles of the mouth, and very
near the origin of the lateral fins. They are furniftied,
as the means of defence, with eyelids and eyelaftres j and
refemble in form and magnitude thofe of an ox. The
cryftalline lens, which is white and tranfparent, is not ^
larger than a pea. The external organ of hearing,
confifts of a fmall hole of the diameter of a quill, which
is placed immediately behind the eyes.
The back forms a gentle curvature from the tuber¬
cle on the top of the head ; towards the middle of the
trunk it is again elevated, and then tapers gradually
to the tail. The lower part of the body diminithes in
the fame proportion. The lateral fins have their origin Fins,
near the angle of the mouth. They are two large
thick mafles, of an oval irregular form, and are often
10 feet long. The tail fin is divided into two oval
fieftiy lobes, which terminate in a point.
The male is furniftied with a penis which is eight
feet long, and furrounded with a double (kin, which
gives it fomething of the appearance of a knife in JiU
(heath. The female has two mammae, which are placed
on each fide of the organs of generation.
The (kin of the whale is divided into the epidermis Skim
or fcarf-lkin, the true (kin, the fat or blubber, and the
mufcle or ftelli. The epidermis it as thin as parch-
T t
33° C E T O
Glaffifica- ment, and very eafily feparated, when the procefs of
, rign, See. pUtrefaftion firlf commences. The true Ikin is an inch
2g" thick, and covers a layer of fat of 15 inches.
Colour. The back of the whale is ufually of a fine black,
marked with whitilh rays, which have fome relem-
blance to the veins of wood} and in the thickeft, as well
as the fineft of thefe traces, there pafs other veins of a
dirty white. This mixture of colours prefents an agree¬
able appearance, efpecially when the back of the filh is
illuminated with the rays of the fun. The different
changes of colour from white to yellow then exhibit
the fplendour and brilliancy of filver.
The under part of the trunk, and of the lower jaw,
is of a bright white. But thefe colours are fubjeft to
confiderable variation, according to the age of the filh.
Some have been obferved to be entirely black ; others
fpotted with white, yellow, and brown. Martens af-
fures us, that he obferved on the tail of a whale, the
number 1222, as neatly traced, as if it had been exe¬
cuted by the hand of a painter. But probably the re-
femblance to thofe figures was helped out by the aid of
fancy.
Ellis and fome other naturalifts affert, that the whale
is found perfectly white in the weftern parts of the
northern ocean. It is not uncommon to fee the young
whale fpotted with brown ; and old whales marked
on the back with a tranfverfe band, which extends
to the belly. Sometimes, however, the fpots ob¬
ferved on the whale have been undoubtedly ecca-
fioned by wounds 5 for it is certain, that a white fear
always remains on the place which has been wound¬
ed.
The fize of the whale has not been very accurately
afeertained. Some have been taken of 80, and even
of 100 feet long, andalmoft as much in circumference.
The female is in general larger than the male, ihe
period of pregnancy is nine or ten months •, and one,
very rarely two, is brought forth at a time, ihe
young whale is 20 feet long at birth.
This fpecies of whale is very common towards the
north pole, in the feas of Greenland and Spitzbergen,
and efpecially in that part of the arttic fea which lies
under the 76th degree of latitude.
The principal food of the whale is a fpecies o£
helix and different fpecies of aflinise. It is not a lit¬
tle furprifing that the whale, of fuch immenfe fize,
fhould feed on fuch fmall animals, and Ihould acquire
fuch a quantity of fat as to yield above 150 tons of
oil. But according to the teftimony of thofe employed
in the whale fiihery, thefe worms are found in fuch
abundance in the feas about Spitzbergen, that the
whale has only to open his mouth to receive thoufands
at once, and then rejefting the water through the
fringe or beard attached to the jaws, thefe little ani¬
mals remain behind, taken as it were in a net. And
indeed, there feems to be a wife proyifion of nature
for the fubfiftence of this monffrous animal, in impref-
fing on thefe worms and infe£!s, which are to be his
food, a kind of inftinft, which guides them to fport
about the fringes of the jaws, in the very gulf which
is to fwallow them up. Linnaeus fays that the whale
alfo feeds on medufce. But to this it. has been ob¬
jected, that the medufae are not in fufficient abundance
in the northern feas, to furnilh the neceffary quantity
Size,
a7
a8
Haunts.
Food.
31
LOGY. Chap
of food for fo large an animal. It feems not improba-
ble, however, that the medufae as well as the aCtiniae tion» &
may form part of its food.
The excrement of the w hale has fome degree of fo-
lidity, and it is of a yellow colour, approaching fome-
what to the colour of laffron. 30
The tvhale fiftiery, or rather it might be termed the Fifliery j
chafe of the whale, conftitutes one of the principal oc-|ht Grt
cupations of the inhabitants of Greenland. The cap- an ers
ture of a fingle whale is fufficient for the fubfiftence of
a whole family for a long time. The flefti is eaten
raw, baked, or after being half rotten, or dried in the
heat of the fun ; and according to Horrebow, it has a
very good tafte. The fkin, the tail, and the fins, un-Ufes."
dergo no kind of preparation ; for it feems thefe parts
furnilh in the raw itate, a very delicate morfel to the
Greenlanders. The fat is either eaten, or burnt for
the purpofe of giving light. The inteftines are em¬
ployed to Unit up the doors and windows of their habi¬
tations ; and the tendons furnilh thread for fewing, or
for the conftruclion of nets. Of the bones the Green¬
landers make ftools or chairs, and inftruments that are
uftd in hunting and filhing. The beft lines are made
of the hair that terminates the horny plates of the up¬
per jaw.
The following ar6 the dimenfions of a whale taken
towards the north pole, and recorded by M. de Pages
in the account of his voyage round the world.
Ft. Inch.
48 O
26
18
18
o
o
6 o
Total length,
Circumference of the head, which is the
thickeft part, of the body,
Length of the head about
Length of the jaw-bones,
Diameter of the orbit of the eyes,
Opening of the eyelids,
Diftance of the eyes from the opening of
the breathing holes,
Length of the cavity, which includes the
penis,
Depth of this cavity,
Diftance of this cavity from the anus,
Diameter of each mamma,
Length of the papilla,
Diameter of it,
Diftance of the twro lobes of the tail fin,
about
Depth of the hollow which feparates the
two lobes,
Length of the lateral fins.
Breadth of the fame, about 7 0
2. BaljENA Glacialis, Iceland Whale.
French, Le Nord Caper, Ba/eine de Sarde ; German,
Nordkaper; Norwegian, Sildquai, Nordkaper.
1 33
In this fpecies, the jaws are nearly of equal length.Specific
The under jaw is rounded, and broader towards thecliaratt
middle of its length. There is no dorfal fin. The
back is whitiffi. _ 33
The Iceland whale differs from the former only in Body,
the colour and dimenfions of the body. The head
and horny laminae of the upper jaw are much fmaller.
The trunk of the body is more llender, and is of a
lierht
4
o
1
o
o
o
17
2
8
o
8
o
6
2
liap* T. C E T O
ffinca- light brown colour. It lias been obfervcd, that the
J-n, Stc. ]ower jaw of this fpecies is more elongated and rounder
t”7 than that of the contlnon whale.
|ke of J^-s i*- very dangerous to harpoon this Ipecies of
t ng by wjialc, on account of its extreme agility, it is men-
t Kcelan- ti0ned by Anderfon, that the Icelanders have a very in¬
genious method of taking it. When they perceive the
whale in chafe of the herrings, they inftantly launch
their canoes furnifhed with harpoons, fpears, and knives,
and endeavour to get between the whale and ocean.
They continue the purfuit by rowing, and approach as
near as poffible. If the wind blow towards the fliore,
they pour on the fea, a quantity of blood, with w hich they
are always provided, and as it is carried by the waves
to the coaft, they endeavour to direft it as near to the
Ihore as they can. The whale perceiving himfelf pur-
fued, attempts to regain the ocean, but when he ap¬
proaches the blood he is alarmed, and rather than
fwim acrofs it, he makes his efcape to the (liores, where
he often throws himfelf on the rocks. But if the
wind blow from the land, the Miermen endeavour to
get between the whale and the ocean, as in the other
cafe 5 and when he attempts to make for the deep,
they throw Hones from their canoes, and (bout and
Inake a noiie, fo that the whale is terrified and is dri¬
ven on fhore. This, however, is contradicted by Hor-
rebow, who remained twn years in Iceland, and had
good opportunities of being well informed of every
thing relating to the whale-fifiiery. He fays, that the
Icelanders are neither hardy enough to make this ha¬
zardous attempt, nor fo fortunate or dexterous as to
take the whale fo eafily. The only method which is
pra&ifed there, he fays, is the following : When the
boat approaches the whale, the harpooner difcharges
his harpoon, and the boat inflantly retreats. The
harpoon is known by having the mark of the pro¬
prietor, and when the whale has been fuccefsfully
wounded, be dies and is thrown alhore A certain
portion belongs to the perfon who wras fo fortunate as
to inflidl the wound, and the remainder is claimed, ac¬
cording to a law of the country, as the right of the
perfon on whofe property he lands. According to this
author, this is the whole art praftifed by the inhabi¬
tants of Iceland in the whale-fifhery.
The Iceland whale yields only from 10 to 30 tons
of blubber.—The food of this wdiale conulls of fome
fpecies of helix, merlufce, and herrings.
This whale inhabits the- northern ocean, about the
coafts of Norway and Iceland.
Klein has made two varieties of this whale, diftin-
guifhing them by names derived from that part of the
ocean wdiere they are found. 1. Var. Auflralis, which
is found in the fouthern ocean, has the back very flat.
2. Var. Occidentalism found in the weftern ocean, which
has the back more elevated. The fame naturalifl has
dillinguilhed the Baleen a glacialis by the name borealis.
* * Species which have a Fin or Bunches on the Bach.
3. Bal/Ena Physalus, or Fin-FiJhj.
Trench, Le Gibbar; German, Finnjifch; Dutch, Vln-
vifch; Norwegian, Ror-hual, Finne-jifk ; Green-
land, Tummilik; Iceland, Hunfubahs.
‘‘fters. The jaws are equal and pointed j the horny lamina
LOGY.
of the upper jaw are fliort, and of a bluifh colour. Cbffifka-
There is one fin on the back. t t’on’ ^Lc‘ t
According to the fifhermen, the fin-filh is as long ^
but not fo thick as the common whale. When the jawsDefcription
are flmt, the head refembles a cone, which conllitutes
nearly one-third part of the whole length of the w hale,
and terminates in a fharp fnout. On the top of the
head are two refpiratory orifices divided longitudinally.
This whale, it is faid, ejefts the water with much
greater force than the common whale. The horny la¬
minae of the upper jaw are fringed and difpofed in the
fame manner as thofe of the preceding. They differ in
being Ihorter, and of a blue eolour. The length is
from 10 to 12 inches. The long hair which termi¬
nates the laminae, is fo twifted that the edges of the
upper jaw feem covered with a thick cord interwoven
together. The eyes are placed very low, nearly in the
direftion of the angles of the mouth. Towards the
poilerior extremity of the back, there arifes a triangu¬
lar fin, about 3 or 4 feet high, having the fummit bent
backwards. The lateral fins are of an oval figure, from
6 or 7 feet long. The tail-fin is divided into two lobes
which form nearly a right angle. ^
This fpecies lives on the herring, the mackerel, a Food/
kind of falmon frequent in the northern fea, and other
fmall fifti.
The upper part of the body is of a fliining brown
colour. The belly and the under part of the lower
jaw are of a fplendid white.
This fpecies of whale is found in the Greenland
feas, in the European feas, in the Indian ocean, and
in the new world. In March 1673, Martens men¬
tions that he faw a whale of this fpecies in the ftraits
of Gibraltar. As the mafs of the body conftitutes the
third or the fourth of that of the common whale, the
fat is lefs thick. It yields, it is faid, only ten tons of
oil. This whale is therefore lefs an objedt of the
filherman’s purfuit, for the produce of oil is not equi¬
valent to the expence, the rilk, and the danger that at¬
tend it.
It has been remarked, that as foon as the fin-fifli
makes its appearance in the feas round Spitzbergen,
the common whale is no longer to be feen.
In Greenland the flefli, the fins, the Ikin, and theUfes. '
tendons, are employed as food by the poorer inhabi¬
tants •, and the bones are applied to a great many do-
meftic ufes. It is faid that the flelh has the fame tafte
as that of the fturgeon.
4. BaL^INa Nodosa, the Bunch or Humpback Whale.
French, Balcine-tampon; German, Bloch-Jifh: Dutch,
Pen-Jifh. ^ _ 3p.
The lateral fins are white. There is a bunch near Characters,
the tail larger than the head of a man.
Of this fpecies lefs is known than of the others. 13^4,t;on
In place of the dorfal fin, there is a bunch near the
tail which declines pofteriorly. It is about a foot high,
and a little thicker than the human head. The lateral
fins are white, placed near the middle of the body,
and are 18 feet long. The blubber of the bunch-
whale refembles that of the fin-filh. According to
Klein, the beard of this fpecies is not held in much
eftimation, though it is more valued than that of the
latter fpecies. It is a native of the feas of New Eng¬
land.
T t 2
5, BALffiNA
332
Claffifica-
tion, See.
41
Characters.
41
Defcrip-
tion.
CETOLOGY.
Chap.
43
Characters.
44
Defarip-
fion,
5. BaL/YNA Gibbosa, the Scrag-whale.
French, La Ba/eine a Jix boffes ; German, Knotenfifch;
Dutch, Knobbelfifch.
The horfiy laminae of the upper jaw in this fpecies
are white; and there are fix bunches on the back.
In external form this fpecies refembles the common
whale. It is nearly of the fame colour, and yields an
equal quantity of blubber. It feems difficult to recon¬
cile this with the fpecific name given.by Klein, viz.
Ba/cena tnacra^ or lean whale. But it has been fup-
pofed that this refers to the mufcular parts, which are
«f fmaller fize.
The dorfal fin is wanting. Its place feems to be
fupplied by fix bunches or knots towards the tail.
The laminae are white, and are found to fplit with
much difficulty.
Like the former, it inhabits the feas of New Eng¬
land.
*** Species which have a Protuberance inform of a Fin
on the Tail, and Folds on the Belly.
6. Bauena Boops, the Pihe-headed Whale.
French, La Juharte; Greenland, Keporkah; Iceland,
Hrafin, Reydus.
The lower jaw is a little fhorter and narrower than
the upper. The protuberance on the back is curved
and ftretching to the tail.
M. O. Fabricius, who was prefent and affifted at
the capture of a whale of this fpecies, has given the
following defcription of it. The body is round and very
thick near the lateral fins. It gradually diminiffies to
the end of the tail, the thicknefs of which is not
greater than what a man can embrace. The head is
oblong, inclining, and terminates in a broad obtufe
fnout. Towards the middle of the head is the protu¬
berance, in the middle of which are the two refpira-
tory orifices, which are fo clofe to each other as to
appear to be only one. Before the orifices there are
three rows of circular protuberances, of which the ufe
is not knowm. The lower jaiv is ffiorter and nar¬
rower than the upper. The eyes are placed on the
fides of the head behind the orifices. The external
opening of the organ of hearing forms two holes im¬
mediately behind the orbits of the eyes, but are al-
moft imperceptible. The horny laminae of the upper
jaw are black, and fcarcely a foot in length. They
are difpofed in the fame manner as in the common
whale, but the interftices in the fore part of the jaw
are not filled up with fmall laminae. The tongue is
large, fat, and fpongy *, its colour refembles that of the
liver. It is covered with a loofe Ikin, which ftretches
towards the gullet, where it forms a kind of operculum
or covering.
The lateral fins are large, oval, interiorly entire,
rounded, and notched pofteriorly, and a little hollow¬
ed externally. The tail fin is hollowed or notched in
form of a crefcent, and terminates in a point. From
the lower part of the mouth to the region of the
anus, the inferior furface of the body is marked with
folds5 or furrows which unite in pairs, and form angles
at the two extremities. The two external furrows are
Claffificj
tit*,
always of the greateft length } and it would appear
that the whale has the power of dilating and contract
ing them at pleafure. _ ' '
The colour of the upper part of the body is black j
the lower part of the mouth and the lateral fins are
white ; the cavity of the furrows is of a blood red $
the interior folds, the belly, and the tail fin, are mark¬
ed with black and white fpots. Under the epidermis
is the Ikin which covers the fat, which in this Ipecies is
but a thin layer, and confequently yields lefs oil than
the preceding.
When the pike-headed whale takes in food, it 0-
pens its capacious mouth, and fwallows a great quan¬
tity of water along with its prey. It is then that the
folds of the {kin on the belly are obferved to dilate
confiderably j and then too the contrail betw een the
fine red in the cavity of the furrows, the black co¬
lour of the lamina; of the jaw, and the bright white on
the under part of the mouth, produces a very ftriking
effect. . v* r *
At every attempt at progreffive motion, this fpecies
eje&s the water by the reipiratory orifices, but with
lefs violence than other whales. T he moment after,
it difappears under the water. And when it plunges
and {hews the tail-fin, it is confidered as a fign that it
is going to defcend to a great depth, and that it will
remain a longer time under the {urface. When the lea
is calm, it is feen afleep on the {urface of the w ater ,
and the moment it awakes, it performs a number of
different motions with inconceivable rapidity. Some¬
times it lies on its fide j in an inilant it ilrikes the w a-
ter with the lateral fins with prodigious force, and then
turns on its back. It fprings up into the air, and re¬
turns to the water in a whirling motion, at a confider-
able diftance from the place from which it arofe. ^
The food of the pike-headed whale confiits of aFood,
fpecies of helix, a fmall fpecies of falmon w hich fre¬
quents the northern ocean, and the fand-eel. It has
only a fingle young one at a time. Ihe young whale
follows its mother, till another is brought forth j but
this does not happen every year.
The flighteil wound is obferved to occafion the
death of this fpecies of whale j for the wound very foon
runs into gangrene. T he animal often goes to a great
diftance from the fpot where it received the fatal blow.
The fureft method feems to be to ftrike with the ipear
immediately behind the lateral fins j and if it happen
that the inteftines are wounded, the W'hale inftantly
plunges into the ocean.
This fpecies frequents chiefly the Greenland feas, be¬
tween the 61 ft and 6jjth degree of latitude. In winter
it appears only in the open leas, but in iummer it ap¬
proaches the {bores, and enters the great bays.
The length varies from 50 to 54 feet. Sibbald has
given a defcription of a young one which was throw-n
affiore on the coaft of Scotland. The following are
the dimenfions of the principal parts of the body.
From the end of the fnout to the extremity
of the tail,
The greateft thicknefs at the lateral fins,
The greateft thicknefs at the dorfal fin,
Greateft breadth of the lower jaw,
Length of the opening of the mouth,
Ft. Inch.
46
20
12
4
10
Breadth
hap. I» C
'laflifica-
ion, &.c. Breadth of the mouth,
Length of the tongue,
Breadth of this organ at the root,
Length of the pedtoral fins,
Breadth of ditto,
Breadth of the tail fin,
Length of the penis,
7. Bal^NA Musculus, the Roand-lipped Whale.
French and Greenland, Rorqual; Iceland, Steipey
Reydus.
'handlers. *n ^ fpecies the lower jaw is longefi; and broadeft.
The protuberance on the back is ftraight, triangular,
47 and ftretches to the tail.
efcnption. This fpecies refembles the preceding in the form of
the body. In both there is a prodigious enlargement
of the lide of the head, which gradually diminifhes to¬
wards the tail. The ftrudture of the lower jaw furnilhes
I the principal chara£teriftic diftin&ion. In the pike¬
headed whale it is pointed j but in this fpecies it is
rounded, which gives the head an obtufe Ihape. The
opening of the mouth is fo wide, that it will admit
fourteen men Handing upright at the fame time. The
upper jaw is narrower than the lower} it is alfo more
pointed at the extremity, and is received into the lower
jaw. The tongue is compofed of a foft fpongy fub-
Hance} and is covered with a fine membrane or Ikin.
At the bafe of the tongue, on each fide, there is a
fielhy mafs of a red colour, which Ihuts up the en¬
trance of the gullet fo clofely that only fmall filh can
be admitted. The whole palate is covered with black
laminae, which terminate at their extremity in a filky
hair which hangs over the tongue. The laminae and
the hair are of unequal length and breadth. Thofe
which are attached to the anterior part of the jaw
are 3 feet long, and 12 inches broad j while thofe near
the entrance to the gullet are fcarcely fix inches long
by one inch broad.
The eyes are placed above the angle of the mouth j
they refemble thofe of the ox. Above the eyes, in the
middle of the head, are fituated the two refpiratory ori¬
fices, which are of a pyramidal form.
The peftoral fins are large, a little oval, and taper¬
ing •, and fituated oppofite to the angle of the mouth.
The dorfal fin is placed direftly oppofite to the opening
of the anus. It tapers a little, and is curved backward.
The tail fin is divided into two lobes, which are curved
like a fcythe, and end in a point.
From the end of the lower jaw to the navel, the un¬
der part of the body is covered with rugae or folds, which
are two inches broad, having the cavities by which they
are feparated of the fame breadth. The fides a re co¬
vered with a layer of fat or blubber, 4 inches thick }
and on the head and neck, where the fat is more abun¬
dant, it is a foot in thicknefs. The upper part of the
4$ body is black, the belly is white.
T^he herring is the food of this fpecies of whale.
In the month ©f September 1692, a whale of this
fpecies was thrown alhore on the coaft of Scotland, as
we find it recorded by Sibbald. For twenty years be¬
fore the nfhermen had obferved it occafionally in pur-
fuit of the herrings; and they recognifed it in confe-
quence of a wound which it had received from a muf-
E T O
Feet. In.
4 o
5 0
3 °
5 °
1 6
9 6
2 o
LOGY.
333
ket. The ball had pierced through the dorfal fin. Clafiifica-
Lhe following are the principal dimenfions, by the
fame author. J
Whole length of the body, from the fnout
to the extremity of the tail,
Circumference of the body at its greateft
thicknefs,
Length of the lower jaw,
Length of the tongue,
Breadth of ditto,
Length of the pe&oral fins,
Greateft breadth of ditto,
Length of the dorfal fin.
Height of ditto,
Diftance between the extremity of the lobes
of the tail,
Length of the penis,
Feet. In.
78 o
35 o
13 2
J5 7
*5 o
10 o
2 6
2 o
18 6
5 °
8. Bal^ena Rostrata, the Piked Whale.
French, La Baleine a Bee.
The jaws are long, narrow, and pointed} the lower Charadtew.
jaw is longeft. The protuberance which is placed on
the extremity of the back, is roundilh at the apex.
A fide view of the fpecies of whale prefents a rwcrfnt;™
lengthened oval form, which has the greateft tranf- P
verfe diameter towards the middle of the body. The
head conftitutes a fourth part of the length of the
body, and is of a conical form. The jaws are larger,
narrower, and more pointed than in the other fpecies.
The upper jaw is the fliorteft. The eyes are placed a
little above the angles of the mouth, and the blow¬
holes are on the top of the head. The lamina; of the
upper jaw, according to Fabricius, are white and very
Ihort.
The lateral fins occupy the middle of the height of
the fides; they are broad, nearly oval, and rounded.
The dorfal fin is oppofite to the anus. It is rounded
at the top, inclining towards the tail. The tail fin is
divided into two lobes which form by their jun&ion
a crefcent, the horns of which are dire&ed behind.
The under part of the body, from the point of the
lower jaw to the middle of the trunk, is covered with
rugae or folds in parallel rows, which ftretch on both
fides to the infertion of the pe&oral fins. The back
is black } but this gradually diminilhes towards the
belly, which is pure white, varied with a mixture of
reddifh fhades.
This fpecies of whale fwims with extraordinary ve¬
locity. The fat or blubber is very compadt, and yields
but a fmall quantity of oil. The filhermen are there¬
fore not very eager in the purfuit of it. But as the
inhabitants of Greenland confider the fldhvery delicate
food, they are often employed in taking this whale.
They never approach fo near as to ftrike it with the
harpoon } but .difeharge arrows from a diftance, the
wounds of which almoft always prove mortal. ^
The food of this whale is the fame as of feme of the Food,
other fpecies } chiefly, the fmall fpecies of falmon of
the northern feas, and the other fmall fifh, which it
purfues with fuch avidity, that they are often feen leap¬
ing from the fea to avoid the purfuit. This is the
faialleft fpecies of v/haie.
It
Claffifica- It is found mofl frequently in the Greenland feas j
tion.&c* and often alfo in the European. One which was ta-
' ken on the Dogger bank, meafured 17 feet in length.
CETOLOGY.
Chap.
Where
found.
It had loft the dorfal fin, and by feme other accident
the jaws were fo fwelled, that the head formed a mafs
fpecifically lighter than water, and therefore did not
fink in that element.
Class II. MONODON.
S3
'Generic
Genus I ft. Monodon, Unicorn-fjh, or Sea-Unicorn.
veueru; The body is naked, oval, oblong, round and fpotted.
characters. The head is fmall, and not eafily diftinguiftied from
the reft of the body, There is only one refpiratory
orifice, which is placed on the top of the head, and fhut
up by a covering cut in form of a comb. rJ he open¬
ing of the mouth is fmall. There are no teeth m the
mouth ; but from the upper jaw there proceeds, in¬
clining fometimes to the right fide, and fo me times to
the left, one long tooth which is twifted in a fpiral
form. There are rarely two ; but when that is the
cafe, they are nearly of the fame length 5 and there is
only one fpecies which has the teeth curved at the ex¬
tremity. The eyes and ears are very fmall. 1 he
penis of the male is enclofed in a kind of (heath ; and
the female has two mammae on the belly, between
which are the organs of generation.
There are three or four fleftiy finsj two pectoral
fins *, one at the extremity of the tail \ and that of the
back is often replaced by a projection which runs its
whole length.
Species.
plate eXLf i. Monodon Monoceros, the or Umcorn-Tijh.
%• 2* Trench, Narhuvl, Licorne de mer; Norwegian, Lighuah,
Iceland, Narhwa!; Greenland, 'iauvar.
Characters. One tooth in fhape of a horn, inferted in the upper
jaw, and fpirally twifted 5 there are rarely two.
,, There is no tail fin. .
Defcription. The body of the narhwal is oblong and oval 5 the
back broad, convex, and tapering towards the tail j
the head is round, fmall, enlarged at the top, and ter¬
minates in an obtufe rounded fnouL There are no
teeth: but along twifted tooth, which is attached to the
upper jaw. It was long fuppofed that this bony mftru-
nfent of defence was the horn of a very rare quadruped
and confequently it was fold at a very high price. Each
tooth is from nine to ten feet in length, and poffeffes
fume of the properties of ivory. It is however eafy to
diftinguith them. The fibres of the tooth of the um-
corn-fifh are finer than ivory, it is more compaft,
heavier, and lefs apt to become yellow. The narh-
wal is rarely furniftied with more than one tooth, but
under the common (kin of the head on the other fide,
the rudiments of another may be obferved. Ihere
have been, however, different examples of two teeth,
and both nearly of the fame length. In the year 1604,
a female having two teeth was taken, and the bones ot
the head, with the teeth inferted, were brought to Ham¬
burgh The two teeth proceeded in a right line from
the anterior part of the ikull. At the place of mfertton
they were only two inches afunder, but gradually di¬
verging they were feparated at tlm extremity 18 inches.
The left tooth was 9 inches in circumference, and 7
feet 5 inches long. The right was feven feet long, and Claffifica
eight inches in circumference at the bafe. Both teeth it‘on’
entered 13 inches into the bones of the head, which "
was two feet long, and 18 inches broad.
The opening of the mouth is in general very fmall $
not larger, according to fome, than to admit the hand
of a man. The tongue is nearly of the fame fize. The
head ends in a rounded fnout. The lower lip is thin,
and (horter than the upper.
The eyes are placed oppofite to the opening of the
mouth ; and they are furrounded by a kind of eye-lid.
On the top of the head there is one refpiratory orifice,
which may be (hut and opened at pleafure by means of
a fringed covering.
The, pefloral fins are about a foot long, and eight
inches broad. The fin of the tail is divided into two ob¬
tufe oval lobes. In place of the dorfal fin, there is a ridge
or projection about nine inches high, which extends
from the breathing hole on the head to the bafe of the
fin, which terminates the trunk of the body, and dimi-
niihes gradually in height as it approaches to the tail.
The (kin is about one inch in thicknefs. The co¬
lour is of a grayifti white, marked wuth a gieat num¬
ber of black fpots which feem to penetrate the fubftance
of the (kin. The (kin of the belly is of a (liining white,
and foft as velvet to the touch.
The oil which the unicorn-fifti yields is in fmall quan¬
tity, but it is confidered to be of a fuperior quality to
that of the Greenland or common whale. The food Food
of this filh is one of the fpecies of the P/euronettes, and
fome fpecies of he/ix.
The length of the unicorn-fifti is from 20_to 22 feet,
the circumference about 12 feet. According to (ome
authors indeed, fome fiih have been found 6c feet long.
It inhabits chiefly the northern feas of Europe and
America, about Davis ftraits, and the coafts of Ice- |
land.
It would be difficult to take this fifh fingly and
in the open fea } for they are excellent fw immers, and
move with aftonilhing velocity by means of the tail-
fin. But as they live in very cold climates, mid
cannot remain long under wrater without refpiring,
they frequent the bays that are free of ice. In theue
places they crowd together in fuch numbers, that they
force their teeth into the body of each other } and
in this fituation they can neither plunge into the deep
water, nor avoid the purfuit and blows of the fiflier-
men. . , 51 \
There is no part of this fifti which is not applied to ufes.
fome ufeful purpofe by the inhabitants of Greenland.
They are extremely fond of the flefti, which they eat
roafted or dried in the fmoke. J. he inteftines al(o arc
regarded as a very delicate food. They are alia roaft¬
ed. The fat affords an oil for burning. From the
gullet they obtain bags or bladders which they employ
in fifliing. The tdndons are made into excellent thread
or fmall cords. Of the teeth they make feveral inftru-
ments xvhich are ufed in the chafe, or (lakes for the con-
ftru&ion of their huts. . 5S
The kings of Denmark have a mod magnificent Magnifi-1
throne, which is entirely compofed of the teeth of the cent thre.
unicorn-fifti. It is preferved in the caftle of Rofen-0 1
berg", and it is efteemed of greater value than if it
were made of gold.
It has been affirmed by fome naturalifts, that there
have
'hap. I. C E T O
Llaffifica have been found Individuals of the unicorn fifti having
j1 ion, ^ protuberances on the back, and that in others the teeth
 ' were not fpirally twitted, but fmooth from the bafe to
the extremity. Should thefe differences turn out to be
uniform and conftant, other fpecies befide thofe already
known muff be admitted.
2. Monodon Spurius, the Spurious Narwhal or Uni-
, corn-Jifh.
French, L?Anarnah.
arafters. there are two fmall curved teeth in
60 the upper ja\tr^~anrLone fin on the back.
efcription. This fpecies, which has been defcribed by Fabricius
in his Fauna Greenlandica, properly belongs to the ge¬
nus Monodon, at leaft the characters correfpond more
nearly to this genus than any other. The body is
oblong, rounded, and of a black colour. There are
no teeth in the mouth ; but to the upper jaw are at¬
tached two fmall teeth which are of a conical form, a
little curved at the extremity, and about one inch long.
Befide the two pectoral fins, there is a fmall one on the
back.
This fpecies is one of the fmalleft fillies belonging
to this clafs. It refpires like the other cetaceous fillies
by a breathing hole on the top of the head.
It rarely happens that the tail-fin is feen when it
plunges into the water; but when it refpires the air, it
rifes above the furface of the fea as high as the infer-
tion of the peftoral fins.
The flefh and fat are found to have a violently pur¬
gative effedl. From this property the Greenlanders
have given it the name of Anarnak, which is adopted
by the French naturalifts.
It inhabits chiefly the open fea, and very rarely ap¬
proaches the Ihores. It is moft commonly found in the
Greenland feas.
Class III. PHYSETER.
Genus iff, Physeter, Spermaceti Whale.
6t
faerie _ The body is naked, fometimes oval, and fometimes
^ iradters. in the form of a lengthened cone. The head is very
thick, anteriorly truncated, and occupying nearly one
half or one third of the avhole length of the body.
I here is only one breathing hole, which is placed on
the fnout. The jaws are unequal. The lower is Ihort-
er and narrower, and it is furnilhed with teeth which
are fometimes of a conical form, and fometimes blunt;
fometimes ftraight, but often curved in form of a fickle.
In the upper jaw’ there are correfponding cavities. It
is alfo furnilhed with teeth, but they are flat, lie hori¬
zontally, and are fcarcely vifible.
I he eyes are fmall, and are fituated near the in-
fertion of the pefloral fins. The external opening of
the organ of hearing is very fmall, and not eafily de¬
leted.
Ihe penis, as in the other claffes, is included in a
Iheath. The female has two mammae fituated in the
abdomen, and between them are placed the parts of ge¬
neration, near which is the external opening of the anus.
There are three flefliy fins. Two of thefe are the
pe&oral; and the third is at the extremity of the tail,
ihe place of the dorfal fin is occupied by a falfe fin,
and often by a kind of callofity.
LOGY.
335
i.
Species.
Physeter Macrocephalus, the Large Spermaceti
Whale.
Glaflifka-
tion, &-c.
French, Cachalot; Germ. Fottfifch; Dutch, Fotvifch;piateCLX.
Norweg. Kajkelot, Potfijh, Troid Huai. fig. 3.
• 6 cj
There is a fpurious fin on the back. The teeth are charadters.
curved, and a little pointed at the extremity.
Of all the fpeeies belonging to this genus, this, on Defcnptiom
account of its great bulk, is entitled to the firft place.
The head, which occupies the third part of the body,
is a large mafs of a fquare form, angular at the fides,
and truncated before. The upper is of much greater
length than the lower. It is alfo broader, its edges
forming a very conliderable proje&ion, and folded
back towards the centre, where there is an oval longi¬
tudinal cavity deftined to receive the lower jaw. The
lower jaw is furnilhed on each fide with a row of
ftrong conical teeth, a little curved tow ards the mouth,
and projecting from the alveolar proeefs about one and
a half inches. The two teeth at the anterior extremi¬
ty of the jawq and the four which terminate on each
fide the two rows, are fmaller and more pointed. The
colour of them externally approaches to that of ivory ;
but internally they are lefs hard and compaCt, and are
of an alh colour. It has been fuppofed that the teeth
become longer, thicker, and more curved, in propor¬
tion to the age of the animal. The ordinary length is
about fix inches, and three inches in circumference
at the bafe. The upper jaw is furnilhed with as
many cavities as there are teeth in the lower jaw;
but, in the interflices which feparate thefe cavities,
there are about 20 fmall teeth placed horizontally, and
raifed a little above the flelh. Thefe teeth are lharp
on the fide oppofite to the place of infertion, but pre-
fent a fmooth, plain, and oblique furface, which fills
up the interval that feparates the cavities. This ob¬
lique furface is only vifible ; the reft of the tooth is co-
vei’ed with flelh. And from not attending to the
form and difpohtion of thefe teeth, it has been gene¬
rally faid that the fpermaceti whale had none in the
upper jaw.
The tongue is a mafs of flelh of a fquare form, and
of a livid red colour, which fills almoft the whole of
the bottom of the mouth.
The breathing holes, palling diagonally through the
head, unite into one at the fuperior extremity of the
fnout, where the opening is about fix inches diameter.
The eyes are black, very fmall when compared to^
the bulk of the body, and furrounded with a ftrong
ftiort hair, which is not very perceptible. The open¬
ing of the ears is not eafily detected. It is placed be¬
hind the orbit of the eyes, on a cutaneous excrefcence
between the eyes and the pedloral fins.
The head is feparated from the trunk by a tranf-
verfe groove, which extends to the place of infertion
of the pedloral fins. Thefe fins are of an oval form,
three or four feet long, and three inches thick.
On the back there is a callofity which extends two-
thirds of the whole length. It rifes feveral inches above
the furface, and is llightly inclined. Where it termi¬
nates behind it is truncated.
The organs of generation referable thofe of qua¬
drupeds.. The penis of the male is enclofed in a Iheath.,
On;
336
Claffifica- On each fide of the fame organs in the female are
^tion, Sec. piaceci the mammae, which are four or five inches
” v "long.
The tail, which is fmall for the fize of the fifli, ter¬
minates in a fin, which is divided inta two lobes, hol¬
lowed out in form of a fickle.
The back is black, or of a date blue, fpotted with
white. The belly is alfo white. The fat or blubber,
which lies immediately under the Ikin, is about five or
fix inches thick on the back, and rather lefs on the
belly. The flelh is of a pale red, like that of pork.
The head, though very large, is the lealt flelhy part
,of the body. But it yields the fubftance called fper-
maceti, in great abundance. This feems to vary in
colour according to the climate in which the whale has
lived.
The food of the fpermaceti whale is the dog-fifh
and the lump filh.
This whale fwims with great velocity 5 and he often
appears on the furface of the water. It is at this time
that the filhermen take the opportunity of ftriking him
with their fpears \ and it often happens, that the parts
-of the body which have been wounded become gangre¬
nous, and fall off before the death of the animal.
The flefli, the Ikin, the fat, and the inteftines, are
applied to the fame purpofes as thofe of the unicorn-
■fifli. The tongue, roafted, is reckoned excellent food *,
and of the different bones of the body befide the teeth,
•inftruments for the chafe are made.
This whale inhabits chiefly the Greenland feas and
Davis ftraits j but occafionally is found on the Euro¬
pean fhores to the Southward. In the year 1784?
the month of March, 31 of thefe fifties came on fliore
©n the weftern coaft of Audierne in Lower Brittany in
France. The following arc the dimenfions of one of
thefe taken at the time.
Feet.fn.
Total length, 44 6
From the anterior extremity of the fnout to
the eyes, 8 O
From the eyes to the pefloral fins, 3 o
From the peftoral fins to the organs of ge¬
neration, 19 7
Length of the tail, . 6 9
Diftance of the lobes of the tail, 10 o
Circumference at the greateft thicknefs 34 8
Length of the upper jaw, 5 0
,  .-lower jaw, 4 ^
Opening of the mouth, 3 10
Breadth of the fnout, 5 0
2. Physeter Catodon, the Small Spermaceti-Whale.
French, Le Petit Cachalot; Norwegian, Swine-Hual;
Greenland, Kegutihk.
■64 in this fpecies, there is a rough fpurious fin on the
Characters. Tlie are curved and blunt.
Defcnption. Without attending to the form and difpofition of the
jteeth in the cetaceous fifties, the charafteriftic marks
are often ambiguous. All naturalifts agree, that the
characters taken from the teeth are the molt certain,
becaufe they are molt conftant and uniform in Itruc-
ture and appearance, and lefs fubjet to thofe varia¬
tions which age and climate feem to produce. T his
fpccies is, in this manner, eafily diftinguilhed from the
Chap.}
others. The head is of a round form; the opening of Claffificai ! ^
the mouth is of a moderate fize $ the lower jaw is long- Uon. ,
er, but not fo broad as the upper. It is furnilhed
with a row of teeth on each fide $ and thefe correfpond
to the cavities in the upper jaw, which receive them.
There is a peculiar ftrudture of the teeth in this fpe¬
cies. That part of the tooth which rifes above the
gum has a greater thicknefs than where it is inferted
into the jaw $ and befides, each tooth is flat at the top,
and marked with concentric lines. The longeft teeth
are two inches in length, and about an inch in circum¬
ference at the greateft; thicknefs.
Sibbald has miftaken the breathing holes for noftrils j
and this feems to have arifen from the pofition of the
breathing holes near the fnout of the filh.
This fpecies is chiefly an inhabitant of the northern
feas.
Towards the end of the 17th century, 102 of this
fpecies came on ftiore at Cairfton in the Orkney illands.
The longeft: was 24 feet.
3. Physeter Trumpo, the Spermaceti Whale.
French, Le Cachalot de la Nouvelle Angleterre; Le
Trumpo.
This fpecies is diitinguilhed by a bunch on the back, charadeJ
and having the head ftraight and pointed. 67 I
The head of this fpecies is of an immenfe fize. ItDe‘criPli(; 1"!
divides the body nearly into two equal parts. The
upper jaw is much longer and thicker than the lower,
which is furnilhed with 18 teeth, ftraight and pointed,
about three inches diftant from each other \ and when
the mouth is Ihut, they are received into cavities of
the upper jaw.
The eyes are fmall. The breathing hole is at leaft
a foot in diameter, and it is placed at the fuperior ex¬
tremity of the fnout.
The thickeft part of the body is near the infer tion
of the pe&oral fins. Thefe are very fmall, and that
of the tail is divided into two lobes. In place of the
dorfal fin, there is a bunch on the back which is more
than a foot thick. It is placed nearly oppofite to the
parts of generation.
The Ikin is of a grayifti colour, and very foft to the
touch. The length of this whale varies from 48 to 60
^eet* • fl¬
it is chiefly an inhabitant of the feas which walh
the Ihores of New England.^
An individual of this fpecies landed in the year
1741, near Bayonne in France. It yielded ten tons of
fpermaceti, which was reckoned of a fuperior quality
to that of the large fpermaceti whale. In the ftomach of
the fame whale was found a round mafs of feven pounds
weight, which was taken for ambergreafe. . _ 6$
The fubftance called fpermaceti \% lodged in partieu-Sperfliac1' r
lar cells in the head near the feat of the brain. It is
extrafted by making a hole in the Ikull.
It has been obferved by feme naturalifts thajt this
whale is more agile and more dangerous than any other
of the fpecies. When it is wounded, it is laid that
it throws itfelf on its back, and defends itfelf with its
mouth.
Mr Pennant has deferibed this under the name of
the blunt-headed whale (Phyfeter Microps, Lin.). But
if we attend to the form of the body, the itructure of
tke
dETOLOGY
hap. I. C E T (3
j affifica- the head, the number and ftru&ure of the teeth, it
n, tec.^ fgems to conilitute a diftinft fpecies.
Dimenjlons of the Spermaceti Whale thrown afhore near
Bayonne.
Feet. Inches.
Total length, 49 o
Greateft circumference at the eyes, 27 o
From the extremity of the tail fin to the
opening of the anus, 14 o
Length of the penis, 4 o
■   fheath which enclofes it, 1 6
Diameter of the penis, o 7
Diitance of the extremities of the two lobes
of the tail, 13 o
4. Physeter Cylindricus, the Round Spermaceti
Whale.
(traders There is a bunch on the back j the teeth are curved
and pointed at the top j the breathing hole is in the
middle of the fnout.
* 'cnption The form and relative fituation of the trunk and
head, the pofition of the breathing-hole, the relative
length of the jaws, the number and ftrufture of the
teeth, and efpecially the fize of the dorfal fin, prefent
differences which fufficiently diftinguifh this from the
following fpecies. The body is cylindrical, from the
extremity of the fnout to a line drawn perpendicular
to the place where the penis is inferted, and from thence
to the tail fin it gradually diminifhes. The head is at
leaft the third of the w'hole length of the body. The
profile of the head prefents a kind of parallelogram.
The jaws are nearly of equal length. On each fide of
the lower jaw there is a row of 25 curved, fharp-point-
ed-teeth. The breathing-hole is placed at the fupe-
rior extremity of the fnout. The dorfal fin is re¬
placed by a bunch, 18 inches high, and four and a
half inches long at the bafe. The tail fin is divided
into two lobes, forming a kind of crefcent.
One of this fpecies is defcribed by Anderfon, which
was 48 feet long, 12 of perpendicular height, and 36
in circumference, at its greateft thicknefs.
5. Physeter Microps, the Black-headed Spermaceti
Whale or Cachalot.
French, Cachalot Micropsy Cachalot a dents en Fau-
cille; Norwegian, Staur-Hyming; Greenland, 27-
fagujik.
71
rafters. this fpecies there is a long ftraight fin on the
back. The teeth are curved, the point is at firlt di-
^ refied to the mouth, and then turns outwards.
Pffription The defeription of naturalifts who have treated of
this fpecies of whale are greatly confufed ; and this
probably arifes from not having attended fufficiently to
the form of the teeth. According to Fabricius, there
are only 22 teeth in the lower jaw, 11 on each fide.
All thefe teeth are curved, having the concave fide
towards the mouth, and are funk in the jaw-bone, two-
thirds of their whole length. The external part of the
teeth is white as ivory, of a conical form 5 and the
point, which is (harp, inclines a little outwardly. That
part of the tooth which is funk in the jaw is compref-
fed on two fides, and furrowed on that fide next to
the gullet. The Greenlanders fay that this whale has
teeth in the upper jaw; but this is not clearly afeer-
Vol. V. Part I.
L 0 G Y. 337
tained. Perhaps they are only flatted teeth, fimilar to Claffifka-
wdrat we have delcribed in the great fpermaceti whale, tion, ^cc-^
Each tooth extends to a finger length, and is about * ^
one and a half inch broad. The longeft occupy the
middle part of the jaw. The fmaller are at the extre¬
mities. The fnout ends in a blunt furface j and, ac¬
cording to moil naturalifts, the upper jaw is the
longeft.
The peftoral fins are about four feet long. What
occupies the place of a fin on the back is of confider-
able height, and has been by fome naturalifts compared
to a long needle.
This wffiale is the declared enemy of fome of the
other whales, as the pike-headed whale and the por-
poife, which it purfues as its prey. In Greenland the
fiefh of this whale is greatly eiteemed, even more than
that of any of the other fpecies. It is rarely taken
with the harpoon.
It inhabits chiefly the northern ocean.
6. Physeter Mular.
French, Le Cachalot Mular.
This fpecies is diftinguiffied by a very elevated fin-Chartdterk
on the middle of the back. The teeth are flightly
curved and obtufe.
This fpecies refembles the former in the general Defcripticm.
flrufture of the body. It differs in the form of the
teeth, wffiich are lefs curved, and are obtufe. The
longeft, which are eight inches in length, and nine
inches in circumference, occupy the front of the jaw.
The others are only fix inches long. Sometimes the
teeth are found to be hollow, and fometimes they are
folid. Is this owing to the difference of age in the in¬
dividuals in which it has been obferved ? Befide the
pefloral fins, that which is placed on the back is very
remarkable on account of its length. Sibbald com¬
pares it to the mizzen-maft of a veffeL
. According to Anderfon, this fpecies is farther di¬
ftinguiffied by having three bunches or protuberances
towards the extremity of the back : the firft is 18
inches high j the fecond, fix inches ; and the laft only
three inches. The fame hiftorian has obferved, that
he was informed by the captain of a ffiip, that he faw
on the coaft of Greenland, a great number of this fpe¬
cies of whale, at the head of which was one of 100
feet long, which feemed to be the leader 5 and which,
at the appearance of the ftiip, gave fuch a terrible
ftiout, fpouting water at the fame time, as to ftiake the
veffel. At this fignal, the whole made a precipitate
retreat.
This fpecies is gregarious, and frequents the feas
about the North Cape. They are but rarely taken j
for they are very wild and difficult to wound. It ap¬
pears, that the harpoon can only pierce them in one
or two places near the pefloral fins.
The fat or blubber is very tendinous, and yields but
a fmall proportion of oil.
Class IV. DELPHINUS.
Genus iff, Delphinus, the Dolphin.
The body is naked, oval, or of an oblong conical Genei
ffiape, of a blue colour, inclining to black. The head characters,
is conical, diminiffiing gradually towards the fnout.
U u The
S.1?8
Claffifica-
tu>n, &c.
C E T O
The breathing-hole, which is on the top of the head,
is in form of a crefcent, the horns of which are di-
reaed towards the fnout. The jaws are of equal length,
fometimes beaked, and fometixnes rounded. They are
furnifhed with teeth, which are conical or comprefled,
pointed or obtufe, and in fome fpecies notched.
The eyes are placed near the angles of the mouth.
The pupil of the eye is black, and the iris.white. The
external opening of the ears is fituated behind the eyes.
The noftrils terminate in the fnout.
The penis of the male is included in a {heath •, and
the mammae of the female are attached to the belly j
and between them are the organs of generation. .
There are four fins ; two are pectoral •, there is one
on the back, and one at the extremity of the tail. In
one ipecies only the dorlal fin is wanting.
LOGY. Chap
through the navel of the mother. This is fuppofed to Cltflif'
be occalioned by the fpafmodic contra ft ion ? produced  * ^
by the efforts of the mother in the druggies of death. 8q f
The flefh of the porpoife has a difagreeable oilyufes.
tafte. It is however ufed as food by the inhabitants
of Lapland and of Greenland. In Greenland they
fuffer it to undergo fome degree of putrefattion to
make it tender, and then they prepare it by i calling
or boiling. They ufe the 1km, the fat, and the en¬
trails for this purpofe. The Dutch and the. Danes
take the porpoife only for the extra&ion of the oik
The porpoife inhabits thofe places which are fliel-
tered by rocks and bays, and is oftener feen in fum-
mer than in winter.
Species.
i.
DELPHINUS PhOC^NA, the Porpoife or Porpeffe.
2 Delphinus Delphis, the Dolphin or Bottle-nofs
Whale.
French, Le Marfouin; Spaniffi, Marfopa ; Dutch,
Bruinvifch ; German, Mee’ fchweir, B>aunfifeh ;
Danes,' Marfwin, Tumier; Norweg. MJe; Green¬
land, Nifa.
Characters. The form of the body is conical. The dorfal fin is
triangular. The fnout is pointed. The teeth are en¬
larged at the fummit, rounded and cutting. . .
tv f V The body of this fifti is round, thick, and diminiflies
Defcnption. taiL The head refembles an obtitfe cone
It is iwelled out towards the top above the orbits oi
the eyes. It then gradually diminiffies, and ends m a
ftiarp fnout. c .1
The eyes are placed oppofite to the opening ol the
mouth ; and the pupil of the eye, which is black, is
furrounded with a white iris. Behind the eyes there
is a fmall round hole, about one inch in diameter :
This is the organ of hearing. The noftrils are placed
between the breathing hole and the extremity of the
fnout. The breathing-hole is fituated on. the top ot
the head, in a line perpendicular to the interval be¬
tween the eyes and the angles of the mouth.
The pe&oral fins are attached to the edges ot the
lower furface of the body. The dorfal fin is triangu¬
lar, and is fituated very nearly on the middle oi the
trunk. Diredtly under the dorfal fin on the belly are
the parts of generation. The anus is fituated at an
equal diftance between the parts of generation and the
13 The length of the porpoife is from four feet to fix
and eight. This fifti is an excellent fwimmer. W hen
it rifes to the furface tarefpire, the back only appears j
the head and tail are kept under water. But when it
is dead, it becomes ftraight. .
Fooc?. It feeds on fmall fifties, and purfues them with in¬
conceivable rapidity. . ,. . •
Manners. The porpoife is generally gregarious this is parti-
cularly the cafe in the time of copulation m the month
of Auguft It is not unufual to fee at that time J 5
males in purfuit of one female 5 and fo eager are they
in the chafe, that they are often thrown aftiore. ihe
female goes with young 10 months, and brings forth
one at a time. At birth the young one is of confider-
able iize and it conftantly follows the mother till it is
weaned.’ When a pregnant female is killed, it has
been obferved that the tail of the feetus is feen thruft
French, Dauphin’, German, Meerfchwein, Tummler ;
Dutch, Dolphin Tuymelaar; Norwegian, Springer;
Iceland, Leipter. g,
The body is nearly oval. The dorfal fin is curved Charafi
at the top. The fnout is flattened and ftiarp. The teeth
are cylindrical and pointed. _ _ nr821
The greateft thicknefs of the dolphin is at the infer-DtlcnP|*
tion of the pectoral fins 5 from which the. body gra¬
dually diminilhes towards the head and tail, and thus
has the oval form. The head enlarges at the.top like
that of the porpoife j but, in the dolphin, it diminilhes
in thicknefs, and ends in a flatted beak, like that, of
a goofe. The jaws are of equal length, and furnifti-
ed^on each fide with a row of cylindrical teeth, a
little pointed at the end, and projefting near one and
a half inches above the gum. It would appear that the
number of teeth varies according to the age and fex.
Klein has reckoned 96 in the upper jaw, and 90 in
the under. Mr Pennant, on the contrary, mentions
that he faw 19 teeth in the latter, and 21 in the for¬
mer. Forty-feven teeth have been obferved by others
in each jaw. . . , ,
The eyes are placed almoft m the fame line with the
opening of the mouth. The breathing-hole is on the
top of the head, oppofite to the orbit of the eyes. It
appears in form of a crefcent, the horns of which are
diredled towards the fnout.
The pedloral fins are oval, and inferted at the un¬
der part of the breaft. The dorfal fin occupies the
middle of the body. It is curved backwards at the
extremity. The tail fin is divided into two lobes, the
one of which folds over the other.
The upper furface of the body is black ; the breaft
is white. From under the eyes on each fide paffes a
white ray, which ftretches towards the pcft.oral fins.
The dolphin is almoft always an inhabitant of the
open feas, and very rarely approaches the ftiore. His
motions are inconceivably fwift •, and hence he has
been named by the mariners, the arrow of thefea.
The length of the dolphin varies from five to nine or
ten feet.
The defeription which has now been given, has Ih-FabitMi j
tie relation to the fanciful accounts which have been*1' 01h -
detailed of this fifti, or to the imaginary reprefenta-
tions by the ancient painters and engravers. On the
pieces of money which were in circulation in the time
of Alexander the Great, and are preferved by Belon,
as well as on other medals, the dolphin is reprefcnied
with
lap.
lalilfica-
I. C E T O
with a very large Head, a fpacious open mouth, and
the tail raifed above the head.
No animal has been more celebrated by the ancient
poets and hiftorians than the dolphin. From the ear-
lieft ages he was conlidered as coni'ecrated to the gods,
and honoured as the benefactor of man. Pliny, iE-
lian, and other ancient authors, fpeak highly of his at¬
tachment to mankind. The younger Pliny has writ¬
ten a charming itory of the loves of a dolphin for Hip-
pus •, and Ovid relates with all the beauties of poetry,
the Itory of the mufician Arion, who being purfued
by pirates and thrown into the fea, was refeued and
laved by this kind animal.
hide (fide majus') tergo delphina recurvo^
Sc memorant orere fi.ppofiuijje novo.
Hie fiedens citharamque tenet, pretiumqne vehendi
Cantat, et cequoreas carmine mu/cet aquas.
Di pia facia vident. AJiris delphina recepit
Jupiter ; et fie Has jufijit habere novem.
Ovid. Faiti, lib. ii. 117.
But (paft belief) a dolphin’s arched back
Preferved Arion from his deitined wreck ;
Secure he fits, and with harmonious drains
Requites his bearer for his friendly pains.
The gods approve : the dolphin heaven adorns,
And with nine Itars a conitellation forms.
But after all thefe fabulous accounts of the dolphin
by the ancients, and the prefages drawn by the modern
failors from their movements, it does not appear that
this fpecies of fifh is endowed with more fagaeity than
any other of the cetaceous filhes, or difeovers greater
attachment to man. What may have been the foun¬
dation of thefe fables, it is not our prefent objeCt to
inquire. It is true, that the dolphin and others of the
cetaceous fifhes accompany Ihips for feveral days to¬
gether. But this feems to be in feareh of food, on ac¬
count of the offals of animal matters that are thrown
•verboard.
3. Delfhinus Tursio.
Greenland, Nefarnak ; French, Le Nafiarnak.
( meters The form of the body is conical. The dorfal fin is
curved. The fnout is compreffed above. The teeth
S5 are ftraight and blunt.
:ription The greateft thicknefs of this fpecies is between the
dorfal and pc,floral fins. From this to the extremity of
the tail the body becomes gradually more flender.
Thebreathing hole, which is placed above the orbits of
the eyes, is about i-J inches in diameter. The anterior
part of the head is inclined and rounded, and terminates
in a flat beak. The hnver jaw is the longefl. Both
jaws are furnifhed with 42 cylindrical teeth, which are
difpofed in a Angle row.
The pefloral fins are very low, and are of a falci¬
form fhape. The dorfal fin rifes like an inclined plane,
and is incurvated behind. At the pofterior bafe of
the latter fin there arifes a projection which fir etches
to the tail. The tail fin is divided into two lobes in
form of a crefcent.
The upper part of the body is black j the belly is
white.
It has been obferved by fome naturalifls, that when
339
Clalliiica-
tion, &.c.
Plate
CXL. fig. 4.
LOGY.
this fpecies rifes to the furface to refpire, a great part
of the body appears above water. It inhabits the open
feas, and is confequently taken with difficulty. '1 he
flefh, the fat, and the entrails, are eaten in the fame
way as the porpoife.
4. Delfhinus Orca, the Grampus.
French, Epaulard; Norwegian, Spek-Hugger ; Hoval-
Hand; Dutch, Bojkop ; Iceland, Huyding ; Swedes,
VO pare.
The body is nearly oval. The dorfal fin is very
high. The teeth are conical and flightly curved. 87
The profile of the grampus is oval and oblong The Defcription.
greatcfl thicknefs is about the middle of the trunk,
from which it gradually diminifhes towards both ex¬
tremities. The fnout is fliort and round. The lower
jaw is broader than the upper. Both jaws are furnifh¬
ed with conical teeth, which are unequal and curved at
the top, and are from 20 to 30 in number in each jaw'.
The eyes are fituated in the fame line with the open¬
ing of the mouth.
But the moft diftinguilhing mark of the grampus is
the dorfal fin, which rifes from the middle of the back
in the form of a cone, and is nearly four feet in height.
The peCloral fins are very broad and nearly oval. 'Ihe
tail fin is divided into two lobes in the form of a cref¬
cent. The penis is three feet in length.
The upper part of the body is black ; the belly
is white. Sometimes white fpots are obferved on the
head and back.
The grampus is the largefl fifh belonging to the ge¬
nus. Some have been feen of 25 feet in length by I 2 or
13 in circumference. One of 24 teet long w as taken in
the mouth of the river Thames in the year I759-
All naturalifls agree in deferibing the grampus as
the moft cruel and voracious of the family of the dol¬
phin. Its ordinary food is the leal and fome fpecies
of flat fifh. But it it faid, that it w ill attack the porpoife,
and even the large whale. The latter, io far from de¬
fending himfelf, is ftruck with terror, utters dreadful
fhouts, and, to efcape from the enemy, quits the open
feas, and retires towards the coafls, which is perhaps
the reafon that the whale is fometimes thrown alhore.
The grampus, however, is often the vidtim of its vora¬
city. It is at this time that the fifhermen watch the
opportunity of finking him with the harpoon.
When the emperor Claudius was engaged in the
conflrudlion of the harbour of Oflia, a grampus, at-
tradled by fome fkins which had been funk in a Ihip-
wreck, came upon the coait. There he remained for
feveral days *, and, forming a kind of canal to receive
his huge body in the fand, was protected from the agi¬
tation of the fea. While in purfuit of his prey, one
day, he was driven afhore by the violence of the waves.
The back appeared above the furface of the fea, and
refembled a ihip with its bottom upwards. The em¬
peror caufed flrong nets to be flretched acrofs the
mouth of the harbour to prevent the efcape of the filh,
in cafe he ffiould again get into the water. He then
advanced in perfon, accompanied with his pretorian
bands, and exhibited a very amufing fpedlacle to the
Romans. The foldiers embarked in boats were order¬
ed at attack him with fpears and other miffile wea¬
pons. One of the boats was filled with water, and
U u 2
funk
34°
CETOLOGY.
ClafTifica- funk in confequence of die fiili fpouting with great
tion, &c. —- i 
Chap,;
violence.
a. A variety of the grampus is defcribed by the late
Mr John Hunter, in the Phxlofophical 'Iranfa&ions
for 17B7. It is diftinguithed particularly by having a
very large belly, which diminiihes fuddenly towards
the region of the anus. The dorfal fin reaches nearer
the tail. It has the form of a rectangular triangle,
and is longer, but lefs elevated than the firit defcribed.
The lower part of the body is not perfectly white, but
is marked with brown and black fpots.
c. Delphinus Geadiator, the Sea-Sword.
SB ^
Characters. The form of the body of this fpecies is conical.
The dorfal fin refembles a fabre. The teeth are fmall
and lharp.
Defcription. This fpecies comes very near the grampus in the
form of the head 5 but it is chiefly diltinguifhed by
the dorfal fin, which is three or four feet high, and
about 18 inches broad at the bafe. It becomes {len¬
der toward the fummit, and is incurvated towards the
tail. This fin feems to be an offenfive inftrument 5
for with it they ftrike and wound the whale. The
length is from 23 to 25 feet.
This fpecies is gregarious. They are found to¬
gether in fmall bodies, which attack the whale with
great fury, and tear off large maffes from his body.
When he becomes warm and fatigued, he lolls out
his tongue, which is inftantly feized by the watchful
enemy. They even enter the mouth and tear out the
tongue entirely, which feems with them to be a deli¬
cate morfel. The delphinus gladiator polfeffes im-
menfe ftrength. They have been known to feize upon
a dead whale that was dragged by a number of boats,
and carry it to the bottom.
They are found near Spitzbergen, in Davis ftraits,
and on the coafts of New England, and even fo far
north as the 790 of latitude. They are very fat, and
the oil which they yield is efteemed very good.
6. Delphinus Leucas.
Beluga, Pennant’s Quadrup. ; Wittjxfch, Anderfon’s
Iceland.
9° . . • 1
Charafters. form of the body is conical. There is no dor¬
fal fin. The teeth are fliort and blunt.
The pe&oral fins are broad and of an oval figure. Oaffific
The dorfal fin is wanting, but in its place there is an »tion> &
angular protuberance. Xhe tail fin is divided into " *"**
twro rounded lobes.
The penis of the male is bony, of a white colour,
and enclofed in a {heath. The mammae of the female
are placed on each fide of the organs of generation.
The whole body is white, and marked in young
fifties with brown and blue fpots. The {kin is an inch
thick, and covers a layer of fat of three inches. It is
faid that the flefh of this fpecies has a reddifti colour
like that of pork.
It lives on different fifties, particularly the cod and
the foal fith. And as the throat is_ of fmall capacity, it
is fometimes fuffbcated in attempting to fvvallow filh of
too large.fize. The female has one young at a time,
which at birth is of a greenifh colour, but becomes
afterwards bluifti, and as it advances in age is white.
The females are gregarious, and the young follow at
their fides, imitating all their motions. This fpecies
is often obfervcd following ftiips, and exhibiting by a
thoufand different motions an amufing fpeftacle.
It quits the open fea during the rigour, of winter,
and enters the bays that are free from ice. It ii
feldom an objett of trade, on account of the little ad¬
vantage from the fat. iheir arrival, however, is con-
fidered by the whale fifhers as the fortunate prefage
of an abundant fiftiery. The length is from 12 to 18
feet.
JJeCcriptior. This fpecies has been arranged by fome naturalifts
among the whales, but having . teeth in both jaws
makes it properly come under this genus. The body
refembles a lengthened cone, having the bafe at the
peftoral fins, and the vertex at the tail. The head is
ftiort, and ends in an obtufe fnout, on the top of which
is a protuberance in which is the blow-hole, which
terminates in an bblique direftion towards the poile-
rior part of the body. 1 he jawrs are nearly equal. Ihe
lower jaw is furniflied with nine fmall obtufe teeth .on
each fide, which refemble in ftrudure the grinding
teeth of quadrupeds. The teeth in the fore part of
the jaw are the fmalleft. In the upper jaw the num¬
ber of teeth is the fame, but they are more pointed
and {lightly curved. , r . . , _
The eves are not larger than thole of the hog. I he
opening of the mouth is fmall, and the tongue is
ftrongly attached to the lower jaw. Behind the eyes is
ihtj external opening of the ear, but it is fcarcely vifible.
7. Delphinus Bidentatus.
93
The body is conical. The dorfal fin is fpear-ftiaped.Chara
The fnout is {lender and flat. There are two ftiarp
teeth in the lower jaw. 93
This fpecies in fome of its charatters refembles the DefcriptJ
delphmus turjlo, but in others is io different that, it
may properly be regarded as a diftinfl fpecies. I he
forehead is convex and rounded. The upper jaw is
flat, and ends in a beak like that of a duck 3 but.there
arc only two {harp teeth at the anterior extremity of
the lower jaw. The peftoral fins, which are of an
oval form and fmall for the fize of the body,. are pla¬
ced oppofite to the angles of the mouth. I he place
of the dorfal fin correfponds. to the origin of the tail,
is fpear-ftiaped, pointed, and inclines backward. . Ih*
tail-fin is divided into lobes, forming by their union a
crefcent. The lower part of the body is of a light
brown colour, the upper part is brownilh black. This
fpecies is fuppofed to be from 30 to 40 feet long.
8 Delphinus Butskopf, Bottle-headed or Beaked
Whale.
. 94
The form of the body is conical. The dorfal fin isflmad
incurvated towards the tail. The fnout is flat. and
{lender. The upper jaw and the palate are furniftied
with fmall teeth. # # 95,
The body reprefents a cone whofe fummit is towards Defcnpt *
the tail. The head is of greater height than breadth.
The front, which is full and round, becomes fuddcnly
narrow, and ends in a flat beak rounded at the extre¬
mity. The breathing-hole is on the top of the head,
oppofite to the orbit of the eyes-, it forms a crefcent
whofe horns are turned towards the tail. This is tne
chara<ffmft|c
T, C E T O
chara&eriftic mark between this and the other fpecies
of de/phinus. In place of teeth the furface of the pa¬
late and upper jaw are covered with fmall points, which
are unequal and hard. The tongue adheres to the
lower jaw, and is notched at the edges. The edge of
the upper jaw is alfo notched.
The eyes are convex as in quadrupeds. They are
furrounded with eyelids, and are placed nearly in the
middle of the fide of the head.
The peftoral fins are attached to the lower part of
the bread } they are fmail in proportion to the fize of
the filh. The dorfal fin is nearer the tail than the
jfnout : the fiunmit is incurvated backward. The tail-
fin is divided into two lobes in form of a fickle.
The whole body excepting the belly is of a leaden
colour.
In the Journal de Physique for the year 1789, M.
Bauffard has publilhed an account of two cetaceous
fifhes which were taken near Hontleur in September of
the preceding year. The larged was 234- feet long,
and the fmallell 12-4. The filhers of Honfleur per¬
ceived them at a didance druggling on the drand.
When they approached they found the fmalled duck
on the fand in fiiallow water. The mother made ma¬
ny attempts to move her young one into deep water,
and not only failed but duck fad by the head, the
heavied part of the body. The fiihermen fird took
polfeflion of the young one, fecured it w ith ropes •, and
by their own exertions, aided by a horfe and the fiow-
ing of the fea, fucceeded in bringing it on Ihore. They
then went into the water up to the middle to fecure
the mother ; and having made above 50 w'ounds with
knives on the head and back, and a large wound in the
belly, at which the filh feemed to be in great pain, by
uttering groans like thofe of a hog, they ivere driven
off by the violent motion of the tail. A fmall anchor
was then brought, which was introduced into the breath¬
ing-hole, and a rope was fadened round the tail. The
fith finding herfelf thus entangled, made fueh violent
efforts, that Ihe broke a thick rope, difengaged herfelf
from the anchor, and taking the advantage of the riling
tide, efcaped and launched into the deep, at the fame
indant throwing up an immenfe quantity of water mix¬
ed with blood to the height of 12 feet. She was found
next day floating on the water quite dead, at the di¬
dance of three leagues from Honfleur.
The following are the principal dimenfions of the
young fiih and the mother.
; • Bonna-
re, En-
' 'loped.
I ethod.
96
1 Matters
Total length
Created circumference
Difiance from the breathing-hole
to the extremity of the fnout
Length of the dorfal fin
Height of ditto
Length of the pe&oral fins
Breadth of ditto
Breadth of the tail fin
Young one.
Feet Inches.
12 6
Mother.
Feet, Inches.
23
15
11
O
1
o
7
2
6
7
4
o
3
o
3
10
9. Delfhinus Feres.
In this fpecies there is one fin on the back. The
Ijead is rounded. The teeth are oval and obtufe.
logy. 341
The head is nearly of the fame height as the length. C’alTifica-
It is very thick at the top, and fuddenly dimihifhing , t‘or1’^
towards the anterior part ends in a ihort round fnout. ^
The jaws are equal j they are covered tvith membra- Defcnpucn.
nous lips, and furnilhed internally with a row of teeth j
20 have been reckoned in each jaw. The form of the
teeth conditutes the diftinedive charadter of the fpe¬
cies. The large and the fmall teeth are equal in num¬
ber. The larged are above an inch long by half an
inch broad. The fmall teeth are only five or fix lines
in length.
The Ikeleton of one of this fpecies is preferved in
the cabinet of natural hidory at Frejus in France. The
length is 14 feet. The bones of die Ikull are I foot
10 inches long, and 1 foot 5 inches broad.
This fpecies is found in the Mediterranean fea.
Chap. II. Of the Anatomy and Phyfology of Get ace-'
ous Ffloes.
98
It has fallen to the lot of few anatomids to have an Difficulties
opportunity of examining with accuracy the drudfure m^aeqvmng
of cetaceous fiflres. The fame difficulties which have^^^j
retarded the progrefs of their natural hidory, operatetheir ftruc-
perhaps dill more powerfully in preventing the acqui-ture.
fition of information with regard to their anatomical
drudture. They are not inhabitants of thofe parts of
the world where this knowledge is in that improved
date to render fuch invedigations fuccefsful j and when
they are accidentally found on the fhores of civilized
countries, the anatomid, whofe fkill and dexterity on¬
ly could be advantageoufly employed in the examina¬
tion, is not always at hand, and they are too large to
be tranfported to the diffedting-room, w here the nature
and drudture of the different parts could be patiently
traced and faithfully demondrated. Several of the
fpecies of this tribe of fifhes have been difledted by the
late Mr John Hunter, the detail of which he has gi¬
ven in a paper on the Strudture and Economy of
Whales, in the Philofophieal Tranfadtions for the year
1787; and to this paper we mud acknowledge our-
felves indebted for the principal part of the anatomical
knowledge which we propofe to lay before our readers
in the prefent chapter. ^
We have already mentioned the charadlers wfliich DJfUndtivo-
didinguifh the whale tribe from fiflies in general. I hey character?.,
have indeed nothing peculiar to filh except that they
live in the fame element, and have the fame powers
of progreffive motion as thofe fiih, which from their
nature mud move with great velocity. This feems to
be the cafe with all fifh which come to the furface of
the water, as the whales mud do for the purpofe of
refpiration. It has alfo been obferved that they are roo
more clofely allied to quadrupeds than to fifh. They Allied to
have in many refpedls the peculiar drudture and eco-quadrupeds*,
nomy of parts which belong to this clafs of animals.
They are furnifhed with lungs, breathe air, and have
warm blood. IOI
This tribe of animals is peculiarly fitted by. their pitteci for
external form for dividing the water in progreffive rapid me-*
motion, and for moving with confiderable velocity..tion, -
And, on account of the uniformity of the element in
which they live, the form of their bodies is more uni¬
form than in animals of the lame clafs that live pa
land.
The
342
CETOLOGY.
Anatomy
and
The form of the head is commonly a cone or in-
dined plane. The Ipermaceti whale is an exception
, 10 to this, in which it terminates in a blunt lurface. The
head is larger in proportion to the body than in qua-
Formof thedrupeds, and fwells out laterally at the articulation of
iicad ; the lower jaw. This feems to be of advantage to the
animal in catching its prey, as there is no motion of
the head on the body.
;I03 Behind the pe&oral fins, at the infertion of which
of the bo y- the circumference is greateif, the body gradually di-
minifties to the fpreading of the tail. The body is bat¬
tened laterally } and it would appear that the back is
iharper than the belly, which is nearly fiat.
The progreffive motion of the animal is performed by
the tail, which moves the broad termination or lobes,
operating in the fame manner as an oar in fculling a
boat. And for the purpofe of preventing any obitruc-
tion in moving through the water, it may be obferved
that all the external parts of the clafs mammalia, that
live on land, are either entirely wanting, or are con¬
cealed under the Ikin in cetaceous fifties.
104
Power of
the tail.
Sect. I. Of the Bones.
r05
The (kele-
ton gives
no idea of
the general
form.
106
Bones of the
I’.ead ;
107
of the neck
and back;
10,
The bones alone, Mr Hunter obferves, when proper¬
ly united into the ikeleton, in many animals give the
general Ihape and character. But this is not fo de¬
cidedly the cafe in this order of animals. In them the
head is immenfely large, the neck Imall, there are few
ribs, in many a very ftiort iternum, and no pelvis, with
a long fpine terminating in a point, fo that thefe bones
being merely joined together do not alford any idea of
the regular Ihape of the animal. The different parts of
the Ikeleton are fo enclofed, and the projefting (paces
between the parts fo filled up, that they are altogether
concealed, and give to the animal externally an uniform
and elegant form.
The great fize of the bones of the head leave but
a fmall cavity for the brain. In the fpermaceti whale
it is not eafy to difeover where the cavity of the ikull
lies. This is alfo the cafe with the large whalebone
and bottle-nofe whale. In the porpoife, the Ikull con-
ftitutes the principal part of the head : for the brain
is found to be co'nfiderably larger in proportion to the
fize of the animal. The bones of one genus differ
very much from thofe of another. In the fpermaceti
and bottle-nofe whales, the grampus and the porpoife,
the lower jaws, efpecially at the pofterior ends, refera¬
ble each other 5 but in others it is very different. The
number of particular bones is alfo obferved to vary very
much.
Vertebra.—The piked whale has feven vertebrae in
the neck, 12 in the back, and 27 to the tail. 1 his
makes the whole number 46. In the porpoife the cer¬
vical vertebrae are feren in number. There is one
common to the neck and back, 14 proper to the back,
and 30 to the tail, making in whole 51. The cervi¬
cal vertebrae of a bottle-nofe whale, were the fame in
number as thofe of the porpoife. There were 17 in the
back and 37 in the tail, which make the whole num¬
ber 60. Four of the vertebrae of the neck in the por¬
poife are anchylofed, or have grown together. The
atlas in every one of this order of animals that has been
examined is the thickeft of the vertebrae. It feems to
Chap/1!
be compofed of two. There is no articulation between Anatom
the firit and lecond vertebrae of the neck to admit of an(l
rotatory motion. The vertebrae of the neck are very ' a}ll°^
thin, fo that the diftance between the head and thoulders
is as ftiort as poftible. ic8
Sternum or Breafbone.—This is very flat in the piked of die
whale, and confifts of a Angle very ihort bone. The^rea^'
breaftbone of the porpoife is confiderably longer j it is
compofed of three bones, which are of iome length in
the fmall bottle-nofe whale. The firft rib of the piked
whale, and the three firit of the porpoife are articulated
to the iternum.
Bibs.—T he fmall bottle-nofe whale, diffedted by Mr Ribs
Hunter, had 18 ribs on each fide j and the porpoife had
16. f ifteen ribs have been reckoned in the Ikeleton of
the dolphin. A large whalebone whale had 15 ribs on
each fide, which were 21 feet long and 18 inches in
circumference. The fpermaceti whales which were
thrown aftiore on the coaft of Brittany in France, had
only 8 ribs on each fide. They were 5 feet long and
6 inches in circumference. _ no
The ends of the ribs that have two articulations, inarticulats
the whole of this tribe, Mr Hunter obferves, are arti-
culated with the body of the vertebrae above, and with
the tranfverfe proeefles belew, by the angles, io that
there is one vertebra common to the neck and back.
In the large whalebone whale the firft rib is bifurcated,
and confequently is articulated with two vertebrae. ItI
FeBoral or lateral fins.—Thefe are analogous, and Pc&orai
fomewhat fimilar in conftrudlion to the anterior ex-^nsfimH
tremities of quadrupeds. They are compofed of a
fcapula or fiioulder-blade, os humeri, ulna, radius, car- qUa£irupc
pus, and metacarpus, which laft may include the fin¬
gers, the number of bones being iuch as may be
reckoned fingers, although they are included in one
general covering. The number of bones in each is
different, the fore-finger has five, the middle and ring-
finger has feven, and "the little finger has four. Theie
bones are not articulated by capfular ligaments as in
quadrupeds, but by intermediate cartilages attached to
each bone. Thefe cartilages are nearly equal in length
to one-half of the bone. This conftruajon gives
firmnefs and a confiderable degree of pliability to the
whole. . 11
Teeth.—Of this tribe of animals fome have teeth in Teeth
both jaws, fome have them only in one, while there
are others which have none at all. The teeth cannot
be divided into claffes as in quadrupeds. They are all
pointed teeth, and are pretty much fimilar in form and
fize. Each tooth is a double cone, one part of which
is faftened in the jawr, and the other projedfs above the
gum. In fome, indeed, the fang is flattened and tain
at the extremity } and in others it is curved.
The formation of the teeth, and their progrefs after
wards, feems to be different from that of quadrupeds:
For they feem to form in the gum, fo that they muft l°™e<1u5, !
either extend and fink into the jaw, or the alveoli muft
rife to enclofe them. Mr Hunter thinks this laft the
moft probable, fince the depth of the jaw is increafed,
fo that the teeth feem to fink deeper and deeper in it.
This mode of formation is obferved in jaws that are
not fully grown ; for, as happens in other animals, the
teeth increafe in number as the jaw lengthens.
It does not appear that they flied their teeth, °r ^
113
have
2
I iap II. C E T O
Ibatomy have new ones formed firmlar to the old. This indeed
and feems fcareely pothble from the fituation in which
| ’('1°i°SJ' they are originally formed.
r^s'~ Whalebone.—This is a fubftance peculiar to the
I aliar whale. It is of the fame nature as horn. It is there-
j jitance. £ore entirely compofed of animal matter, and is ex¬
tremely elaftic. The name of bone is undoubtedly
improper, as it has no earthy matter in its compolition ;
but as it has been commonly employed we ihall Hill
it6 retain it.
' o kinds. There are two kinds of whalebone. One kind is
got from the large whale ; the other from a fmaller
Ipecies. It is placed in the infide of the mouth, and
is attached to the upper jaw. It confills of thin plates
of different fizes in different parts of the mouth. The
length and the breadth of the whalebone, although
not always, in general correfpond pretty nearly j thofe
L 117 plates that are longeft being alfo the broadeft.
j angc- Thefe plates are arranged in feveral rows on the
1 outer edge of the upper jaw, fimilar to the teeth in
other animals, and Hand parallel to each other, one
edge being towards the circumference of the mouth,
and the other towards the infide. They are placed at
unequal diftances in different parts of the mouth. In
the piked whale, they are only one-fourth of an inch
afunder at the greatefl diifance. In the great whale
: ixS the diftances are greater.
(kerrow. The longeft plates are in the outer rowr y and the
length is proportioned to the different diftances be¬
tween the different parts of the jaws. Some of them
are 14 or 15 feet long, and 12 or 15 inches broad.
Towards the anterior and pofterior part of the mouth
they are very fhort. They rife for half a foot or more
of the fame breadth, and afterwards fhelve off from the
infide till they come nearly to a point at the outer-
The exterior of the inner rows are the longeft, cor-
refponding to the termination of the declivity of the
outer, and become fhorter and fhorter, till they hardly
I 119 rife above the gum.
Ikr row. The inner rows are clofer than the outer, rife at-
moft perpendicularly from the gum, are longitudinally
ftraight, and have lefs declivity than the other. The
plates of the outer row make a ferpentine line late¬
rally, and in the piked whale the outer edge is the
thickeft. Round the line made by their outer edges runs
a fmall white bead, which is formed along with the
whalebone, and wears down with it •, both edges of the
.no fmaller plates are of nearly the fame thicknefs. In all
(^r* of the plates, the termination is in a kind of hair,
as if the plate were divided into innumerable fmall
parts. The exterior plates have the ftrongeft and alio
longeft.
The whole furface of the mouth refembles the fkin
of an animal covered with ftrong hair \ and under this
furfaee the tongue lies when the mouth is {hut. In
the piked whale the projecting whalebone remains
entirely on the infide of the lower jaw, when the
mouth is fhut, becaufe the jaws meet everywhere along
their furface. Mr Hunter is- at a lofs to explain how
this is effeCfed in large whales, in which the lower jaw
is ftraight, forming a horizontal plane •, but the up¬
per jaw being an arch, cannot be hid by the former.
He therefore fuppofes that a broad upper lip reaches
to the lower jaw and covers the whole.
The formation of the whalebone is in one- refpeCt
LOGY. 343
fknilar to that of horn, hair, See. but it has another Anatomy
mode of growth and decay which is peculiar. Thep,
plates form upon a thin vafcular i’ubftance, which does , , i
not immediately adhere to the jaw-bone \ but which m
has a more denfe vafcular fubftance between. From I'ormatioai
this fubftance thin broad proceifes, correfponding to Pfccunar-
each plate, are fent out ; and on thefe proceffes the
plate is formed, in the fame way as the horn on the
bony cone, or the tooth on the pulp. Each plate is
neceffarily hollow at the growing end, and the firft
part of the growth takes place on the infide of the hol¬
low. Rut belides this mode of growth, it receives ad¬
ditional layers on the outfide, which are formed on the
vafcular fubftance extended along the furface of the
jaw. This part alfo forms upon it a kind of horny
fubftance between each plate, which is very white,,
rifes with the whalebone, and becomes even with the
outer edge of the jaw, and the termination of its out¬
er part forms the bead above mentioned. This inter¬
mediate fubftance fills up the fpaee between the plates,
as high as the jaw, and is fimilar to the alveolar pro-
cefles, keeping them firm in their places.
As both the whalebone and the intermediate fub¬
ftance are conftantly growing, a determined length
mull be fuppofed neceffary, fo that there muft be a re¬
gular xnode of decay eftablifhed, which does not de¬
pend entirely on chance or accidental cireumftanees.
In its growth there feems to be a formation of three
parts \ one from the rifing cone, which is the centre,
a fecond on the outfide, and a third being the inter¬
mediate fubftance. Thefe appear to have three ftages
of duration ; for that which forms on the cone, it is
fuppofed, makes the hair j and that on the outfide
makes principally the plate of the whalebone ; and
this, when got a certain length, breaks off, leaving
the hair projefting, becoming at the termination very
brittle •, and the third or intermediate fubftance, by the
time it rifes as high as the edge of the fkin of the jaw,
decays and foftens away.
The ufe which has been aferibed to the whalebone, Plate
is principally for the retention of the food till it isp;^ 4
fwallowed ; for it is fuppofed that the fifti which are ’S*
taken by the fpecies of w hale having this peculiar con-
ftruiftion of the mouth, are fmall when compared with
its fize..
Sect. II. Of the Siin and Mufcles.
122
The cuticle, or fcarf-fkin, in this order of animals, is Cuticle,
fimilar to that on the foie of the foot in the human
fpecies. It feems to be compofed of a number of layers,
which may be feparated by flight putrefaftion. Mr
Hunter fufpe&s that this arifes from a fucceflion of cu¬
ticles being formed. The fibres of the cuticle appear
to have no particular diredtion; It has no elafticity,
but is eafily torn afunder. The internal layer is tough
and thick, and in the fpermaceti whale, the external
furface refembles coarfe velvet. The cuticle givos
the colour to the animal. In parts that are dark, a
dirty coloured fubftanee has been wafhed away in ie-
parating the cuticle from the true fkin. This feems to
be the rete mucofum. _
The cutis or true fkin in cetaceous fifties is extreme-True (kin.,
ly villous in the external furface, correfponding to the
rough furface of the cuticle, and forming ridges in-
„ feme
•3 4 4 C E T O
Anatomy feme parts. The villi, which are foft and pliable,
Fh fito ^oat 'vvater> an^ are ohferved to be longer or (horter
^ ny o ogy pr0p0r^J0n t0 the fize of the animal. In fomc they
are one-fourth of an inch in length, and in all they are
very vafcular.
The cutis feems to be the termination of the cellular
membrane of the body more clofely united, having
fmaller interftices, and becoming more compaft. In fat
animals the diftindtion between fkin and cellular mem¬
brane is fmall, the gradation from the one to the other
being almoft imperceptible} for the cells of both mem¬
brane and fkin being loaded with fat, the whole feems
to be one uniform fubftance. A loofe elaitic fkin
would appear to be improper in this tribe of animals }
it is therefore always on the ftretch by the adipofe
membrane being loaded with fat. In fome places, in¬
deed, where it feems to be neceflary, it poffefles con-
fiderable elafticity, as at the letting on of the fins, and
under the jaw, round the opening of the prepuce, the
nipples, &c. to allow free motion in thefe parts, where
it is obferved that there is more reticular and lefs adi¬
pofe membrane.
In the piked whale there is a very lingular inflance
of an elaflic cuticular contra&ion. The whole fkin
of the fore part of the neck and breaft, and as far
down as the middle of the belly, is extremely elaftic }
but it receives an increafed lateral elaflicity by being
ribbed longitudinally. It is not eafy to fay why this
part which covers the thorax fhould poflefs fo much
elafticity, for this part of the body cannot be increafed
12. in fize.
Mufcles. The flefhy or mufcular parts of cetaceous fifties
refemble that of moft quadrupeds. Perhaps it comes
nearer to that of the bull or horfe than to that of any
other animal. Some of the flefhy parts are very firm 5
and about the breaft and belly they are mixed with ten-
dons.
Tendons. The body and tail of this tribe of animals are com-
pofed of a feries of bones connefted together, and moved
as in fifti $ but the movements are produced by long
mufcles, with long tendons. This renders the body
thicker, and the tail at its Item fmaller, than any other
fwimming animal. #
The depreffor mufcles of the tail, which are fimilar
in fituation to the pfoae, make two very large ridges
on the lower part of the cavity of the belly, rifing
much higher than the fpine, and the lowrer part of the
aorta paffes between them. Thefe two large mufcles
go to the tail, which may be confidered as the two
pofterior extremities united in one.
" The mufcles of cetaceous animals lofe their fibrous
ftruifture a very ftiort time after death, and become as
uniform a texture as a mafs of clay, and even fofter.
This change no doubt arifes from incipient putre-
fadtion, although no evidence of this procefs being
begun is to be had from any offenfive fmell. This
change is moft remarkable in the large mufcles, as thofe
of the back and the pfoae mufcles.
T/ie Tai/. The conftrudtion of the tail affords an
inftance of a Angular piece of mechanifm. It is com-
pofed of three layers of tendinous fibres, which are co¬
vered with the cutis and cuticle. Two of thefe layers
are external; the other is internal. The diredhon of
the fibres of the external layers is the fame as in the
tail forming a ftratum about one-third of an inch
I
LOGY. Chap, in
thick *, but varying, as the tail is thicker or thinner, fynatonq
The middle layer is compofed entirely of tendinous fi- and
bres, pafling diredlly acrofs between the two external Ph}
layers, their length being in proportion to the thick- nfi
nefs of the tail. This ftrudture gives amazing ftrength very fttoJ
to this part of the animal.
The fubftance of the tail is fo firm and compadl,
that the veffels remain in their dilated ftate, even
when they are cut acrofs. This fedtion confifts of a
large veffel, furrounded by as many fmall ones, as can
come in contact with its external furface. The fins
are merely covered with a ftrong condenfed adipofe
membrane.
Sect. III. Of the Organs of Digejlion and Excretion.
127
In the whale, the cefophagus begins at the fauces, Gulkt.
as in other animals. At the beginning it is circular,
but is foon divided into two paffages by the epiglottis
crofting it. Pafling down in the pofterior mediaftinum,
to which it is attached by a broad part of the fame
membrane, its anterior furface makes the pofterior
part of a cavity behind the pericardium. Having
paffed through the diaphragm, it enters the ftomach,
and is lined with a very thick, white, and foft cuticle,
which is continued into the firft cavity of the ftomach.
The inner or true coat of the cefophagus is white, and
of confiderable denfity, but it is not mufcular j for it
is throwm into large longitudinal folds, by the contrac¬
tion of the mufcular fibres. This coat is very glandu¬
lar ; many orifices of glands, efpecially near the fauces,
are vifible. The cefophagus is larger than it js in qua¬
drupeds, in proportion to the bulk of the animal, but
of lefs fize than it ufually is in fiih. Ope in ! the
piked whale that was meafured, was three inches and
a half wide. _ # I2$
The ftomach, as in other animals, lies on the left fide Stomach
of the body, and terminates on the pylorus tow ards theandintei
right. The duodenum paffes down on the right fide,tlne5,
as in the human body lies on the right kidney, and
then paffes to the left fide, behind the afeending part
of the colon and root of the mefentery, comes out on
the left fide, and getting on the edge of the mefentery,
becomes a loofe inteftine, forming the jejunum. In
this courfe behind the mefentery, it is expofed as in
moft quadrupeds. The jejunum and ileum pafs along
the edge of the mefentery downwards, to the lower
part of the abdomen. The ileum, near the lower end,
makes a turn towards the right fide, mounts upwards
round the edge of the mefentery, paffes a little way on
the right, as high as the kidney, and there enters the
colon or caecum. The caecum, which is about feven
inches long, and refembles that of the lion or feal, lies
on the lower end of the kidney, confiderably higher
than in the human body •, and this renders the amend¬
ing part of the colon fliort. The colon paffes oblique¬
ly up the right fide, a little towards the middle of the
abdomen 5 and when as high as the ftomach, croffes to
the left, and acquires a broad mefocolon. It lies here
on the left kidney, and in its paffage down inclines
more and more to the middle line of the body. When
it has reached the lower part of the abdomen, it paffes
behind the uterus, and along the vagina in the female;
between the two tefticles, and behind the bladder and
root of the penis, in the male ; bending down, to open
on what is called the belly of the animal. In its whole
7 courle
Iiap. II*
atomy courfe it is gently convoluted.
C E T o
In thole which have
' fwLn° c9ecum» a.nd> therefore, can hardly be faid to have
colon, the intcftine, before its termination in the rec-
I turn, makes the fame kind of fweep round the other
inteftines, as the colon does Avhei’e there is a caecum.
For the fize of the animal, the inteftmes are not
large. In thofe of r 8 or 24 feet long, they are not
larger than in the horfe ; the colon is very fhort, and
has little more capacity than the jejunum and ileum.
This is a circumftance common to carnivorous animals.
In the piked whale, the length from the ftomach td
the caecum is 28^- yards, the length of the caecum
feven inches, and of the colon to the anus, two yards
and three quarters.
The teeth, in the ruminating tribe of animals, point
out the kind of ftomach, caecum, and colon; but in
others, as the horfe, lion, &c. the appearances of the
teeth only indicate the kind of colon and caecum. In
the cetaceous tribe of fifties, whether they have teeth
or not, the ftomachs vary little, and the circumftance
of caecum feems not to depend on either teeth or fto¬
mach.
The ftomach, in all the fubjefts examined by Mr
Hunter, confifted of feveral bags continued from the
19 firft on the left, towards the right, where the laft ter-
S’liber of minates in duodenum. The number and fize of the
ftoichs. ftomachs differ confiderably. In the porpoife, gram¬
pus, and piked whale, there are five ; in the bottle-
nofe whale, feven. The two firft ftomachs in the por¬
poife, bettle-nofe, and piked whale, are the largeft 5
l! .« the others are fmaller, but not uniformly fo.
_ The firft ftomach has very much the fliape of an egg
with the fmall end downwards, and is lined with a con¬
tinuation of the cuticle from the cefophagus. In fome
the oefophagus enters the upper end of the ftomach 5
in others, it enters pofterioriy and obliquely. The fe-
cond ftomach in the piked wftiale is very large, and ra¬
ther longer than the firft, is of the ftiape of' the Italic
letter S, and paffes out from the upper end of the firft
on its right fide, by nearly as large a beginning as the
body of the bag. In the porpoife, w-here this fecond
ftomach begins, the cuticle of the firft ends. The in-
fide of the fecond ftomach has unequal rugae like an
irregular honey-comb; In the piked whale the rug®
are longitudinal, and in many places deep, fome of
them being united by crofs bands : in the porpoife the
folds are thick, maffy, and indented into each other.
This .ftomach opens into the third by a round contraft-
ed orifice.
The third ftomach is the fmalleft, appears only to be
a paflage betrveen the fecond and fourth, has no peculiar
internal ftrucfure, and terminates in as large an open¬
ing as at its beginning. It is from one to five inches
long. The fourth ftomach is lefs than either tire firft
or fecond. It feeftrs to be flattened between the fe¬
cond and fifth j and in fome, as the porpoife, it is long,
and paffes in a ferpentine courfe like an inteftine. The
internal furface is regular and villous, and opens on its
right fide into the fifth. The fifth ftomach is round in
the piked whale ; in the porpoife it is oval: it is fmall,
and terminates in the pylorus without any appearance
of a valvular ftruclure. Its coats are thinner than
thofe of the fourth 5 the internal furfaee is even, and
lt> Is commonly tinged with bile. In fome* as the
piked whale and the latge whalebone whale, there is a
Vol. V. Part I.
>..! 3°
F11
d.
r 1 3
rod.).
fif.
L 0 G Y. 343
cfccum 5 in others, as the porpoife, grampus, and hot- Anatomy
tle-nofe whale, it is wanting. and
The ftru&ure of the inner furface of the inteftine is Pliy(1°iogy'.
very lingular. The inner furface of the duodenum of
the piked whale has longitudinal rugte or valves, at
fome diftahee from each other, and receiving lateral
folds. J. he inner coat of the ileum and jejunum ap¬
pears in irregular folds, which may vary according to
the adtion of the mufcular coat of the inteftine, yet do
not feem to depend entirely on this contraction. In.
fome the whole tratft of the inteftine is thrown into
large cells which are fubdivided into fmaller. Thefe
cells have the appearance of pouches with the mouths
downwards, and aft like valves when any thing is at¬
tempted to be pafled in a contrary direction. T„,.
Liver.—In this tribe of animals there is a confider-Refembles
able degree of uniformity in the liver, which in lhapethe human,
bears a near refemblance to the human liver, but is
probably lefs firm in its texture. The right lobe is
the largeft and thickeft, and there is a large fiflure be¬
tween the two lobes, in which the round ligament
paffes. Toward the left the liver is much attached to
the ftomach. The gall-bladder is wanting j but the
hepatic duCt, which enters the duodenum about feven
inches beyond the pylorus, is large.
. P^creas.—The pancreas is a long flat body, hav-SituLxiori.
mg its left end attached to the right fide of the firft
cavity of the ftomach. It croffes the fpine at the root
of the mefentery, joins the hollow curve of the duo¬
denum near to the pylorus, adheres to that inteftine,
and its duCI enters that of the liver near the termina¬
tion in the gut.
Spleen.— l.he fpleen, which is involved in the epi-Small/
ploon, is fmall for the fize of the animal. In fome of
the tribe, as in the porpoife, there are one or two fmall
ones, not larger in fize than a nutmeg, and fometimes
fmaller; I hey are placed in the epiploon behind the
others.
Kidncys.~The kidneys in this whole tribe of ani- Condomel
mals are conglomerated. They are made up of fmall-rated.
er parts, wrhich are connefted only by cellular mem¬
brane, blood-veffels, and duCts. JLhe fmaller portions
are of a conical figure ; the apex is placed towards the
centre of the kidney, and the bafe forms the external
limace. Each portion is compofcd of a cortical and
tubular fubftance, the tubular terminating in the apex,
which apex makes the mamilla. Each mamilla has
an infundibulum, which is long, and at its beginning
wide, embracing the bafe of the mamilla, and becom¬
ing fmaller. Thefe infundibula at laft unite and form
the ureter.
_ Ureters arid Bladder.—The ureter comes out of theSmalf*
kidney at the lower end, and paffes along to the blad¬
der, which it enters very near to the urethra. The
bladder, which is of an oblong ftiape, is fmall for the
fize of the animal. In the female the urethra paffes
along to the external fulcus or vulva, and opens juft
under the clitoris, as in the human fubjetft. The cap.
fulce renaies, when compared to the human, are fmall
for the fize of the animal. They are flat and of an
©val figure. They are compofed of two fubftances -
of an external fubftance, which has the diretftion of its
fibres towards the centre j and of an internal fubftance.,
which is more uniform and has lefs of the fibrous ap.
pearance.
X x
Sect,
.346
G E T O
Aland 5 Sect. IV, Of the Organs of Circulation and Kefpira-
Phyfiology. tion.
LOGY. cl,aP-l
a compound aftion, as for inftance tlie larynx, -which A».t„
. , j u deplutition. and lound ;
is^d both for'refpiration, deglutition and found ; ^1
but in the whale tribe it feems to be adapted only ior
14T
Structure
not pecu¬
liar.
142
Blood in
great pro¬
portion.
143 .
Circulation
aftonilhing.
144
Veina.
145
Red glo¬
bules in
great pro¬
portion.
I. Circulation.—The heart and blood-veffels, efpe-
cially the veins, are probably larger m proportion to
then lire than in the quadruped. The b-rt Is enclo-
fed in its pericardium, and is attached to the diaphragm
as in the human body. It IS compofed of two auricles
and two ventricles, is (latter than m the quadrape^
and adapted to the lhape of the cheft. ihe auricles
have a greater number of fafciculie, pafling more acr
the cavity from fide to fide, than in many other ani¬
mals; andbcfides have confiderable mnfafiarity nnd
elailieity. There is nothing peculiar in the ilrudture
of the ventricles of the heart, in their valves, m t
arteries or in their diftnbution, all which have a fimi-
larity to other animals whofe parts are nearly
Animals of this tribe have a greater proportion of
blood than any other yet known; and fome arteries ar
apparently intended i refervoirs, where a gma quan
till „f blood is required in any part. 1 here is an
work of arteries, jranllheh mufeles.
arteries in the fame manner, efpecially where it pail
“outTom the brain, where a thick fubftance is termed
by their ramifications and convolutions.
In examining particular parts which bear any rel
tion to the fire of the animal, if we have been accuftom-
ed ,0 fee them in the middle-fiaed ammals we muft
bbhf eommrtrTh:
heart and aorta of the fpermaceti whale
and the former was too large to be contained in a wide
.1 Confidering the quantity of circulating u
fo l'arve a “Vel, that probably .0 or 15 gallons o
bloodSare thrown out at a fingle ftroke, and t e gre
velocity with which it moves, the mind muft be filled
-.nth wonder. ^ havc nothing peculiar m their
ftruaurl if we except the veins in the folds on the
ftnulu , .ked whale where, and
t'^li pUct’it -s neceffary to have the elaihc.ty
"biood of this order of animals is «« ‘V^e
r 1 .4 - Mr Hunter feems to think that the
nuanTity of red globules is in larger proportion ; and
he^pp^f®3 that fhis^ncreafed quantity^!! rudjpart'tdes
nthaf::’"n SnXte»mmo-
heat j tor as rney ^ bodieS5 lt 1S
SdIlVc3efoff,,aUt'theremre fomehelp of thiskind
beThc-Sq"anetltyyof blood In this tribe of animals is
Sflo RfspiratioN.—Some parts of the organs of refpi-
^tion in animals that live on iandfeem to befitted -pr
^Larynx * The larynx varies much in ftruflure andVarietij
fize in the different fpecies. It is compofed of the o8
hyoides, thyroid, cricoid and two arytenoid cartilages.
The os hyoides was larger, while the cartilages were
much fmaller, in the bottle-nofe whale of 24 feet long
than in the piked whale of 17 feet. In the bott e-nofe
the os hyoides is compofed of three bones, with tu»
~ .. I-J4. olrinfr riVP. 1TI 3.1I. X
tne os nyomcs —. ~ . r . n
whofe ends are attached to it, making five m all.
n _ ..r 1 fr K/inp ihantlv D
In
■whole enas are ^ -—- o ri. . . , .
the porpoife it confifts of only one bone (lightly bent.
it has no attachment to the head as in many quauru-
pedThe thyroid cartilage, in the piked whale, is broad
from fide to fide, and has two lateral procefles which,
are long, and pafs down the outfide H the cricoid, near
to its lower end, and are joined to it, as m the hu¬
man fubieft. The cricoid cartilage is broad and fiat,
making the poftefior and lateral part of the larynx and
Ts much deeper behind and laterally than before. Ihe
two arytenoid cartilages projeft much andaLCU-
nited to each other till near their ends j they are
articulated on the upper edge of the ciicoid crofs
the cavity of the larynx obliquely, and make-the pai-
fage at the upper part a groove between them. In
feveral of the tribe, the epiglottis makes a thud part
of the paffage, and completes the glottis by forming
it into a canal. No thyroid gland has been difcover-
Ct 'lungs —The lungs are two oblong bodies, one on Not* ’
each Me of the chell, but are not divided into fmaller mi. I
lobes as in the human fubjeft. They are of confider-
able length, but not fo deep as m the quadruped, irom
the heart being broad and fiat, and filling up the cheft.
Theyare increafed in fixe by rifing higher up m the
cheft and palling farther down on the back. The
lungs are extremfly elaftic in their fubflance, and have lt.o
the appearance and confiftence of the fpleen of an ox. 1
The branches of the bronchi® which ramify into the
lungs, have the cartilages rounded, which feems to ad-
mit of greater motion between them
The pulmonary cells are fmaller than in the quadra,
ped and communicate with each other, which thofe
of the quadruped do not; for by blowmg into cam
branch of the trachea, the whole lungs may be fil- .
‘'The diaphragm has not the fame attachments^ as inDok
« ri  /v. fiKc m tins tribe do not
5 VeH
the^quadruped; beoaufe the ribs in tins tribe do not
complete the cavity of the thorax. The diap r?'gm is
therefore unconnefted forwards to the abdominal mu -
cles which are very ftrong, being a mixture of mufeu-
lar and tendinous fibres. The cheft is longefl in the di¬
rection, of the animal at the back, by the diaphragm
paffing obliquely backwards, and reaching low on the
fnineS The parts immediately concerned m refp ration
are*very ftrong. This is particularly the cafe with the
diaphragm. This feems neceffary, as the animal m
enlargeSthe cheft in fo denfe a medium as water, the
preffure of which muft be greater than the_ counter-
preffure from the air infpired. And for ^ fanie r -
fon expiration muft be eafily performed, tor he pie
fure of the water and the natural elafticity of the p ^
are greater, than the refiftance of the internal zi ,
L
15®
I r Is
c j:fly in-
t led for
f .ration.
? ,XLI.
&\l, 2.
w'
«tnn?
« fitted
ft' efpira-
II. C E T O
that It may be produced without any immediate a£Hon
of mufcles. In thefe animals the diaphragm feems to
be the principal agent in infpiration.
Blow-hole, or pajjage for the air.—In animals breath¬
ing air, the nofe is the paffage for the air, and the feat
of the organ of fmelling j but in fome of the cetaceous
tribe, this fenfe feems to be wanting j in them, there¬
fore, the noltrils are intended merely for refpiration.
The membranous portion of the pollerior noilrils is one
Canal j but in the bony part, in molt of them, it is di¬
vided into two. In thofe which have it divided, it is
in fume continued double through the anterior foft
jparts, and opens by two orifices $ but, in others, it
unites again in the membranous part, making exter¬
nally only one orifice, as in the porpoife, grampus,
and bottle-nofe whale. At its beginning in the fauces,
it is a roundith hole, furrounded by a itrong fphinfter
mufcle, which grafps the epiglottis : the canal beyond
this enlarges, and opens into the two palfages in the
bones of the head. In the fpermaceti whale, in which
the canal is Angle, it is thrown a little to the left fide.
After thefe canals emerge from the bones near the ex¬
ternal opening, they become irregular, and have fulci
palling out laterally, of irregular forms, with corre-
fponding eminences j and the Itru&ure of thefe emi¬
nences is mufcular and fatty.
Where there is only one external opening, it is
tranfverfe, as in the porpoife, grampus, bottle-nofe,
and fpermaceti whale j but when it is double, it is
longitudinal, as in the large whalebone whale, and in
the piked whale. Thefe openings form a paffage for
the air to and from the lungs j for it would be im-
poffible for thefe animals to breathe through the
mouth.
In the whale tribe, the fituation of the opening on
the upper furface of the head is well adapted for the
purpofe of refpiration j for it is the firft part that comes
to the furface of the water in the natural progreflive
motion of the animal. The animals of this order do
not live in the medium which they breathe. This re¬
quires a particular conftruftion of the organs vdiich
conduft the air to the lungs, that the water in which
they live may not interfere with the air they breathe.
The projecting glottis paffes into the pofterior noffrils,
by which means it croffes the fauces, and divides them
into two paffages.
The beginning of the pofterior noftrils, which an-
fwers to the palatum ?nolle in the quadruped, has a
fphinCler which grafps the glottis, by which its fitua¬
tion Is rendered ftill more fecure, and the paffages
through the head, acrofs the fauces and along the
trachea, are rendered one continued canal. This union
of glottis and epiglottis with the pofterior noftril ma¬
king only a kind of joints, admits of motion, and of a
dilatation and contraction of the fauces in deglutition,
from the epiglottis moving more in or out of the pof¬
terior noftril. This tribe of animals having no project¬
ing tongue, and therefore wanting its extenfive motion,
and the power of fucking things into the mouth, may
perhaps require this peculiarity of conftruCtion to ren¬
der the communication betw een the air and lungs more
perfeCt. But how far this is the cafe, in the prefent
itate of our knowledge of the ftruCture and economy" of
thefe refpir-atory organs, it is not ealy to fay.
O G Y.
347
... . Anatomy
oect. V. uj the Brain and Organs of Settfe. and
The brain.—In the different genera of the cetaceous *
tribe of animals, the brain differs much, and alfo in 152
the proportion it bears to the bulk of the animal. The Not in pro-
porpoife has the largelt brain, and thus comes neareft
to the human fubjeCt. The wdiole brain is compaCt.te U
The anterior part projeCts lefs forward than in the
quadruped 5 the medulla oblongata is lefs prominent,
and lies on the hollow made by the lobes of the cere¬
bellum.
The brain is compofed of diftinCtly marked cortical
and medullary fubftances. The medullary fuoltance
is very white j the cortical like the tubular fubltance
of the kidney ; and thefe two fubftances, feem to be in
the fame proportion as in the human brain. The la¬
teral ventricles are large. They pafs clofe round the
ends of the thalami nervorum opticorum. The thalami
are large j the corpora Jlriata fmall. Moft of the other
parts have a great refemblance to fimilar parts in the
human brain. T ^
The fubftance of the brain is more vifibly fibrous Subfhnee
than in any other animal. The fibres pafs from the fibrous,
ventricles as from a center to the circumference, and
continue through the cortical fubftance. The brain of
the piked whale weighed four pounds 10 ounces.
The fpinal marrow in this tribe of animals is propor-Spinal mar-
tionally fmaller than in the human Ipecies. It is row.
largeft in the porpoife where the brain is largeft, bear¬
ing fome proportion to the quantity of brain. But this
is not always the cafe ; for in the fpermaceti whale,
where the brain is fmall, the fpinal marrow is propor¬
tionally largeft. It terminates about the twenty-fifth
vertebra, beyond which is the cauda equina : the dura
mater is no farther continued. The nerves that go
off from the fpinakmarrow in its courfe are more uni¬
form in fize than in the quadruped; the parts being
more equal, and no extremities, except the fins, to be
fupplied. The ftrudture of the fpinal marrow is more
fibrous than in other animals j when feparated longi¬
tudinally, it tears wuth a fibrous appearance, but wrheu
feparated tranfverfely, it breaks irregularly.
The fkull is lined w'ith the dura mater, and in fome
forms the three proceffes correfponding to the divifions
of the brain, as in the human fubjeft j but in others this
divifion is bony. Where the dura mater covers the fpi¬
nal marrow, it differs from what takes place in other
animals, for it enclofes the marrow clofely, and the
nerves immediately pafting out through it at the lower
part, as they do at the upper, fo that the cauda equina
as it forms is on the outfide ©f the dura mater. T...
The nerves going out from the brain are fimilar to Nerves,
thofe of the quadruped, excepting in thofe that want
olfa£tory nerves, as the porpoife. As the organs of
fenfe are varioufly formed in different animals, fitted
for the different modes of impreflion, in this tribe the
conftruftion is varied according to the economy of the
animal. The fenfes of touch and tafte feem to be adapt¬
ed to every mode j but thofe of fmell, fight, and hear-
ing, probably require to be varied or modified accord¬
ing to circumftances; and according to thefe circum-
ftances the fenfes are formed.
Senfe of touch.—The Ikin in this tribe of animals ap-skm^the
pears in general to be well calculated for fenfation. feat offeR-
X x 2 Th^fodon- j
348 C E T O
Anatomy The whole fur face is covered with villi, which are fo
am* many vefiels, and it inuft be fuppofed alfo nerves.
Phyfiology Whether this ilrudturc be only neeeffary for acute fen-
' ' fation, or whether it be neceffary for common fenfation,
is not known. But it may be obferved, that where
the fenfe of touch is required to be acute, the villi are
ufually thick and long $ and this is probably neceffary,
becaufe in thefe parts of the body where the fenfations
of touch are acute, fuch parts are covered with a thick
cuticle. This is remarkably the cafe in the ends of our
fingers and toes, and in the foot of the hoofed animals.
Mr Hunter feems to think that the fenfe of touch pof-
feffes greater acutenefs in water.
157 Senfe of tfijie.—The tongue in molt animals is not
Tongue not on]„ t^e organ 0f tafte, but is alfo intended for me-
orgau of chanical purpofes. For this latter purpofe it is per-
iafte. haps lefs fo than in any other animal. In fome it has
more freedom of motion than in others ; and the reafon
of this is probably the difference in the mode of catch¬
ing the food and of fwallowing. In thofe with teeth it
projects moll, which feems lefs neceffary in others which
merely open the mouth to receive the food along with
the water, or fwim upon it. In the porpoife and gram¬
pus, the tongue is firm in texture •, but in the fper-
maceti whale it refembles a feather bed. It is compo-
fed of mufcle and fat 5 and in fome is pointed and fer-
rated on the edges.
„r ,5S . Scnfc of fmellim.—In many of this tribe there is no
ibme. ^ organ of fmell at all 5 and in thofe which have fuch an
organ, it is not that of a filh, and therefore, like theirs
it is probably not calculated to fmell water. It be¬
comes a matter of difficulty to account for the manner
in which fuch animals fmell water, and why others
have no fuch organ, which is fuppofed to be peculiar
to the large and fmall whalebone whales. Mr Hunter
is of opinion that the air retained in the noftril out of
the current of refpiration, which by being impregnated
wdth the odoriferous particles contained in the wa¬
ter during the aft of blowing, is applied to the organ
of fmell. It might be fuppofed, he obferves, that they
would fmell the air on the furface of the water by
every infpiration as animals do on land ; but admitting
this to be the cafe, it will not give them the power to
fmell the odoriferous particles of their prey in the wa¬
ter at any depth 5 and as their organ is not fitted to be
affefted by the application of water, and as they
cannot fuck water into the noftrils without the dan¬
ger of its palling into the lungs, it cannot be by its
application to this organ that they are enabled to
fmell. Some have the power of throwing the water
from the mouth through the noftril, and with fuch
force as to raife it 30 feet high. This no doubt an-
fwers fome very important purpofe, although not very
obvious. Mr Hunter fuppofing that fmelling the ex¬
ternal air could be of no ufe as a fenfe, thinks that
they do not fmell in infpiration \ for the organ of
fmell is out of the direft road of the current of air
in infpiration, and it is alfo out of the current of wrater
•when they fpout •, may it not then be fuppofed, he
alks, that this ftnus contains air, and as the water paffes
m the aft of throwing it out, that it impregnates this
refervoir of air, which immediately affefts the fenfe of
fmell ? This operation is eonjeftured to be performed
in the aft of expiration 3 becaufe then the Avater is
laid to be very offenfive. Mr Hunter adds, that if
LOGY. Chap.l;
this folution be well founded, tbofe only can fpout Anatonn
which have the organ of fmell. But as lome animals atd
of this order are entirely deprived of this organ, and ^yfiologi;
as the organ in thofe which have it is extremely fmall,
as well as the nerve which receives the impreflion, it
would appear to be lefs neceffary in them than in thofe
which live in air.
Senfe of hearing.—The internal ear in general has similar9 ^
nearly the fame conftruftion as that of quadrupeds, quadru.
The bones, the cavities, the cartilages, and the nerves Pe^*
are the fame, their difpofition and arrangement vary¬
ing in fome of the fpecies 5 and from this there arifes
n difference of ftrufture in thefe organs, and perhaps
alfo a difference in the fenfation. According to.fomfr
anatomifts, the fcmicircular canals are wanting in fome
of this tribe of animals y while they have been deferi-
bed by others. Some have deferibed the form of the
veftibulum as in the fpermaceti whale, others have de¬
nied its exiftence altogether. It is perhaps owing to
their being lefs eafily detedled, that they have been
fuppofed not to exift at all. According to the rela¬
tions of fifnermen, the cetaceous tribe have the fenfe
of hearing as acute as that of quadrupeds. ^
Scnfe of feeing.—The organ of fight in this tribe ^
feems to have a very clofe analogy with the fame or¬
gan in quadrupeds. There is the lame relative connec¬
tion between the choroid coat, the retina, and the cryf-
talline humour. In fome circumftances, however, they
differ, by which probably the eye in this tribe is better
adapted to fee in the medium through which the light
is to pafs. The eye for the fize of the animal is fmall j
from which it is conjeftured that their power of mo¬
tion is not great. As no obfervations have yet been
made on the form, fize, and denfity of the different
humours of the eye, any thing we could add would,
be mere conjefture founded on vague analogy.
Sect. VI. Of the Organs of Generation, &c.
If the cetaceous tribe of animals come near to fifties straJfurre
in fome point of refemblance, they are very different in fimilarto
thofe of others. This is remarkably the cafe in the thofe of r
ftrufture of the organs of generation, in which they
come nearer in form to thofe of ruminating animals,
than of any other ; and this fimilarity is more ftriking
in the female than in the male *, for the fituation muft
vary in the latter on account of external circumftances. ^
In the male the tefticles remain in the fituation in which
they were formed, as in thofe quadrupeds in which they
never come down into the ferotum. They are fituated
near the lower part of the abdomen, one on each fide,
upon the two great depreffors of the tail •, and at thi»
part they come in contaft with the abdominal mufcles
anteriorly. The vafa deferentia pafs direftly from the
epididymis behind the bladder, or between it and the
reftum, into the urethra. The veficulse femiiqales are
wanting. The ftrufture of the penis is nearly the
fame as that of the quadruped. The ereftores penis,,
which have a fimilar infertion to thofe of the human
fubjeft, as well as the aceeleratores, are very ftrong
mufcles. ' jtfj
Thefe organs in the female confift of the external Female,
opening of the vagina, the two horns of the uterus,
Fallopian tubes, fimbriae, and ovaria. The external
opening is a longitudinal flit, whole edges meet in two
oppofit*
iap. II-
i natomy oppofite points, forming a kind of fulcus. The vagina
' ami paffes upwards and backwards in a diagonal direction,
yfiology- refpecting the cavity of the abdomen, and then divides
['’-y—into the two horns, one on each fide of the loins.
Thefe afterwards terminate in the Fallopian tubes, to
■which the.ovaria are attached. The infide of the va-
fgina is fmooth for about one-half of its length, and
then begins to form fomething fimilar to valves pro¬
jecting towards the mouth of the vagina, each like an
os tincce. Thefe are from fix to nine in number. They
hardly go quite round where they firil begin to form,
but the laft make complete circles *, and at this place
the vagina becomes fmaller, and continues gradually
to decreafe in width to its termination. From the laft-
projeCting part the paflage is continued up to the open¬
ing of the two horns •, and at this place the inner fur-
face forms longitudinal rugge, which ftretch into the
horns.
The Fallopian tubes, at their termination in the
uterus, are for fome inches remarkably fmall, they then
begin to dilate fuddenly •, and this dilatation increafes,
till at the mouth they are five or fix inches in diame¬
ter. Through their whole length they are full of
longitudinal rugae. The ovaria are oblong bodies a-
bout five inches in length ; one end is attached to the
end of the Fallopian tube, and the other to the horn
of the uterus. They are irregular in the external fur-
face, and have no capfule but what is formed by the
Fallopian tube.
In what pofition the a6I of copulation is performed,
does not feem to be precifely afeertained. 'Ihe Green¬
land fifhermen fay, that they arc then ere ft in the
water, the heads being above the furface, and. em¬
bracing each other with the fins. M. de St Pierre,
during the courfe of a voyage to the ille of France,
aflerts, that he faw them feveral times in this pofition.
Others as confidently affirm, that the female throws
herfelf on her back > but it would appear that this po¬
fition muft interfere with the aft of refpiration, which
cannot be for any length of time fufpended } and, there¬
fore, that it is lefs probable.
•in'forth 11 is conjeftured, that the female admits the male
I e^t a only once in two years, and that the time of geftation
1 ne, once is nine or ten months. It is probable, too, that hav-
tw0 ing only two nipples, they bring forth only a fingle
arsG young one at a time.
ammse. The glands for the feeretion of milk, or the breads,
are two, one on each fide of the middle line of the bel¬
ly at its lower part. The pofterior ends, from which
the nipples proceed, are on each fide of the opening of
the vagina in fmall furrows, ft hey are flat bodies ly¬
ing between the external layer of fat and the abdomi¬
nal mufcles, and are of confiderable length, but only
©ne-fourth of that in breadth., ft here is a large trunk
which runs through the whole length of the gland, and
appears to ferve the purpofe of a refervoir for the milk.
Into this trunk the lateral and fmaller dufts enter, fome
with the courfe of the milk, fome in a contrary direc¬
tion. The trunk terminates in a projeftion externally,
I(;6 which enclofes the nipple,
rocefsof It feems difficult at firft fight to conceive in what
! icking. way the procefs of fucking is performed •, fo that both
the mother and the young one may at the fame time
refpire freely. According to the relations of the
Greenland fifhermen, the mother throws herfelf on her
349
fide, and the young one then feizes the nipple. In ARatomy
this pofition, the fmalleft motion of the body permits
the mother or the young one to enjoy the advantage J
of refpiration. The art of fucking muft be different
from that of land animals, for in them it is performed
by drawing the air from the mouth backward into the
lungs, which the fluid follows by the preffure of the
external air on its furface j but, in the cetaceous tribe,
the lungs have no connexion with the mouth. The
operation of fucking muft therefore be performed by
the aftion of the mouth itfelf, and by its having the
power of expanfion. _ ^
The milk of the whale is fuppofed to be very rich. Milk rich#
In the one which was taken near Berkeley with its
young one, the milk was tailed by Mr Jenner and Mr
Ludlow. By their account, it had the richnefs of
cows milk to which cream had been added.
'The young whale, according to Dudley, continues
to fuck for a year. They are then called Jhort-heads
by the fiffiermen, and are extremely fat, fome yielding
50 tons of fat. The mother., at the fame period, are
very lean. At the age of two years, they are called
Jhints, becaufe they are fuppofed to be dull after being
weaned. The quantity of fa* which they then yield
is from 24 to 28 tons. After tnis period, they come
under the denomination of Jkulljifh, wdien their age
can only be gueffed at by the length of hair at the ter¬
minations of the whalebone. _ 168
'The affeftion and attachment which the whale dif-Affe&ioa
covers for its young, have been much celebrated. by for
naturalifts. Perhaps it is magnified by the comparifon Joun°*'
between the whale and fifties living in the fame ele¬
ment, the care of whofe offspring is totally difregarded
by the parent, and left, which indeed is all that is ne-
ceffary, to the influence of heat and air to bring forth
from the ova or fpawn depofited by the mother. I his
attachment is probably, after all, not more remark¬
able than in other animals which fuckle their young,
and bring forth a fmall number, or only one at a
time.
SECT. VII. Of the Food of the Whalethe Si%et
Abode, Fat, <b'c.
Food. The food of the whole cetaceous tribe is Different/
fuppofed by naturalifts to be fifti, each probably hav-kinds of
ing fome particular kind. Some hundreds of the
beaks of cuttle-fifh were found by Mr Hunter, in the
ftomach of the bottle-nofe whale j in the ftomach o£ -
the piked-whale, bones of different fifti, but particular¬
ly thofe of the dog-fith ; and, in the grampus, the tail ;
of a porpoife.
Confidering the capacity of tne oefophagus, we mufi:
conclude, that they do not fwallow fiih fo large in pro¬
portion to their fize as many fifti do y for it isobferved,
that fiih often attempt to fwallow more at a time than
what the ftomach will hold ; fo that part muft remain1
in the cefophagus till the reft is digefted. . 173
The food of the large whalebone whale is fuppofed Of the largi
to be fmall fifti, fometimes crab-fifti and fhcll-fiih. Itw!iale-
may appear ftrange, that fo large an animal Ihould be
able to find a quantity of food fufficiently great for its
fubfiftence, and to preferve with it fuch a covering of
fat as they are generally found to have. But this won¬
der ceafes, when it is confidered that the very food
they
CETOLOGY.
35°
Anatomy
and
Phyfiology,
. 171
Northern
whale.
172
Narhwal.
173
Spermaceti
whale.
174 ,
■Blackhead-
ed fperma-
ceti whale.
*75
®olphin.
176
6c feet.
C E T O
they feek after, is found in the greateft abundance in
thofe regions which they ufually inhabit. In the eco¬
nomy of the whalebone whale, this fubftance, from
which it derives its name, feems to be of particular
ufe j for as it appears that they live on fmall filh,
which they probably receive into the mouth in great
numbers, it was neceflary that there fliould be fome
contrivance to retain them in the mouth till they are
fwallowed j and this purpofe is fully anfwered by the
whalebone.
The northern whale, or the north-caper, lives on
mackerel, herrings, cod fifh, and tunny fifh. Horre-
bow mentions, that the Icelanders found in the fto-
maeh of an individual of this fpecies, which came on
Ihore in purfuit of its prey, no lefs than 600 living
cud-filh, belides a great number of pilchards, and fome
aquatic birds. This account is probably exaggerated,
at leaf! with regard to the number of filh in the ito-
mach being alive. The other fpecies belonging to this
genus ufually feed on the herring, the ardtic lalmon,
and the fand-eel.
The narhwal, or unicorn whale, is faid to live chief¬
ly on the different fpecies of adfinia. It is unprovided
with teeth to feize its prey *, but, according to fome
naturalifts, it can employ the long tooth which pro¬
ceeds from the upper jaw to entangle thefe fiihes} and
having colledled them in this manner to the edge of
the lips, it fucks them into the mouth and delxroys
them, by conltantly ftretching the tongue along the
lips.
The fpermaceti whales purfue the feal, the dolphin,
and the pike-headed whale. The large fpermaceti
whale purfues, with great avidity, the (hark, which is
faid to be his ordinary food j and this animal, other-
Avife fo formidable, is feized with fuch a panic at the
light of this terrible enemy, that he conceals himfelf in
the mud, or under the fand *, fometimes feeing himfelf
lb alfailed on all fides, he darts acrofs the rocks, and
llrikes them with fuch force and violence as to occa-
fion his own death. This terror, according to Fabri-
cius, is fo (trongly, impreffed, that the fhark, which is
£0 greedy of the carcafes of the other cetaceous fifnes,
dares not even approach the dead body of the large
fpermaceti whale.
The phyfeter microps is faid to prey chiefly on the
feal. When the feals are in number together, and
find themfelves attacked by their enemy, they make a
precipitate retreat. Some gain the fhore ; while others
climb on a piece of ice j and then, if the whale be alone,
he conceals himfelf under the ice, and waits till the
feal return to the water, when he feizes his prey. But
if feveral whales have joined in the purfuit, as frequent¬
ly happens, it is faid they furround the mafs of ice,
and overturn it in the water.
The dolphin genus feed on cod-fifh, flat fifh, fuch
as the turbot, and many ether kinds of fifh of moderate
fize. The grampus is the boldeft, the ftrongeft, and
the moll voracious of any belonging to this tribe of ani¬
mals. It is agreed by almoft all naturalifts, that the
grampus will even attack the great whale, and put him
to flight, which is faid to be the reafon that they are
fometimes thrown afhore on our coafts.
Size of the Whale.—The whale is now rarely feen to
exceed 60 feet in length, by 36 feet in circumference.
A whale, which landed in thehkmd of Corfica in 1620,
LOGY. Chap. Ill
was c 0 of the largeft which has been known for fome Anatom®jl
centuries. It meafured 10c feet in length. But al- and
though this be an enormous bulk, it falls far fhort of pkyfidog 1
the magnitude of the whale, as it lias been deferibed
by ancient naturalifts, exifting in their time. But pro¬
bably thefe relations will gain little faith, even from
the moft credulous of the prefent day, in which Pliny
fpeaks of the whale being 960 feet long j and in ano¬
ther place, the fame naturalift lays, that Juba writes
to C. Cafar, the fon of Auguftus, that fome whales of
60c feet in length, and 36.. in circumference, had en¬
tered the rivers of Arabia. i
But whatever credit is to be given to thefe ftories, Fom/cri-
there is little doubt that the w hales in the northern larger,
ocean were formerly of much greater bulk than they
now' are *, and the realon teems to be, that being lefs ^
difturbed when this filhery was lefs frequented, theyReafon.
arrived at a greater age, and confequently acquired a
greater fize. 11
Abode of the vehale.—According to the teftimony jvior7frt. i
of the ancient naturalifts, the whale was more frequent-quentin®
ly feen in the ocean than at prefent j for, on accountoreanbr*T-
of being difturbed by the numerous fleets traverfing1116^^
the ocean, they have retired to the regions of the
north, where they are lefs expofed to the noife of the
mariners, lefs harafied by the fiftrermen, and enjoy that
tranquillity which is no longer to be found in their
former haunts. 1
The large whalebone whale is moft frequently ^5^ ;4
found in the Greenland feas, Davis ftraits, and the the north-
coafts of Spitzbergen, Iceland, and Norway 5 on theernfeai
coafts of Labrador, in the gulf of St Lawrence, and
round Newfoundland. This whale is alfo found a-
mong the Philippine iflands, near Socotora, an ifland
on the coaft of Arabia Felix, and on the coafts of
Ceylon. The whale alfo frequents the Chinele feas j
and, if the reports of voyagers are to be implicitly ad¬
mitted, is found there of an immenfe fize. The ufual
retreat of the fpermaceti whale is the northern ocean,
towards Davis ftraits, the North Cape, and the coafts
of Finmark. Of all the cetaceous fiih, this indeed
feems to lead the moft wandering life. In the year
1787, this wkale W'as difeovered in great numbers i»
an extenftve bay in the fouthern ptninfula of Africa,
at the diftance of 40 leagues from the Cape of Good
Hope.
The dolphin family is found in all feas $ in the
ocean, the Mediterranean, the gulf of Meflina, and
the Adriatic fea, from whence they go into the la¬
goons of Venice, and to the coafts ©f Galicia. On
4he coafts of Cochin China very confiderable fiflieriee
are eftabliflied, which produce a -great quantity of
oil- . , ,8,
We may conclude, that, in general, the great whale Largeft
and the unicorn-fifti ufually frequent the leas towards fiftes in
the poles, between the 68th and 79th degrees of lati-nor:herB
tude j and that the other families are found diffufed re2lons'
more or lefs in the feas of more temperate regions. It
would appear, from this account of the places which
are the ordinary haunt of the whale, that the produc¬
tions of nature are difpefed fomewhat in a contrary 1S2
order j fince we find all the large terreftrial animals, Largeft
fuch as the elephant and rhinoceros, in countries with-
in the torrid zone ; while the huge inhabitants of thetorr-j
•ocean have fixed their abode in the polar regions.
Migration
!iS3
Itus-of
■bp.ll. C E T O
.atomy Migration of the whale.—Although the abode of the
['ind whale be generally determined and fixed, yet partieu-
fio’ogy- jar caufes force them to leave their ufual and natural
haunts. The feafon of their amours, a furious ftorm,
the purfuit of a haraffing enemy, the want of food, or
exceffive cold, often oblige them to migrate. Some¬
times they appear folitary, fometimes in confiderable
numbers, according to the nature of the caufes which
have difturbed and driven them from their ordinary re¬
treats. According to the information of voyagers who
have vifited thefe regions, the great whale every year,
in the month of November, leaves Davis ftraits, en¬
ters thejiver St Lawrence, and there brings forth her
young, between Camourafca and Quebec ; and from
thence, in the month of March following, they regu¬
larly return to the polar feas.
It appears, that the whale conftantly remains in the
*orthern ocean, and never leaves it but when the fe¬
male is to bring forth, or when they are driven away
by an enemy. In this laft cafe they are moll; com¬
monly found folitary, at leaft not more than the male
and female, or the mother and the young one.
The fpermaceti whales, however, feem frequently to
change their habitation, and to roam about in ftrange
feas. This appears from confiderable numbershaving
been thrown athore or left dry by the retreating tide
at different times. In the year 1690, 200 of this fpe-
cies were landed near Cairfton in the Orkneys •, and,
in the year 17S4, 31 large fpermaceti whales came on
fhore on the weft coaft of Audierne in Lower Brittany
in Trance.
Enemies of the whale.—The greateft and moft ter¬
rible enemy of the fmall whale is the phyfeter microps,
or black-headed fpermaceti whale. As foon as he per¬
ceives the pike-headed whale, the porpoife, and fome
others, he darts upon them, and tears them to pieces
with his crooked tangs.
It is faid, that there exifts a continual and fettled
enmity between the unicorn-fith and the great whale j
and that they never meet without engaging in combat,
in which the whale receives fo many fevere, and often
deadly wounds, as often to occauon its death. When
the unicorn-fith ftrikes its tooth or horn into the fide
of fhips, it is fupnoled that it is through miftake, ta¬
king the veflel for its enemy, the whale.
The white bear, fo common in Greenland and Spitz-
184
kk-
pded
ule.
185
ncom-
x%6
flute bean
tS7
bergeo, is extremely fond of the tlefti of tne cetaceous
and other fifties. He remains conftantly on the watch
for his prey on a mats of ice, or on the fea thore ; and
as tooa as he perceives it, he throws himieli into the
water, and plunges to attack it. I he large and the
fmall whales are equally the obje^ls of his eager pur¬
fuit ; but he is not fuecefsful till after they have loft a
great deal of blood from the wounds which he has in-
flifded, or they have been exhaufted with fatigue..
Between the taw-fidi and the whale there exifts a
conftant warfare. It is related by all the fiffiermen,
that the whale and faw-filh, whenever they meet, join
in combat, and that the latter is always the aggreflbr.
Sometimes two or more individuals combine to attack
a fingle whale; and it is inconceivable with what fury
they make the attack. 1 he . whale, whofe only de¬
fence is his tail, endeavours to ftrike his enemy with
it t, and a fingle blow would prove mortal. But the
fea-fiftij. with, aftoniihing agility, ftruns the ..dieadful
LOGY. 35*
ftroke, bounds into the air, and returns upon his huge Anatomy
adverfary, plunging the rugged weapon, with which
he is furniftied, into his back, i he wha,le is ftill more —‘
irritated by this wound, which only becomes fatal w hen
it penetrates the fat. The engagement ceafes not but
with the death of one of the combatants. Martens
relates an account of one of thefe combats between the
Iceland whale (Balaena Glacialis) and the faw-fiftn
It feemed to be extremely dangerous to approach tha
field of battle. It was therefore at fome diftance, that
he faw them purfuing and ftriking each other, dealing
fuch violent blows that the water rofe in foam as if
agitated by a ftorm. He was prevented from feeing.
the iflue of the ftruggle by the weather becoming thick
and hazy } but he was informed by the failors, that
fuch combats were frequent j that they generally kept
at a diftance till the whale was vanquished y and that
the faw-fifh, only eating the tongue, relinquiftied the
reft of the body, which they take pofleflion of.
Forlkal informs us, that the Arabians believe that
fome fpecies of the fcarus, a fifh found in the Red lea,
enter the blow-holes of the whale, and deftroy it with
their ftiarp fpines 5 and, in confirmation of this fabt, it
is mentioned, that one of thefe fifties was found in the
blow-hole of a dead whale. . .. , .
The whale is even harafled with aquatic birds, which Birds,
alight in great numbers on its back, in fearch of the
teftaceous animals and imall infefts, which have made
it their habitation. And, like moft other animals,
the whale is tormented with a fpecies of loufe, pecu¬
liar to- itfelfi, which adheres fo ftrongly to the Ikin,
that it may be fooner torn afunder than be made to
let go its hold. The fins, the lips, the parts of gene-
ration, and other parts of the body, which are moft
protected from friction, are ehieily infefted with this
infe<!ft. The bite is extremely painful, and they are *
mo.ft troublefome in that feafon when the whale is in
heat.
Asre of the whale.—If the time neceflary for the Not io old
growth or mcreafe of the body were in proportion toas iorm6r
the period of life, there could be little doubt of the -
whale being, of all animals known, the moft remark¬
able for longevity. It is well known, that the whales
which were taken when this fiftiery firft became an ob-
je£t of trade, that is, between 200 and 300 years ago,
were of much greater bulk than they are found to be
in the prefent day. The largeft now taken rarely ex¬
ceed 6a feet long-, while, at that time, fome reached
the aftoniftiing fize of 100 in-length. I he reafon of
this difference of fize feems to be, that, when tne fifti¬
ery firft commenced, whales, which had probably
reached their utmoft growth, were frequently met
with. Thefe, on account of being the largeft, were
conftantly harafled, purfued, and deftroyed 5 fo that
none which have attained their full growth are now
to be found in ttuffe feas reforted to by the fiftiermen.
From this ckeumftance, that no large whales are now
to be feen in the places which they commonly fre¬
quent, it is concluded, that the period of the life of
the whale is very long and that they cannot arrive at
the huge fize for which the firft whales were fo re¬
markable, fince they are not permitted to live undi-
fturbed t’-e requifite length of time to attain that bulk.
Accordi g to Buffon, a whale may live 1000 years,
fince a earn has . been known to reach the age of 2<po.,
Rut,
35 2
C E T 0
Oil
190
Anatomy But, reafoning from analogy, vitn regard to tlie ftruc-
a’1(| ture and economy of the whale, we have feen in many
, ipy- luftances, by no means holds j and it is perhaps equal¬
ly inapplicable to the growth and age of this order of
animals.
The fat or oil of cetaceous fifhes.—The fat of this
Order of animals is ufually called oil. It is the mod;
fluid of animal fats, for it does not coagulate in our
atmofphere. It is found in confiderable quantity, prin¬
cipally on the outfide of the ntufcles, and immediately
under the fk.in ; and is rarely to be met with in any of
the cavities, or in the interilices of the mufcles. This
fubftance is enclofed in a reticular membrane, appa¬
rently compofed of fibres palling in all direftions,
which feem to confine its extent, and allow it little or
no motion on itfelf 5 for the whole, when diftended,
forms almoft a folid body; In fome of the animals of
this order there is a different dillribution of the fat.
Under the head or neck of the bottle-nofe whale, it is
confined in large cells which admit of motion. In
fome this reticular membrane is very fine, in others it
is coarfe and llrong, and it varies in different parts of
the fame fifh. In the porpoife, fpermaceti, and large
whalebone whale, it is very fine *, in the grampus and
fmall vrhalebone whale, it is coarfe. In all of them it
is finefl; on the body, becoming coarfer as it reaches
and covers the fins and tail, which latter is compofed
of fibres without any fat.
The internal fat is the leaf! fluid in this order of ani¬
mals. It is nearly of the confidence of hogs lard.
The external fat is the common train-oil. It is the
adipofe covering from all of the whale kind, which is
brought home in fquare pieces called flitches $ and this,
which is commonly known under the name of blubber,
after being boiled, yields the oil by expreffion, leaving
the cellular membrane. When thefe flitches or mafles
of fat become putrid, there iflue two kinds of oil. The
one is pure j but the other feems to have a confider¬
able mixture of other animal matters, which, from the
ftate of putridity, are readily diflblved in the purer
oil, and form a kind of butter. It feels undtuous to
the touch, and ropy, coagulates with cold, fwims on
water, and the pure oil feparates and rifes to the top.
The fubilance which remains after all the oil is extraft-
ed, is almoft entirely convertible into glue, and is fold
to be applied to the fame purpofes.
Spermaceti.—The fubftance called fpermaceti is
part of the found in every part of the body, mixed with the com-
feody. mem fat of the animal •, but to this it bears a fmall
proportion. In the head this fubftance is alfo mixed
with the common fat \ but here the proportions of the
two fubftances are reVerfed : the fpermaceti is by far
in greateft quantity. And, from this circumftance of
its being found in fuch abundance, in what, from a
flight view, would appear to be the cavity of thelkull,
it has been by fome fuppofed to be the brain.
Moft abun- The two kinds of fat in the head are contained in
Sant in the ce]l3 or fti cellular membrane, fimilar to what takes
head. place in other animals \ but, befides thefe, there are
larger cells, or ligamentous parts going acrofs, the bet¬
ter to fupport the vaft load of oil of which the bulk of
the head is principally compofed. There are two pla¬
ces in the head in which this oil lies. Thefe are fitu-
ated along the upper and lower part of it, and are di¬
vided by the noftrils and a great number of tendons
4
191
Of two
kinds.
192
In every
194
LOGY. Ghap.li
which pafs from the nofe and the different parts of the Anatoi
head. The cells, which are of the fmalleft fize, and aml
are the leaft ligamentous, are obferved to contain the1 >i0°:
pureft fpermaceti. Thefe cells refemble thofe which
contain the fat in other parts of the body neareft the
fldn, and they lie above the noftril, along the upper
part of the head, immediately under the Ikin and com¬
mon cellular membrane. The fpermaceti, which, lies
above the roof of the mouth, or between it and the
noftril, is more intermixed with a ligamentous cellular
membrane 5 and it is contained in chambers whofe
partitions are perpendicular. Near the nofe thefe
chambers are fmalleft ; but they become larger Up¬
wards the back part of the head, and in thefe laft the
fpermaceti is pureft. About the nofe Mr Hunter dif-
covered a great number of Veffels which had the ap¬
pearance of a plexus of veins, fome of which w ere as
large as a finger. They were loaded with fpermaceti
and oil, and fome of them had correfponding arteries.
He thinks it probable that they were lymphatics, and
that their contents were abforbed from the cells of the
head ; for many of thefe cells or chambers were found
'empty.
The numerous ufeful purpofes to which the common
oil of the whale and the fpermaceti are applied, the
latter fometimes in medicine, and both in many of the
arts and in domeftic economy, are too well known to
be particularly pointed out.
Ambergris.—This fubftance, the origin of which was Doubt
long a matter of doubt and uncertainty among natu-°P“1'on.s
ralifts, is now pretty well afeertained to be the pro-on^n‘i
duftion of fome of the cetaceous tribe of animals. By
fome it was fuppofed to be the excrement of the whale,
and, by others, that it wras the dung of birds. Ac¬
cording to fome, it is compofed of honey and wax,
confolidated by the heat of the fun and the aftion of
fea water; while, in the opinion of others, it is a bi¬
tuminous fubftance, which flows from the bowels of
the earth into the waters of the ocean, where it be-
• comes hard and firm.
But, in the opinion of later naturalifts, it is a fub-Thepro.
fiance which has an origin and formation fimilar to that 1
of mufkj and is a production of the fpermaceti whale,
This opinion has been rendered more probable by the
fame fubftance having been found in fome whales of
this fpecies, and particularly in one which came on
fhore on the coaft of Bayonne in France, in 1741. In
the latter it Avas found in rounded mafles from three
to 12 inches in diameter, which weighed from i^lb.
to 2olb. It W'as contained in an oval bag from three
to four feet long, and from two to three feet broad,
which w^as fufpended immediately above the tefticles.
This bag terminated in two tubes, one of which be¬
coming narroAver, reached to the penis j the other pro¬
ceeded from the kidneys, and terminated in the other
extremity. The bag Avas almoft entirely filled with a
yellow-coloured fluid, not quite fo thick as oil, exhal¬
ing a fimilar but ftronger odour than the maffes of am¬
bergris which floated in it. Each mafs was compo¬
fed of concentric layers. The number of mafles found
in one bag never exceeded four. One Avas found
Avhich Aveighed 20 lb.; but there was no other in the
fame bag. It has been fuppofed that the ambergris
is only found in old Avhales, and in the males. Some
naturalifts think that this fubftance is an oily concre¬
tion
ipiS
! :pofed
t DC in-
t ated
Ms.
*i19’
f bably a
P crna-
fub-
flke.
v *93
s .1 as a
fume.
tion which exhales the odour of the fluid in which it is
formed j and that the bag which contains thcfe fra¬
grant maffes is the urinary bladder.
But if this be the ufual mode in which amber¬
gris is produced, it appears difficult to account for
the large raaffes which are found floating in the waters
of the ocean in different parts of the world, as among
the iflands in the torrid zone, and in the Indian and
African feas.
According to the information colle&ed by Dr Swe-
diaur, and which the reader will find more fully de¬
tailed under the word Ambergris, it appears that
it is generally confidered by the New England fiflier-
men as a produ&ion of the fpermaceti whale. Some¬
times they find it floating in the fea ; and when this
happens, they fearch for the whale, fuppofing tlftt it
has been voided by this animal. Sometimes they
out it out from a fwelling or protuberance on the
belly of the dead whale. And from all the informa¬
tion which Dr Swediaur could obtain, he concludes,
that ambergris is generated in the bowels of the
fpermaceti whale (P/iyfeter Macrocephalus, Lin.), and
that it is there mixed with the beaks of the fepia
oRepodia, which is the principal food of this w hale.
He therefore confiders this fubltance to be the faces
of the animal preternaturally indurated, mixed with
the indigeltible relicks of the food. See Amber¬
gris.
Later information has verified feme part of the doc¬
tor’s opinion, as well as fome of the conjeflures of ear¬
lier naturalifts. Mr Coffin, mafter of a ffiip employed
in the fouthern vhale-filhery, brought home, in the year
I79r» 362 ounces of ambergris taken from the body
of a female fpermaceti wffiale on the coaft of Guinea.
Part was found floating in the fea, and part was feen
coming from the anus while the people were employ¬
ed in cutting up the blubber. More was found in the
mteffines, and the reft in a bag communicating with
them. I his whale was lean, fickly, and old, and yield¬
ed but a fmall proportion of oil. When the fpermaceti
whale is ftruck, (he generally voids her excrement \
and, if ftie does not, it is conje£lured that flie has no
ambergris. Mr Coffin fuppofes, that the production
of this fubftance is either the caufe or the effect of
lome difeafe, as he thinks it is molt likely to be
found in ffckly fifti, as was the cafe with the filh which
yielded him fo large a quantity. Perhaps it may be
found by future and more accurate investigation to be
a natural produftion of the animal, fecreted to anfwer
fome important purpofe in its economy j and that it is
preternaturally increafed in quantity, either by the
exceflive or the diminilhed aftion of the vital powers
in age or difeafe, and then it is excreted, or difeovered
in the body of the filh after death.
Ambergris is one of the moft fragrant perfumes j
and for this purpole it is chiefly employed in this as
well as in moft other countries. In Alia, and in fome
parts of Africa, it is alfo ufed in medicine and cookery.
It is bought up in conliderable quantities by the pil¬
grims who travel to Mecca, by whom it is fuppofed to
be ufed in fumigations in religious ceremonies, in the
hftne manner as the burning frankincenfe or other
fragrant perfumes makes part of the religious rites of
other countries.
^ V. Part I.
C E T O L O G Y.
Chap. III. Of the W hale-Fifhery.
, 353
Whale-
Fifliery.
Nothing, perhaps, difplays in a more ftriking man-power^of
tier the power and dexterity ot man than the facility man in fub-
and fucccfs with which he conquers and deftroys the
moft enormous and the moft formidable of the animated lal?eft a:!I*
productions of nature. The elephant and the w'hale,1’™"*
the largeft animals known, the one feemingly fecure
in the midft of the huge icy mountains of the polar-
regions, and the other roaming at pleafure in the al-
moft inacceffible wilds and deep woods of the torrid
zone, yield to his power or fall beneath his all-fubduing
arm. The fwifteft and the moft ferocious, as well as
the moft fagacious, and the moft cunning and artful,
efcape not the toils and fnares which he contrives,
or the deadly aim of the inftruments of his inven¬
tion.
Whether man was originally urged by neceffity, as
is moft probable, to attack fo huge a montter as the
whale, or whether it was indireftly to gratify the artifi-
cial demands of luxury that he firft attempted and
ftill continues to perfevere in an occupation fo full of
danger and fatigue, it muft be allowed to be one of
the boldeft and moft daring enterprifes that can be con¬
ceived. And indeed were it not quite familiar to us,
we ftrouid ftill behold w ith dread and aftonifhment fo
feeble a creature as man preparing to attack this mon-
fter of the deep, whofe ftrength, were it properly di¬
rected, no power could refill ; nor would our w onder
be diminifhed, when we find that he feldom fails to
fucceed in the attempt. But knowledge is power $ and
the triumphs of intellectual power are equally confpi-
cuous, in accommodating the molt unwieldy and molt
unmanageable parts either of the inanimate or ani¬
mated creation to the fupply and gratification of hu¬
man wants and defires, in guiding through the traek-
lefs ocean, the Ihip from which the fpear is launched
for the deltruCtion of the whale, or in digging from the
bow-els of the earth the metal with which the compafs
and the harpoon are conftruCted. 2c#
So early as the 9th century, in the time of Alfred NTorwet,!-
the great, it appears that the Norwegians were ac-an'firft
quainted w-ith the whale-filhing This prince received 3C5ualri.te*'
an account of the difeoveries of a Norwegian about thl3
the North Cape, in w-hich he fpeaks of his having been 1
as far north as the places to which the whale-hunters
refort ; which is confidered as a proof of its antiquity 5 * Avder~
although it is fuppofed that it was purfued merely on s
account of the oil, the ufe of the whalebone not beincr •^^cCoOT,”*
then known *. ' 5 ^ S42QI
But the people who are recorded in hiftory as hav- Bitcayaas
ing profecuted this fifhery w-ith fuccefs, were the Bif- !: ex"
cayans. The fpermaceti whale, as well as the whale-^ert*
bone whale, w-ere at that time frequently feen in thefe
latitudes. The firlt attempts were made in the bay of
Bifcay, and in the gulf of Gafcony. Ships w-ere fit¬
ted out, inftruments were conftruCted, and aneftablilh-
ment was formed for carrying on the filhery. It was
obferved that the whale only appeared at certain fea-
fons of the year, which led the new fifhers to fuppofe
that his rclidence in other feas was more perma¬
nent. And difeovering that they retreated towards
the polar regions, (hips w-ere fitted out and manned
Y y with
1
554
Whalf-
Yiihery.
2C2
The Eng-
lifli firft
engage in
it.
Hakluyt's
Voyage,
i. 4x4.
303
Whalebone
firft intro¬
duced.
304
Ships fitted
out from
Hull.
205
Pi emium
granted.
206
Company
eftabiifhed
207
Englilh
very fuc-
ctfsful.
308
]STew Eng
lifh Com¬
pany.
209
Fifnery en
eouraged.
C E T O
tvitli the moft experienced feamen, to purfue. them
northward. At this time the Bifcayans carried on
this trade, both for the fake of the oil and the whale¬
bone.
Towards the end of the 16th century, the Engliih
firf! engaged in the whale-tifhery. But at this time
they were fo little acquainted with it, that (( the re-
queit of an honelt merchant, by letter to a friend of
his, to be advifed and dire£ted in the courfe of killing
the whale,” is recorded by the hiitorians of that age.
The anfwer was, that a flnp of two hundred tons mull
be fitted out, and provided with all kinds of proper
utenfils and mflruments. But it appears to have been
necefl'ary to fend to Bijkate for men Jaiifol in catching
the whale and ordering oj the oil, aiid one cooper foil Ifni
to fet up the Jlaved cafo.
In the year 1594, fome Englifh fhips made a voy¬
age to Cape Breton, at the entrance of the bay of
St Lawrence, lome for the morfe-filhing, and others
for the whale-fifhing. This feems to have been among
their firft attempts in this trade, ihe hilling proved
unfuccefsful j but they found in an ifland 800 whale
fins or whalebone, part of the cargo of a Bifcayan fhip
wrecked there three years before, which they put. on
board and brought home. ihis was the firit time
that this fubftance was imported into England.
The town of Hull, in 1598, firil fitted out fhips from
England for the Greenland whale-fifhery, a branch of
trade which has fince become very confiderable, and
has frequently received the protection and encourage¬
ment of the legiflature. A premium of fix (hillings
for each ton of oil, and five {hillings for each ton of
whalebone, was at firit granted by government in
1672. But this encouragement appearing infufficient
for the fuccefs of the fifhery, or the enterprise being
confidered too great for the flock of individuals, a
company was incorporated in 1692, and eftabiifhed by
royal authority, with peculiar privileges, i heir capi¬
tal amounted to 40,000!. iterlmg. The fubfenptions
in a few years increafed to 82,000!. fterling } but in
1701 the company was diffolved, and the trade made
free to all adventurers.
The Englifh were now become the moft fuccefsful
adventurers in this fifhery. By their fkill, their indu-
ftry, and perfeverance, and the aid and encouragement
granted by the legiflature, they carried on the whale-
fifhery on more advantageous terms than the Bifeayans
the firft adventurers, whofe efforts became lefs enter-
prifing, as their fuccefs was more precarious. In the
year 1730, they fitted out for this fifhery only 33 fhips ;
about the year 1735, the number was diminifhed to
ten or twelve; and continuing to decreafe till the war
in 1744, the trade was finally abandoned.
The Englifh ftill perfevered in the trade, a new
company was eftabiifhed and a fund of 30,000!. fteiling
was provided, with power to the company to make all
neceffary and proper regulations. And for the farther
encouragement of the fifhery, a duty of 17k or 18I.
fterling was impofed on the ton of all oil imported,
and a premium or bounty, to the fame amount, was paid
for every ton of oil exported which was the produce
of the national fifhery. Other encouragements were
alfo given 5 rewards were beflowed on the moft fuc¬
cefsful $ the failors employed in the trade were ex¬
empted from the impiefs fervice j adventurers were in¬
LOGY. _ Chap. IE
demnified for all Ioffes which they fuftalned m their firft Wba!*,
enterprise •, and they were granted the privilege of pro-, f'fery
viding, duty free, all thofe articles which were needed ^
in this fifhery, and were the fubjects of taxation.
Still farther to encourage and extend the fifhery,
which now had become an important national concern,
parliament granted in 1779 a premium to five fhips
which fhould bring home the greateft quantity of oil \
for the firft greateft quantity, 500I. fterling j for the
next, 400I.; and for the thud, fourth, and fifth, 300I..
200I. and cocl. fterling. . aj{>
In North America, while that continent was fub-Fifliery
jeft to Britain, the whale-fifhery was carried on io aNotfh
very confiderable extent. A fociety was eitablifhed at”1611™*
New York, and numbers of fhips were equipped for
this trade in different parts of the colonies, by enter-
prifing adventurers, and it has been long extremely
fuccefsful and lucrative. sir
The advantages derived to the nation from theAdvant
whale-fifhery, are no doubt very confiderable.
fide being an excellent nurfery for hardy feamen, it is ^
the foundation of great commercial concerns, by in¬
troducing articles which become the fourees of an im¬
portant trade. In this view it has often been an ob-
je£t of legiflative difeuflion, and has often experienced
the liberal encouragement and proteftion of govern- ^
ment. According to a law palled in favour of fhips Regular
employed in this trade, every Britifh vefl'el of 200tions
tons or upwards, bound to the Greenland feas, on the
whale-fifhery, if found to be duly qualified agreeable
to the aft, obtained a licence from the commiflioners
of the cuftoms to proceed on fuch voyage 5 and on the
flap’s return, the mailer and mate declaring on oath that
they were on fuch voyage, that they ufed all their endea¬
vours to take whales, and that all the whale-fins, blub¬
ber, oil, &.c. imported in their fhip, were taken by their
crew in thofe Teas, there was allowed 40s. for every
ton according to the admeafurement of the (hip.
It was afterwards found, however, that io great a
bounty was neither neceffary to the tuccels of the
trade, nor expedient with regard to the public. In
1786, therefore, the afts conferring the laid emolu¬
ments being upon the point of expiring, the fubjeft
was brought under the confideration of parliament j
and it was propofed to continue the former meafures,
but with a reduftion of the bounty from 40s. to 30s. State of
In propofing this alteration, it was ftated, “ that the trade in ^
fums which this country had paid in bounties for the n& “r"
Greenland fifhery amounted to 1,265,461!.; that, in
the laft year, we had paid 94,858!. ; and that, from
the confequent deduftion of the price of the fifh, the
public at prefent paid 60 per cent, upon every cargo.
In the Greenland fifliery there were employed 6coo tea¬
men, and thefe feamen coft government 13I. 10s. per
man per annum, though we were never able to obtain
more than 500 of that number to lerve on board our
fhips of war. Befides, the vaft encouragement given
to the trade had occafioned fuch a glut in the market,
that it was found neceffary to export confiderable
quantities ; and thus we paid a large fhare of the pur-
chafe money for foreign nations, as well as for our own
people, befides fupplying them with the materials of
feveral important manufaftures.” This propofition
was oppofed by feveral members, but was finally car¬
ried ; and the propriety of the meafure became very
llhery.
(sap HI- C E T O
" ^ale- foon apparent. At that time (1786) the number of
{hips employed from England in the whale-fiihery to
Davis {traits and the Greenland feas amounted to
139 j belides 15 from Scotland. The propofed altera¬
tion took place the following year (1787) ; and not-
withftanding the diminution of the bounty, the trade
increafed j the number of flaps employed the fame year
from England amounting to 2x7, and the next year
(1788) to 222. Their cargoes confifted of 5989 tons
of clean oil; 7654 tons of whalebone, beflde 13,386
feal {kins.
For fome years Britifli capital has been employed in
a fouthern whale-fifhery ; and this has alfo been a very
lucrative branch of trade. This fifliery was firft profe-
cuted with vigour about the commencement of the
American war. In the year 1785, 18 {hips which pro¬
duced 29,000!. fterling were employed in it. Two
years afterwards the number of {flips was doubled, and
the returns increafed in a much greater proportion,
which is a proof of the flouriifling ftate of the trade.
The number of {flips in 1787 was 38, and the produce
amounted to 107,0001. fterling.
Some American families, when the war broke out
114
£ them
n ile-
«5
,'ied on
$yicu on 7
Y vmeri- in that country, emigrated to Nova Scotia, where they
0 s fet-
in Mil'
Ha-
propofed to carry on the whale-fifliery j but being dif-
couraged from particular circumflances, on the invita¬
tion of the honourable Mr Greville, they fettled at
Milford in Milford Haven, and fitted out a fhip, which
had a very fuccefsful voyage. The number of {flips
foon increafed to four, and at prefent (1803), that num¬
ber is doubled, fo that 8 {flips are now employed in the
fouthern whale-fiftiery from this port, with a capital
afloat of no lefs than 8o,oool. fterling. This fa£t is
ftaied by Mr Barrow in his travels in fouthern Afri¬
ca ; and “ I mention it (fays he), as a ftriking in-
ftance to (flow the importance of the South fea fifliery,
and as a proof that, contrary to the generally received
opinion, it may be carried on by {kill and manage¬
ment, and without the adventitious aid of trading, fo
as fully to anfwer the purpofe of thofe who are proper¬
ly qualified to embark in the undertaking. For where
men, by induftry in their profeflion, rife from fmall
beginnings into affluence, fuch profefflon may be fol¬
lowed with a greater certainty of fuccefs than many
others which appear to hold out more feducing prof-
pccts. The American fiftiermen never fet out with a
capital, but invariably work themfelves into one •, and
the South fea fiiflery from England may fucceed on the
fame principle, as the above example clearly (hews, un¬
der every difadvantage, when properly condu&ed.
“ It is difficult to point out the grounds of juftice or
Waged.policy in giving tonage bounties to the Greenland filh-
ery, and only premiums to fuccefsful adventurers in the
fouthern fifliery. A voyage to Greenland is four
months, the outfit of which is covered by the tonage
bounty, and, if wholly unfuccefsful, the fame {flip can
make a fecond voyage the fame year to fome of the
ports of the Baltic. A voyage to the South fea is from
12 to 18 months, and muft depend folely on the fuccefs
in fifliing. A G reenland {flip fets out on a fmall capital,
and builds on a quick return ; but a South fea whaler
muft expend a very considerable capital in making his
outfit, for which he can reckon on no returns for at leaft
18 months. Hence the ufual practice of fending them
.out in the double capacity of filflcrs and contraband tra¬
ins
jt tally
LOGY. . 355
ders, in order that the Ioffes they may fuftain by ill
fuccefs in fifliing may be made good by fmuggling. , 1 ,
“ If by extending the fifliery we fliould be enabled
to fupply the continent of Europe, two objects ftiould
never be out of the vieiv of the legiflature—the ex¬
emption from duty of all the produce of the fiflieries,
and particularly fpermaceti, which, if manufactured
into candles, and fubje£t only to the fame duty as
tallow candles, would produce much more to the re¬
venue than when taxed as it now is, as wax. I have
heard it afferted that the extenfion of the premium
fyftem, by doubling its prefent amount, which never
could exceed 30,000k a-year, would be adequate en¬
couragement to fupply the home-market with fperma¬
ceti and black whale oil, and that the bonding of
foreign oil in Great Britain would throw the whole
agency of American fifliery on England with ^greater
advantage to both countries than by any other fyftem. 2if
“ But when we conlider that the home market is ne- Cape of
ceffarily fecured to Britifli fubjefts by high duties on Good Hope
foreign oil, we ftiould alfo confider that every means ^
to leflen the charges of outfit ftiould ftrengthen our ad¬
venture in this lucrative branch of trade. Among
others that would feem to have this tendency, are the
facilities that might be afforded by the happy pofitiorl
of the Cape of Good Hope. If at this itation was
eftabliftied a kind of central depot for the fouthern
whale-fiftiery, it might, in time, be the means of throw¬
ing into our hands exclufively the fupply of Europe?
with fpermaceti oil. To the protedlion of the fiflieries-
on the eaft and weft coafts of fouthern Africa, the
Cape is fully competent, and the fiftieries on thefe
coafts would be equally undifturbed in war as in peace*
From hence they would, at all times, have an oppor¬
tunity of acquiring a fupply of refreftiments for their
crews, and of laying in a ftoek of fait provifions at
one-fourth part of the expence of carrying them out
from England.” 2I^
The Dutch were very early engaged in the Green-p)utch early
land whale-fifliery, which foon became one of the moft engaged in
important objects of their trade. In 1611 a company ftie
was eftabliftied at Amfterdam for carrying on the
whale-fiftiery on the coafts of pitzbergen and Nova
Zembla. This branch of trade has in general fuc-
ceeded better with the Dutch than with any other
nation. The principal reafon which has been affigned
for this fuccefs is the greater economy and frugality of
this people, in this as in all their concerns, by which
they are able to underfell others in oil and whale¬
bone. The mode of fitting out all their ftiips is alfo
mentioned as a caufe of their profperity in this fiftiery.
The {hip-builder, the rope-maker, the baker, the brew¬
er, and other tradefmen, employed in fitting out thefe
ftiips, commonly take a {bare in the voyage. When
it proves fortunate, they are double gainers j but when
it is unfuccefsful, the lofs which they fuftain is proba¬
bly not greater than if they had merely furniflied the
articles without having a chance of the profit ; and in
this refpeft have the advantage of mere merchants. It
is obferved by De Writt that this fiftiery, finee it fell
into the hands of individuals, has feldom failed to be
profitable •, but while it was monopolized by the
Dutch Greenland company, the profit was inconfider- 2lp
able. Some idea may be formed of the extent to Extent of
which the Dptch have carried lifts trade by ftating their fifth.
Y y 2 thater^’
35 S'
C
WhaTe-
Fifliery.
*20
Ships em¬
ployed, and
produce of
it, from
l6$i t«
E T O
that for a period of 46 years preceding the year 1722,
5886 (hips were employed in it, and in this period
they took 32,907 whales. Each whale, at an average,
valued at 500!. makes the total amount above 16 mil¬
lions fterling.
The following table affords at one view a brief re¬
cord of the Dutch whale-finery from 1661 to 1788.
The number of (hips employed for each year, and the
number of whales taken, are dated in feparate columns.
Years
166
1662
1663
1664
1663
1666
1667
1668
1669
167 :
1671
167;
1673
1674
16*76
1677
1678
^79
1680
1681
1682
1683
1684
168 <;
1686
1687
1688
1689
1690
1691
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
1700
170.
1702
1704
I7°5
1706
.W
Ships 1 Ftfh. [Years
*33
M9
202
*93
4524-
862
932^
782
Y War with
> England, no
j Ships out.
15S
138
148
1,8
573
10134
792
10884
"1 War with
> England, no
3 Ships out.
I47
I45
*45
120
126
I5I
I75
I95
242
233
209
189
i94
214
160
“7
S2
9°
63
97
122
131
139
151
'73
208
224
207
130
157
151
*3*
900^
1824
785t
xi 184
792
I373
876
M44
13384-
11534
i ‘83x7o
6644
6214
34^4
2414
785
war with
France.'
5^4
I75
i6itt
i87|
428
1279
i483J
77 Si
9*34
20714
68 7-44
644 *
6524
1678
9664
126
1708
I7°9
1710
1711
1712
1713
1714
1715
1716
1717
1718
17.9
1720
1721
1722
1723
1724
•72.5
1726
1727
1728
1729
i73°
l73*
1732
1733
r734
1735
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
r745
1746
1747
1748
1749
17 co
1751
>752
1753
17 :4
1755
Ships.
122
126
137
”7
108
93
108
134
T53
J79
l39
211
228
260
254
233
232
226
218
202
182
184
186
164
176
184
186
185
191
196
195
192
187
178
J73
185
187
184
180
164
94
J57
1 c8
162
r59
166
Fiih
5334
X92!
62
631
3734
2374
! 29I
6984
535
3924
28:4
346
45544
7334
1101^
171
181
3r4
358
53°4
244
4024
3634
2294
2484
2984
3*44
3604
327
4964
8374
5044
472
7284
6654
3I24
3584
937
x494
5684
1026
7764
2784
6194
5904
33°rV
546a:
6391
67244
7204
LOGY.
Chap,
,
Years Ships. Fifh. jlYears Ships. Fifii,
A LIST of the Number of Ships from HOLLAND,
whuh were emplotied in the GREENLAND and
Davis Straits IVhale-fishertfnre 1661.
N. B. The Dutch Jem Ships to Davis Straits for
the fi jl time in 1719.
‘756
x757
x758
1759
1760
1761
i 762
1763
1764
176 c
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1771
1772
186
180
x59
x55
x54
161
161
j65
167
x65
160
152
,5°
x50
X3X
5684
4234
37x4
464
454
3574
1894
224
477
1894
x794
6004
1127
523
x43t
7684
x773
*774
x77 5
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1781
1782
‘783
1784
'785
1786
1787
1788
x34
I3°
129
123
116
111
xo5
82
4444
45°
x°5
5^9
427x
3064
1684
476
7 War with i-ng
y land, noftiipsout
55
62
65
67
67
69
33°
198
300
476
239t
190
Wh?.l
Fifhet;
2Jt
I788,
This table is interefling, as it (hews us the precari¬
ous nature of this filhery. But it would have been
dill more valuable, if fome other circumdances had
been dated, fuch as the nature of the>feafons when the
fifhery was lefs’ fuccefsful ; whether the preceding win¬
ter was unufually long or fevere j whether the (hort
fummer of thefe regions was not remarkable for ex¬
tremes or fudden changes of heat and cold, fudden
changes and variations of the wind, the prevalence of
particular winds ; or other fafts which might enable us
to trace the caufes of the extraordinary failure and fuc-
cefs of the fifliery.
The French made an attempt to revive this branch Attempt
of trade in 1784. Six (Kips fitted out at Dunkirk at1;^e^en(
the expence of the late king, made fome fuccefsfult0 rewe
voyages both in the northern and fouthern whale-fifh-
ery. The advantages of the trade were obvious, and
the French government was eager to improve them.
In the year 1786, fome of the inhabitants of the ifland
of Nantucket, near Halifax in North America, were
invited to fettle at Dunkirk to carry on the iifhery.
Several families accepted the invitation, and to en¬
courage them to profecute the trade, they were per¬
mitted to enjoy peculiar privileges and immunities.
Ships were fent out to different feas, and had profper-
ous voyages. But this tra’de, as well as every other
branch of French commerce, has probably been com¬
pletely interrupted by the late revolution, and the par¬
ticular cireumitances in which that nation has been
with regard to foreign powers.
Befides the nations which we have mentioned, who other ni-
have been moft deeply concerned in this fifhery, the t ors en-
inhabitants of other countries have alfo embarked in it.gaSem^
Some (hips were equipped at Embden in 1768 by order
of the king of Pruffia ; the Swedifh government in
1774 granted to a company eltablifhed at Gottenburgh
the exclufive privilege of the Davis ftraits and Green¬
land fifhery for 20 years •, and Denmark in 1775 at*
tempted to take a fhare in the benefits of that fiftiery,
which many of the nations of Europe, more enterpri-
fing or more induftrious, had long fuccefsfully enjoyed
on the (bores of the Danifli dominions. ^
The whale-fiflicry commences in May. It is about Time of
this time that the whales are leen in great numbers the
between
ip. III. C E T O
ittk- between ibe *]6(h and 79th degrees of north latitude $
fiery. and at a diftance they exhibit the appearance of the
ViV——' fmoke rifmg from the chimneys of a great town by the
•water which is thrown into the air by their fpouting or
blowing. The fiihery continues for the months of June
and July, when it muff be abandoned whether it has
be jn fuecefsful or unprofperous ; becaufe it is necef-
fary to be clear of the ice by the end of Auguft. The
fnips return home at fartheft in the month of Septem¬
ber. But if the fithery happen to t^egin early in May,
and prove abundant, they iometimes return in June or
IL July.
We (hall now conclude this article with a [fliort ac-
t igthe count of the dift’erent modes that are praftifed in taking
v.fie by the whale. The following is employed in the Grcen-
i ;pcans; iand gQiery by Europeans Every (hip is provided
with fix boats, to each of which belong fix men for
rowing the boat, and a harpooner, whofe bufinefs it is
to flrike the whale with his harpoon. Two ©f thefe
boats are kept conftantly on the watch at fome di¬
ftance from the {hip, faftened to pieces of ice, and
are relieved by others every four hours. As foon as a
whale is perceived, both the boats fet out in purfuit of
it, and if either of them can come up before the whale
finally defcends, which is known by his throwing up
his tail, the harpooner difcharges his harpoon at him.
There is no difficulty in choofing the place where the
whale is to be itruck, as fome have afferted j for thefe
animals only come up to thefurface in order to breathe,
or blow, as the fiffiermen term it, and therefore al¬
ways keep the foft and vulnerable part of their bodies
above water. A late improvement was made in the
method of difcharging the harpoon •, namely, by {hoot¬
ing it out of a kind of fwivel or mufquetoon 5 but it
does not appear, that fince this improvement was made
the whale-fiffiing fhips have had better fuccefs than be¬
fore. As foon as the whale is ftruck, the men fet up
one of their oars in the middle of the boat as a fignal
to thofe in the ffixp. On perceiving this, the watch¬
man alarms all the reft with the cry of fall l fall l upon
which all the other boats are immediately fent out to
the affiftance of the firft.
The whale finding himfelf wounded, fwims off with
prodigious velocity. Sometimes he defcends perpen¬
dicularly, and fometimes goes off horizontally at a linall
depth below the furface. The rope which is faftened
to the harpoon is about 200 fathoms long, and pro¬
perly coiled up, that it may freely be given out as
there is a demand for it. At firft the velocity with
which this line runs over the fide of the boat is fo
great, that it is wetted to prevent its taking fire : but
in a fhort time the ftrength of the whale begins to fail,
and the fiffiermen, inftead of letting out more rope,
ftrive as much as poffible to pull back what is given
out already, though they always find themfelves ne-
ceflitated to yield at laft to the efforts of the animal,
to prevent his finking their boat. If he runs out the
200 fathoms of line contained in one boat, that be¬
longing to another is immediately faftened to the end
of the firft, and fo on •, and there have been inftances
where all the rope belonging to the fix boats has been
neeeffary, though half that quantity is feldom requir¬
ed. The . whale cannot ftay long below water, but
again comes up to blow, and being now much fati¬
gued and wounded, ftays longer above water than
LOGY.
357
ufuai. This gives another Boat time to cotne up with Whale-
him, and he is again ftruck with a harpoon. He ,
again defcends, but with lefs force than before j and v
when he comes up again, is generally incapable of de-
feending, but fuffers himfelf to be wounded and killed
with long lances wffiich the men are provided with for
that purpofe. He is known to be near death when he
fpouts up the water deeply tinged with blood.
The whale being dead, is laflred alongfide the {hip.
They then lay it on one fide, and put two ropes, one
at the head, and the other in the place of the tail,
which, together with the fins, is ftruck off as foon
as he is taken, to keep thefe extremities above water.
On the oft’-fide of the whale are two boats, to receive
the pieces of fat, utenfils, and men, that might other-
wife fall into the water on that fide. .Thefe precau¬
tions being taken, three or four men with irons at
their feet to prevent Hipping, get on the whale, and
begin to cut out pieces of about three feet thick and
eight long, which are hauled up at the capftan or
windlafs. When the fat is all got off, they cut off the
whalebone of the upper jaw with an axe. Before they
cut, they are all laffied to keep them firm ; which alfo
facilitates the cutting, and prevents them from failing
into the fea *, when on board, five or lix of them are
bundled together, and properly {lowed j and after all
is got off, the carcafe is turned adrift, and devoured
by the white bears, who are very fond of it. In pro¬
portion as the large pieces of fat are cut off", the reft
of the crew are employed in Hieing them fmaller, and
picking out all the lean. When this is prepared, they
flow it under the deck, where it lies till the fat of all
the whales taken during the fiffiery is on board; then
cutting it ftill fmaller, they put it up in tubs in the
hold, cramming them full and clofe. At the end of
the feafon they return home, where the fat is boiled5
and preffed to give out the oil.
But a different method is pra&ifed by the rude in-j,y t]ie
habitants of the different nations on the coafts of thepte of
Frozen ocean. On fome parts of the fea coalls ofK.amttchat«.
Kamtfchatka, the return of the fiftring feafon is eele-ka'
brated with a grand feftival and great rejoicings in
their fubterraneous winter habitations, in which many
fuperftitious ceremonies are performed. In one part of
the ceremonies dogs are facrificed, with beating of
drums and other rude mufical inftruments. The priefts
who attend and conduct the feftival, tranfport with,
great folemnity and pomp a figure of a whale, made of
wood, from the fummer habitation to the winter cot¬
tage. As the ceremonies proceed, the whole company
affembled ftrout with-a. great noife, that the whale has .
made its efcape from the cottage to the fea; and they pre- monies,
tend even to ffiow the traces of the whale in its courfe,
as if it had really made its way through the opening*
in the cottage. Thefe ceremonies being ended, the
men prepare their nets, and embark in their canoes.
The nets are fet at the openings of bays, where fcfhy
which are the food of the whale, are abundant, and in
the purfuit of which entering the bays he is taken.
When this is obferved by the people in the canoes,
they approach and fecure their prize with ropes and
{traps of leather. This event is again celebrated by
their wives and children on ftiore with dancing, Ting¬
ing and other demonftrations of joy. But after the
whale is iufficiently lecured, he is not brought on
ffiore
35*
Whale-
Fuhery.
«l8
By the
people of
the Kurile
Klainls.
229
Cf Iceland.
230
Of Green-
Hand.
C E T O
lliore till another ceremony is performed. They put
on their belt clothes, and, with limilar folemnity, tranf-
port the image of the whale in wood from the winter
to a new fummer habitation. A lamp is there lighted
up, and an attendant is appointed to watch and keep
it burning from the fpring to the autumn. The
whale is then cut up, and furnilhes for a long time
what is conlidered by the natives of thofe regions a
very delicate food.
Among the Kurile illands, which are lituated near
the fouthern extremity of the peninfula of Kamtfehatka,
the whales are molt abundant about the beginning of
autumn. At that time the inhabitants embark in their
canoes, and iearch for them in places where they ge¬
nera’iy find them atleep on the furface of the water.
When they are fo fortunate as to find one in this fitua-
tion, they approach with the leaft poflible noiie j and,
when they have come within the proper dillance, they
pierce him with poifoned arrows. And although thefe
wounds feem extremely flight, they are faid in a Ihort
time to occafion great pain. The whale thus wounded,
moves about furioufly, blows with great violence, and
foon dies.
We have already mentioned the mode of taking
the whale which is pra&ifed by the Icelanders, in giv¬
ing the natural hiflory of the balccna glaciahs, or Ice¬
land whale. It is, according to Anderfon, by throw¬
ing blood into the fea, when they get between the
whale and the fhore. They then endeavour to drive
him towards the Ihore j but the whale finding himfelf
purfued, attempts to regain the ocean, and approach¬
ing the blood, is alarmed 5 and rather than fwim acrofs
it, returns towards the land, where he is often thrown
on (bore. But this is eontradidled by Horrebow, who
fays, that the ufual method of killing the whale in
Iceland, is with the harpoon.
When the whale returns to the coafts of Greenland,
the fiihermen put on their large {kin coats, and fur-
nilh themfelves with a large knife, and a ftone to
fharpen it. They provide alfo harpoons, fpears, and
arrows, with a number of large {kins of the fea-dog
inflated. Thus equipped, they launch their canoes, and
embark with their wives and children. The harpoon
which they generally employ, is pointed with bone,
br a {harp ftone. Some indeed have harpoons of iron,
which they procure from the Danes by barter for the
oil or fat of the whale. The fcarcity of wood and
iron makes thefe articles extremely valuable to Green¬
landers, and has excited their ingenuity to avoid the
rilk of lofing them. For this purpofe an inflated blad¬
der of the Ikin of the fea-dog is attached to the har¬
poon, fo that in cafe it Ihould not reach the whale
when they attempt to ftrike, it may float on the water,
and be recovered. Thus equipped, they launch out
into the ocean in their fmall canoes, and, with great
intrepidity, attack the largeit whales. They approach
them, fays Anderfon, with aftonifhing boldnefs, and
endeavour to fix, by means of their harpoon, which
they throw at his body, fome of the {kins inflated with
air. For, notwithftanding the enormous bulk of this
animal, two or three of thefe Ikins, b^ the refiftance
which they make to the water, on account of their di-
jniniflied fpecific gravity, greatly impede his attempts
at plunging into the deep. Having by this means
fixcceeded in arrefting his progrefs, they approach
LOGY.
Chap. II
nearer ; and, with their lances, pierce his body, till Whale,
he become languid and feeble with the lofs of blood, ^^iery
and at laft dies. The fiftiermen then plunge into the ’rv
fea with their {kin-jackets filled with air, and fwim
their prize $ and, floating on the furface of the water,
they cut oft' with their knives from every part of the-
whale the fat or blubber, which is thrown into the
canoes. And, notwithftanding the rudenefs and im-
perfe&ion of their iiftlruments, their dexterity is fuch,
that they can extraift from the mouth the greateft, or
at leaft the beft part of the whalebone.
But the mode of filhing the whale, the boldeft andAftonl
moft aftoniftiing, is that which is praftii'ed by the In-
dians on the coaft of Florida. When a whale appears, ^
they fatten to their bodies two pieces of wood and a^iaa*
mallet 5 and thefe inftruments, with their canoe, con-
ftitute the whole of their fiftiing equipage. When they
approach the whale, they throw themfelves into the
water, fwim directly towards him, and have the ad-
drefs to get upon his neck, taking care to avoid the
ftroke of his fins or tail. When the whale firft fpouts,
the Indian introduces one of the pieces of wood into
the opening of one of the bloAV-holes, and drives it
home with the mallet. The whale thus attacked, in-
ftantly plunges, and carries the Indian along with him,
who keeps fall hold of the animal, i he whale, which
has now only one blow-hole, foon returns to the fur¬
face of the water to refpire j and, if the Indian fuc-
ceeds in fixing the other piece of wood into the feeond
blow-hole, the whale again defeends to the bottom,
but a moment after re-appears ©n the furface, where
he remains motionlefs, and immediately expires by the
interruption of the fundlion of refpiration.
EXPLANATION of PLATES. . Ji
Plate CXL .—Fig. 1. The large whalebone or Plates «■
Greenland whale, is from 40 to 60 feet long, andpbined-
more than one half the length in circumference at the
thickeft part. This whale is taken on account of the
oil and the whalebone.
Fig. 2. The narhwal or unicorn-filh, yields a fmall
quantity of oil, but it is faid to be of a fuperior quali¬
ty. The horns or teeth are much valued, and are in
fome refpedfts preferable to ivory. They are from 9 to
10 feet long. The flefti is greatly efteemed by the in¬
habitants of Greenland.
Fig. 3. The large fpermaceti whale, which is taken
on account of the oil, and alfo on account of the more
valuable fubftance, fpermaceti, which is found chiefly
in cells within the Jkull. The figure here given is ta¬
ken from one of the 31 which came on ftiore in 1784,
near Audierne in France. The length was 44 feet.
Fig. 4. The grampus. This figure wras taken from
one caught at the mouth of the Thames in 1759. It
was 24 feet long.
Plate CXLI.—Fig. 1. and 2. exhibit a view of
the courfe of the blow-hole in the cetaceous fifties.
Fig. 1. {hews the blow-hole of the whalebone and
fpermaceti whale. In the whalebone whale it is dou¬
ble, and the courfe of it is marked by the dotted line
ABCD. It is fingle in the fpermaceti whale, and
marked by the dotted lines AEFD.
Fig. 2. {hews that of the monodon and delphinus.
That of the monodon, which is fingle, is {hewn by the
dotted line ABCD, terauuating at the back part of
PLATE ( XL.
CETOJLOGY.
iij/. i.
HAIXKNA MYSTICETUS, LARGE WHALE BONE WHALE .
A.Wilson Sculp*.
Tig. 4.
DBLI’IU NTS OHC’A, GRAMPXJS .
Tiff. 3. PHYSETER WACROCEEHALITS,IARGE SPERMACETI WHALE.
Tip. 2. MONODOAT MONOCEROS NARHWAL. or UNICORN FISH.
W. Archibald Sculp /
Lp. III. C E T O
iliaie- the head ; and that of the clafs delphJnus by the dot-
i] ery. ted line AEFD, terminating at the top of the head.
Fig. 3. A'perpendicular feftion of feveral plates of
whalebone in their natural fituation in the gum. The
inner edges or Ihorteft terminations are removed, and
the cut edges feen from the infide of the fnout. A,
the upper part, (hews the diftance of the plates from
each other. C, the lower part, {hews the white fub-
itance on which they grow, and the balls on which
they Hand.
Fig. 4. A fide view of one of the plates of whale¬
bone. A, the part which projedls beyond the gum.
B, the portion which is funk in the gum. CC, a
white fubftance which furrounds the whalebone, form¬
ing there a-proje£lmg bead, and alfo palling between
the plates to form their external lamellae. DD, the
LOGY.
part analogous to the gun*. E, a fle{hy fubfiance co¬
vering the jaw-bone, on which the inner lamella of v
the plate is formed. F, the termination of the whale¬
bone in the hair.
Fig. 5. An outline to {hew the mode of growth of
the plates, and of the white intermediate lubftance.
A, the middle layer of the plate, which is formed
upon a pulp or cone that paffes up in the centre of the
plate. The termination of this layer forms the hair.
B, one of the outer layers, which is formed from the
intermediate white fubllanee. CCCC, the interme¬
diate white fubltance, the laminae of which are conti-
tinued along the middle layer, and form the fubftance
of the plate of whalebone. D, the outline of another
plate of whalebone. E, the bafts on which the plated
are formed, which adheres to the jaw-bone.
359
Whale.
fifhery.
INDEX.
i A
ibE of the whale, N° 189
Mergris, 194
Momy of whales, 98
, rangement by Ray and Willoughby, 2
by Linnaeus, 3
by Pennant, 4
made a different clafs, 5
B
Iklcena, Clafs I. 14
general charaflers, 16
Myfticetus,v
characters, 17
defcription, 18
whalebone, 20
fize, 27
food, 29
dimenfions, 31
Glacialis,
characters, 3 2
defcription, 33
curious mode of taking, 34
Phyfalus,
characters, 3 5
defcription, 36
Nodofa,
defcription, 40
Gibboia,
defcription, 42
Boops, 44
Mufculus, 46
Roffrata, 50
Mer; 139
142
id,
w-Zioles,
bber,
w, head,
neck and back,
ribs,
150
190
106
107
109
152
1 word limited in fignification, 10
Circulation, N° 146
C/affes, four, 14
D.
De/phinus, Clafs IV.
general character, 7 5
Phocaena, 7 7
Delphis, 82
Turfio, 85
Orca, 87
Gladiator, 89
Leucas, 91
Bidentatus, 93
Butlkopf, 95
Feres, 97
Diaphragm, 49
Digeflion, organs of, *27
Dolphin, 81
fabulous hiftory, 83
E.
Excretion, organs of, 138, 139
F.
Fat, 190
Fins, HI
hood of the whale, 169
G.
Generation, organs of, 161, 163
Grampus, 86
H.
Heart, 140
Int e/lines, 128
K.
Kidneys, 138
L.
JLarynx, *4^
Liver, 135
Lungs, M7
M.
Matnmre,
Milk rich, *6?
Monodon, Clafs II.
generic charafter®. 53
Monodon Monoceros, N° 55
ufes, 57
magnificent throne of the
bones, 5^
Spurius, 60
Mufcles, 124
N.
Narhwal, 53 —
Nerves, * 55
P.
Pancreas, 336
PhyJeter, Clafs III.
generic characters, 61
Macrocephalus, 63
Catodon, 65
Trumpo, 67
Cylindricus, 7®
Microps,
Mular, 74
Phyftology, 9^
Porpoife, 7®
Skin, I22>
Spermaceti whale, Large, 62
Small, 64
of New England, 66
Round, 69
Black-headed, 71
Mular, 73
Spermaceti, 192
fuppofed to be indurated
faeces, 196
probably a preternatural
fubftance, 197
ufed as a perfume, 19S
Spinal marrow, 154
Spleen, 137
Stomach, &c, 128, 134
Senfe of touch, 156
tafte, 357
fmelling, 158
hearing, 159
Senje
ScTife of feeing,
Sucking, mode of
N°i6o
166
Teetht
u.
112-114
Unicorn-JiJ}))
Ureter^,
w.
53-60
139
Whales, Claffification,
natural hiftory important,
but deficient,
* organs of digeftion,
of circulation and re-
Ipiration,
of generation,
food, fize, abode,
Greenland or large whale¬
bone,
Iceland,
Fin-filh,
Humpback,
Scrag,
Pike-headed,
Round-lipped,
Piked,
Bottle-nofe,
14
6
7
127
140
161
169
17
32
35
39
41
43
46
C E T O L O G Y.
Whale, Bottle-headed, N° 94
enemies of, 184-188
affection for young, 168
one young at a birth, 164
Whalebone, peculiar fubltance, &c. 155
hair, 120
firlt introduced, 203
Whale-fjhery,
Norwegians firft acquainted
with the, 200
Bifcayans molt expert in 201
Englilh firit engaged in, 202
(hips fitted out from Hull, 204
premium granted for, 205
company eltablilhed, 206
Englifii very fuccefsful in, 207
New Englilh company, 208
encouraged, 209
in North America, 2x0
advantages of the, 211
regulations of, 212
ftate of the trade in Eng¬
land, 213
Southern, 214
Carried on by Americans
fettled in Milford Haven, 215
Indij v
IVhale-fiJljery, partially encouraged, R<|| f
Cape of Good Hope a cor.;
venient Itation for, L{
Dutch early engaged in, | i,
extent of their, jL
fliips employed and prJj [r,
duce of it’from 1661 I
101788, 2201;::,
Attempt of the French t; I] 1;
revive, |j
other nations engage in, j i,
time of the,
mode pradtifed by the Eu- ^ L
ropeans, L
by the people of Kamtf. ] tl
chatka, g
their previous cereir.1 j ft
nies, ,
by the people of the Ku-' i
rile illands, j
of Iceland,
of Greenland,
Aftonilhing mode by the tl
Floridan Indians, ij
C E U
£ette CETTE, a maritime town of France, in Langue-
Y doc, feated at the place were the canal of Langue-
Ceuta. doc begins, between Montpelier and Agde, on the bay
-"V— 0f Maguelona, in the Mediterranean fea. E. Long.
3. 15. N. Lat. 43. 25.
GET US, in AJlrommy, the whale j a large conftel-
lation of the fouthern hemifphere, under Pifees, and
next the water of Aquarius. The liars in the conltel-
lation Cetus, in Ptolemy’s catalogue, are twenty-two j
in Tycho’s twenty-one j in Hevelius’s forty-five j in
the Britannic catalogue ninty-feven.
Cetus is reprefented by the poets as the fea-mon-
fter which Neptune, at the fuit of the nymphs, fent to
devour Andromeda for the pride of her mother, and
which was killed by Perfeus. In the mandible of Ce¬
tus is a variable liar which appears and difappears pe¬
riodically, pafling through the feveral degrees of mag¬
nitude, both increafing and diminilhing, in about 333
days. See Astronomy.
CEVA, a llrong town of Piedmont in Italy, feated
on the river Tanero, with a ftrong fort, in E. Long.
8. 8. N. Lat. 44. 20. J
CEVENNES, mountains of Languedoc m France,
remarkable for the frequent meetings of the Protef-
tants there as a place of fecurity againll the tyranny
of their governors. In Queen Anne’s reign there was
an attempt made to affilt them by an Englilh fleet in
the Mediterranean •, but to no purpofe, for the French
had occupied the paflages. _
CEUTA, a maritime town of Barbary in Africa,
and in the kingdom of Fez, feated on the llraits of
Gibraltar, oppofite that place, in W. Long. 6. 25. N.
Lat. 36. 35. John king of Portugal took it from the
C E Y
Moors in 1415, but it now belongs to Spain. 1111697, Ceuf C:
it fuftained a vigorous liege by the Moors. cgykj j Cr
CEYLON, a large illand in the Ealt Indies, which w-y. 11
lies between 50 40' and io03o' north latitude j and
between 790 and 82° call longitude. It is fituated at
the entrance of the bay of Bengal, by which it is
bounded on the north. On the north-weft it is fepa-
rated from the Coromandel coaft by the gulf of Ma-
naar, a narrow ftrait full of Ihoals, and impaffable by
large Ihips •, and is diftant about 60 leagues frem Cape
Comorin, the fouthern point of the peninfula of India.
Its circumference is computed to be about 900 miles j
and its length from Point Pedro at the northern ex¬
tremity to Donderhead at the fouthern is about 300
miles. Its breadth is very unequal, being in feme parts
only from 40 to 50 miles, while in others it extends to
60, 70, and even 100.
The appearance of the eaftern coaft is bold and
rocky, and a few reefs of rocks ran out into the fea
on the fouth-eaft between Point de Galle and Bata-
colo. The deep water on the eaftern {bores admits the
approach of the largeft veffels in fafety •, and if that
fide of the ifland be the leaft fertile, its other defefls
are amply compenfated by the harbours of Trincoma-
lee and Batocolo. The north and north-weft eoaft
from Point Pedro tb Columbo is flat, and everywhere
indented with inlets of the fea. The largeft of them
extends almoft quite acrofs the ifland from Mullipatti
to Jafnapatam on the north-weft point of the ifland ;
and forms the peninfula of jafnapatam. Several of
thefe inlets form fmall harbours.
The interior of die ifland abounds with fttep and
lofty mountains, covered with thick forefis, and full
of
y!oil.
gey [ 361 ]
of almoft impenetrable jungles. The woods and moun¬
tains completely furround the dominions of the king of
Candy, and feem deftined by nature to defend him
againlt thofe foreign enemies, whole fuperior Ikill and
power have deprived him of the open trafts on the fea-
cpad. The moll lofty range of mountains divides the
illand nearly into two parts, and fo completely fepa-
rates them from each other, that both the climate and
feafons on either fide are effentially different. Thefe
mountains alfo obltrudl completely the elfecl of the
monfoons, which fet in periodically from oppofite fides
of them ; fo that not only the oppofite fea-coalt, but
the whole country in the interior, fulfers very little from
thefe florins.
The monfoons in Ceylon are connected with thofe
on the Coromandel and Malabar coalts j but they fet
in much fooner on the weftern than the ealtern fide of
the illand. On the well fide, where Columbo lies, the
rains prevail in the months of May, June, and July,
the feafon when they are felt on the Malabar coalt.
This monfoon is ufually extremely violent, being ac¬
companied with dreadful llorms of thunder and light¬
ning, together with vail torrents of rain, and violent
fouth-welt winds. During its continuance, the north¬
ern parts of the illand are very little affedled, and are
even generally dry. In the months of Odlober and
November, when the oppofite monfoon fets in on the
Coromandel coall, it is the north of Ceylon which is
affedled, and fcarcely any impreffion of it is felt in the
fouthern parts.
Thefe monfoons pafs llightly over the interior, and
feldom occafion any confiderable inconveniende. But
this part of the illand is not altogether freed from the
dreadful llorms which fo terribly ravage the tropical
climates. During its own periodical feafon, which
happens in March and April, the rain pours down in
torrents, and the thunder and lightning are terrible.
From the fituation of this illand, fo near the equa¬
tor, the days and nights are nearly of equal length j
the variation during the two f«afons not exceeding 15
minutes. The feafons are more regulated by the mon¬
foons than the caurfe of the fun j for although the
illand lies to the north of the line, the coolell feafon is
during the fummer folllice, while the veftern monfoon
prevails. Their fpring commences in Odlober j and
the hottell feafon is from January to the beginning of
April. The heat, during the day, is nearly the fame
throughout the whole year ; the rainy feafon, however,
renders the nights much cooler, from the dampnefs of
the earth, and the prevalence of winds during the
monfoons. The climate, upon the whole, is much
more temperate than on the continent of India. This
temperate climate, however, is chiefly confined to the
coalt where the fea-breezes have room to circulate. In
the interior of the country, owing to the thick and
clofe woods, and the hills which crowd upon each
other, the heat is many degrees greater than on the
fearCoalt, and the climate often extremely fultry and
unhealthy.
I he principal harbours in the illand for large fhips
sre Trincomalee and Point de Galle ; they alfo come
to anchor, and at certain feafons of the year moor fe-
curely, in the roads of Columbo. There are feveral
other inferior ports round the illand, which afford
flicker to the fmaller coaliing veffels.
Vol. V. Part I.
C E Y
The twro principal rivers are the Malivagonga and Ceylon,
the Mulivaddy. The former takes its rife among the v—
hills to the fouth-eall of Candy, and nearly furrounds
that city. After a variety of circuitous windings
among the mountains, it at lall difcharges itfelf into
the fea at Trincomalee. This river is fo deep as to be
fordable only towards the fource •, but the rocks, which
everywhere break its courfe, prevent it from being na¬
vigated. The Mulivaddy rifes from the foot of a
very high mountain, known to Europeans by the name
of Adam’s Peak, and fituated about fixty miles to the
north-eall of Columbo. This river falls into the fea
by feveral branches : the largell of thefe empties itfelf
about three miles from the fort of Columbo, after ha¬
ving nearly furrounded a large tradl of the level coun¬
try, of which it forms a peninfula.
Befides the rivers wnth wkich Ceylon abounds, there
are many lakes and canals communicating with them,
particularly in the neighbourhood of Columbo and Ni •
gumbo. They are often of confiderable extent, and
of great utility to the inhabitants in their neighbour¬
hood, who have thus an opportunity of readily tranf-
porting their feveral articles of trade j and it is by
this means alfo that the towns on the coaft are fup-
plied w ith the greateft abundance of frefli-water fiih.
The internal communications by land through the ,
ifland have fcarcely paffed the firlt ftage of improve¬
ment. Along the fea-coafts indeed there are roads and
ftations for travellers : but thefe roads are in many
places rugged and fleep.
The foil in general is fandy, with a fmall mixture
of clay. In the fouth-well parts, particularly about
Columbo, there is a great deal of marfhy ground very
rich and produdlive. This trail, however, is chiefly
occupied with cinnamon plantations, and the reft of
the ifland, in its prefent ftate of cultivation, does not
produce a fufficient quantity of rice for the confump-
tion of its inhabitants.
Ceylon was originally divided into a number of
diftinil petty kingdoms, feparated by the feveral
rivers and mountains which are difperfed over the
face of the ifland, and fubjedl each to its own in¬
dependent fovereign. In proeefs of time, however,
the whole country was reduced under the dominion of
the king of Candy, and divided by him into a few
great provinces, from which feveral of the numerous
titles he ftill retains were derived. Thefe provinces
were Candy, Coitu, Matura, Dambadar, and Sitti-
vacea, which included the rich diftritls on the weft
coaft. The chief of thefe provinces was Candy, fitu¬
ated in the centre of the ifland, and honoured with
the royal refidence. The king holds his court there
to this day •, and though all the other provinces have
been more or lefs encroached upon, no part of Candy
has ever been reduced to permanent fubjedb'on under
a foreign powrer. The great divifions of the ifland
now are reduced to two ; the one comprehending thofe
parts under the dominion of Europeans, and the other
thofe which ftill remain to the natives.
Little was known of the ifland of Ceylon previous
to the arrival of the Portuguefe in 1505, who were
admitted by the. king of the country in a friendly man¬
ner, and received from him an annual tribute for their
protedlion againft external invafion, particularly againft
the attacks of the Arabs, who had long haraffed and
Z z eppreffed
C E Y [ 362 ] C E Y
Cevlon. opprcffed tKe Ccyloiefe. The inhabitants at that
““’V— time, as at prefent, confifted of two diftintl races, the
Bedahs, who lived in the forefts, particularly in the
northern parts, and the Cinglefe, who inhabited the
fea coaft. Columbo, now the European capital at Cey¬
lon, was at that time the royal relidence. Cinnamon
w as even then the chief product and ftaple commodity
of the country. Two hundred and fifty thoufand pounds
weight were annually delivered by the king to the Por-
tuguefe in name of tribute. The inhabitants fufft red
great cruelties and oppreffion under the Portuguefe,
and Avere glad of an opportunity of throwing off the
yoke and putting themfelves under the prote&ion of
the Dutch. In 1632, a itrong armament was lent out
by the latter to aCl in concert with the native prince •,
and, after a bloody ftruggle, the Portuguefe were at
la It expelled from the iiiand. Columbo lurrendered to
the Dutch arms in 1636, and this terminated the do- -
minion of the Portuguefe in the ifland. In the year
■*795j a k°cly of Britifh troops was lent for the con-
queft of Ceylon, and after various military operations,
this valuable poffefiiem was added to the Britilh colo¬
nies.
The chief tow ns in Ceylon are Trincomalee and
Columbo. Trincomalee lies in latitude 8° 3C,• If
runs in a north-eaft dire&ion along one branch of the
bay. The country around it is mountainous and
wroody 5 the foil uncultivated and rather barren, and the
W'hole appearance wild.
Trincomalee, from its fituation and conftru&ion, is
naturally ftrong. It occupies more ground than Co¬
lumbo, but contains a much fmaller number of houfes,
and thofe inferior in fize and appearance to thofe which
are to be met with in feveral towns on the louth weft
coaft. The circumference of Trincomalee, within the
w'alls, is about three miles : within this fpace is alfo
included a hill or riling point, immediately over the
fea, and covered with brufhw'ood.
The fort is ftrong, and commands the principal
bays $ and, in particular, the entrance into the grand
harbour, or inner bay, which affords at all feafons, and
in every variety of weather, a fecure fhelter to ftiips
of all defcriptions, being land-locked on all fides, and
fufficiently deep and capacious to receive any number
of the largeft veffels.
This harbour, from its nature and fituation, is that
which ftamps Ceylon one of our moft valuable acquifi-
tions in the Eaft Indies. As foon as the violent mon-
foons commence, every veffel which is caught by them
in any other part of the bay of Bengal, is obliged im¬
mediately to put to fea to prevent inevitable deftruc-
tion. At thefe feafons Trincomalee and Bombay a-
lone, of all the ports on the different coafts of the pe-
ninfula of India, are capable of affording a fafe re¬
treat. The incalculable advantages to be derived from
fuch a harbour, are increafed by its proximity and eafy
accefs to our fettlements in the bay of Bengal.
Columbo is the capital of Ceylon and the feat of go¬
vernment. Although Trincomalee, on account of its
fituation and harbour, be of more confequence to this
nation to retain, yet Columbo in every other refpeft is
greatly fuperior. The number of its inhabitants is
much greater ; its fort and black town are much lar¬
ger 5 the country where it is fituated is far more fertile,
and the rich diftria depending upon it much wider,
being not lefs than 20 leagues in length, and 10 in Ceylon
breadth. It is fituated in the weft, or rather towards
the fouth-weft part of the ifland, in about 70 north la¬
titude and 78° eaft longitude from London.
The plan of Columbo is regular. It is nearly di¬
vided into four equal quarters by tvro principal ftreets,
which crofs each other, and extend the whole length
of the town. To thefe, fmaller ones run parallel,
with connedling lanes between them. At the foot of
the ramparts on the infide is a broad ftreet or way,
which goes round the whole fort, and communicates
with the ba ions and foldiers barracks j and alfo af¬
fords, at the different angles, open fpaces for their pri¬
vate parading.
Befide the European inhabitants of Ceylon, the na¬
tives are quite diftmdl from each other in manners and
civilization. The Cinglefe, who inhabit the low lands
and parts contiguous to the coafts, live entirely under
the dominion of whatever European nation has been
able to acquire poffeflion of that part of the ifland.
The nature of the country they inhabit indeed leaves
them haroly any alternative but unconditional fubmif-
fion, unlefs they could either meet the Europeans in
open battle, or confent to quit their plentiful fields for
the barren mountains of the interior.
They are a quiet, inoftenfive people; excedingly
grave, temperate,-and frugal. Their bodies partake
of the indolence of their minds, and it is with reluc¬
tance they are roufed to any aftive exertion. When,
however, they are obliged to apply themielves to any
work, fuch as agriculture, they are capable of under¬
going a great deal of labour.
The milder virtues form the moft prominent features
of the Cinglefe charafter. They are gentle, charita¬
ble and friendly, and have fcarcely any of the falfe,
treacherous, and defigning arts which are often found
among the Candians. With much lefs fmoothnefs and
courtcoufnefs of face and manner than the latter, they
have much fineerer hearts. On examining the coun¬
tenances and carriage of thefe two claffes of Ceylonefe,
it is eafy to perceive the difference arifing from the re-
fpeclive circumftanees in which they are placed. The
countenance of the Candian is ereft, his look haughty,,
his mein lofty, and his whole carriage marked by the
pride of independence.
The looks of the Cinglefe even denote a degree of
effeminacy and corvardice, w hich excites the contempt
of the Candians 5 although the latter, with all their
boafted fpirit, can never venture to attack an Euro¬
pean but by the ffme method as the Cinglefe, and are
equally cautious in waiting the convenient moment of
affaulting him from the buihes, in which they have
concealed themfelvfes.
The moft Angular part of the inhabitants of Ceylon
are the Bedahs or Vaddahs. The origin of the
Bedahs or Vaddahs, who inhabit the deepeft re-
ceffes of the Ceylonefe forefts, has never been traced,,
as no other race can be found in the eaftern world
w'hich correfponds with them. Conjefture has, in¬
deed, been bufy on the occafion, as it ufually is where
real information is wanting. 'Ihe Bedahs are gene¬
rally fuppofed to have been the aboriginal inhabitants
of the ifland, who, upon being overw helmed by their
Cinglefe invaders, perferred the independence of lava¬
ges to a tame fubmiffion. A current tradition, how¬
ever,
iflon.
C E Y
ever, afligns them a different origin,
they were caff away on the ifland, and chofe to fettle
there ; but refufing, upon a certain occafion, to affift
the king in his wars againft fome foreign enemies, they
were driven out from the fociety of the natives, and
forced to take up their abode in the moft unfrequented
foreffs. Some imagine that the Bedahs are merely a
part of the native Candians, who chofe to retain their
ancient favage freedom, when their brethren of the
plains and valleys fubmitted to the cultivation of the
earth, and the reftraints of fociety. This opinion reffs
entirely on thofe Bedahs, who are moft known, fpeaking
a broken dialed of the Cinglefe. It is, however, by no
means afeertained that this is the univerfal language of
the Bedahs ; nor is any account of their origin fupport-
ed by the ftigheft fhadow of proof.
Among the animals of Ceylon, and at the head of
the clafs of quadrupeds, is the elephant, which is confi-
dered as fuperior to thofe found in any other part of
the world. The oxen are of very fmali fize, fcarcely
exceeding that of calves of a year old. They are of
that fpecies which have the hump on the (boulder ;
but are inferior in quality, as well as in ftze, to any
found on the Indian continent. The beef is fometimes
of a good quality, and forms the chief food of the Eu¬
ropean foldiers. Buffaloes are found in great numbers
in the iiland, both in a wild and tame (late. They
are wild and untradable; and even when tamed and
trained to the draught, for which, being ftronger and
larger than the oxen, they are well adapted, they re¬
tain a good deal of their original manners. A variety
of deer and elks are found in Ceylon $ efpecially the
gazelle, a very fmall fpecies, about the fize of our
hare, which is caught by the natives and brought to
market in cages, where they are fold for about is. a piece.
Hares, fimilar to the European, abound in every part
of the iiland ; a fmall fpecies of tyger, the tyger cat,
the leopard, the jackal, porcupines, racoons, fquirrels,
and fometimes, but rarely, the hyena and the bear, are
found in Ceylon. Birds, infeds, ferpents, and other
reptiles, fuch as are ufually to be met with in the lar¬
ger i(lands of the Indian ocean, or on the neighbouring
continent, are common on this ifland.
Ceylon abounds in all the vegetables and fruits which
are found within the tropical regions. But among the
vegetable produdions of Ceylon, the moft valuable,
and what may be reckoned the ftaple commodity of the
ifland, is the cinnamon.
The principal woods, or gardens, as they are called,
where the cinnamon is .procured, lie in the neighbour¬
hood of Columbo. The grand garden near the town
is fo extenfive as to occupy a trad of country from 10
to 15 miles in length, and ((retching along from the
north-eaft to the fouth of the diftrid. Nature has here
concentrated both the beauty and the riches of the
iiland. Nothing can be more delightful to the eye
than the profped which ftretehes around Columbo.
The low cinnamon trees which cover the plain allow
the view to reach the groves of evergreens, interfper-
fcd with tall clumps, and bounded everywhere with
extenfive ranges of cocoa-nut and other large trees.
The whole is diverfified with fmall lakes and green
marlhes, (kirted all around with rice and pafture fields.
In one part the intertwining cinnamon trees appear
completely to clothe the face of the plain •, in another,
the openings made by the intcrfeding footpaths juft
[ 36s 1 c E Y
It is related that ferve to (hew that the thick underwood has been pene- ^
trated.
The foil beft adapted for the growth of the cinna¬
mon is a loofe white fand. Such is the foil of the cin¬
namon gardens around Columbo, as well -as in many
parts around Nigumbo and Caltura, where this fpice is
found of the fame fuperior quality. Of late years little
is procured from the interior j and what is brought
thence is coarfer and thicker in the appearance, and of
a hot pungent tafte.
As this fpice conftitutes the wealth of Ceylon, great
pains are taken to afcertain its quality, and to propa¬
gate the choiceft kinds. The prime fort, and that
which grows in the gardens around Columbo, is pro¬
cured from the laurus cinnamomum. This is a tree of
a fmall fize, from four to ten feet in height: the trunk
is (lender, and like feveral of our (hrubs, a number of
branches and twigs (hoot out from it on every fide.
The wood is foft, light, and porous, in appearance
much refembling that of our ofier ^ and when barked
it is chiefly fit for fuel, to which ufe it is commonly
converted. It is, however, fometimes fawed into planks,
and manufaftured into caddies and other pieces of fur¬
niture *, but its fcent does not fecure it from the attacks
of the worms.
The cinnamon tree produces a fpecies of fruit refem¬
bling an acorn, but not fo large, which ripens a-
bout the latter end of autumn, and is gathered by the
natives for the purpofe of extrading the oil. The
procefs they employ is to bruife the fruit, boil it, and
(kim off the oil: this they ufe for their hair and body
on great occalions, and alfo for burning in their lamps.
When mixed with cocoa-nut oil, it gives extremely
good light. The kings of Candy ufe it for this ptir-
pofe, and formerly commanded their fubjedls to bring
them a certain quantity as a yearly tribute. When
any ambaffadors are fent to thefe princes, they always
burn this oil during the time of audience.
The pearl-fiftiery in the bay of Condatchy, during
the feafon, exhibits one of the moft interefting fcenes
in Ceylon. The banks, where it is carried on, ex¬
tend feveral miles along the coaft from Manaar fouth-
ward, off Arippo, Condatchy, and Poo paripo. The
principal bank is oppofite to Condatchy, and lies out
at fea about 20 miles. The firft ftep, previous to the
commencement of the fiftiery, is to have the different
oyfter banks furveyed, the (late of the oyfters afeer¬
tained, and a report made on the fubjeft to governs
ment. If it has been found that the quantity is fuffi-
cient, and that they are arrived at a proper degree of
maturity, the particular banks to be fiflied that year
are put up for fale to the higheft bidder, and are ufual¬
ly purchafed by a black merchant. Government fome¬
times judges it more advantageous to fiflr the banks on
its own account, and to difpofe of the pearls afterwards
to the merchants. When this plan is adopted, boats
are hired for the feafon on account of government, from
different quarters \ the price varies confiderably, accor¬
ding to circumftances ; but is ufually from 500 to 800
pagodas for each boat.
As neither the feafon, nor the convenience of the
perfons attending, would permit the whole of the banks
to be fiflied in one year, they are divided into three or
four different portions, which are fiflied one portion
annually in fucceflion. The different portions are
completely diftinft, and are fet up feparaiely to fale,
Z z 2 each
Ceylon.
c E Y [ 364 ] C E Y
Ceylon, each in the year in which it is to be fifhed. By this
v mJ means a fufficien;. interval is given to the oyfters to
attain their proper growth j and as the portion firft
ufed has generally recovered its maturity by the time
the laft portion has been filhed, the fhhery becomes al-
moft regularly annual, and may thus be confidered as
yielding a yearly revenue. The oyfters are fuppofed
to attain their completeft ftate of maturity in {even
years j for, if left too long, it is faid that the pearl be¬
comes fo large and inconvenient to the lifti, that it
throws it out of the ftiell.
The fiftiing feafon commences in February, and ends
about the beginning of April. The period allowed to
the merchant to fifti the banks is fix weeks, or two months
at the utmoft ; but there are feveral interruptions, which
prevent the fifhing days from exceeding more than a-
bout thirty. If it happens to be a very bad feafon, and
many ftormy days intervene during the period allotted,
the purchafer of the fiftiery is often allowed a few days
more as a favour.
During the feafon, all the boats regularly fail and
return together. A fignal gun is fired at Arippo,
about ten o’clock at night, when the whole fleet fets
fail with the land breeze. They reach the banks be¬
fore daybreak ; and at funrife commence fiftiing. In
this they continue bufily occupied till the fea breeze,
which arifes about noon, warns them to return to the
bay. As foon as they appear within fight, another
gun is fired, and the colours hoifted, to inform the
anxious owners of their return. When the boats come
to land, their cargoes are immediately taken out, as it
is neceffary to have them completely unloaded before
night. Whatever may have been the fuccefs of their
bdats, the owners feldom wear the looks of difappoint-
ment; for, although they may have been unfuccefsful
one day, they look with the moft complete aflurance
of better fortune to the next ; as the Brahmins and
conjurers, whom they implicitly truft in defiance of
all experience, underftand too well the liberality of a
man in hopes of good fortune, not to promife them all
they can defire.
Each of the boats carries 20 men, with a tindal or
chief boatman, who acts as pilot. Ten of the men
row and aflift the divers in re-afcending. The other
ten are divers •, they go down into the lea by five at a
time ; when the firft five come up the other five go
down, and by this method of alternately diving, they
give each other time to recruit themfelves for a freih
plunge.
In order to accelerate the defcent of the divers, large
ftones are employed •, five of thefe are brought in each
boat for the purpofe •, they are of a reddilh granite,
common in this country, and of a pyramidal fhape,
round at top and bottom, with a hole perforated through
the fmaller end futficient to admit a rope. Some of
the divers ufe a ftone ftiaped like a half-moon, which
they faftcn round the belly when they mean to defcend,
and thus keep their feet free.
The people are accuftomed to dive from their ve¬
ry infancy, and fearlefsly defcend to the bottom in
from four to ten fathom water, in fearch of the oy¬
fters. The diver, when he is about to plunge, feizes
the rope, to which one of the ftones we have deferibed
is attached, with the toes of his right foot, while he
takes hold of a bag of net-work'with thofe of his left;
it being cuftoijiary among all the Indians to ufe their
toes in working or holding as well as their fingers, and Cey!w
fuch is the power of habit that they can pick up even
the fmalleft thing from the ground with their toes as
nimbly as an European could do with his fingers. The
divers thus prepared, feizes another rope with his right
hand, and holding his noftrils Ihut with the left, plun¬
ges into the water, and by the afliftance of the ftone
fpeedjly reaches the bottom. He then hangs the net
round his neck, and with much dexterity, and all pof-
fible difpatch, collects as many oyfters as he can while
he is able to remain under water, v'hich is ufually about
two minutes. He then refumes his former pofition,
makes a fignal to thofe above by pulling the rope in
his right hand, and is immediately by this means drawn
up and brought into the boat, leaving the ftone to be
pulled up afterwards by the rope attached to it.
The exertion undergone during this proccfs is fo vio¬
lent, that upon being brought into the boat, the divers
difeharge water from their mouth, ears, and noftrils,
and frequently even blood. But this does not hinder
them from going down again in their turn. They will
often make from 40 to 50 plunges in one day; and at
each plunge bring up about ioo oyfters. Some rub
their bodies over w ith oil, and fluff their ears and nofes
to prevent the wrater from entering j while others ufe
no precautions whatever. Although the ufual time of
remaining under water does not much exceed two mi¬
nutes, yet there are inftances known of divers who could
remain four and even five minutes. The longeft inftance
ever known was that of a diver who came from Anjan-
go in 1797, and who abfolutely remained under water
full fix minutes.
The boat-owmers and merchants are very apt to lefe
many of the beft pearls while the boats are on their re¬
turn to the bay from the banks, as the oyfters when
alive and left for fome time undifturbed frequently
open their (hells of their own accord : a pearl may
then be eafily difeovered, and the oyfter prevented by
means of a bit of grafs or foft w ood from again clofing
its (hell, till an opportunity offers of picking out the
pearl. Thofe fellows who are employed to fearch a-
mong the fith alfo commit many depredations, and even
fwallow the pearls to conceal them 5 when this is fu-
fpefted, the plan followed by the merchants is to lock
the fellows up, and give them ftrong emetics and pur¬
gatives, which havre frequently the effedl of difeovering
the ftolen goods.
As foon as the oyfters are taken out of the boats,
they are carried by the different people to w’hom they
belong, and placed in holes or pits dug in the ground
to the depth of about two feet, or in fmall fquare places
cleared and fenced round for the purpofe; each perfon
having his own feparate divilion. Mats are fpread be¬
low them to prevent the oyfters from touching the earth*)
and here they are left to die and rot. As foon as they
have paffed through a ftate of putrefaftion, and have
become dry, they are eafily opened without any danger
of injuring the pearls, which might be the cafe if they
were opened frefh, as at that time to do fo requires
great force. On the {hell being opened, the oyfter is
minutely examined for the pearls : it is ufual even to
boil the oyfter, as the pearl, though commonly found in
the fhell, is not unfrequcntly contained in the body of
the fifh itfelf.
The pearls found at this fiftiery are of a w hiter co¬
lour than thofe got in the gulf of Ormus on the Ara¬
bian
C E Y t 365
bian coaft, but in other refpe&s are not accounted fo
pure or of fuch an excellent quality j for though the
white pearls are moft elteemed in Europe, the natives
prefer thofe of a yellowilh or golden call. Off Tutu-
coreen, which lies on the Coromandel coaft, nearly
oppofite to Condatchy* there is another filhery j but
the pearls found there are much inferior to the two
fpecies now mentioned, being tainted with a blue or
grayilh tinge.
In preparing the pearls, particularly in drilling and
ftringing them, the black people are wonderfully ex¬
pert. The inftrument they employ in drilling, is a
machine made of wood, and of a drape refembling an
obtufe inverted cone, about fix inches in length, and four
in breadth, which is fupported upon three feet, each 12
inches long. In the upper flat furface of this machine,
holes or pits are formed to receive the larger pearls,
the fmaller ones being beaten in with a little wooden
hammer. The drilling iuftruments are fpindles of va¬
rious fixes according to that of the pearls ; they are
turned round in a wooden head by means of a bow-
handle to which they are attached. The pearls being
placed in the pits which we have already mentioned,
and the point of the fpindle adjufted to them, the work¬
man preffes on the wooden head of the machine with
his left hand, while his right is employed in turning
round the bow-handle. During the procefs of dril¬
ling, he occafionally moiftens the pearl by dipping the
little finger of his right hand in a cocoa-nut filled with
water, which is placed by him for that purpofe •, this
he does with a dexterity and quicknefs which fcarcely
impedes the operation, and can only be acquired by
much practice.
They have alfo a variety of other inftruments, both
] C H A
be feized upon by furprife. But this manufa&ure has Ceylo*
been greatly neglected, it is faid, fince the ifland came ^ xl!|,nea
into the poffeflion of the Britiflr.
CHACE. See Chase.
CHACO, a large country of South America, litua-
ted between 190 and 370 S. Lat. It belongs to the
Spaniards, by whom it was conquered in 1536. It i*
not naturally fruitful but abounds in gold mines, which
are fo much the more valuable that they are ealily
worked. The works are carried on by about 8000
blacks, who deliver every day to their mailers a cer¬
tain quantity of gold j and what they can collett
above this belongs to themfelves •, as well as what
they find on thofe days that are confecrated to religion
and reft, upon condition that during the feftival they
maintain themfelves. This enables many of them to
purchafe their liberty 5 after which they intermarry
with the Spaniards.
CHADCHOD, in Jewiih antiquity. Ezekiel men¬
tions chadchod among the feveral merchandifes which
were brought to Tyre. The old interpreters, not
very well knowing the meaning of this term, conti¬
nued it in their tranflation. St Jerome acknowledges
that he could not difeover the interpretation of it.
The Chaldee interprets it pearls} others think that the
onyx, ruby, carbuncle, cryftal, or diamond, is meant
by it.
CH/ERONEA, in Ancient Geography, the laft town,
or rather the laft village, of Boeotia, towards Phocis j
the birth-place of Plutarch 5 famous for the fatal defeat
of the confederate Greeks by Philip of Macedon. 'I his
place 'was confidered by Philip as well adapted to th©
operations of the Macedonian phalanx; and the ground
for his encampment, and afterwards the field of battle,
for cutting and drilling the pearls. To clean, round, , were chofen with equal fagacity *, having in view on
i 1 • n . 1 . .1 , n , • /L   /A „ C. A ^ ix/Virvm TVTqr'pHnmarj
and polifh them to that ftate in which we fee them
powder made of the pearls themfelves is employed.
Thefe different operations in preparing the pearls oc¬
cupy a great number of the black men in various parts
of the ifland. In the black town of Col umbo, in par¬
ticular, many of them may every day be feen at this
work.
Putallom is remarkable for its falt-pans. This place,
before the arrival of Europeans on the ifland, fupplied
the natives with fait \ and on account of its convenient
fituation, ^vas pitched upon by the Dutch for manu-
fafturing the fait with which they fupplied the king of
Candy’s dominions, according to the articles of their
treaty with him. The falt-pans are formed by an arm
of the fea which overflows part of the country between
Putallom and Calpenteen. A very large quantity of
fait was manufaftured here by the Dutch •, they look¬
ed upon it as of the higheft importance to their in-
terefts in the ifland, and the moft formidable weapon
which it was in their power to employ againft the na¬
tive king, as it was impoflible for him to procure any
but through their means. The Dutch enabled fevere
laws to prevent individuals from manufafluring or trad¬
ing in this article, the government taking upon itfelf
the management of the works and the care of lupply-
ing both its own fubjehts and.the Candians. In order
to keep a conftant check on the latter, the Dutch were
careful not to allow them too great a quantity at once j
and whatever remained at Putallom after fupplying the
demands of each year they deftroyed, that it might not
one fide a temple of Hercules, whom the Macedonians
regarded as the author of their royal houfe, and the
high protector of their fortune ; and on the other the
banks of the Thermodon, a fmall river flowing into
the Cephiffus, announced by the oracles of Greece as
the deftined feene of defolation and w^oe to their unhap¬
py country. The generals of the confederate Greeks
had been much lefs careful to avail themfelves of the
powerful fanctions of fuperftitipn. Unreftrained by
inaufpicious facrifices, the Athenians had left the city
at the exhortation of Demofthenes, to wait no other
omen but the caufe of their country. Regardlefs of
oracles, they afterwards advanced to the ill-fated Ther¬
modon, accompanied by the Ihebans, and the Icanty
reinforcements raifed by the illands and ftates of Pelo-
ponnefus which had joined their alliance, iheir army
amounted to 30,000 men, animated by the nobleft
caufe for 'which men can fight, but commanded by the
Athenians Lyficles and Chares •, the firft but little, and
the fecond unfavourably known 5 and by Theagenes
the Theban, a perfon ftrongly fufpe&ed of treachery :
all three creatures of cabal and tools of fa&ion, Haves
of intereft or voluptuoufnefs, whofe chara&ers (efpe-
cially as they had been appointed to command the only
ftates whofe ftiame, rather than virtue, yet oppofed the
public enemy) are alone futficient to prove that Greece
was ripe for ruin.
When the day approached for aboliftiing the totter¬
ing independence of thofe turbulent republics, which
their own internal vices, and the arms and intrigues of
Philip^
(Clweronea.
C H A t 366 ] C H A
Philip, had been gradually undermining for 22 years,
both armies formed in battle array before the rifing of
the fun. The right wing of the Macedonians was
headed by Philip, who judged it proper to oppofe in
perfon the dangerous fury of the Athenians. His fon
Alexander, only 19 years of age, but furrounded by
experienced officers, commanded the left wing, which
faced the Sacred Band of the Thebans. The auxi¬
liaries of either army were polled in the centre. In
the beginning of the aft ion, the .Athenians charged
■with impetuolity, and repelled the oppofing diviiions
of the enemy ; but the youthful ardour of Alexander
obliged the Thebans to retire, the Sacred Band being
cut down to a man. The young prince completed their
diforder, by purfuing the fcattered multitude with his
Thefl’alian cavalry.
Meantime the Athenian generals, too much elated
with their firll advantage, loll the opportunity to im¬
prove it; for having repelled the centre and right wing
of the Macedonians, except the phalanx, which was
compofed of chofen men, and immediately commanded
by the king, they, inliead of attempting to break this
formidable body by attacking it in flank, prefled for¬
ward againlt the fugitives, the infolent Lyficles ex¬
claiming in vain triumph, “ Purfue, my brave country¬
men ! let us drive the cowards to Macedon.” Philip
obferved this ralh folly with contempt 5 and faying to
thofe round him, “ Our enemies know not how to con¬
quer,” commanded his phalanx, by a rapid evolution,
to gain an adjacent eminence, from which they poured
down, firm and collefted, on the advancing Athenians,
whofe confidence of fuccefs had rendered them totally
infenfible to danger. But the irrefiftible ffiock of the
Macedonian fpear converted their fury into defpair.
Above a thoufand fell, two thoufand were taken pri-
foners 5 the reft efcaped by a precipitate and Ihameful
flight. Of the Thebans more were killed than taken.
Few of the confederates periffied, as they had little
(hare in the aftion, and as Philip, perceiving his vic¬
tory to be complete, gave orders to fpare the vanquiftr-
ed, with a clemency unufual in that age, and not lefs
honourable to his underftanding than his heart; fince
his humanity thus fubdued the minds, and gained the
affeftions of his conquered enemies.
According to the Grecian cuftom, the battle was
followed by an entertainment; at which the king, pre-
fiding in perfon, received the congratulations of his
friends, and the humble fupplications of the Athenian
deputies, who craved the bodies of their flain. Their
requeft, which ferved as an acknowledgment of their
defeat, was readily granted ; but before they availed
themfelves of the permiffion to carry off their dead,
Philip, who with his natural intemperance had pro-
trafted the entertainment till morning, ifliied forth
with his licentious companions to vifit the field of
battle; their heads crowned M'ith feftive garlands, their
minds intoxicated with the infolence of wine and vic¬
tory ; yet the fight of the flaughtered Thebans, which
fir ft prefented itfelf to their eyes, and particularly the
facred band of friends and lovers, who lay covered with
honourable wounds on the fpot where they had been
drawn up to fight, brought back thefe infolent fpefta-
tors to the fentiments of reafon and humanity. Philip
beheld the awful feene with a mixture of admiration
and pity ; and, after an affefting filence, denounced a
2
Ch aft cut,;
ter.
folemn curfe againft thofe who bafely fufpefted the Cimone;;
friendihip of fuch brave men to be tainted with crimi¬
nal and infamous paffions.
But this ferious temper of mind did not laft long ;
for having proceeded to that quarter of the field where
the Athenians had fought and fallen, the king aban¬
doned himfelf to all the levity and littlcnefs of the moft
petulant joy. Inftead of being impreffed with a deep
fenfe of his recent danger, and with dutiful gratitude
to Heaven for the happinefs of his efcape, and the
importance of his viftory, Philip only compared the
boaftful pretenfions with the mean performances of
his Athenian enemies; and, ftruck by this contrail, re-
hearfed, with the infolent mockery of a buffoon, the
pompous declaration of war lately drawn up by the ar¬
dent patriotifm and too fanguine hopes of Demo-
llhenes. It was on this occafion that the orator De-
mades at once rebuked the folly, and flattered the am¬
bition of Philip, by alking him, Why he affumed the
charafter of Therfites when fortune affigned him the
part of Agamemnon ?
Whatever might be the effeft of this lharp reprimand,
it is certain that the king of Macedon indulged not, on
any future occafion, a vain triumph over the vanquilhed.
When advifed by his generals to advance into Attica,
and to render himfelf mailer of Athens, he only re¬
plied, “ Have I done fo much for glory, and ihall I
deftroy the theatre of that glory ?” His fubfequent
conduft correfponded with the moderation of this
fentiment. He reftored without ranfom the Athe¬
nian prifoners ; who, at departing, having demanded
their baggage, were alfo gratified in this particular ;
the king pleafantly obferving, that the Athenians
feemed to think he had not conquered them in earneft.
Soon afterwards he difpatehed his fon Alexander, and
Antipater the moft trufted of his minifters, to offer
them peace on fuch favourable terms as they had little
reafon to expeft. They were required to fend depu¬
ties to the ifthmus of Corinth, where, to adjuft their
refpeftive contingents of troops for the Pcrfian expe¬
dition, Philip purpofed affembling early in the fpring
a general convention of all the Grecian Hates : they
were ordered to furrender the ille of Samos, which
aftually formed the principal llation of their fleet, and
the main bulwark and defence of all their maritime or
infular poffcffions; but they were alloived to enjoy, un-
molefted, the Attic territory, with their hereditary
form of government.
CHALROPHYLLUM, Chervil. See Botany
Index.
CH/ETODON. Sec Ichthyology Index. This
filh is a native of the Fall Indies, where it frequents
the Tides of the fea and rivers in fearch of food ; from
its Angular manner of obtaining which it receives its
name/ When it fpies a fly fitting on the plants that
grow in lhallow water, it fwims to the diftance of four,
five, or fix feet; and then, with a furprifing dexterity,
it ejefts out of its tubular mouth a fingle drop of wa¬
ter, which never fails linking the fly into the water,
where it foon becomes its prey.
CHAFF, in HuJhandnj, the hulks of the corn, fe-
parated by fereening or winnowing it. It fignifies al¬
fo the rind of corn, and ftraw' cut fmall for the ufe of
cattle.
CHAFF-Cutter. a machine for making chaff to feed
’ . horfes.
C H A
j .ff.cut- liorfes.—The advantages of an eafy and expeditious
;ter method of cutting draw into chaff, by an engine
II, which could be ufed by common labourers, have been
'^cry‘. long acknowledged •, and various attempts have been
made to bring fuch an engine to perfection. But the
objections to molt of them have been their compli¬
cated ItruCture, their great price, and the noife they
make in working ; all which inconveniences feem to
have been lately removed by an invention of Mr James
Pike, watchmaker at Newton Abbot in Devonlhire.
Of his engine, which is of a fimple and cheap conltruc-
tion, the following defeription, and figure referred to,
are extracted from the TranfaCtions of the Society of
Arts, for 1787.
The engine is fixed on a wooden frame, which is
fupported with four legs, and on this frame is a box
for containing the Itraw, four feet fix inches long •,
and about ten inches broad ; at one end is fixed acrofs
the box two rollers inlaid with iron, in a diagonal line
about an eighth of an inch above the furface •, on the
ends of thefe rollers are fixed two Itrong brafs wheels,
which take one into the other. On one of thefe
wheels is a contraCt wheel, whofe teeth take in a worm
on a large arbor •, on the end of this arbor is fixed a
wooden wheel, two feet five inches diameter and three
inches thick ; on the infide part of this wheel is fixed
a knife, and every revolution of the wheel the knife
paffes before the end of the box and cuts the draff,
which is brought forward between the rollers, which
are about two inches and a half afunder •, the ftraw is
brought on by the worm taking one tooth of the wheel
every round of the knife j the ftraw being fo hard
preffed between the rollers, the knife cuts off the chaff
with fo great eafe, that 22 bulhels can be cut within
the hour, and makes no more noife than is caufed by
the knife paffing through the chaff.
I piate A is the box into which the ftraw is put. B, the
IXXVII. upper roller, with its diagonal projecting ribs of iron,
the whole moving by the revolution of the brafs wheel
C on the axis of which it is fixed. D, a brais wheel,
having upon it a face wheel, whofe teeth take into the
endlefs ferew on the arbor E, while the teeth on the
edge of this wheel enter between thofe on the edge of
the wheel C. On the axis of the w-heel D is a roller,
with iron ribs fimilar to B, but hid within the box.
E, the arbor, one of the ends of w-hich being made
fquare and palling through a mortife in the centre of
the wooden wheel F, is faftened hy a ftrong ferew and
nut •, the other end of this arbor moves round in a hole
within the wooden block G. H, the knife, made fail
by ferews to the wooden wheel F, and kept at the dif-
tance of nearly three quarters of an inch from it by
means of a ftrip of wood of that thicknefs, of the form
of the blade, and reaching to within an inch of the
edge. /, the handle mortifed into the outfide of the
wooden1 wheel F.
CHAFFER, in Zoology, a fpecies of beetle. See
ScaraBjEus, Entomology Index.
CHAFFERCONNERS, in commerce, printed li¬
nens manufactured in the Great Mogul’s dominions.
They are imported by the way of Surat, and are of
the number of fhofe linens prohibited in France.
CHAFFERY, in the iron works, the name of one
of the two principal forges. The other is called the
Jinery. When the iron has been brought at the fi-
C H A
nery into what is called an ancony, or fquare mafs, Gafter-/
hammered into a bar in its middle, but with its two ^ hn
ends rough, the bufinefs to be done at the chaffery is 1
the reducing the whole to the fame lhape, by hammer¬
ing down thefe rough ends to the lhape of the middle
part.
CHAFFINCH, the Englilh name of a fpecics of
Fringilla. See Ornithology Index.
CHAGRE, a fort of America, in the province of
Darien, at the mouth of a river of the fame name. It
has been taken feveral times by the Bucaneers, and
laft of all by Admiral Vernon in 1740. W. Long.
82. 7. N. Lat. 9. 50.
CHAIN [Catena), a feries of feveral rings or links,,
fitted into one another.
. There are chains of divers matters, fizes, forms, and
for divers ufes.—Ports, rivers, ftreets, &c. are clofed
with iron chains-, rebellious cities are punilhed by ta¬
king away their chains and barriers.
The arms of the kingdom of Navarre are, Chains
Or, in a field of Gules. The occafion hereof is refer¬
red to the kings of Spain leagued againft the Moors y,
who, having gained a celebrated victory againit them
in 12 T 2, in the diftrrbution of the fpoils the magni¬
ficent tent of Miralmumin fell to the king of Navarre,
as being the firft that broke and forced the chains
thereof.
A gold CHAIN is one of the ornaments or badges of
the dignity of the chief magidrates of a city, as the
mayor of London, the provoft and bailies of Edinburgh,
&c.—Something like this obtained among the ancient
Gauls : the principal ornament of their perfonsin power
and authority was a gold chain, which they wore on all
occafions 5 and even in battle, to diftinguiih them from
the common foldiers.
Chain aifo denotes a kind of ftring, of twilled
wire ; ferving to hang watches, tweefer cafes, and
other valuable toys upon. The invention of this piece
of curious work isowing to the Englilh j whence, in
foreign countries, it is denominated the Enghfij chain.
Thefe chains are ufually either of filver or gold, fome
of gilt copper ; the thread or wire of each kind to
be very fine.—For the fabric, or making of thefe
chains 5 a part of the wire is folded into little links of
an oval form ; the longeft diameter about three lines j
the Ihorteft one. Thefe, after they have been exadtly
fodered, are again folded into two j and then bound to-
*gether or interwoven, by means of feveral other little
threads of the fame thicknefs 5 fome whereof, which
pais from one end to the other, imitate the warp of a
fluff ; and the others, which pafs tranfverfe, the woof.
There are at leaft four thoufand little links in a chain
of four pendants ; which are by this means bound fo
equally, and withal fo firmly together, that the eye is
deceived, and takes the whole to confift of one entire
piece.
Chain is alfo a kind of meafure in France, in the
trade of wood for fuel. There are chains for wood by
tale, for wood by the rope, for faggots, for cleft wood,
and for round fticks. There are alfo chains for mea-
furing the Iheaves of all forts of corn, particularly with
regard to the payment of tithes ; for meafuring pottles
of hay, and for meafuring horfes. All thefe are divid¬
ed into feet, inches, hands, &c. according to the ufe
they are deligned for.
CHAIN;,,
[ 367 1
C H A [
Cliaia. CHAIN, In furveying, is a mcafure, confifting of a
' 1 ' certain number of links of iron wire, ufually a hun¬
dred ; ferving to take the dimenfions of fields, &c.
This is what Merfenne takes to be the arvipendium of
the ancients.
The chain is of various dimenfions, as the length or
number of links varies : that commonly ufed in mea-
furing land, called Gunter’s chain, is in length four
poles or perches j or fixty-fix feet, or a hundred links j
•each link being feven inches TVo. Whence it is eafy
to reduce any number of thofe links to feet, or any
-number of feet to links.
This chain is entirely adapted to Englilh meafure j
and its chief convenience is in finding readily the num¬
bers contained in a given field. Where the propor¬
tions of fquare feet and acres differ, the chain, to have
the fame advantages as Gunter's chain, mutt alfo be
varied. Thus, in Scotland, the chain ought to be of
74 feet, or 24 Scotch ells, if no regard be had to the
difference between the Scotch and Englilh foot j but
if regard be had to this difference, the Scotch chain
ought to confift of 74^ Englilh feet, or 74 feet four
inches and £ of an inch. This chain being divided
into an hundred links, each of thele will be
inches.
That ordinarily ufed for large diftances, is in length
100 feet j each link one foot. For fmall parcels, as
gardens, &c. is fometimes ufed a fmall chain of one
pole, or 16 feet and a half length j each link one
inch tts-q
Some in lieu of chains ufe ropes •, but thefe are
liable to feveral irregularities, both from the different
degrees of moifture, and of the force which ftretches
them. Schw'enterus, in his Praftical Geometry, tells
us, he has obferved a rope fixteen feet long reduced
to fifteen in an hour’s time, by the mere falling of a
hoar-froft. To obviate thefe inconveniences, Wolfius
direfts, that the little ftrands whereof the rope confifts
be twitted contrarnvife, and the rope dipped in boil¬
ing hot oil, and when dry, drawn through melted
Y'ax. A rope thus prepared will not get or lofe any
thing in length, even though kept under water all
day.
Chain Pump. See Pump.
CHAIN-S/iot, two bullets with a chain between them.
They are ufed at fea to ftioot down yards or mafts,
and to cut the flirouds or rigging of a {hip.
TOp Chain, on board a lhip, a chain to fling the
fail'yards in time of battle, in order to prevent them
from falling down -when the ropes by which they are
hung happen to be fliot away or rendered incapable of
fervice.
Plate Chain Wale.^ m Channels, of a {hip, (porteboi/Jbirs'),
XXXXVII. are broac} anci thick planks projefling horizontally from
»the flop’s outfide, abreaft of and feme what behind the
mafts. They are formed to extend the Ihrouds from
each other, and from the axis or middle line of the fliip,
fo as to give a greater fecurity and fupport to the
mails, as w^ell as to prevent the ftirouds from damaging
the gunwale, or being hurt by rubbing again!! it. E-
very matt has its chain wales, which are either built
above and below the fecond deck ports in a fliip of the
line j they are ftrongly connected to the fide by knees,
Jbolts, and ftandards, befides being confined thereto by
Chair.
36S ] x C H A
the chains, whofe upper ends pafs through notches on Chav
the outer edge of the chain wales, fo as to unite with
the Ihrouds above. v.
Chains, in Ship-Building, are ftrong links or plates
of iron, the lower ends of which are bolted through the
{hip’s fide to the timbers.
Hanging in CHAINS, a kind of puniftiment inflidled
on murderers. By flat. 25. Geo. II. c. 37. the judge
{hall direft fuch to be executed on the next day but
one, unlefs Sunday intervene 3 and their bodies to be
delivered to the furgeons to be differed and anato¬
mized : and he may direft them afterwards to be hung
in chains. During the interval between fentence and
execution, the prifoner {hall be kept alone, and futtain-
ed only with bread and water. The judge, however,
hath power to refpite the execution, and relax the other
reftraints of the aft.
Chain IJland, an ifland lately difeovered by Captain
Wallis in the South fea. It feemed to be about five
miles long and as much broad, lying in the direftion
of north-weft and fouth-eaft. It appeared to be a
double range of woody iflands joined together by
reefs, fo as to compofe one ifland of an oval figure,
with a lake in the middle. The trees are large, and
from the fmoke that iffued from the woods, it ap¬
peared to be inhabited. W. Long. 145. 54. S. Lat.
I7- 23-
CHAJOTLI, or Chayoti, a Mexican fruit of a
round fliape, and fimilar in the hulk with which it is
covered to the chefnut, but four or five times larger,
and of a much deeper green colour. Its kernel is of
a greenifti white, and has a large {tone in the middle,
which is white, and like it in fubftance. It is boiled,
and the ftone eaten with it. This fruit is produced by
a twining perennial plant, the root of which is alfo good
to eat.
CHAIR, {Cathedra'), was anciently ufed for the
pulpit, or fuggeftum, whence the prieft fpoke to the
people.
It is ft ill applied to the place where profeffors and
regents in univerfities deliver their le£tures, and teach
the fciences to their pupils 3 thus, we fay, the profeffor’s
chair, the doftor’s chair, &c.
Curule CHAIR, was an ivory feat placed on a car,
wherein wrere fea ted the prime magiftrates of Rome,
and thofe to whom the honour of a triumph had been
granted.
Sedan CHAIR, a vehicle fupported by poles, wherein
perfons are carried 3 borne by two men. Ihere are
200 chairs allowed by aft of parliament: and no per-
fon is obliged to pay for a hackney chair more than
the rate allowed by the aft for a hackney coach driven
two-third parts of thefaid diftance. 9. Ann. c. 23. § 8.
Their number is fince increafed by 10 Ann. c. 19. and
12 Geo. I. c. 12. to 400. See Hackney COACHES.
Chair is alfo applied by the Romanifts to certain
feafts, held anciently in commemoration of the tranf-
lation of the fee, or feat, of the vicarage of Chrift, by-
St Peter.
The perforated chair, wherein the new elefted pope
is placed, F. Mabillon obferves, is to be feen at
Rome : but the origin thereof he does not attribute,
as is commonly done, to the adventure of Pope
Joan 3 but fays there is a myftery in it 3 and it is in¬
tended,
G ^ A [ 369 ] C H A
air tended, xorfooth, to explain to tne pope thofe words only ones of any value j they are found in vad: abund- Cli^icedo-
_ of Scripture, that God draws the poor from out of the ance on the thores of rivers in all parts of the Ealt In- .
L* ° dujl and dies, and frequently come over among the ballaft of Chci!l-ldgr";
If * CHAlxiMAN, the prendent, 01 fpeaker of an af- the Eaft India flrips. Xhey are common in Silefia and
fembly, company, &c. We fay, the chairman of a Bohemia, and other parts of Europe alfo; but with
committee, &c. _ us are lefs hard, more opaque, and @f very little va-
CHAISE, a fort of light open chariot, or calafli. lue. 2. The dull milky-veined chalcedony. This is
Aurelius Viftor relates, that Trajan firfl introduced a ftone of little value j and is fometimes met with
the ufe of poft-chaifes; but the invention is generally among our lapidaries, who*miftake it for a kind of ne-
aferibed to Auguitus j and was probably only impro- phritic ftone/ It is of a fomewhat yellowifh white or
yed by Trajan and fucceeding emperors. cream colour, with a few milk-white veins. This is
CHALAZA, among naturalifts, a white knotty principally found in New Spain. 3. The third is a
fort of a ftring at each end of an egg, formed of a brownifti, black, dull, and cloudy one, known to the
plexus of the ftbres of the membranes, whereby the ancients by the name of fmoky jafper, or jafpis capni-
yolk and white are connefted together. tis. This is the leaft beautiful ftone of all the clafs :
CHALC AS. See Botany Index. it is of a pale brownifti white, clouded all over with a
CHALCEDON, or Calcedon, anciently known blackifti mift, as the common chalcedony is with a
by the names of Procerafis and Colbufa ; a city of Bi- blue. It is common both in the Eaft and Weft In-
thynia, fituated at the^ mouth of the Euxine, on the dies, and in Germany; but is very little valued, and
north extremity of the Thracian Bofphorus, over againft is feldom worked into any thing better than the han-
Byzantium. Pliny, Strabo, and Tacitus, call it, The dies of knives. 4. The yellow and red chalcedony is
City of the Blind; alluding to the anfwer which the greatly fuperior to all the reft in beauty ; and is in
Pythian Apollo gave to the founders of Byzantium, great repute in Italy, though very little known among
who, confulting the oracle relative to a place where to us. It is naturally compoied of an admixture of red
build a city, were directed to choofe that fpot, which and yellow only, on a clouded cryftalline bafts; but is
lay oppoftte “ to the habitation of the blind j” that is, fometimes found blended with the matter of common
as was then underftood, to Chalcedon : the Chalcedo- chalcedony, and then is mixed with blue. It is all o-
njans well deferving that epithet for having built their ver of the mifty hue of the common chalcedony. This
city in a barren and fandy foil, without feeing that ad- is found only in the Eaft Indies, and there not plenti-
vantageous and pleafant fpot on the oppoftte fhore, fully. The Italians make it into beads, and call thefe
which the Byzantines afterwards chofe.—Chalcedon, cajjidonies; but they are not determinate in the ufe
in the Chriftian times, became famous on account of of the word, but call beads of feveral of the agates
the council which was held there againft; Eutyches. by the fame name. All the chalcedonies readily give
The emperor Valens caufed the walls of this city to be fire with fteel, and make no effervefcence with aqua-
levelled with the ground for fiding with Procopius, and fortis.
the materials to be conveyed to Conftantinople, where CHALCIDENE, or ChalcidicE, in Ancient Geo-
they were employed in building the famous Valenti- graphy, an inland country of Syria, having Antiochia
man aqueduct. Chalcedon is at prefent a poor place, or Seleucia to the weft, Cyrrheftica to the north, to
known to the Greeks by its ancient name, and to the the fouth Apamene and Coelofyria, and to the eaft
Turks by that of Cadiaci, or, “ the judges town.” Chalybonites ; being fo called from its principal city
CHALCEDONY, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus of Chalcis. This province, one of the moft fruitful in
the femipellucid gems. They are of an even and re- Syria, was feized by Ptolemy the fon of Mennseus
gular, not tabulated ftru£ture j of a femi-opaque cryftal- during the troubles of Syria, and by him made a fe¬
line bafts, and variegated with different colours, but parate kingdom. Ptolemy himfelf is ftyled by Jofe-
thofe ever difpofed in form of miffs or clouds, and, if phus and Hegefippus only prince of Chalcis, but his
nicely examined, found to be owing to an admixture fon Lyfanias is honoured both by Jofephus and Dio
1 of various coloured earths, but imperfedly blended in with the title of king. Upon the death of Antiochus
the mafs, and often vifible in diftinft moleculae. It has Dionyftus king of Syria, Ptolemy attempted to make
been doubted by fome whether the ancients were at all himfelf mafter of Damafcus and all Ccelofyria ; but
acquainted with the ftone we call chalcedony ; they ha- the inhabitants having an utter averfion to him on ac¬
ting deferibed a Chalcedonian carbuncle and emerald, count of his cruelty and vickednefs, chofe rather to
neither of which can at all agree with the characters of fubmit to Aretas king of Arabia, by whom Antiochus
our ftone j but we are to confider that they have alfo and his whole army had been cut off. He oppofed
deferibed a Chalcedonian jafper, which feems to have Pompey on his entering Syria ; but was by him de-
been the very fame ftone as they deferibe by the word feated, taken prifoner, and fentenced to death ; which,
turbida, which extremely well agrees with our chalce- however, he efcaped by paying a thoufand talents, and
dony. was left alfo in poffeflxon of his kingdom. After Ari-
There are four knowm fpecies of the chalcedony, ftobulus king of Judea had been poifoned by the friends
1. A bluifti white one. This is the moft common of of Pompey, and Alexander his ion beheaded at Anti-
all, and is found in the fhape of our flints and pebbles, och, he lent Philippion his fon to Afcalon, whither the
in maffes of two or three inches or more in diame- widow of Ariftobulus had retired with her other chil-
ter. It is of a whitifk colour, with a faint cloud of dren, to bring them all to Chalcis ; propofing, as ha
blue diffufed all over it, but always in the greateft de- w-as in love with one of the daughters named Alexan-
gree near the furface. This is a little lefs hard than dra, to maintain them in his own kingdom in a mari-
the oriental onyx. The oriental chalcedonies are the ner fuitable to their rank j but Philippion like wife be-
Yol. y. Part I. 3 A ing
C H A [ j1;
<;hakidene ing in love with Alexandra, married her on the vaj. 5
II for which prefumption Ptolemy put him to death on
Cbakonuy- fc;s return} and then took her to wife. On account of
. aS' this affinity, he fupported to the utmoft of his power
Antigonus the younger fo'n of Ariftobulus, who took
the field at the head of a confiderable army, but on his
entering Judea was entirely defeated by Herod. Pto¬
lemy foon after died, and was fucceeded by his fon Ly-
fanias, who, efpoufing the caufe of the Afmonsean fa¬
mily with great warmth, promifed to Barzapharnts
who commanded the Parthian troops in Syria, and to
Pacorus the king’s fon, a thoufand talents and five hun¬
dred women, provided they ffiould put Antigonus in
poffeffion of the kingdom of Judea, and depofe Hyr-
canus. He ivas not long after put to death by Maik
Antony, at the mitigation of Cleopatra ; who, in or¬
der to have his dominions, .accufed him falfely of ha¬
ving entered into an alliance with the Paithians.
CHALC1DIC, Chalcidicum, or Chalcedoni-
UM, in the ancient architecture, a large magnificent
hall belonging to a tribunal or court of juft ice. Fef-
tus fays, it took its name from the city Chalcis; but
he does not give the reafon. Philander will have it to
be the court or tribunal where affairs of money and
coinage were regulated •, fo called from £***05,
and f^JuJUce. Others fay, the money was ftruck m
it ; and derive the word from and eusos, houje.
In Vitruvius, it is ufed for the auditory of a bafilica j
in others of the ancient writers for a hall or apartment
where the heathens imagined their gods to eat.
CPIALCIDICE, in Ancient Geography, an eaftern
diftrift of Macedonia, ftretching northwards between
the Sinus Toronseus and Singiticus. Formerly a part
of Thrace, but invaded by Philip of Macedon. Na¬
med from the city Chalcis near Olynthus. _ .
CHALCIDIUS, a famous Platonic philofopher^m
the third century, who wrote a commentary, which
is efteemed, on the Timseus of Plato. This work has
been tranfiated from the Greek into Latin. #
CH ALCIS, in Ancient Geography, a city of Chalci-
dice. See Chalcidice. Another of iEtolia, near the
mouth of the river Evenus, on the Ionian fea, at the
foot of a cognominal mountain 5 and therefore called
by fome Hypochalcis. Another of Euboea (Strabo), on
the Euripus, the country of Lycophron the poet? one
of the feven which formed the conftellation Pleiades.
Now Negroponte. E. Long. 24. 30. N. Lat. 38. 30.
A fourth, the capital of Chalcidene in Syria 5 di-
ftinguiffied by the furname ad Belum, a mountain or a
river •, and ad Libanum, from its fituation (Pliny).
CHALCITIS, one of the divifions or diftrifts of
Mefopotamia, to the fouth of Anthemufia, the moft
northern diftritf, next to Armenia, and fituated be¬
tween Edefla and Carran Chalcitu (Pliny), an illand
oppofite to Chalcedon.
CHALCONDYLAS, Demetrius, a learned
Greek, born at Conftantinople, left that city after its
being taken by the Turks, and afterwards taught
Greek in feveral cities in Italy. He compofed a Greek
grammar*, and died at Milan in 1513-
Chalcondyeas, Laonicus, a famous Greek hifto-
» rian of the 15th century, was born at Athens ; and
wwote an excellent hiftory of the Turks, from Otto¬
man, who reigned about the year 1300, to Mahomet II.
in 1453-
0 ] C H A
CHALDEA, in Ancient Geography, taken in. a Quid*
larger fenfe, included Babylonia ; as in the prophecies li
of Jeremiah a1*! Ezekiel. In a reftridled fenfe, it de-, ‘^
noted a province of Babylonia, towards Arabia De-
ferta •, called in Scripture, The land of the Chaldeans.
Named from dialed the fourth ion of Nahor. See
Babylonia.
CHALDEE language, that fpoken by the Chal¬
deans or people of Chaldea. It is a dialedt of the
Hebrew.
CHALDEE Paraphrafe, in the rabbinical ftyle, is call¬
ed Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrafes in
Walton’s Polyglot j viz. that of Onkeloa, that of Jo¬
nathan fon of Uzziel, and that of Jerufalem.
CHALDRON, a dry Engliffi meafure, confifting
of thirty-iix buihels, heaped up according to the feal-
ed buffiel kept at Guildhall, London: but on ffiip-
board, twenty-one chaldrons of coals are allowed to
the fcore. The chaldron ihould weigh two thoufand
pounds.
CHALICE, the cup or veffel ufed to adminifter
the wine in the facrament, and by the Roman Catho¬
lics in the mafs.
The ufe of the chalice, or communicating in both
kinds, is by the church of Rome denied to the laity,
who communicate only in one kind, the clergy alone
being allowed the privilege of communicating in both
kinds.
CHALK (Creta), is a white earth found plenti¬
fully in Britain, France, Norway, and other parts of
Europe, faid to have been anciently dug chiefly in the
ifland of Crete, and thence to have received its name
of Creta. They have a very eafy way of digging
chalk in the county of Kent in England. It is there
found on the fides of hills j and the ivorkmen under¬
mine it fo far as appears proper j then digging a trench
at the top, as far diftant from the edge as the under¬
mining goes at bottom, they fill this with water,
which foaks through in the fpace of a night, upon
which the whole flake falls down at once. In other
parts of the kingdom, chalk generally lies deeper, and
they are forced to dig for it at confiderable depths,
and draw it up in buckets.
Chalk is of two kinds 5 hard, dry, and firm, or loft
and undtuous j both of which are adapted to various
purpofes. The hard and dry kind is much the pro-
pereft for burning into lime , but the foft and undtu-
OUS chalk is the beft for ufing as a manure for lands.
Chalk, whether burnt into lime or not, is in fome cafes
an excellent manure.
Pure chalk melts eafily with alkali and.flint into a
tranfparent colourlefs glafs. With alkaline falts it
melts fome what more difficultly, and with borax lome-
what more eafily, than with flint or fand. It requires
about half its weight of borax and its whole weight
of alkali to fufe it. Sal mirabile, and fandiver, which
do not vitrify at all with the cryftalline eaiths, form,
with half their weight of chalk, the firft . a yel-
lowiffi black, the latter a greeniffi,. glafs. Nitre, on
the other hand, one of the moft adlive fluxes for flint,
does not perfedlly vitrify wTith chalk. . 'I his eart
notably promotes the vitrification of flint; a mix¬
ture of the two requiring lefs alkali than either of them
feparately. If glafs made from flint and alkali is fur¬
ther faturated with the flint, fo as to be incapab e 0 .
bearing
c H A [ 371 ] C H A
ilk. bearing any further addition of that earth without be-
coming opaque and milky, it will dill in a ftrong fire
take up a confiderable proportion, one-third or one-
fourth of its weight, of chalk, without injury to its
tranfparency: hence chalk is fometimes made ufe of in
compofitions for glafs, as a part of the fait may then
be fpared. Chalk likewife has a great effedt in melt¬
ing the ftony matters intermixed with metallic ores,
and hence might be of ufe in fmelting ores •, as in¬
deed limedone is ufed for that purpofe. But it is
remarkable, that chalk, when deprived of its fixed air,
and converted into limeftone, lofes much of its difpo-
fition to vitrify. It is then found to melt very diffi¬
cultly and imperfedtly, and to render the glafs^opaque
and milky.
Chalk readily imbibes water : and hence maffes of
it are employed for drying precipitates, lakes, earthy
powders that have been levigated with water, and
other moifl preparations. Its economical ufes in clean¬
ing and polifhing metalline or glafs utenfils are well
known. In this cafe it is powdered and wafhed from
any gritty matter it may contain, and is then called
whitinq.—In medicine it is one of the moil uieful ab-
forbents, and is to be looked upon limply as fuch. The
afiringent virtues which fome have attributed to it have
no foundation, unlefs in as far as the earth is faturated
with an acid, with which it compofes a faline concrete
manifeilly fubaftringent. For the further properties of
chalk, fee Chemistry Index.
Black CHALK, a name given by painters to a fpeeies
of earth with which they draw on blue paper, &c.
It is found in pieces from two to ten feet long, and
from four inches to twenty in breadth, generally flat,
but fomewhat riling in the middle, and thinner to¬
wards the edges, commonly lying in large quantities
together. While in the earth, it is moift and flaky :
but being dried, it becomes confiderably hard and
very light, but always breaks in fome particular di-
reftion j and if attentively examined when firfl broken,
appears of a ilriated texture. To the touch it is foft
and fmooth, flains very freely, and by virtue of its
frnoothnefs makes very neat marks. It is eafily re¬
duced into an impalpable foft powder without any
diminution of its blacknefs. In this ftate it mixes
eafily with oil into a fmooth pafie ; and being diffufed
through water, it flowly fettles in a black flimy or
muddy form ; properties which make its ufe very con¬
venient to the painters, both in oil and water colours.
It appears to be an earth quite different from common
chalk, and rather of the fiaty bituminous kind. In
the fire it becomes white with a reddifh call, and very
friable, retaining its flaky ftruclure, and looking much
like the white flaky maffes which fome forts of pitcoal
leave in burning. Neither the chalk nor thefe allies
are at all affe&ed by acids.
The colour fhops are fupplied with this earth from
Italy or Germany ; though fome parts of England af¬
ford fubftances nearly, if not entirely, of the fame qua¬
lity, and which are found to be equally ferviceable
both for marking and as black paints. Such particu¬
larly is the black earth called ki/low, faid by Dr Mer-
ret, in bis Pinnx Rerum Britannic arum, to be found in
Lancafhire, and by Mr Da Coda, in his Hillory of
Foffils, to be plentiful near the top of Cay-Avon, a
high hill in Merionethfhire.
Red CHALK, an earth much uled by painters and ar- t-oal!.,
tificers, and common in the colour ihops. It is pro-
perly an indurated clayey ochre, and is dug in Ger¬
many, Italy, Spain, and France, but in greatefl quan¬
tity in Flanders. It is of a fine, even, and firm tex¬
ture j very heavy, and very hard 5 of a pale red on the
outfide, but of a deep dulky chocolate colour within.
It adheres firmly to the tongue, is perfectly infipid to
the talle, and makes no effervefcence with acids.
Chalk Land. Barley and wheat will fucceed very
well on the better fort of chalky land, and oats gene¬
rally do wrell on any kind of it. The natural produce
of this fort of land in weeds, is that fort of fmall vetch
called the tine-tare, with poppies, may-weed, &c. Sain-
foil and hope-clover will generally fucceed tolerably
well on thefe lands j and where they are of a better
fort, the great clover will do. The bell manure is '
dung, old rags, and the flieep dung left after folding
them.
CHALK-Stones, in Medicine, fignify the concretions
of calcareous matter in the hands and feet of people
violently afflicled with the gout. Leeuwenhoek has
been at the pains of examining thefe by the micro-
fcopo. Fie divides them into three parts. The firft
is compofed ef various fmall parcels of matter looking
like white grains of fand j this is harder and drier, and
alfo whiter, than the reft. When examined with
large magnifiers, thofe are found to be compofed of
oblong particles laid clofely and evenly together:
though the whole fmall ftones are opaque, thefe com¬
ponent parts of them are pellucid, and referable pieces
of horfe-hair cut ftiort, only that they are fomewhat
pointed at both ends. Thefe are fo extremely thin,
that Mr Leeuwenhoek computes that 1000 of them
placed together would not amount to the fize of one
hair of our heads. The whole ftones in this harder
part of the chalk are not compofed of thefe particles,
but there are confufedly thrown in among them fome
broken parts of other fubflances, and in a few places
fome globules of blood and fmall remains of other
juices. The fecond kind of chalky matter is lefs hard
and lefs white than the former, and is compofed of
fragments or irregular parts of thofe oblong bodies
which compofe the firft or hardeft kind, and thefe are
mixed among tough and clear matter, and interfperfed
with the fmall broken globules of blood difcoverable
in the former, but in much greater quantity. The
third kind appears red to the naked eye ; and, when
examined with glaffes, is found to be a more tough and
clammy white matter, in which a great number of
globules of blood are interfperfed j thefe give it the
red appearance it has.
CHALLENGE, a cartel or invitation to a duel or
other combat *. A challenge either by word or let- * See Luck
ter, or to be the bearer of fuch a challenge, is punifh-
able by fine and imprifonment on indi&ment or infor¬
mation.
Challenge, among hunters. When hounds or
beagles, at firft finding the fcent of their game, pre-
fently open and cry, they are faid to challenge.
Challenge, in the Law of England, is an excep¬
tion made to jurors fj and is either in civil or crimi-1 See the
nal cafes.
I. In civil cafes challenges are of two forts j chal- 1 ta '
lenges to the array, and challenges of the poll.
3 A 2 I. Challenges
C’i'a'ien ^2.
C H A [ 372 ] C H A
1 I, Challenges to the array are at once an exception
to the whole panel, in which the jury are arrayed, or
fet in order by the (heriff in his return j and they may
be made upon account of partiality or fome default in
the {heriff or his under-officer who arrayed the panel.
Alfo, though there be no perfonal objection againft
the ffieriff, if yet he arrays the panel at the nomina¬
tion, or under the direction of either party, this is
good caufe of challenge to the array. Formerly, if a
lord of parliament had a caufe to be tried, and no
knight was returned upon the jury, it "was a caufe of
challenge to the array : alfo by the policy of the an¬
cient law, the jury wras to come de vicineto, from the
neighbourhood of the vill or place where the caufe
of a ft ion was laid in the declaration : and therefore
fome of the jury were obliged to be returned from
the hundred in which fuch vill lay } and, if none
were returned, the array might be challenged from
defeft of hundreders. For, living in the neighbour¬
hood, thefe were fuppofed to know beforehand the
charafters of the parties and witneffes 5 and therefore
they better knew what credit to give to the fafts al¬
leged in evidence. But this convenience was over¬
balanced by another very natural and almoft unavoid¬
able inconvenience } that jurors, coming out of the im¬
mediate neighbourhood, would be apt to intermix
their prejudices and partialities in the trial of right.
And this the law was fo fenfible of, that it for a long
time has been gradually relinquiffiing this praftice j
the number of neceffary hundreders in the whole pa¬
nel, which in the reign of Edward III. was conftantly
fix, being in the time of Fortefcue reduced to four j
afterwards by ftatute 26 Eliz. c. 6. to two ; and at
length, by ftatute 4 and 5 Anne, c. 16. it was en¬
tirely aboliftied upon all civil aftions, except upon pe¬
nal ftatutes, and upon thofe alfo by the 24 Geo. II,
c. 18. the jury being now only to come de corpore co-
mitatus, from the body of the country at large, and not
de vicincto, or from the particular neighbourhood.
The array by the ancient law may alfo be challenged,
if an alien be party to the fuit, and upon a rule ob¬
tained by his motion to the court for a jury de medie-
tate Untru e, fuch a one be not returned by the {heriff
purfuant to the ftatute 28 Edward III. c. 13* enforced
bv 8 Hen. VI. c. 29. which enafts, that where either
party is an alien born, the jury {hall be one half deni-
lens and the other aliens (if fo many be. forthcoming
in the place), for the more impartial trial-, a privi¬
lege indulged to ftrangers in no other country in the
world but which is as ancient in England as the time
of King Ethelred, in whole ftatute de monticolis Wal-
hce (then aliens to the crown of England), c. 3- it is
ordained, that “ duodeni legales homines, quorum fex
Walli et fex Angli erunt, Anglis et Wallis jus di-
cunto.”
2. Challenges to the polls, in capita, are exceptions
to particular jurors -, and feem to anfvver to the recujatio
judicis in the civil and canon laws; by the conftitu-
tions of which a judge might be refufed upon any fuf-
picion of partiality. By the laws of England alfo, in
the times of Brafton and Fleta, a judge might be re¬
fufed for good caufe ; but now the law is otherwife,
and it is held that judges or juftices cannot be challen¬
ged. For the law will not fuppofe a poffibility of bias
% favour in a judge who is already fworn to admini-
fter impartial juftice, and whofe authority greatly de- Challe|t |
pends on that prefumption and idea. And, liiould the ”
faft at any time prove flagrantly fuch, as the delicacy
of the law will not prefume beforehand, there is no
doubt but that fuch milbehaviour v'ould draw clown a
heavy cenfure from thole to whom the judge is ac¬
countable for his conduft. But challenges to the
polls of the jury (wrho are judges of faft) are reduced
to four heads by Sir Edward Coke : propter honoris re-
JpeBum ; propter defeBum ; propter affeBum ; and prop¬
ter de/iBum. 1. Propter honoris rejpeBum ; as, if a lord
of parliament be impannelled on a jury, he may be
challenged by either party, or he may challenge hmi-
felf. 2. Propter defeBum ; as, if a juryman be an alien
born, this is defeft of birth 5 if he be a Have or bond-
man, it is defeft of liberty, and he cannot be a /ibtr et
legalis homo. Under the word Jiomo alfo, though a
name common to both fexes, the female is however ex¬
cluded, propter defeBum fexus: except when a widow
feigns herftlf with child in order to exclude the next
heir, and a fuppofititious birth is fufpefted to be in¬
tended ; then upon the writ de ventre infpiciendo, a jury
of women is to be impannelled to try the queftion
whether with child or not. But the principal deficiency
is defeft of eftate fufficient to qualify him to be a juror,
which depends upon a variety of ftatutes*. 3. Jurors* See
may be challenged propter affeBum, for fufpicion of bias
or partiality. This may be either a principal chal- \
lenge, or to the favour. A principal challenge is fuch,
where the caufe affigned carries with it, pnma facie,
evident marks of fufpicion either of malice or favour y
as, that a juror is of kin to either party within the
ninth degree -, that he has an intereft in the caufe *, that
there is an aftion depending between him and the par¬
ty 5 that he has taken money for htis verdift, &c. which
if true cannot be overruled^ for jurors muft be omni
exceptione majores. Challenges to the favour are where
the party hath no principal challenge -, but objeftsonly
fome probable circumftances of fuipicion, as acquaint¬
ance, and the like ; the validity of which muft be left
to the determination of triors, whofe office is to de¬
cide whether the juror be favourable or unfavourable.
4. Challenges propter deliBum, are for fome crime or
mifdemeanour that affefts the juror’s credit, and ren¬
ders him infamous : As for a conviftion of treafon,
felony, perjury, or confpiracy -, or if for lome infamous
offence, he hath received judgement of the pillory or
the like.
II. In criminal cafes, challenges may be made either
on the part of the king, or on that of the priloner ;
and either to the whole array, or to the feparate polls,
for the very fame reafons that they may be in civil
caufes. For it is here at leaft as necefiary as there,
that the {heriff or returning officer be totally indiffer¬
ent 5 that, where an alien is indifted, the jury ftiould
be de medietate, or half foreigners, if fo many are found
in the place (which does not indeed hold in treafons,
aliens being very improper judges of the breach of al¬
legiance $ nor yet in the cafe of Egyptians under the
ftatute 22 Hen. VIII. c. 10.) 5 that on every panel
there ffiould be a competent number of hundreders j
and that the particular jurors ftiould be onim exceptione
majore, not liable to objeftions either propter honons
refpeBum, propter defeBum, propter affeBum, or propter
dcliBum.
Challenges
c H A t 37
jltnge Challenges on any of tlie foregoing accounts are
11 ftyled challenges for caufe ; which may be without hint
1 'ner' in both civil and criminal trials. But in criminal cafes,
^ or at lead in capital ones, there is, in favorem vitce, al¬
lowed to the prifoner an arbitrary and capricious fpe-
c:es of challenge to a certain number of jurors, with¬
out fhowing any caufe at all ^ which is called a peremp¬
tory challenge : a provihon full of tendernefs and hu¬
manity to prifoners for which our laws are juftly fa¬
mous. This is grounded on two reafons : I. As every
one muft be fenlible what hidden impreffions and unac¬
countable prejudices we are apt to conceive upon the
bare looks and geftures of another ; and how neceffary
it is that a prifoner, when put to defend his life, thould
have a good opinion of his jury, the wrant of which
might totally difconcert him ; the law wills not that
he Ihould be tried by any one man againft whom he
has conceived a prejudice even without being able to
atfign a reafon for fuch his diflike. 2. Becaufe upon
challenges for caufe fhown, if the reafon affigned prove
infufficient to fet afide the juror, perhaps the bare quef-
tioning his indifference may fometimes provoke a .re-
fentment j to prevent all ill confequonces from which,
the prifoner is ftill at liberty, if he pleafes, perempto¬
rily to fet him aftde.
This privilege of peremptory challenges, though
granted to the prifoner, is denied to the king by the
ftatute 33 Edward I. flat. 4. which enacts, that the
king (hail challenge no jurors without affigning a caufe
certain, to be tried and approved by the court How¬
ever, it is held that the king need not aflign his caufe
of challenge till all the panel is gone through, and un-
lefs there cannot be a full jury without the perfons fo
challenged. And then, and not fooner, the king’s.
counfel muft (how the caufe, otherwife the juror (hall
be fworn.
The peremptory challenges of the prifoner muft,
however, have fome reafonable boundary, otherwife he
might never be tried. This reafonable boundary is fet¬
tled by the common law to the number of 3 $ •, that s,
one under the number of three full juries. For the law
judges, that 35 are fully fufficient to allow the moil
timorous man to challenge through mere caprice; and
that he who peremptorily challenges a greater number,
or three full juries, has no intention to be tried at all.
And therefore it deals with one who peremptorily chal¬
lenges above 3 5, and will not retrafl his challenge, as
with one who (lands mute or refufes his trial ; by (en-
tencing him to the pein forte et dure in felony, and by
attainting him in treafon. And fo the law hands at
this day with regard to treafon of any kind. But by
llatute 22 Hen. VIII. c. 14* (which, with regard to
felonies, (lands unrepealed), no perfon arraigned for
felony can be admitted to make more than 20 peremp¬
tory challenges.
CHALONS-sur-Saone, an ancient town of France,
in Burgundy, and capital of the Chalonnois, with a
citadel and bi(hop’s fee. It is feated on the river
Saone, in E. Long. 5. 7. N. Lat. 46. 47.
CHA10 NS- S'ur-Marne, a large epifcopal town of
France, in Champagne. -It carries on a confiderable
trade in (balloons and other woollen (lulls. It is mated
between two fine meadows on the rivers Marne, Mau,
f.nd Nau, in E. Long. 4. 37. N. Lat. 48. 57.
CHALQNER, Sir Thomas, a ffatefman, foldier,
3 1 CHA
and poet, defcended from a good family in Denbigh
in Wales, was born at London about the year 1515.
Having been educated in both univerfities, but chiefly
at Cambridge, he was introduced at the court of Hen¬
ry VIII. who fent him abroad in the retinue of Sir
Henry Knevet, ambaffador to Charles V. and he had
the honour to attend that monarch on his fatal expedi¬
tion againft Algiers in 1541. Soon after the fleet left
that place, he was (liipwreeked on the coaft of Bar¬
bary in a very dark night : and having exhaufted his
ftrength by fwimming, he chanced to (trike his head
againil a cable, which he had the prefence of mind to
catch hold of with his teeth ; and, with the lofs of fe-
veral of them, was drawn up by it into the (hip to
which he belonged. Mr Chaloner returned foon after
to England, and was appointed fil'd clerk of the coun¬
cil, which office he held during the reft of that reign.
On the acceflion of Edward VI. he became a favourite
of the duke of Somerfet, whom he attended to Scot¬
land, and was knighted by that nobleman after the
battle of Muffelburgh, in 1547. The proteftor’s fall
put a (lop to Sir Thomas Chaloner’s expectations,
and involved him in difficulties. During the reign of
Queen Mary, being a determined Proteftant, he was in
lome danger •, but having many powerful friends, he
had the good fortune to efcape. On the acceflion of
Queen Elizabeth, he appeared again at court j and was
fo immediately diftinguiihcd by her majefty, that (he
appointed him ambaffador to the emperor Ferdinand I.
being the firll ambaffador (he nominated. His com-
miflion was of great importance •, and the queen was
fo well fatisfied with his eondudt, that foon after his
return, (he fent him in the lame capacity to Spain :
but Sir Thomas was by no means fatisfled with this m-
ffance of her majefty’s confidence: the courts of Eng¬
land and 'pain being at this time extremely diflatisfi-
ed with each other, he forefaw that his lituation would
be very difagreeable, and fo it proved } but Elizabeth
muff be obeyed. He embarked for Spam in
and returned to London in 1564, in coiflequence of
a requeft to his fovereign, in an elegy written in muta¬
tion of Ovid. After his return, he refided in aJmule
built by himfelf in Clerkenwell dole, where ht died
in the year 1 r6^, and was buried in St Paul s, cir
William Cecil aifiifed as chief mourner at his fu¬
neral.
So various were the talents of Sir Thomas Chalo¬
ner, that he excelled in every thing to which he ap¬
plied himfelf. He made a confiderable figure as a poet.
His poetical works were publilhed by William Malim,
mafter of St Paul’s fchool, in 1 579. His capital work
was that “ Of reftoring the Englifli republic, in ten
books,” which he wrote when he was ambaffador in
Spain. It is remarkable, that this great man, who
knew how to tranfacl as well as write upon the mod
important affairs of dates and kingdoms, could defeend
to compofe a diciv.nory fur chvdrcn, and to tranflate
from the Latin a book Of th office of Servants, merely
for the utility of the fubjt&s.
Chaloner, Sir Thomas, the younger, though in-
confiderable as an author, deferves to be recorded as a
fkilful naturalift, in an age wherein natural hiftory was
very little underftood in this or any other country j
and particularly as the founder of the alum works in
Yorkfnire, which have fmee proved fo exceedingly ad¬
vantageous.
Chalonert
C H A
CUnloner VMitageous to the commerce of this kingdom. He
f„ !l was the only fon of Sir Thomas Chaloner mentioned
. in the laft article, and was born in the year 1559. Be¬
ing very young at the time of his father’s death, the
lord treafurer Burleigh, taking charge of his education,
lent him to St Paul’s fchool, and afterwards to Mag¬
dalen college in Oxford, where, like his father, he dis¬
covered extraordinary talents for Latin and Engliih
poetry. About the year 1580, he made the tour of
Europe, and returned to England before 1584-, for
in that year, we find him a frequent attendant in the
court of (,)ueen Elizabeth. About this time he mar¬
ried the daughter of Sir William Fleetwood, re¬
corder of London. In 1591 he was knighted ; and,
fome time after, 'difeovered the alum mines on his
eftate at Giiborough, near the river Tees in York-
Ihire (a).
Towards the latter end of the queen’s reign, Sir
Thomas vifited Scotland j and returning to England in
the retinue of King James I. found fuch favour in the
light of his majefty, that he was immediately appoint¬
ed governor to Prince Henry, whom he conftantly at¬
tended, and, when his royal pupil vifited Oxford, was
honoured with the degree of mailer of arts. How he
was employed after the death of the prince is not
known. Some years before that event, he married
a fecond wife, the daughter of Mr William Blount of
London, by whom he had fome children. He died in
the year 1615, and was buried at Chifwick in Middle-
fex. His elded fon William was created a baronet in
the 18th of James, anno 1640. The title was extinft
in 168r. He wrote, 1. Dedication to Lord Burleigh
of his father’s poetical works, dated 1579. 2. The
virtue of nitre, wherein is declared the fundry cures by
the fame effected. Lond. 1384, 4to.
CHALYBEAT, in Medicine, an appellation given
to any liquid, as wine or water, impregnated with par¬
ticles of iron or fteel. See Mineral Waters.
CHALYBES, in Ancient Geography, an ancient
people of the Hither Alia. Their fituation is differ¬
ently afligned •, Strabo placing them in Paphlagonia,
to the eaft of Synope j Apollonius Rhodius and Ste-
phanus, on the eait of the Thermodon, in Pontus ;
called Halixones, by Homer. They either gave their
name to, or took it from, their iron manufadtures (Xe¬
nophon, Val. Flaccus), their only fupport, their foil
being barren and ungrateful, (Dionyfius Periegetes).
CHAM, or Khan, the title given to the fovereign
princes of Tartary.
The word, in the Perfian, fignifies mighty lord; in
the Sclavonic, emperor, Sperlingius, in his differta-
tion on the Danilh term of majefty, honing, king, thinks
the Tartarian cham may be well derived from it-, add¬
ing, that in the north they fay kan, konnen, konge, kon-
C H A
ring, &c. The term cham is alfo applied, among the Chirr,; ]
Perfians, to the great lords of the court, and the go- < ||
vernors of provinces. t namaaitj
Cham, in Geography, a town of the Bavarian pala- ^ H
tinate, fituated on a river of the fame name, about
25 miles north-eaft of Ratilhon. E. Long. 13. N. Lat.
49- I5*
CHAMA, in Zoology, a genus of fhell fifh belong¬
ing to the order of vermes teitaccse. The (hell is thick,
and has two valves 5 it is an animal of the oyller kind.
Linnaeus enumerates ^fpeeies, principally diitinguifh-
ed by the figure of their (hells.
CHAMADE, in War, a certain beat of a drum, ,
or found of a trumpet, which is given the enemy as a
fignal to inform them of fome propofitions to be made ,
to the commander, either to capitulate, to have leave
to bury their dead, make a truce, or the like.—Me¬
nage derives the word from the Italian chiamata, of
clamare, “ to cry.”
CHAMiEDRYS. See Veronica, Botany Index.
CHAMALPITYS. See Teucrium, Botany In*
CHAMiEROPS. See Botany Index.
This plant the Americans call thatch, from the ufe
to which the leaves are applied—Under the name of
palmetto, however, Mr Adanfon deferibes a fpecies of
palm which grows naturally at Senegal, whole trunk
rifes from 30 to 60 feet in height: from the upper end
of the trunk iffues a bundle of leaves, which, in turn¬
ing off, form a round head : each leaf reprefents a fan
of five or fix feet in expanfion, fupported by a tail of
the fame length. Of thefe trees fome produce male
flowers, which are confequently barren j others are fe¬
male, and loaded with fruit, w hich fucceed each other
uninterruptedly almoft the whole year round. The
fruit of the large palmettos, Mr Adanfon affirms to be
of the bignefs of an ordinary melon, but rounder : it is
enveloped in two (kins, as tough as leather, and as thick
asftrong parchment; within the fruit is yellowilh, and
full of filaments, faftened to three large kernels in the
middle. The negroes are very fond of this fruit,
which, when baked under the allies, is faid to tafte
like a quince.
CHAMANIM, in the Jewifti antiquities, is the
Hebrew name for that which the Greeks call Pyreia or
Pifrateria; and St Jerome in Leviticus has tranflated
Jimulachra, in Ifaiah, delubra. Thefe chamanim were,
according to Rabbi Solomon, idols expofed to the fun
upon the tops of houfes. Abenezoa fays they were
portable chapels or temples made in the form of cha¬
riots, in honour of the fun. What the Greeks call
Pyreia were temples confecrated to the fun and fire,
wherein a perpetual fire was kept up. They were
built upon eminences ; and were large tnclofures with¬
out
[ 374 1
(a) Sir Thomas, during his refidence in Italy, being particularly fond of natural hiftory, fpent fome time at
Puzzoli, where he was very attentive to the art of producing alum. This attention proved infinitely ferviceable
to his country, though of no great benefit to himfelf or his family, his attempt being attended w ith much dif¬
ficulty and expence. It was begun about the year r6oo, in the reign of (Jueen Elizabeth; but was not brought
to any degree of perfection till fome time in the reign of Charles I. by the afliftance of one Ruflel a Walloon,
and twro other workmen brought from the alum wrorks at Rochelle. By one of the arbitrary a&s of Charles,
it was then deemed a mine royal, and granted to Sir Paul Pindar. The long parliament adjudged it a mono¬
poly, and juflly reftored it to the original proprietors.
c H A [ 375 ] C H A
tnanlm cut covering, where the fun was word: ip pod. The
|| Guebres, or worfhippers of lire, in Perfia and the Eaft
amber. jnC|jeSj have dill thefe Pyreia. The word chamanim
^ derived from ckaman> which lignified to warm or
burn.
CHAMARIN, a word which occurs in feveral
places of the Hebrew Bible, and is generally tranflated
the priejls of the idols, or the priejls clothed in black, be-
caufe chamar dignifies “ black,” or “ blacknefs.” St
Jerome, in the fecond book of Kings, renders it am-
Jpices. In Hofea and Zephaniah, he tranflates it cedi-
tui or church-wardens. But the bed commentators are
of opinion, that by this word we are to underdand the
prieds of the falfe gods, and in particular the worftiip-
pers of fire j becaufe they were, as they fay, deeded
in black 5 or perhaps the Hebrews gave them this name
in derifion, becaufe, as they were continually employed
in taking care about the fuel, and keeping up the fire,
they were always as black as fmiths or colliers. We
find prieds, among thofe of Ids, called melanephori, that
is to fay, that wear black j but whether this may be
by reafon of their drefling in black, or whether it were
becaufe they wore a certain fliining black veil in the
procedions of this goddefs, is not certain. Camar,
in Arabic, fignifies the “ moon.” Ifis is the fame
deity. Grotius thinks the Roman prieds, called ca-
tniili, came from the Hebrew chamarin. Thofe among
the heathens who facrificed to the infernal gods were
dreded in black.
CHAMBER, in building, a member of a lodging,
or piece of an apartment, ordinarily intended for ileep-
ing in ; and called by the Latins cubiculum. The
word comes from the Latin camera ; and that, accord¬
ing to Nicod, from the Greek xctfcx^x, vault or curve;
the term chamber being originally confined to places
arched over.
A complete apartment is to confid of a hall, anti¬
chamber, chamber, and cabinet.
Privy CHAMBER. Gentlemen of the privy chamber,
are fervants of the king, who are to wait and attend
on him and the queen at court, in their diverfions, &c.
Their number is forty-eight, under the lord chamber-
lain, twelve of whom are in quarterly waiting, and two
of thefe lie in the privy chamber.
In the abfence of the lord chamberlain, or vice
chamberlain, they execute the king’s orders : at coro¬
nations, two of them perfonate the dukes of Aquitain
and Normandy ; and fix of them, appointed by the
lord chamberlain, attend ambaffadors from crowned
heads to their audiences, and in public entries. The
gentlemen of the privy chamber were indituted by
Henry VII.
Chamber, in Policy, the place where certain affem-
blies are held, alfo the affemblies themfelves. Of thefe
lome are edablifhed for the adminidration of judice,
others for commercial affairs.
Of the fird kind are, x. Star chamber, fo called
becaufe the roof was painted with dars ; the authori¬
ty, porver, and jurifdiction of which, are abfolutely
abolilhed by the datute 17 Car. I. 2. Imperial cham¬
ber of Spire, the fupreme court of judicatory in the
empire, erefted by Maximilian I. This chamber has
a right of judging by appeal •, and is the lad refort of
all civil affairs of the dates and fubjefts of the empire,
in the fame manner as the aulic council of Vienna. Chamber,
Neverthelefs it is reflrained in feveral cafes: it takes
no notice of matrimonial caufes, thefe being left to
the pope } nor of criminal caufes, which either belong
to particular princes or towns in their refpeftive terri¬
tories, or are cognizable by all the dates of the empire
in a diet. By the treaty of Ofnaburg, in 1648, fifty
afleffors were appointed for this chamber, whereof 24
were to be Protedants, and 26 Catholics befides five
prefidents, two of them Protedants, and the red Ca¬
tholics. 3. Chamber of accounts, a fovereign court in
France, where accounts are rendered of all the king’s
revenues, inventories and avowals thereof regidered,
oaths of fidelity taken, and other things relating to
the finances tranfadled. There are nine in France :
that of Paris is the chief; it regiders proclamations,
treaties of peace, naturalizations, titles of nobility, &c.
All the members wear long black gowns of velvet, of
fatin, or damaik, according to their places. 4. Ec-
clefiadical chambers in France, which judge by appeal
of differences about collecling the tythes. 5. Chamber
of audience, or grand chamber, a jurifdidlion in each
parliament of France, the counfellors of which are
called jugeurs, or judges, as thofe of the chamber of
inqueds are called raporteurs, reporters of proceffes by
writing. 6. Chamber of the edidt, or miparty, a court
edablhhed by virtue of the edidt of pacification in fa¬
vour of thofe of the reformed religion. This chamber
is now fupprefled. 7. Apodolical chamber of Rome,
that wherein affairs relating to the revenues of the
church and the pope are tranfadled. This council con-
fids of the cardinal camerlinga, the governor of the
rota, a treafurer, an auditor, a prefident, one advocate-
general, a folicitor-general, a commifiary, and- twelve
clerks. 8. Chamber of London, an apartment in
Guildhall, where the city-money is depofited.
Of the lad fort are, the chambers of commerce j the
chambers of affurance ; and the royal or fyndical cham¬
ber of bookfellers in France.
1. The chamber of commerce is an affembly of mer¬
chants and traders, where the affairs relating to trade
are treated of. There are feveral edablifhed in mod
of the chief cities of France ; and in our own country
we have lately feen chambers of this kind eredted,
particularly in London, Edinburgh, and Glafgow.
2. Chamber of affurance in France, denotes a fociety
of merchants and others for carrying on the bufinefs
of infuring : but in Holland it fignifies a court of juf-
tice, where caufes relating to infurances are tried.
3. Chamber of bookfellers in Paris, an affembly con¬
fiding of a fyndic and afiidants, eledted by four dele¬
gates from the printers, and twelve from the book¬
fellers, to vifit the books imported from abroad, and
to fearch the houfes of fellers of marbled paper, print-
fellers, and dealers in printed paper for hangings, who
are prohibited from keeping anj^ letters proper for
printing books. In the vifitation of books, which
ought to be performed by three perfons at lead from
among the fyndic and afiidants, all libels againd the
honour of God, and the welfare of the date, and all
books printed either within or without the kingdom
in breach of their regulations and privileges, are dopt,
even with the merchandifes that may happen to be in
the bales with fuch libels or other prohibited books.
The
C H A [3
Chamber, 'The days appointed for this chamber to meet are
^Tain'^' Tue^ays and Fridays, at two o’clock in the after-
l   — . noon.
Chamber, in military affairs. I. Powder cham¬
ber, or bomb chamber; a place funk under ground
for holding the powder, or bombs, where they may
be out of danger, and fecured from the rain. 2. Cham¬
ber of a mine } the place, mod commonly of a cubical
form, where the powder is confined. 3. Chamber
of a mortar *, that part of the chafe, much narrower
than the reft of the cylinder, where the powder lies.
It is of different forms •, fometimes like a reverfed
cone ; fometimes globular, Avith a neck tor its commu¬
nication with the cylinder, whence it is called a bot¬
tled chamber •, but molt commonly cylindrical, that
being the form which is found by experience to carry
the ball to the greateft diftance.
CHAMBERLAIN, an officer charged with the
management and direction of a chamber. See Cham¬
ber, m Policy.
There are almoft as many kinds of chamberlains as
chambers •, the principal whereof are as follows :
Lord CHAMBERLAIN of Great Britain, thefixth great
officer of the crown •, to whom belong livery and
lodging in the king’s court; and there are certain
fees due to him from each archbiffiop or bifhop when
they perform their homage to the king, and from all
peers at their creation or doing their homage. At
the coronation of every king, he is to have forty ells
of crimfon velvet for his own robes. This officer, on
the coronation day, is to bring the king his ilrirt, coif,
and wearing clothes; and after the king is dreffed, he
claims his bed, and all the furniture of his chamber,
for his fees : he alfo carries, at the coronation, the coif,
gloves, and linen, to be ufed by the king on that oeca-
fion 5 alfo the fword and fcabbard \ the gold to be of¬
fered by the king, and the robes royal and crown : he
dreffes and undreffes the king on that day, waits on
him before and after dinner, &c. To this officer be¬
longs the care of providing all things in the houfe of
lords, in the time of parliament •, to him alfo belongs
the government of the palace of Weftminfter : he dif-
pofes likewife of the fword of ftate, to be carried be¬
fore the king, to what lord he pleafes.
The great chamberlain of Scotland was ranked by
King Malcolm, as the third great officer of the crown,
and was called Camerarius Domini Regis. Before
a treafurer was appointed, it was his duty to colledft the
revenue of the crown -, and he dxffiurfed the money
neceffary for the king’s expences, and the maintenance
of the king’s houfehold. From the time that a trea¬
furer was appointed, his province was limited to the
boroughs throughout the kingdom, where he was a
fort of juftice general, as he had a power for judging
of all crimes committed within the borough, and of
the crime of foreftalling. He was to hold chamber-
lain ayres every year. He was fupreme judge ; nor
could any of his decrees be queftioned by any inferior
judicatory. His fentences were put in execution by
the magiftrates of the boroughs. He alio regulated
the price of provifions within the borough, and the
fees of the workmen in the mint houfe. His falary
was only 200I. a-year. The fmallnefs of his falary,
and his great powers, had no doubt been the caufes
«tf much oppreffion in this officer^ and the chamber-
/
u J
lain ayre was called rather a legal robbery than a court Chamte
of juftice ; and when the combined lords ieized King b.n,
.Tames VI. Auguft 24. 138 and carried him to Ruth-
ven *1 -    1.: i_ la)’ne’
was granted heritably to the family of Stuart duke
of Lenox: and when thair male line failed, King
Charles II. conferred it in like manner upon his natu¬
ral fon, whom he created duke of Monmouth, and on
his forfeiture it went to the duke of Lenox j but that
family furrendered the office to the crown in 1703.
Lord CHAMBERLAIN of the Phufehold, an officer who
has the overfight and direftion of all officers belonging
to the king’s chambers, except the precinft of the
king’s bedchamber.
He has the overfight of the officers of the wardrobe
at all his majefty’s houfes, and of the removing ward¬
robes, or of beds, tents, revels, mufic, comedians, hunt¬
ing, meffengers, &c. retained in the king’s fervice.
He moreover has the overfight and direftion of the fer-
jeants at arms, of all phyficians, apothecaries, furgeons,
barbers, the king’s chaplains, &c. and adminifters the
oath to all officers above flairs.
Other chamberlains are thofe of the king’s court
of exchequer, of North Wales, of Chefter, of the city
of London, &c. in which cafe this officer is generally
the receiver of all rents and revenues belonging to the
place w hereof he is chamberlain.
in the exchequer there are two chamberlains, who
keep a controlment of the pells of receipts and exitus,
and have certain keys of the treafury, records, &c.
CHAMBERLAIN of London keeps the city money,
which is laid up in the chamber of London : he alfo
prelides over the affairs of mailers and apprentices, and
makes free of the city, &c.
His office lafts only a year 5 but the cuftom ufually
obtains to re-choofe the fame perfon, unlefs charged
with any mifdemeanour in his office.
CHAMBERLAYNE, Edward, defcended from
an ancient family, was born in Gloucefterlhire 1616,
and made the tour of Europe during the diftraclions
of the civil war. After the Reftoration, he went as
fecretary with the earl of Carlifle, who carried the or¬
der of the Garter to the king of Sweden ; was ap¬
pointed tutor to the duke of Grafton, natural fon of
Charles II. and wras afterwards pitched on to inftruft
Prince George of Denmark in the Engliffi tongue. He
died in 1703, and wTas buried in a vault in Chelfea
churchyard : his monumental infeription mentions fix
books of his writing \ and that he w as fo defirous of do¬
ing fervice to pofterity, that he ordered feme copies of
his books to be covered with Avax, and buried Avith
him. That work by Avhich he is heft known, is his
Pin glia Notitiee, or the Prefent State of England, which
has been often fince printed.
CHAMBERLAYNE, John, fon to the author of “ The
Prefent State of England,” and continuator of that ufe-
ful work, was admitted into Trinity College, Oxford,
16855 but it doth not appear that he took any degree.
Befide the Continuation juft mentioned, he was author
of “ Differtations hiftorical, critical, theological, and
moral, on the moil memorable events of the Old and
New Teftaments, w ith Chronological Tables 5” one
vol,
C H A
mber-
iyne
hi
nbers.
Vol. folio; and tranflated a variety of works from the
French, Dutch, and other languages. He likewife
was F. R. S. and communicated fome pieces, inferted
in the Philofophical Tranfa£tions. It wfas faid of him
that he underftood lixteen languages j but it is certain
that he was mailer of the Greek, Latin, French, High
and Low Dutch, Portuguefe, and Italian. Though
he was qualified for employment, he had none but that
of gentleman ulher to George prince of Denmark.
After a ufeful and well-fpent life, he died in the year
1724. He was a very pious and good man, and ear¬
ned in promoting the advancement of religion, and the
intereft of true Chriftianity j for which purpofe he kept
a large correfpondence abroad.
CHAMBERRY, a confiderable and populous town
of Italy, in Savoy, with a caftle. It is capital of the
duchy, and well built, but has no fortifications. It is
watered by feveral itreams, which have their fources
in St Martin’s hill, and run through feveral of the
ftrects. There are piazzas under mod part of the
houfes, where people riiay vralk dry in the word wea¬
ther. It hath large and handfome fuburbs j and in the
centre of the town is the royal palace. The parlia¬
ment meet here, which is compofed of four prefidents,
and a pretty large number of fenators, being the fu-
preme tribunal of the whole duchy. The principal
church is St Leger, and the Jefuits college is the mod
magnificent of all the monaderies. E. Long. 5. 50.
N. Lat. 45. 25.
CHAMBERS, David, a Scots hidorian, pried,
and lawyer, wras born in the {hire of Rofs, about the
year 1530, and educated in the univerfity of Aber¬
deen. From thence he vrent to France and Italy,
where he continued fome time, particularly at Bou¬
logne, where, in 1556, he was a pupil of Marianus
Sozenus.
After his return to Scotland, he was appointed, by
Queen Mary, parfon of Suddy and chancellor of Rofs.
He was foon after employed in digeding the laws of
Scotland, and was principally concerned in publifhing
the adds of parliament of that kingdom by authority
in 1566. He was alfo appointed one of the lords of
feflion, and continued her majedy’s faithful fervant
till her declining fortune obliged her adherents to feek
for refuge in other kingdoms. Chambers went fird
to Spain, where he was gracioufly received by King
Philip ; and thence he travelled to Paris, where he
was no lefs kindly received by Charles IX. of that
kingdom, to whom, in 1572, he prefented his hidory
of Scotland, &c. He died at Paris in the year I592>
much regretted (fays Mackenzie) by all who knew
him. His writings were chiefly calculated to adid
his royal midrefs, and to extol the wifdom of the Scots
nation.
Chambers, Ephraim, author of the Scientific
Dictionary which goes under his name, wras born at
Milton, in the county of Wedmoreland. His parents
■were diffenters of the Prefbyterian perfuafion j and his
■education no other than that common one which is in¬
tended to qualify a youth for trade and commerce-
When he became of a proper age, he wras put appren¬
tice to Mr Senex the globe-maker, a bufinefs which
is connected with literature, and efpecially with adro-
norny and geography. It was during Mr Chambers’s
refidence with this Ikilful mechanic, lEat he contracted
Yol. Vr Part I,
f 377 1
C H A
that tade for fcience and learning which accompanied Cfiamb
him through life, and direCted all his purfuits. It was "V"
even at this time that he formed the defign of his
grand work, the “ Cyclopaediaand fome of the fird
articles of it were written behind the counter. Ha¬
ving conceived, the idea of fo great an undertaking, he
judly concluded that the execution of it would not
confid with the avocations of trade j and therefore he
quitted Mr Senex, and took chambers at Gray’s Inn,
where he chiefly relided during the red of his days.
The fird edition of the Cyclopcvdia, which was the re-
fult of many years intenfe application, appeared in
1728, in two vols. folio. It was publifhed by fubfcrip-
tion, the price being 4I. 4s. j and the lid of fubfcribers
was very refpeCtable. The dedication, which was to
the king, is dated OCtober 15. 1727. The reputation
that Mr Chambers acquired by his execution of this
undertaking, procured him the honour of being elect¬
ed F. R. S. November 6. 1729. In lefs than 10 years
time a fecond edition became neceffary ; which accord¬
ingly was printed, with corrections and additions, in
1738 j and was followed by a third the very next
year.
Although the Cyclopaedia was the grand bufinefs of
Mr Chambers’s life, and may be regarded as almod
the foie foundation of his fame, his attention was not
wholly confined to this undertaking. He was con¬
cerned in a periodical publication, entitled, “ The
Literary Magazine,” which was begun in 1735. In
this work he wrote a variety of articles, and particu¬
larly a review of Morgan’s “ Moral Philofophy.”
He was engaged likewife, in conjunction with Mr
John Martyn, F. R. S and profeffor of botany at
Cambridge, in preparing for the prefs a tranflation and
abridgment of the “ Philofophical Hiltory and Me¬
moirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, or
an Abridgment of all the Papers relating to Natural
Philofophy, which have been publilhed by the Mem¬
bers of that illultrious Society.” This undertaking,
when completed, was comprifed in five volumes, 8vo,
which did not appear till 1742, fome time after our
author’s deceafe, when they were publilhed under the
joint names of Mr Martyn and lyir Chambers. Mr
Martyn, in a fubfequent publication, hath paffed a fe-
vere cenfure upon the lhare which his fellow-labourer
had in the abridgment of the Parifian papers. The
only work befides, that we find afcribed to Mr Cham¬
bers, is a tranflation of the Jefnit's Perfpedive, from
the French } which was printed in 4to, and hath gone
through feveral editions. Mr Chambers’s clofe and un¬
remitting attention to his Itudies at length impaired his •
health, and obliged him occafionally to take a lodging
at Canonbury-houfe, Iflington. This not having great¬
ly contributed to his recovery, he made an excurfion
to the fouth of France, but did not reap that benefit
from it which he had himfelf hoped, and his friends
wilhed. Returning to England, he died at Canonbu¬
ry-houfe, and was buried at Weltminfter j where the
following infcription, written by himfelf, is placed on ^
the north fide of the cloilters of the Abbey:
Multis pervulgatis,
Paucis nptus;
Qui vitam, inter lucem et umbram,
^ Nec eruditus, nec idiota,
3 B Litwis
Chamber?
C H A [ 378 ] C H A
Literis deditus, tranfegit; fed ut homo
(^ui humani nihil a fe alienum putat.
Vita limul, et laboribus functus,
Hie requiefeere voluit,
Ephraim Chambers, R. S. S.
Obiit XV Mail, mdccxl.
After the author’s death two more editions of his
Cyclopaedia were publilhed. A fupplement, which
extended to two volumes more, was afterwards com¬
piled : and in the year 1778 was publilhed an edition
of both, incorporated into one alphabet, by Dr Rees,
which was completed in four volumes folio. Another
edition which is now (1803) going on, and is to ex¬
tend to 20 vols. qto, has been undertaken by the fame
gentleman.
CHAMBRE, Martin Cureau de la, phyfician
in ordinary to the French king, was diftinguilhed by
his knowledge in medicine, philofophy, and polite learn¬
ing. He was born at Mons, and was received into the
French academy in 1635, and afterwards into the aca¬
demy of fciences. He wrote a great number of works j
the principal of which are, 1. The characters of the
palhons. 2. The art of knowing men. 3. On the know¬
ledge of bealts, &c. He died at Paris in 1669.
CHAMELEON. See Lacerta, Erpetology
Index.
CHAMFERING, in ArchiteBure, a phrafe ufed for
cutting any thing allope on the under fide.
CHAMIER, Daniel, an eminent Proteftant di¬
vine, born in Dauphiny. He v'as many years preach¬
er at Montellimart; from whence he w^ent in 1612 to
Montaubon, to be profeffor of divinity in that city, and
was killed by a cannon ball during the fiege in 1621.
The molt confiderable of his works is his Fanjlratia Ca-
tholica, or, “ Wars of the Lord,” in four volumes folio ;
in whichthe treats very learnedly of the controverfies
between the Proteftants and Roman Catholics.
CHAMOIS, or Chamois Goat, in Zoology. See
Capra, Mammalia Index.
CHAMOMILE. See Anthemis, Botany Index.
CFIAMOS, or Chemosh, the idol or god of the
Moabites.
The name of chamos comes from a root which, in
Arabic, fignifies to make hajle ; for which reafisn many
believe Chamos to be the fun, whofe precipitate courfe
might well procure it the name of fwift or fpeedy.
Others have confounded Chamos with the god Hammon,
adored not only in Libya and Egypt, but alfo in A-
rabia, Ethiopia, and the Indies. Macrobius fhows
that Hammon was the fun ; and the horns, with which
he was reprefented, denoted his rays. Calmet is of
opinion that the god Hamonus, and Apollo Chomeus,
mentioned by Strabo and Ammianus Marcellinus, was
the very fame as Chamos or the fun. Thefe deities
were worlhipped in many of the eailern provinces.
Some who go upon the refemblance of the Hebrew
term chamos to that of the Greek comos, have believed
Chamos to fignify the god Bacchus, the god of drunk-
ennefs, according to the fignification of the Greek
comos. St Jerome, and with him molt other interpre¬
ters, take Chamos and Peor for the fame deity. But
it feems that Baal Peor was the fame as Tam muz or
Adonis •, fo that Chamos muil be the ^ed whom the
heathens call the fun.
CHAMOUNI, one of the elevated valleys of the Chmor 1
Alps, fituated at the foot of Mont Blanc* See Alps y*'
and Blanc.
The firft ilrangers whom a curiofity to vifit the gla¬
ciers drew to Chamouni (M. Sauffureobferves), certain¬
ly confidered this valley as a den of robbers j for they
came armed cap-a-pee, attended with a troop of do-
meftics armed in the fame manner : they would not
venture into any houfe; they lived in tents which they
had brought along with them j fires wrere kept burning,
and centinels on guard, the whole night over. It was
in the year 1741 that the celebrated traveller Pocock,
and another Englifh gentleman called Wyndham, un¬
dertook this interefting journey. It is remembered by
the old men of Chamouni, and they flill laugh at the
fears of the travellers, and at their unneceffary preeau-
tions. For 20 or 25 years after this period, the journey
was made but feidom, and then chiefly by Englilh-
men, who lodged with the curate : for, when 1 was
there in 1760, and even for four or five years after¬
wards, there was no habitable houfe except one or two
miferable inns, like thofe in villages that are little fre¬
quented. But now that this expedition has gradually
become fo fafliionable, three large and good inns, w hich
have been fucceflively built, are hardly fufficient to con¬
tain the travellers that come during the fummer from
all quarters.
This concourfe of ftrangers, and the money they
leave behind them at Chamouni, have fomewhat affeft-
ed the ancient fimplicity of the inhabitants, and even
the purity of their manners. Nobody, however, has
any thing to fear from them : the molt inviolable fide¬
lity is obferved with refpect to travellers •, they are only
expofed to a fewr importunate felicitations, and fom»
fmall artifices diftated by the extreme eagernefs with
which the inhabitants offer their fervices as guides.
The hope of obtaining this employment brings to¬
gether, round a traveller, ahnoft all the men in every
village through which he paffes, and makes him believe
that there arc a great many in the valley j but there
are very few at Chamouni in fummer. Curiofity, or
the hope of making money, draw's many to Paris and
into Germany : befides, as the Ihepherds of Chamouni
have the reputation of excelling in the making of
cheefe, they are in great requeft in the Tarentaife, in
the valley of Aofte, and even at greater diffances; and
they receive there, for four or five months in fummer,
very confiderable wages. Thus the labours of the field
devolve almoft entirely on the women, even fuch as in
other countries fall folely on the men *, as mowing,
cutting of wood, and thrafhing : even the animals of
the fame fex are not fpared, for the cows there are yok¬
ed in the plough.
The only labours that belong exelufively to the men
are the feeking for rock cryftal and the chafe. Plap-
pily they are now lefs employed than formerly in the
firft of thefe occupations 5 I fay happily, for many of
them perilhed in this purfuit. The hope of enriching
themfelves quickly by the difeovery of a cavern filled
with fine cryftals, was fo powerful a motive, that they
expofed themfelves in the fearch to the moft alarming
dangers 5 and hardly a year palled without fome of them
perithing in the fnows, or among the precipices.
The principal indication of the grottoes, or cryftal
ovens as they are here called, are veins of quartz, which
appear
C H A t 379 3 C H A
Tjouni. appear on the outfide of the rocks of granite, or of the
-V—' laminated rock. Thefe white veins are feen at a dif-
tanc6, and often at great heights, on vertical and inac-
cedible places. The adventurers endeavour to arrive
at thefe, either by fabricating a road acrofs the rocks,
or by letting themfelves down from above fufpended by
ropes. When they reach the place, they gently ilrike
the rock •, and if the Hone returns a hollow found, they
endeavour to open it with a hammer, or to blow it up
with powder. This is the principal method of fearch-
ing: but young people, and even children, often go in
■ quell of thefe cry Hals over the glaciers, where the rocks
have lately fallen down. But whether they eonlider
thefe mountains as nearly exhaufted, or that the quan¬
tity of cryllal found at Madagafcar has too much lower¬
ed the price of this foflil, there are now but few peo¬
ple that go in fearch of it, and perhaps there is not a
tingle perfon at Chamouni that makes it his only oc¬
cupation. They go however occalionally, as to a par¬
ty of pleafure.
But the chafe of the chamois goat, as dangerous,
and perhaps more fo than the feeking for cryftal, Hill
occupies many inhabitants of the mountains, and car¬
ries off, in the flower of their age, many men whofe
lives are moll valuable to their families. And when
we are informed how this chafe is carried on, we will
be altonilhed that a courfe of life, at once fo laborious
and perilous, Ihould have irrefillible attradlions for thofe
who have been accullomed to it.
The chamois hunter generally fets out in the night,
that he may reach by break of day the moll elevated
pallurcs where the goats come to feed, before they ar-
“rive. As foon as he difeovers the place where he hopes
to find them, he furveys it with his glafs. If he finds
none of them there, he proceeds, always afeending •,
whenever he deferies any, he endeavours to get above
them, either by Healing along fome gully, or getting
behind fome rock or eminence. When he is near
enough to diffinguilh their horns, which is the mark
by which he judges of the diffance, he reffs his piece
on a rock, takes his aim with great compofure, and
rarely miffes. This piece is a rifle-barrelled carabine,
into which the ball is thruff, and thefe carabines often
contain two charges, though they have but one barrel •,
the charges are put one above another, and are fired in
fueceflion. If he has wounded the chamois, he runs
to his prey, and for fecurity he hamflrings it; then he
confiders his w’ay home •, if the road is difficult, he
Ikins the chamois, and leaves the carcafs •, but, if it is
praflicable, he throws the animal on his fhoulders, and
bears him to his village, though at a great diflance,
and often over frightful precipices : he feeds his fami¬
ly with the flelh, which is excellent, efpecially when
the creature is young 5 and he dries the Ikins for fale.
But if, as is the moH common cafe, the vigilant
chamois perceives the approach of the hunter, he im¬
mediately takes flight among the glaciers, through the
fnows, and over the moH precipitous rocks. It is par¬
ticularly difficult to get near thefe animals when there
are feveral together •, for then one of them, while the
refl are feeding, Hands as a centinel on the point of
fome rock that commands a view of the avenues lead¬
ing to the paHure j and as foon as he perceives any
obi eft °f alarm, he utters a fort of hifs $ at which the
others inilantly gather round him to judge for them¬
felves of the nature of the danger: if it is a wild beaff, Cliamoehu
or a hunter, the moft experienced puts himfelf at the ''—•“■v”***"
head of the Hock, and away they fly, ranged in a line,
to the moil inacceflible retreats.
It is here that the fatigues of the hunter begin ; in-
iligated by his paffion for the chafe, he is infenlible to
danger : he pafies over fnows, without thinking of the
horrid precipices they conceal •, he entangles himlelf
among the moil dangerous paths, and bounds from
rock to rock, without knowing how he is to return.
Night often furprifes him in the midfl of his purfuit j
but he docs not for that reafon abandon it j he hopes
that the fame caufe will arrcH the flight of the cha¬
mois, and that he will next morning overtake them.
Thus he paffes the night, not at the foot of a tree,
like the hunter of the plain ; nor in a grotto, foftly
reclined on a bed of mols j but at the foot of a rock,
and often on the bare points of fliattered fragments,
without the fmallefl fhelter. There, all alone, with¬
out fire, without light, he draws from his bag a bit of
cheefe, with a morfel of oaten bread, which make his
common food j bread fo dry, that he is fomptimes obli¬
ged to break it between two Hones, or w ith the hatchet
he carries with him to cut out Heps in the ice. Ha¬
ving thus made his folitary and frugal repafl, he puts
a Hone below his head for a pillow, and goes to deep,
dreaming on the route which the chamois may have
taken. But foon he is awakened by the freihnefs of
the morning j he gets up, benumbed with cold j fur¬
veys the precipices which he muft traverfe, in order to
overtake his game ; drinks a little brandy, of which he
is always provided with a fmall portion, and fets out to
encounter new dangers. Hunters fometimes remain in
thefe folitudes for feveral days together, during which
time their families, their unhappy wives in particular,
experience a Hate of the moll dreadful anxiety j they
dare not go to red for fear of feeing their hufbands ap¬
pear to them in a dream j for it is a received opinion
in the country, that when a man has perilhed, either
in the fnow, or on fome unknown rock, he appears by
night to the perfon he held mofl dear, deferibes the
place that proved fatal to him, and requefls the per¬
formance of the lad duties to his corpfe.
“ After this pifture of the life which the cha-^jW^
raois hunters lead, could one imagine that this chafe ^'ipes^par
would be the objeft of a paffion abfolutely unfur- m. Sai/J-
mountable ! I knew a well-made, handfome man, who fure, torn,
had juil married a beautiful woman :—‘ My grand- id*
father’, faid he to me, ‘ lod his life in the chafe; fo did
my father 5 and I am perfuaded that I too fhall die in
the fame manner; this bag which I carry w ith me
when I hunt I call my grave clothes, for I am lure I
will have no other; yet, if you Ihould offer to make
my fortune on condition of abandoning the chafe of
the chamois, I could not confent.’ I made fome
excurfions on the Alps with this man : His Hrength
and addrefs were affonifhing j but his temerity was
greater than his flrength j and I have heard, that
two years afterwards, he miffed a Hep on the brink
of a precipice, and met with the fate he had expeft-
ed.
“ The few who have grown old in this, employment
bear upon their faces the marks of the lives they have
led. A favage look, fomething in it haggard and wild,
makes them be known in the midil of a crowd, even
3 B 2 when
C H A r 380 ] C H A
ehamonn;.. -w-fien they are not in their hunting drefs. And un-
doubtedly it is this ill look which makes fome fuper-
ftitious peafants believe that they are forcerers, that
they have dealings with the devil in their folitudes,
and that it is he who throws them down the rocks.
What then can be the paffionate inducement to this
courfe of life ? It is not avarice, at leaf! it is not
an avarice confiftent with reafon : the molt beautiful
chamois is never worth more to the perfon that kills
it than a dozen of francs, even including the value of
its flelh : and now that the number is fo much dimi-
nifhed, the time loft before one can be taken is much
more than its value. But it is the very dangers that
attend the purfuit, thofe alternations of hope and fear,
the continual agitation and exercife which thefe emo¬
tions produce in the mind, that inftigate the hunter :
they animate him as they do the gamefter, the warrior,
the Jailor, and even to a certain degree, the naturalift
of the Alps 5 whole life, in fome meafure, pretty much
refembles that of the hunter, whofe manners we have
defcribed.”
But there is another kind of hunting, which is nei¬
ther dangerous nor laborious, nor fatal to any one but
to the poor animals that are the objects of it.—Thefe
are the marmots, animals that inhabit the high moun¬
tains 5 where in fummer they fcoop out holes, which
they line with hay, and retire to at the beginning of
autumn. Here they grow torpid with the cold, and
remain in a fort of lethargy, till the warmth of the
fpring returns to quicken their languid blood, and to
recal them to life. When it is fuppofed that they
have retired to their winter abode, and before the fnow
has covered the high paftures where their holes are
made, people go to unharbour them. They are found
from 10 to 13 in the fame hole, heaped upon one an¬
other, and buried in the hay. Their lleep is fo pro¬
found, that the hunter often puts them into his bag,
and carries them home without their awaking. The
fldh of the young is good, though it taftes of oil, and
fmells fomewhat of mulk; the fat is ufed in the cure
of rheumatifms and pains, being rubbed on the parts
affe£ted j but the Ikin is of little value, and is fold for
no more than five or fix fols. Notwithftanding
the little benefit they reap from it, the people of
Chamouni go in queft of this animal with great
eagernefs, and its numbers accordingly diminilh very
fenfibly.
It has been faid, that marmots, in order to tranfport
, the hay into their holes, ufe one of their number laid
on his back as a cart ; but this is fabulous, for they
are feen carrying the hay in their mouths. Nor is it
for food that they gather it, but for a bed, and in or¬
der to Ihut out the cold, and to guard the avenues of
their retreat from enemies. When they are taken in
autumn, their bowels are quite empty, and even as clean
as if they had been walked with water j which proves
that their torpidity is preceded by a faft, and even by
an evacuation j a wife contrivance of nature for pre¬
venting their accumulated faeces from growing putrid
or too dry, in the long lethargy they are expofed to.
They alfo continue a few days after their revival with¬
out eating, probably to allow the circulation and di-
geftive power to recover their aftivity. At firft lea¬
ving their holes, they appear ftupid and dazzled with
ihe light j they are at this time killed with flicks, aa
they do not endeavour to fly, and their bowels are then Cham®
alfo quite empty. They are not very lean when they than
awake, but grow more fo for a few days after they firft
come abroad. Their blood is never congealed, how- r
ever profound their fleep may be j for at the time that
it is deepeft, if they are bled, the blood flows as if they
were awake.
In thefe countries the period is fo ftiort between the
diffolution of the fnow and its return, that grain has
hardly time to come to maturity. M. Sauffure men¬
tions a very ufeful and ingenious practice, invented by
the mountaineers of the Argentiere, for enlarging this
period, “ I obferved (fays he) in the middle of the
valley, feveral large fpaces where the furface of the
fnow exhibited a Angular appearance, fomewhat reiem-
bling a piece of white cloth fpotted with black. While
I was endeavouring to divine the caufe of this pheno¬
menon, I difcovered feveral women walking with mea-
fured pace, and fowing fomething in handfuls that was
black ; and which being fcattered, regularly diverging
on the furface of the fnow, formed that fpotted ap¬
pearance that I had been admiring. I could not con¬
ceive what feed fliould be fown on fnow fix feet deep j
but my guide, aftonifhed at my ignorance, infoimed
me that it was black earth fpread upon the i’now to ac¬
celerate its melting j and thus to anticipate, by a fort¬
night or three weeks, the time of labouring the fields
and fowing. I was ftruck with the elegant fimplicity
of a practice fo ufeful, the effefts of which I already
faw very evidently in places which had not been thus
treated above three days.
“ As to the inhabitants of Chamouni, the men, like
thofe of moft high valleys, are neither well made nor
tall ; but they are nervous and ftrong, as are alfo the
women. They do not attain to a great age : men of
80 are very rare. Inflammatory difeafes are the moft
fatal to them; proceeding, no doubt, from obftrudted
perfpiration, to which the inconftant temperature of
the climate expofes them.
“ They are in general honeft, faithful, and diligent in
the praftice of religious duties. It would, for inftance^
be in .vain to perfuade them to go anywhere on a ho¬
liday before hearing mafs. They are economical, but
charitable. There are amongft them neither holpitals
nor foundations for the poor $ but orphans and old
people, who have no means of fubfiftence, are enter¬
tained by every inhabitant of a parifti in his turn. If
a man is prevented by age or infirmities from taking
charge of his affairs, his neighbours join among them-
felves and do it for him.
“ Their mind is aftive and lively, their temper gay,
w ith an inclination to raillery: they obferve, with An¬
gular acutenefs, the ridiculous in ftrangers, and turn
it into a fund of very facetious merriment among
themfelves 5 yet they are capable of ferious thinking:
many of them have attacked me on religious and me-
taphyfical fubjefts : not as profefling a different faith
from theirs, but on general queftions, which ftiow-
ed they had ideas independent of thofe they were
taught.”
CHAMPAGNE, a confiderable province of France,
about 162 miles in length, and H2in breadth, bound¬
ed on the north by Hainault and Luxembourg, on
the eaft by Lorrain and the Tranche Compte, on the
fouth by Burgundy, and on the weft by the Ifle of
France
C H A [ 381 ] e H A
Limpagne France and Soiffonnois. It has a great number of ri¬
ll vers, the principal of which are the Meufe, the Seine,
|ampioD. the Marne, the Aube, and the Aine. Its principal
” trade confifts in excellent wine, all forts of corn, linen
cloth, woollen fluffs, cattle, and flieep. It is allb di¬
vided into the higher and lower 5 and Troyes is the
capital town. Its fubdivifions are Champagne Proper,
and Rhemois, the Retolois, the Pertois, the Village,
JBafigni, the Senonois and the Brie Champenois. It
now forms the departments of Ardennes, Aube, Marne,
and Upper Marne.
CHAMPAGNE Proper, is one of the eight parts of
Champagne, which comprehends the towns of Troyes,
Chalons, St Menehould, Eperney, and Vertus.
CHAMPAIN, or Point CHAMP AIN, in Heraldry,
a mark of diihonour in the coat of arms of him who
kills a prifoner of war after he has cried quarter.
CHAMPERTRY, in Law, a fpecies of mainte¬
nance, and punilhed in the fame manner ; being a
bargain with the plaintiff or defendant campum par-
tire, “ to divide the land,” or other matter fued for,
between them, if they prevail at law ; whereupon the
charapertror is to carry on the party’s fuit at his own
expence. This champart, in the French law, flgnifies
a fimilar divifion of profits, being a part of the crop
annually due to the landlord by bargain or cuftom.
In our fenfe of the word, it flgnifies the purchafing of
a fuit or right of fuing j a pra&ice fo much abhorred
by our law, that it is one main reafon why a chofe in
aftion, or thing of which one hath the right but not
the polTeflion, is not aflignable in common law ; be-
caufe no man ftiould purchafe any pretence to fue in
another’s right. Thefe pelts of civil fociety, that are
perpetually endeavouring to difturb the repofe of their
neighbours, and officiouily interfering in other men’s
quarrels even at the hazard of their own fortunes,
were feverely animadverted on by the Roman law,
and were punilhed by the forfeiture of a third part of
their goods and perpetual infamy. Hitherto alfo mult
be referred the provifions of the ftatute 32 Henry VIII.
c. 9. that no one lhall fell or purchafe any pretended
right or title to land, unlefs the vender hath received
the profits thereof for one whole year before fuch
grant, or hath been in aftual poficflion of the land, or
of the reverfion or remainder *, on pain that both pur-
chafer and vender lhall each forfeit the value of fuch
land to the king and the profecutor.
CHAMPION, a perfon who undertakes a combat
in the place or quarrel of another •, and fometimes the
word is ufed for him vdio fights in his own caufe.
It appears, that champions, in the juft fenfe of the
word, were perfons who fought inftead of thofe that,
by cuftom, were obliged to accept the duel, but had
a juft excufe for difpenfing with it, as being too old,
infirm, or being ecclefiaftics, and the like. Such
caufes as could not be decided by the courfe of com¬
mon law were often tried by fingle combat j and he
who had the good fortune to conquer, was always re¬
puted to have juftice on his fide. See the article
Battle. *
Champion of the king (catnpio regis), is an ancient
•fticer, whofe office is, at the coronation of our kings,
when the king is at dinner, to ride armed cap-a-pee,
into Weftminfter-hall, and by the proclamation of a
herald make a challenge, “ That if any man /hall de- Hhampicn
ny the king’s title to the crown, he is there ready to , II
defend it in fingle combat, &c.” which being done, nance, .
the king drinks to him, and fends him a gilt cup with ’
a cover full of wine, wdiich the champion drinks, and
hath the cup for his fee. This office at the corona¬
tion of King Richard II. when Baldwin Ferville exhi¬
bited his petition for it, was adjudged from him to his
competitor Sir John Dymocke, (both claiming from
Marmion), and hath continued ever fince in the fami¬
ly of the Dymockes $ who hold the manor of Sinvelf-
by in Lincolnlhire, hereditary from the Marmions, by
grand ferjeantry, viz. that the lord thereof ftiall be
the king’s champion as aforefaid. Accordingly Sir
Edward Dymocke performed this office at the coro¬
nation of King Charles II. j a perfon of the name of
Dymocke performed at the coronation of his prefent
majefty George III.
CHAMPLAIN, Samuel de, a celebrated French
navigator, the founder of the colony of New France,
or Canada. He built Quebec ; and was the firft go¬
vernor of the colony in 1603. Died after 1649. See
Quebec.
CHANANiEI, in Ancient Geography, the name-
of the ancient inhabitants «f Canaan in general, de-
feendants of Canaan ; but peculiarly appropriated to
fome one branch 5 though uncertain which branch or
fon of Canaan it was, or how it happened that they
preferred the common gentilitious name to one more
appropriated as defeendants of one of the Ions of Ca¬
naan ; unlefs from their courfe of life, as being in the
mercantile way, the import of the name of Canaan ;
and for which their fituation was greatly adapted, they
living on the fea and about Jordan, and thus occupy¬
ing the greater part of the Land of Promife.
CHANCE, a term vre apply to events, to denote
that they happen without any necefiary or foreknown
caufe. See Cause.
Our aim is, to aferibe thofe things to chance which
are not neceffarily produced as the natural effefts of
any proper caufe : but our ignorance and precipitancy
lead us to attribute effedls to chance which have a ne-
ceffary and determinate caufe.
When we fay a thing happens by chance, we really
mean no more than that its caufe is unknown to us:
not, as fome vainly imagine, that chance itfelf can be
the caufe of any thing.
The cafe of the painter, who unable to exprefs the
foam at the mouth of a horfe he had painted, threw
his fponge in defpair at the piece, and by chance,.
did that which he could not before do by defign,
is an eminent inftance of the force of chance: yet,
it is obvious, all we mean here by chance, is, that
the painter was not aware of the effect ; or that he
did not throw the fponge with fuch a view : not but
that he actually did every thing neceffary to produce
the effeft j infomuch, that confidering the dire&ion
wherein he threw his fponge, together with its form,
fpecific gravity, the colours wherewith it was fmear-
ed, and the diftance of the hand from the piece, it
was impoffible, on the prefent fyftem of things, the ef-
feft .ftiould not follow.
Chance is frequently perfonified, and erefted into a
chimerical being, whom we conceive as acting arbitra-
C H A [ 382 ] C II A
CJiancf*, rJly} nnd producing all the effe^s whole real caufes do
Chance- nf>£ appear to us *, in which fenfe the word coincides
1T - * . with the fortuna, of the ancients.
Chance is alfo ufed for the manner of deciding
things, the conduct or direftion whereof is left at large,
and not reducible to any determinate rules or meafures,
or where there is no ground for preference; as at
cards, dice, lotteries, &c.
For the laws of Chance, or the Proportion of Ha-
%ard in Gaming, fee Game.
The ancient fortileqr, or chance, M. Placette ob-
ferves, was inftituted by God himfelf: and in the Old
Teftament we find feveral Handing laws and exprefs
commands which preferibed its ufe on certain occa-
fions. Hence the Scripture fays, u The lot, or chance,
fell on Matthias,” when it was in queftion who Ihould
fill Judas’s place in the apoftolate.
Hence alfo arofe the fortes fanclorum, or method of
determining things, among the ancient Chriftians, by
opening fome of the facred books, and pitching on the
firft verfe they call their eye on, as a fure prognoftic
of what was to befal them. The fortes Homeric#, Vir-
giliance, Prceneflince, &c. ufed by the heathens, were
with the fame view, and in the fame manner. See
Sortes.
St Augulline feems to approve of this method of
determining things future, and owns that he had prac-
tifed it himfelf ; grounded on this fuppofition, that
God prefides over chance ; and on Prov. xvi. 33.
Many among the modern divines hold chance to
be condu&ed in a particular manner by Providence •,
and efteem it an extraordinary way which God ufes
to declare his will, and a kind of immediate revela¬
tion.
CUANCE-Mcdlcy, in Law, is where one is doing a
lawful act, and a perfon is killed by chance thereby 5
for if the aft be unlawful, it is felony. If a perfon
call, not intending harm, a Hone, which happens to
hit one, whereof he dies •, or Ihoots an arrow in a
highway, and another that paffeth by is killed there-
ivith j or if a workman, in throwing down rubbilh
from a houfe, after warning to take care, kills a per¬
fon ; or a fchoolmalter in correfting his fcholar, a
mailer his fervant, or an officer in whipping a criminal
in a reafonable manner, happens to occafion his death j
it is chance-medley and mifadventure. But if a man
throw Hones in a highway where perfons ufually pafs $
or ffioot an arrow, &c. in a market-place among a
great many people; or if a workman caH down rub-
biffi from a houfe in cities and towns where people are
continually palling •, or a fchoolmafler, &c. correft
his fervant or fcholar, &c. exceeding the bounds of
■moderation} it is manllaughter : and if with an im¬
proper inllrument of correftion, as with a fword or
iron bar, or by kicking, flamping, &c. in a cruel
manner, it is murder. If a man whips his horfe in a
Hreet to make him gallop, and the horfe runs over a
child and kills it, it is manflaughter: but if another
whips the horfe, it is manflaughter in him, and chance-
medley in the rider. And if two are fighting, and a
third perfon coming to part them is killed by one of
them without any evil intent, yet this is murder in
him, and not manllaughter by chance-medley or mif¬
adventure. In chance-medley, the offender forfeits
his goods; but hath a pardon of courfe.
CHANCEL, is properly that part of the choir of a Char: ■
church, between the. altar or communion-table and the f'iancivl
baluffrade or rail that enclofes it, where the minifter r J
is placed at the celebration of the communion. The
word comes from the Latin cancellus, which in the
lower Latin is ufed in the fame fenfe, from cancell?,
“ lattices or crofs bars, wherewith the chancels were
anciently encompaffcd, as they now are with rails.
The right of a feat and a fepulchre in the chancels is
one of the privileges of founders.
CHANCELLOR, w-as at firff only a chief notary
or feribe under the emperors ; and was called cancel*
larius, becaufe he fat behind a lattice (in Latin cancel-
ins'), to avoid being crowded by the people : though
fome derive the word from cancellare, “ to cancel.”
(See Chancery.) This officer was afterwards inveff-
ed with feveral judicial powers, and a general fuper-
intendency over the reff of the officers of the prince.
From the Roman empire it paffed to the Roman
church, ever emulous of imperial Hate : and hence
every biffiop has to this day his chancellor, the prin¬
cipal judge of his confiHory. And when the modern
kingdoms of Europe were eflabliffied upon the ruins of
the empire, alraoH every Hate preferved its chancellor
with different jurifdiftions and dignities, according to
their different conflitutions. But in all of them he
feems to have had the fupervifion of all charters, let¬
ters, and fuch other public inHruments of the crown
as were authenticated in the moff folemn manner ; and
therefore, when feals came in ufe, he had always the
cuffody of the king’s great feal.
Lord High CHANCELLOR of Great Britain, or Lord
Keeper of the Great Seal, is the higheff honour of the
long robe, being created by the mere delivery of the
king’s great feal into his cuHody : whereby he be¬
comes, without writ or patent, an officer of the great-
eff weight and power of any now fubfifling in the
kingdom. He is a privy counfell or by his office j and,
according to Lord Chancellor Ellefmere, prolocutor
of the houfe of lords by prefeription. To him belongs
the appointment of all the juflices of the peace through¬
out the kingdom. Being in former times commonly
an ecclefiallic (for none elfe were then capable of an
office fo converfant in -writing), and prefiding over the
royal chapel, he became keeper of the king’s con-
fcience j vifitor, in right of the king, of all hofpitals
and colleges of the king’s foundation ; and patron of
all the king’s livings under the value of 20I. per an¬
num in the king’s books. He is the general guardian
of all infants, idiots, and lunatics; and has the gene¬
ral fuperintendence of all charitable ufes in the king¬
dom •, and all this over and above the vaff extenfive
jurifdiftion which he exercifes in his judicial capacity
in the court of chancery. He takes a precedence of
every temporal lord except the royal family, and of
all others except the archbiffiop of Canterbury. See
Chancery.
Chancellor, in Scotland, wras the chief in mat¬
ters of juflice. In the laws of King Malcolm II. he
is placed before all other officers j and from thefe
it appears that he had the principal direftion of the
chancery, or chancellary as it is called, which is his
proper office. He had the cuffody of the king’s feal •,
and he w-as the king’s moff intimate counfellor, as ap¬
pears by an old law cited by Sir James Balfour : “ The
•hancellat
C H A
incellor thancellar fal al al tymes afTift the king, in giving him
counfall mhir fecretly nor the reft of the nobility, to
quais ordinances all officiaris, als well of the realme as
of the kingis hous, fould anfvver and obey. The chan-
cellar fal be ludgit neir unto the kingis grace, for
keiping of his bodie, and the feill; and that he may
be readie baith day and nicht at the kingis command.”
By having the cuftody of the great feal, he had an
opportunity of examining the king’s grants, and other
deeds which were to pafs under it, and to cancel them
if they appeared againft law, and were obtained fur-
reptitioufly or by falfe fuggeftions.
King James VI. ordained the chancellor to have the
firft place and rank in the nation, ratlone officii; by
virtue whereof he prefided in the parliament, and in
all courts of judicature. After the reftoration of King
Charles II. by a particular declaratory law, parliament
firft, the lord chancellor was declared, by virtue and
right of his office, prefident, in all the meetings of
parliament, or other public judicatures of the king¬
dom. Although this aft was made to declare the
chancellor prefident of the exchequer as well as other
courts, yet in 1663 the king declared the treafurer to
be prefident of that court.
The office of lord chancellor rvas aboliffied by the
Union, there being no farther ufe for the judicial part
of this office j and to anfwer all the other parts of the
chancellor’s office, a lord keeper of the great feal was
erefted, with a falary of 3000I. a-year.
CHANCELLOR of a Cathedral, an officer that hears
leffons and leftures read in the church, either by him-
felf or his vicar *, to correft and fet right the reader
when he reads amifs ; to infpeft fchools ; to hear
caufes *, apply the feal *, write and difpatch the letters
of the chapter \ keep the books •, take care that there
be frequent preachings, both in the church and out
of it; and affign the office of preaching to whom he
pleafes.
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancafer, an officer
appointed chiefly to determine controverfies between
the king and his tenants of the duchy land, and other-
wife to direft all the king’s affairs belonging to that
court. See Duchy Court.
Chancellor of the Exchequer, an officer who pre-
fides in that court, and takes care of the intereft of the
crown. He is always in commiffion with the lord-
treafurer, for the letting of crown lands, &c. and has
power with others, to compound for forfeitures of
lands upon penal ftatutes. He has alfo great authori¬
ty in managing the royal revenues, and in matters re¬
lating to the firft fruits.
Chancellor of the order of the Garter and other
Military Orders, is an officer who feals the commiffions
and mandates of the chapter and afiembly of the
knights, keeps the regifter of their proceedings, and
delivers afts thereof under the feal of their order.
Chancellor of an Univerfty, is he who feals the
diplomas, or letters of degrees, provifion, &c. given in
the univerfity.
The chancellor of Oxford is ufually one of the prime
nobility, chofen by the ftudents themfelves in convo¬
cation. He is their chief magiftrate 5 his office is,
durante vita, to govern the univerfity, preferve and
defend its rights and privileges, convoke affemblies,
[ .383 1
C H A
Chancellor
Chancery..
and do juftice among the members under his jurisdic¬
tion.
Under the chancellor is the vice-chancellor, who is ,
chofen annually, being nominated by the chancellor,
and elefted by the univerfity in convocation. He is
always the head of fome college, and in holy orders.
His proper office is to execute the chancellor’s power,
to govern the univerfity according to her ftatutes, to
fee that officers and ftudents do their duty, that courts
be duly called, &e. "When he enters upon his office,
he choofes four pro-vice chancellors out of the heads
of the colleges, to execute his power in his abfence.
The chancellor of Cambridge is alfo ufually one of
the prime nobility, and in moft refpefts the fame as
that in Oxford : only he does not hold his office du¬
rante vita, but may be elefted every three years. Un¬
der the chancellor there is a commilfary, who holds a
court of record for all privileged perfons and fcholars
under the degree of mafter of arts, where all caufes are
tried and determined by the civil and ftatute law, and
by the cuftom of the univerfity.
The vice-chancellor of Cambridge is chofen annual¬
ly by the fenate, out of two perfons nominated by the
heads of the feveral colleges and halls.
Chancellor's Court. See Universitt Courts.
CHANCERON, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given
by the French writers to the fmall caterpillar, that eats
.the corn, and does vaft mifehief in their granaries.
See the article CORN-Butte/fy.
CHANCERY, the higheft court of juftice in Bri¬
tain next to the parliament, and of very ancient infti-
tution. It has its name chancery {cancellarid) from
the judge who prefides here, the lord chancellor, or
cancellarius; who, according to Sir Edward Coke, is
fo termed, a cancellando, from cancelling the king’s
letters patent when granted contrary to law, which is
the higheft point of his jurifdiftion. In chancery
there are two diftinft tribunals : the one ordinary, be¬
ing a court of common law; the other extraordinary,
being a court of equity.
I. The ordinary legal court holds pleas of recogni- BlachJI.
zances acknowledged in the chancery, writs of Jcire Comment,
facias, for repeal of letters patent, writs of partition,
&c. and alfo of all perfonal aft ions by or againft any-
officer of the court. Sometimes a fuperfedeas, or writ
of privilege, hath been here granted to difeharge a
perfon out of prifon : one from hence may have a ha¬
beas corpus prohibition, &c. in the vacation j and here
a fubpeetia may be had to force witnefles to appear in
other courts, when they have no power to call them.
But, in profecuting caufes, if the parties defeend to
ifliie, this court cannot try it by jury ; but the lord-
chancellor delivers the record into the king’s bench
to be tried there 5 and after trial had, it is to be re¬
manded into the chancery, and there judgment given j
though if there be a demurrer in law, it ihall be ar¬
gued in this court.
In this court is alfo kept the officina jufitice ; out of
which all original wwits that pafs under the great feal,
all commiffions of charitable ufes, fewers, bankruptcy,
idiocy, lunacy, and the like, do iflue ; and for which
it is always open to the fubjeft, who may there at any
time demand and have, ex debito juf itice, any writ that
his occafions may call for. Thefe wnits, relating to the
bufinels
C H A r 384 ] C H A
t-jJiancery. buflnefs of tHe fubjeft, and the returns of them, were,
according to the fimplicity of ancient times, originally
kept in a hamper, in hanaperio; and the others (relat¬
ing to fuch matters wherein the crown is mediately or
immediately concerned) were preferved in a little fack
or bag, in parva baga ; and hence hath arifen the di-
ftinftion of the hanaper office, and the petty-bag office,
which both belong to the common law court in chaii-
ce3T- . , .
2. The extraordinary court, or court of equity, pro¬
ceeds by the rules of equity and confcience, and mo¬
derates the rigour of the common law, coniidering the
intention rather than the words of the law. It gives
relief for and againft infants notwithftanding their mi¬
nority, and for or againil married women notwith¬
ftanding their coverture. All frauds and deceits for
which there is no redrefs at common law j all breaches
of truft and confidence j and accidents, as to relieve
obligors, mortgagers, &c. againft penalties and forfei¬
tures, where the intent was to pay the debt, are here
remedied : for in chancery, a forfeiture, &c. ffiall not
bind, where a thing may be done after, or compenfa-
tion made for it. Alfo this court will give relief againft
the extremity of unreafonable engagements entered
into without confideration } oblige creditors that are
unreafonable to compound with an unfortunate debtor •,
and make executors, &c. give fecurity and pay in-
tereft for money that is to lie long in their hands.
This court may confirm title to lands, though one hath
loft his writings: and render conveyances defective
through miftake, &.c. good and perfeft. In chancery,
copy-holders may be relieved againft the ill ufage of
their lords •, enclofures of lands that are common be
decreed •, and this court may decree money or lands
•given to charitable ufes, oblige men to account with
each other, &c. But in all cafes where the plaintiff
can have his remedy at law, he ought not to be reliev¬
ed in chancery ; and a thing which may be tried by a
jury is not triable in this court.
The proceedings in chancery are, firft to file the bill
of complaint, figned by fome counfel, fetting forth the
fraud or injury done, or wrong fuftained, and praying
relief : after the bill is filed, procefs of fubpcena iflues to
compel the defendant to appear ; and when the defen¬
dant appears, he puts in his anfwer to the bill of com¬
plaint, if there be no caufe for the plea to the jurifdic-
tion of the court, in difability of the perfon, or in bar,
&c. Then the plaintiff brings his replication, unlefs
he files exceptions againft the anfwer as infufficient,
referring it to a mafter to report whether it be fufficient
>or not ", to which report exceptions may alfo be made.
The anfwer, replication, rejoinder, &c. being fettled,
and the parties come to iffue, witneffes are to be exa¬
mined upon interrogatories, either in court or by com-
miffion in the country, wherein the parties ufually join 5
and when the plaintiff and defendant have examined
their witneffes, publication is to be made of the de-
pofitions, and the caufe is to be fet down for hearing $
after which follows the decree. But it is now ufual to
appeal to the houfe of lords ■, which appeals are to
be figned by two noted counfel, and exhibited by way
of petition j the petition or appeal is lodged with the
clerk of the houfe of lords, and read in the houfe,
whereon the appellee is ordered to put in his anfwer,
and a day fixed for hearing the caufe j and after coun¬
fel heard, and evidence given on both fides, the lords Chatiri
will affirm or reverie the decree of the chancery, and (|
finally determine the caufe by a majority of votes, &c.
CHANDELIER, in fortification, a kind of move-
able parapet, confiftingof a wooden frame, made of two
upright flakes, about fix feet high, with crofs planks
between them; ferving to fupport fafeines to cover the
pioneers.
CHANDERNAGORE, a French fettlement in the
kingdom of Bengal in the Eaft Indies. It lies on the
river Ganges, two leagues and a half above Calcutta.
The diftridl is hardly a league in circumference, and
has the difadvantage of being fomewhat expofed on the
wreftern fide 5 but its harbour is excellent, and the aif*
is as pure as it can be on the banks of the Ganges.
Whenever any building is undertaken that requires
ftrength, it mutt here, as well as in all other parts of
Bengal, be built upon piles, it being impoffible to dig
three or four feet without coming at water.
CHANDLER, Mary, diftinguithed by her talent
for poetry, was the daughter of a diffenting minifter
at Bath, and was born at Malmfbury in Wiltfhire in
1687. She was bred a milliner ; but from her child¬
hood had a turn for poetry, and in her riper years ap¬
plied herfelf to the ftudy of the poets. Her poems,
for which the was complimented by Mr Pope, breathe
the fpirit of piety and philofophy. She had the mif*
fortune to be deformed, which determined her to live
fingle} though the had great fweetnefs of counte¬
nance, and was folicited to marry. She died in 1745,
aged 58.
Chandler, Dr Samuel, a learned and refpe&able
diffenting minifter, defeended from anceftors who had
heartily engaged in the caufe of religious liberty, and
fuffered for the fake of confcience and nonconformity }
was born at Hungerford in Berks, where his father was
a minifter of confiderable worth and abilities. Being by
his literary turn deftined to the miniftry, he was firft
placed at an academy at Bridgewater, and from thence
removed to Gloucefter under Mr Samuel Jones. A-
mong the pupils of Mr Jones were Mr Jofeph Butler,
afterwards bilhop of Durham, and Mr Thomas Seeker,
afterwards archbiffiop of Canterbury. With thefe emi¬
nent perfons he contrafted a friendlhip that continued
to the end of their lives, notwithftanding the different
viervs by which their conduft was afterwards direfted,
and the different fituations in which they were placed.
Mr Chandler having finifhed his academical ftudies,
began to preach about July 1714 ; and being foon di-
ftinguiffied by his talents in the pulpit, he was chofen
in 1716 minifter of the Prefbyterian congregation at
Peckham near London, in which ftation he continued
fome years. Here he entered into the matrimonial ftate,
and began to have an increafing family, when, by the
fatal South Sea fcheme of 1720, he unfortunately loft
the whole fortune which he had received with his wife.
His circumftances being thereby embarraffed, and his
income as a minifter being inadequate to his expences,
he engaged in the trade of a bookfeller, and kept a
Ihop in the Poultry, London, for about two or three
years, ftill continuing to difeharge the duties of the
paftoral office. He alfo officiated as joint preacher with
the learned Dr Lardner of a winter weekly evening
le£tur,e at the meeting houfe in the Old Jewry, London:
in which meeting he was eftabliftied affiftant preacher
about
C H A (; 58S
idler, abot-t the year 1725, and then as the paftor. Here he
r*""'' adminiftered to the religious improvement of a very re-
fpectable congregation for 40 years with the greateft
applaufe 5 and with what diligence and application he
improved the vacancies of time from his paftoral du¬
ties, for improving himfelf and benefiting the world,
will appear from his many writings on a variety of im¬
portant fubjefts. While he was thus laudably employ¬
ed, not only the univerfities of Edinburgh and Aber¬
deen gave him, without any application, teftimonies of
their efteem in diplomas, conferring on him the degree
of D. D. but he alfo received offers of preferment from
fome of the governors of the eftablifhed church, which
he nobly declined. He had likevvife the honour of be¬
ing afterwards defied F. R. and A. SS.
On the death of George II. in 1760, Dr Chandler
jrublifhed a fermon on that event, in which he compa¬
red that prince to King David. This gave rife to a
pamphlet, which was printed in the year 1761, en¬
titled “ The Hiftory of the Man after God’s own
Heart j” wherein the author ventured to exhibit King
David as an example of perfidy, lull, and cruelty, fit
only to be ranked with a Nero ora Caligula; and
complained of the infult that had been offered to the
memory of the late Britifh monarch by Dr Chandler’s
parallel between him and the king of Ifrael. This at¬
tack occafioned Dr Chandler to publifh in the follow¬
ing year “ A Review of the Hiflory of the Man af¬
ter God’s own Heart; in which the Falfehoods and
Mifreprefentations of the Hiftorian are expofed and
correfted.” He alfo prepared for the prefs a more ela¬
borate work, which was afterwards publifhed in two
volumes 8vo, under the following title : “ A Critical
Hiftory of the Life of David ; in which the principal
Events are ranged in Order of time ; the chief Objec¬
tions of Mr Bayle and others againft the Character of
this Prince, the Scripture Account of him, and the
Occurrences of his Reign, are examined and refuted ;
and the Pfalms which refer to him explained. As this
was the laft, it was likewife one of the beft, of Dr
Chandler’s productions. The greateft part of this
work was printed off at the time of our author’s death,
which happened May 8. 1766, aged 73. During the
laft year of his life, he was vifited with frequent returns
of a very painful diforder, which he endured with great
refignation and Chriltian fortitude. He was interred
in the burying-ground at Bunhill-fields on the 16th of
the month ; and his funeral was very honourably at¬
tended by minifters and other gentlemen. He exprefs-
ly defired, by his laft will, that no delineation of his
character might be given in his funeral fermon, which
was preached by Dr Amory. He had feveral chil¬
dren ; two fons and a daughter who died before him,
and three daughters who furvived him ; two of whom
are yet living, and both married, one of them to the
Rev. Dr Harwood.
Dr Chandler w as a man of very extenfive learning and
eminent abilities ; his apprehenfion was quick and his
judgment penetrating ; he had a rvarm and vigorous
imagination; he was a very inftruCtive and animated
preacher; and his talents in the pulpit and as a writer
procured him very great and general efteem, not only
among the diffenters, but among large numbers of the
eftablifhed church. He was principally inflrumental in
t-ic eftablifhment of the fund for relieving the widows
Vol. V. Part I.
] C H A
and orphans of poor Proteflant diffenting miniflers : Chandler,
the plan of it wras firft formed by him ; and it was by Chang-
his interefl and application to his friends that many of, t0^‘ ,
the fubferiptions for its fupport were procured.
In 1768, four volumes of our author’s fermons wmre
publifhed by Dr Amory, according to his own direc¬
tions in his laft will ; to which were prefixed a neat
engraving of him, from an excellent portrait by Mr
Chamberlin. He alfo ex prefled a defire to have fome
of his principal pieces reprinted in four volumes 8vo :
propofals were accordingly publifhed for that purpofe,
but did not meet with fufficient encouragement. But
in 1777, another work of our author was publifhed in
one volume qto, under the following title : “ A Para*,
phrafe and notes on the Epiftles of St Paul to the
Galatians and Ephefians, with doCtrinal and praftical
Obfervations: together wuth a critical and pra&ical
Commentary on the two Epiftles of St Paul to the
Theffalonians.” Dr Chandler alfo left, in his inter¬
leaved Bible, a large number of critical notes, chiefly
in Latin, which are now the property of Dr Kippis,
Mr Farmer, Dr Price, and Dr Savage, and which
have been intended to be publifhed; but the defign
has not yet been executed. A complete lift of Dr
Chandler’s wrorks is given in the Biographia Britanni-
ca, vol. iii. p. 435.
CHANG-tong, a province of China, bounded on
the eaft by Petcheli and part of Honan, on the fouth
by Kiang-nan, on the eaft by the fea, and on the
north by the fea and part of Petcheli. The country
is well watered by lakes, ftreams, and rivers ; but is
neverthelefs liable to fuffer from drought, as rain falls
here but feldom. The locufts alfo fometimes make
great devaftation. Howrever, it abounds greatly in
game ; and there is perhaps no country where quails,
partridges, and pheafants, are fold cheaper, the in¬
habitants of this province being reckoned the keeneft
fportfmen in the empire. This province is greatly en¬
riched by the river Yun, called the Grand Imperial
Canal, through which all the barks bound to Pekin
mull pafs in their way thither. The duties on this
canal alone amount to more than 450,000!. annually.
The canal itfelf is greatly admired by ' European tra¬
vellers on account of its flrong and long dikes, the
banks decorated with cut ftone, the ingenious mecha-
nifm of its locks, and the great number of natural ob-
flacles which have been overcome in the execution of
the work. The province produces filk of the ordina¬
ry kind ; and befides this, another from a fort of in-*
fed! refembling our caterpillar. It is coarfer than the
ordinary filk, but much flronger and more durable; fo
that the fluffs made from it have a very extenfive fale
throughout the empire.
Chang-tong is remarkable for being the birthplace
of the celebrated philofopher and lawgiver Confucius.
Plis native city is called Kio-ftoit, where there are fe¬
veral monuments ere died in honour of this great man.
This province is divided into fix diflridts, which con¬
tain fix cities of the firfl clafs, and 114 -of the fecond
and third. Along the coafl, alfo, are 15 or 16 villages
of confiderable importance on account of their com¬
merce; there is likewife a. number of fmall iflands, moll
of which have harbours very convenient for the Chi-
nefe junks which pafs from thence to Corea or Lea-
tong. The molt remarkable cities are, 1. Tfi-nan-fou,
3 C the
CHang-
tong
II
Changes.
C H A t 386
the capital, which (lands fouth of the river Tfing-ho or
Tfi. It is large and populous 5 but chiefly celebrated
for having been the refldence of a long feries of kings,
1 whofe tombs, rifing on the neighbouring mountains,
afford a beautiful profpect. 2. Yen-tcheu-fou, the fe-
cond city of the province, fituated between two rivers,
and in a mild and temperate climate. Great quanti¬
ties of gold are faid to have been formerly collecled in
its neighbourhood. 3’ Lin-t^in-tcheu, lituated on the
great canal, is much frequented by (hips, and may be
called a general magazine for every kind of merchan-
dife. Here is an octagonal tower, divided into eight
dories, the walls of which are covered on the outlicie
with porcelain loaded with various figures neatly exe¬
cuted, and incruded on the infide with varioufly co¬
loured marble. A daircafe, condrufted in the wall,
conducts to all the dories, from which there are paf-
fages that lead into magnificent galleries ornamented
with gilt balludrades. All the cornices and projec¬
tions of the tower are furnifhed w ith little bells 5 which,
fays M. Grofier, when agitated by the wind, form a
very agreeable harmony. In the highed dory, is an
idol of gilt copper, to which the tower is dedicated.
In the neighbourhood are fome other temples, the ar¬
chitecture of which is exceedingly beautiful.
CHANGER, an officer belonging to the king’s
mint, who changes money for gold or diver bullion.
S«e Mint.
Money-CHANGERy is a banker, who deals in the ex¬
change, receipt, and payment of moneys. See Bank¬
er.
CHANGES, in Arithmetic) &c. the permutations
or variations of any number of quantities y with regard
to their pofition, order, &c. See Combination.
To jind all the pojp.ble CHANGES of any number of
Quantities) or how oft their Order may be varied.^] Sup-
Tpofe two quantities a and b. Since they may be ei¬
ther wrote a h or b 0, it is evident their changes are
2=2.1. Suppofe three quantities abc: their changes
will be as in the margin ; as is evident by com-
c a b bining c fird with ab, then with ba; and hence
acb the number of changes arifes 3. 2. 1=6. If
4 b c the quantities be 4, each may be combined four
  ways with each order of the other three 5
c b a whence the numf*er of changes arifes 6. 4-=4.
b c a 3. 2. 1. = 24. Wherefore, if the number of
b ac quantities be fuppofed «, the number of changes
will be n.n— \.n— z.n—3.W—4. &c.. If the fame
quantity occur twice, the changes of two will be found
b b y of three, b ab, abb)bbc ; of four, cb ab,b c ab)
b abc. And thus the number of changes in the fird
-cafe will be i = (2. 1) : 2. I ; in the fecond, 3 = (3. 2.
1) : 2. 1 ; in the third, I2 = (4. 3. 2. 1) : 2. 1.
If a fifth letter be added, in each ferics of four quan¬
tities, it will beget five changes) whence the number
of all the changes will be 60= (5. 4. 3- 20 G • 2* I*
Hence if the number of quantities be n, the number of
■changes will be («.n—\.n—t.n—3.W—4. &c.) : 2. 2.
From thefe fpecial formulae may be collected a general
©ne, viz-, if n be the number of quantities, and m the
number which (hows how oft the fame quantity occurs 5
we ftiall have (».»—1.«—2.* — 3-w—4-«—J-"—-6-«
 rj.n—8.w—9.&C.) : 0«—l.m—2.m—$.m—4.&C.),
the feries being to be continued, till the continual
Subtraction of unity from n and m leave o* After the
] C H A
fame manner we may proceed further, till putting n Chr
for the number of quantities, and /, &c. for the II
number that (hows how oft any of them is repeated, Clllll
we arrive at an univerfal form, {n.n—I-2.«—-3.H
■—q.n—5-«—6.«—7,w—• (/*/•—I-A—2./—3./
—4./—5. &c. m.m—i.m—2.m—3.&.C. r.r—i.r—2,r
—3.r—4.r—5. &c.
Suppofe, for indance, «=6, /=3, r=o. The num¬
ber of changes will be (6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.) : (3. 2. (i
3. 2. i.)=(6. 5. 4.) : (3. 2=2. 3. 2=20).
Hence, fuppofe thirteen perfons at a table, if it be
required how oft they may cha?ige places 5 we (hall
find the number 13. 12. II. 10. 9. S. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. i<
= 6227020800.
In this manner may all the poflfible anagrams of any
word be found in all languages, and that without any
dudy : fuppofe, v. g. it were required to find the ana¬
grams of the word amor, the number of changes will
be
0 a m
com
a m 0
r 0 m a
0 r tn a
0 m r a
0 m a r
r m 0 a
m r 0 a
m 0 r a
m 0 a r
r m a 0
m r a 0
m a r o
room
0 r a m
0 a r m
0 a m r
a r 0 m
a 0 r tn
a 0 m r
r a m O'
a r m 0
a m r v
amor
roam
The anagrams therefore of the word amor, in the
Latin tongue, are rotna, mora, maro, ramo, armo. See
Anagram.
Whether this new method of anagramatizing be like
to prove of much fervice to that art, is leit to the
poets.
CHANNA, in Zoology, the name of a fidi caught
in great plenty in the Mediterranean, and brought to
market in Italy and elfewhere, among the fea perch,
which it fo nearly refembles, that it would not be dif-
tinguidiable from it, but that the fea perch is bigger,
and has only broad tranfverfe lines on its back, where¬
as the channa has them both tranfverfe and longitudi¬
nal. It has a very wide mouth, and its lower jaw is
longer than its upper •, fo that its mouth naturally falls
open. Its eyes are fmall, and its teeth very (harp :
its back is of a blackidi red : it has feveral longitudinal
lines of a reddiih hue } and its tail is marked with red-
difii fpots. There is an obfervation, that in all the
fi(h of this kind which have been examined by natu-
ralifts, there have been found none but females. This
is as old as the days of Ariftotle. Whether this be
true in faCt, would require many obfervations. If it
(hould prove fo, the whole feems to end in this, that
the channa is no diftinCt fpecies, but only the female
of fome other fifh. There is another fiih not unlike
this, called cannadella, or rather channadella, which at
Marfeilles is known by the name of charina.
CHANNEL, in Geography, an arm of the fea, or
a narrow fea between two continents y or. between a
continent and an ifland. Such are the Britifh channel,
St George’s channel, the channel of Conftantinople
&c.
Channel of a fhip. See Chain-WoIcs.
CHAN-SI, a province of China, and one of the
fmalleft in the empire, is bounded on the eaft by Pe-
tcheli, on the fouth by Honan, on the weft by Chen-fi,
and on the north by the great wall. The climate 1*
healthful
c H A [ 387 ] C H A
.{i, healthful and agreeable, and the foil generally fertile,
>t. though the country is full of mountains. Some of
thefe laft are rough, wild, and uninhabited j but others
are cultivated with the greateft care from top to bot¬
tom, and cut into terraces, forming a very agreeable
profpeft 5 while feme have on their tops vail plains no
lefs fertile than the richeft low lands. Thefe moun¬
tains abound with coal, which the inhabitants pound
and make into cakes with water •, a kind of fuel which,
though not very inflammable, affords a ftrong and luff¬
ing fire when once kindled. It is principally ufed for
heating their ftoves, which are conftrufted with brick
as in Germany 5 but the inhabitants of this province
give them the form of fmall beds, and fleep upon them.
The beff grapes to be met with in this part of Alia
grow in the province of Chan-fi *, fo that good wine
might be made : but the people choofe rather to dry
and fell them to the neighbouring provinces. The
country abounds with mulk, porphyry, marble, lapis
lazuli, and jafper of various colours j and iron mines, as
well as fait pits and cryftal, are very common. Here
are five cities of the firff clafs, and eighty-five of the
fecond and third; the moft remarkable are, 1. Tai-
youen-fou the capital, an ancient city about three
leagues in circumference, but much decayed in confe-
quence of being no longer the refidence of the princes
of the blood as it was formerly. Nothing now remains
of the palaces of thofe princes but a few ruins : but
their tombs are ftill to be feen on a neighbouring
mountain. The burying place is magnificently orna¬
mented j and all the tombs are of marble or cut ftone,
having near them triumphal arches, ftatues of heroes,
figures of lions and different animals, efpecially horfes,
and which are difpofed in very elegant order. An
awful and melancholy gloom is preferved around thefe
tombs by groves of aged cypreffes, which have never
felt the ftroke of the axe, placed chequer-wife. The
principal articles of trade here are, hardware, fluffs of
different kinds, particularly carpets in imitation of
thofe of Turkey. 2. Ngan-y is fituated near a lake as
fait as the ocean, from which a great quantity of fait is
extrafled. 3. Fuen-tcheou-fou. an ancient and com¬
mercial city built on the banks of the river Fuen-ho :
it has baths and fprings almoff boiling hot, which, by
drawing hither a great number of ffrangers, add great¬
ly to its opulence. 4. Tai-tong-fou, lituated near the
wall, is a place of great ftrength, and important by
reafon of its fituation, as being the only one expofed
to the incurfions of the Tartars. Its territories abound
with lapis lazuK, medicinal herbs, and a particular kind
of jafper called yicche, which is as white and beautiful
£s agate j marble and porphyry are alfo common ; and
a great revenue is produced from the ikins w hich are
dreffed here.
CHANT, (cantus)x is ufed for the vocal mufic of
•hutches.
In church hiftory w^e meet with divers kinds of chant
of f°ng. The firft is the Ambrojian, eftabliihed by St
Ambrofe. The fecond, the Gregorian chant, introduced
by Pope Gregory the Great, who eftabliihed fchools of
chanters, and correfled the church-long. This is fiill
retained in the church under the name of tlain fong :
at firft it was called the Roman fong. The plam or
Gregorian chant, is where the choir and people ling in
unifon, or all together in the fame manner.
CHANTILLY, a village in France, about feven Chantilly
leagues from Paris, where there is a magnificent palace
and fine foreft formerly belonging to the duke of Bour- 1
bon.
CHANTOR, a finger of a choir in a cathedral. The
w’ord is almoff grown obfolete, chorifer or fnging-man
being commonly ufed inftead of it. All great chapters
have chanters and chaplains to aflift the canons, and
officiate in their abfence.
Chantor is ufed by way of excellence for the pre¬
centor or mailer of the choir, which is one of the firff
dignities of the chapter. At St David’s in Wales,
where there is no dean, he is next in dignity to the
bilhop. The ancients called the chantor pnmicerius
cantorum. To him belonged the diredlion of the dea¬
cons and other inferior officers.
Chanters, in the temple of Jerufalem, were a num¬
ber @f Levites employed in linging the praifes of God,
and playing upon inftruments before his altar. They
had no habits diftinfl from tire reft of the people j yet
in the ceremony of removing the ark to Solomon’s
temple, the chantors appeared dreffed in tunics of byf-
fus or fine linen. 2. Chron. v. 12.
CHANTRY, or Chauntry, was anciently a church
or chapel endowed with lands, or other yearly revenue,
for the maintenance of orte or more priefts, daily fay¬
ing or finging mafs for the fouls of the donors, and
fuch others as they appointed. Hence chauntry-rents
are rents paid to the crown by the tenants or purchafers
of chauntrij-lands.
CHAO LOGY, the hiftory or defeription of the
chaos. See Chaos.
Orpheus, in his chaology, fets forth the different al¬
terations, fecretions, and diverfe forms, which matter
went through till it became inhabitable ; which a-
mounts to the fame with what we otherwife call cof-
mogory. Dr Burnet, in his Theory of the Earth, re-
prefents the chaos as it was at firft, t.itire, undivided,
and univerfally rude and deformed \ or the tohu bohu :
then lhows how it came to be divided into its refpeiffive
regions j how the homogeneous matter gathered itfelf
apart from all of a contrary principle ; and, laftly, how
it hardened and became a lolid habitable globe. See
Earth.
CHAOS, that confufion in which matter lay when
newly produced out of nothing at the beginning of the
world, before God, by his almighty word, had put it
into the order and condition wherein it wras after the
fix days creation. See Earth.
Chaos is reprefented by the ancients as the lirft
principle, ovum, or feed of nature and the world. All
the fophifts, fages, naturalifts, philofophers, theologues,
and poets, held that chaos was the eldeft and firft prin¬
ciple, r« u£%ctiov y.&os. The Barbarians, Phoenicians,
Egyptians, Perlians, &c. all refer the origin of the
world to a rude, mixed, confufed mafs of matter. The
Greeks, Orpheus, Hefiod, Menander, Ariftophanes,
Euripides, and the writers of the Cyclic Poems, all
fpeak of the firft chaos ; the Ionic and Platonic philo¬
fophers build the world out of it. The Stoics hold,
that as the w'orld was firft made of a chaos, it lhall at
laft be reduced to a chaos 5 and that its periods and
revolutions in the mean time are only tranfitions from
one chaos to another. Laftly, the Latins, as Ennius,
Varro, Ovid, Lucretius, Statius, &c. are all of the
3 C 2 faa^e
C II A [ 38$ ] C FI A
Chaos fame opinion. Nor is there any fe£l or nation what-
r. II . ever that does not derive their £«w60(rpi<rij, theJlruclure
' of the worlds from a chaos.
The opinion firft arofe among the Barbarians, whence
it fpread to the Greeks, and from the Greeks to the
Romans and other nations. Dr Burnet oblerves, that
befides Aridotle and a few other Pfeudo-Pythagoreans,
nobody ever aflerted that our world was always from
eternity of the fame nature, form, and Itrufture, as at
prefent; but that it had been the handing opinion of
the wife men of all ages, that what we now call the
terrefnal earth, was originally an unformed, indigefted
mafs of heterogeneous matter, called chaos ; and no
more than the rudiments and materials of the prefent
world.
It does not appear who firft broached the notion of
a chaos. Mofes, the eldeft of all writers, derives the
origin of this world from a confufton of matter, dark,
void, deep, without form, which he calls tohu bohu;
which is precifely the chaos of the Greek and Barba¬
rian philofophers. Mofes goes no further than the
chaos, nor tells us whence it took its origin, or whence
its confufed flate \ and where Mofes flops, there precife¬
ly do all the reft. Dr Burnet endeavours to fhow that
as the ancient philofophers, &c. who wrote of the cof-
mogony, acknowledged a chaos for the principle of their
world j fo the divines, or writers of the theogony, derive
the origin or generation of their fabled gods from the
fame principle.
Mr Whifton fuppofed the ancient chaos, the origin
of our earth, to have been the atmofphere of a comet j
which, though new, yet, all things confidered, is not
the moft improbable aftertion. He endeavours to make
it out by many arguments, drawn from the agreement
which appears to be between them. So that, according
to him, every planet is a comet, formed into a regular
and lading conftitution, and placed at a proper diftance
from the fun, revolving in a nearly circular orbit: and
a comet is a planet either beginning to be deftroyed or
re-made ; that is, a chaos or planet unformed or in its
primeval ftate, and placed as yet in an orbit very ec¬
centrical.
Chaos, in the phrafe of Paracelfus, imports the air.
It has alfo fome other fignifications amongft the alche-
mifts.
Chaos, in Zoology, a genus of infers belonging to
the order of vermes zoophyta. The body has no ihell
or covering, and is capable of reviving after being dead
to appearance for a long time it has no joints or ex¬
ternal organs of fenfation. ihere are five fpecies, moft-
ly obtained by infufions of different vegetables in wa¬
ter, and only difcoverable by the microfcope. See Ani-
malcul/e.
CHAPEAU, in Heraldry, an ancient cap of digni¬
ty worn by dukes, being fcarlet-coloured velvet on the
outfide, and lined with a fur. It is frequently borne
above a helmet inftead of a wreath, under gentlemen’s
crefts.
CHAPEL, a place of divine worflnp fo called.
The word is derived from the Latin capella. In for¬
mer times, when the kings of France were engaged in
war they always carried St Martin’s hat into the
field, which was kept in a tent as a precious relick :
from whence the place was called capella; and the
priefts, who had the euftody of the tent, capellani. Af¬
terwards the word capclla became applied to private Cb- -
oratories. jj|
In Britain there are feveral forts of chapels. I. Pa-
rochial chapels : thefe differ from parifti churches only v'f
in name ; they are generally fmall, and the inhabitants
within the diltrict few. If there be a prefentation ad
ecc/cfiam inftead of capellani, and an admiflion and in-
ftitution upon it, it is no longer a chapel, but a church.
2. Chapels, which adjoin to, and arc part of the church:
fueh were formerly built by honourable perfons, as
burying places for themfelves and their families. 3. Cha¬
pels of eafe; thefe are ufually built in very large pa-
rifties, where all the people cannot conveniently repair
to the mother church. 4. Free chapels j fuch as were
founded by kings of England. They are free from all
epifcopal jurifdidtion, and only to be vifited by the
founder and his fucceffors } which is done by the lord
chancellor : yet the king may licenfe any fubject to
build and endow a chapel, and by letters patent exempt
it from the vifitation of the ordinary. 5. Chapels in
the univerfities, belonging to particular colleges. 6,
Domeftic chapels, built by noblemen or gentlemen for
the private fervice of God in their families. See Chap¬
lain.
Chapel is alfo a name given to a printer’s work-
houfe } becaufe, according to fome authors, printing
vras firft adftually performed in chapels or churches; or,
according to others, becaufe Caxton, an early printer,
exercifed the art in one of the chapels in Weftminfter
abbey. In this fenfe they fay, the orders or laws of the
chapel, the fecrets of the chapel, &c.
Knights of the CHAPEL, called alfo Poor knights of
Windfor, were inftituted by Henry VIII. in his tefta-
ment. Their number was at firft thirteen, but has been
fince augmented to 26. They aflift in the funeral fer-
vices of the kings of England : they are fubjeft to the
office of the canons of Windfor, and live on penfions
affigned them by the order of the Garter. They bear
a blue or red cloak, with the arms of St George on the
left ftioulder.
CHAPELAIN, James, an eminent French poet,
born at Paris in 1595, and often mentioned in the
works of Balzac, Menage, and other learned men. He
wrote feveral works, and at length diftinguiffied himfelf
by a heroic poem called La Pucelle, ou France Deliv-
ree, which employed him feveral years; and which,
railing the expeftation of the public, was as much de¬
cried by fome as extolled by others. He was one of
the king’s counlellors j and died in i647> very rich,
but was very covetous and fordid.
CHAPELET, in the manege, a couple of ftirrup-
leathers, mounted each of them with a ftirrup, and
joined atop in a fort of leather buckle, called the head
of the chape let, by which they were made fall to the
pummel of the faddle, after being adjufted to the rider’s
length and bore. They are ufed both to avoid the
trouble of taking up or letting down the ftirrups every
time that a gentleman mounts on a different horfe and
faddle, and to fupply the place of the academy faddles,
which have no ftirrups to them.
CHAPELLE, Claudius Emanuel Luillier,
the natural fon of Francis Luillier, took the name of
Chapelle from a village between Paris and St Denys,
where he was born. He diftinguiffied himfelf by writing
fmall pieces of poetry, in which he difeovered great
delicacy,
c H A [ 389 1 C H A
ipelle delicacy, an eafy turn, and an admirable felicity of ex-
11 preflion. He was the friend of Gaffendi and Moliere :
j 1:plain- an(j jjgj Jn j686.
P!'¥ ,r " CHAPERON, Chaperonne, or Chaferoon, pro¬
perly fignifies a fort of hood or covering for the head,
anciently worn both by men and women, the nobles
and the populace, and afterwards appropriated to the
dodlors and licentiates in colleges, &c. Hence the
name paffed to certain little fliields, and other funeral
devices, placed on the foreheads of the horfes that
drew the herfes in pompous funerals, and which are
ilill called chaperoons or jhaff'eroons ; becaufe fuch de¬
vices were originally faflened on the chapercnnes, or
hoods, worn by thofe horfes- with their other coverings
of Rate.
CHAPERON of a bit-mouth, in the manege, is only
ufed for fcatch-mouths, and all others that are not can¬
non-mouths, fignifying the end of the bit that joins to
the branch juft by the banquet. In fcatch-mouths
the chaperon is round, but in others it is oval : and
the fame part that in fcatch and other mouths is called
chaperon, is in cannon-mouths called fronfeau.
CHAPITERS, in ArchiteElure, the fame with Ca¬
pitals.
Chapiters, in Law, formerly fignified a fummary
of fuch matters as were inquired of, or prefented be¬
fore juftices in eyre, juftices of aflize, or of the peace,
in their feffions.
Chapiters, at this time, denotes fuch articles as are
delivered by the mouth of the juftice in his charge to
the inqueft.
CHAPLAIN properly fignifies a perfon pro¬
vided with a chapel, or who difeharges the duty
thereof.
Chaplain is alfo ufed for an ecclefiaftical perfon,
in the houfe of a prince, or a perfon of quality, who
officiates in their chapels, &c.
In England there are 48 chaplains to the king,
who v'ait four each month, preach in the chapel,
read the fervice to the family, and to the king in
his private oratory, and fay grace in the abfence of
the clerk of the clofet. While in waiting they have a
table and attendance, but no falary. In Scotland the
king has fix chaplains, with a falary of 50I. each,
three of them having in addition the deanery of the
chapel-royal divided between them, making up above
look to each. The only duty at prefent is to fay
prayers at the election of peers for Scotland to fit in
parliament.—According to a ftatute of Plenry VIII.
the perfons veiled with a power of retaining chaplains,
together with the number each is allowed to qualify,
is as follows : An archbilhop, eight ; a duke or bifliop,
fix ; marquis or earl, five j vifeount, four ; baron,
knight of the garter, or lord chancellor, three } a
duchefs, marchionefs, countefs, baronefs, the treafurer
and comptroller of the king’s houfe, clerk of the clo¬
fet, the king’s fecretary, dean of the chapel, almoner,
and mailer of the rolls, each of them two } chief juf¬
tice of the king’s bench, and warden of the cinque-
ports, each one. All thefe chaplains may purchafe a
licenfe or difpenfation, and take two benefices with
cure of fouls. A chaplain mull be retained by letters
.tetlimonial under hand and feal ; for it is not fufficicnt
that he ferve as chaplain in the family.
The firft chaplains are faid to have been thofe inlli-
tuted by the ancient kings of France, for preferving C’WI
the chape, or cape, with the other relicks of St Mar-, “a
tin, which the kings kept in their palace, and car¬
ried out with them to the war. The firft chaplain
is faid to have been Gul. de Mefmes, chaplain to St
Louis.
CHAPLAIN in the order of Malta, is ufed for the
fecond rank or clafs in that order } otherwife called
diaco.
The knights make the firft clafs, and the chaplains
the fecond.
CHAPLAINS of the Pope, are the auditors, or judges
of caufe in the facred palace •, fo called, becaufe the
pope anciently gave audience in his chapel, for the d<a-
cifion of cafes lent from the feveral parts of Chriftcn-
dom. He hither fummoned as afl'effors the moll learn¬
ed lawyers of his time 3 and they hence acquired the
appellation of capellam, chaplains. It is from the de¬
crees formerly given by thefe that the body of decretals
is compofed : their number Pope Sixtus IV. reduced
to twelve.
Shine fay, the flumes of relicks were covered with a
kind of tent-cape, or capella, i. e. little cape 3 and that
hence the priefts, who had the care of them, wfere called
chaplains. In time thefe relicks were repofited in a
little church, either contiguous to a larger or feparate
from it 3 and the fame name, capella, which was given
to the cover, was alfo given to the place where it was
lodged : and hence the prieft who fuperintended it
came to be called chaplain.
CHAPLET, an ancient ornament for the head, like
a garland or wreath : but this word is frequently ufed
to fignify the circle of a crown. There are inftances
of its being borne in a coat of arms, as v'ell as for
crefts 3 the paternal arms for Lafcelles are argent, three
chaplets, gules.
Chaplet alfo denotes a firing of beads ufed by the
Roman Catholics, to count the number of their prayers.
The invention of it is aferibed to Peter the hermit,
who probably learned it of the Turks, as they owe it
to the Eaft Indians.
Chaplets pre fometimes called pater-noflers ; and are
made of coral, of diamonds, of wood, &c. The com¬
mon chaplet contains 50 ave-marias, and five pater-
nofters. There is alfo a chaplet of our Saviour, con-
fifting of 33 beads, in honour of his 33 years living
on the earth, inftituted by Father Michael the Camal-
dulian.
The Orientals have a kind of chaplets which they
call chains, and which they ufe in their prayers, re-
hearfing one of the perfetftions of God on each link or
head. 'The Great Mogul is faid to have 18 of thefe
chains, all precious ftones 3 fome diamonds, others ru¬
bies, pearls, &c. The Turks have likewife chaplets,
which they bear in the hand, or hang at the girdle :
but Father Dandini obferves, they differ from thofe
ufed by the Romanifts, in that they are all of the fame
bignefs, and have not that diftindlion into decades,
though they confift of fix decades, or 60 heads.. He
adds, that the Muffelmans run over the chaplet almoft
in an inftant, the prayers being extremely fhort, as
containing only thefe words, 44 praife to God,” or
“ glory to God,” for each bead. Befides the com¬
mon chaplet they have likewife a larger one coijfift-
ing of ico beads, where there is fome diftin&ion, as
I
C H A [ 390 ] C H A
Chaplet being divided by little threads into three»parts *, on one
, of which they repeat 30 times foub/ian Allah, i. e.
~ ■ “ God is worthy to be praifed on another, ellamh
Allah, “ Glory be to God and on the third, Allah
echer, “ God is great.” Thefe thrice thirty times ma¬
king only 90 } to complete the number 100, they add
ether prayers for the beginning of the chaplet.—He
adds, that the Mahometan chaplet appears to have
'had its rife from the mea beracoth, or “ hundred be¬
nedictions,” which the Jews are obliged to repeat
daily, and which we find in their prayer books j the
Jews and Mahometans having this in common, that
they fcarce do any thing without pronouncing feme
laud or benediction.
Menage derives the word chaplet from chapeau,
“ hat.” The modern Latins call it chapellina, the Ita¬
lians more frequently corona.
Chaplet, or Chapelet, in ArchiteBure, a little
moulding, cut or carved into round beads, pearls,
olives, or the like.
CHAPMAN, George, born in 1557, a man high¬
ly efteemed in his time for his dramatic and poetic
works. He wrote 17 plays j tranflated Homer and
fome other ancient poets \ and was thought no mean
genius. He died in 1634 and was buried in St Giles’s
in the Fields, where his friend Inigo Jones ereCted a
monument to him.
CHAPPE, in Heraldnj, the dividing an efcutcheon
by lines drawn from the centre of the upper edge to
the angles below, into three parts, the feCtions on the
Jides being of different metal or colour from the reft.
CHAPPEL in FRITH, a market-town of Derby-
fhire, about 26 miles north-well of Derby. W. Long.
* 1. 50. N. Lat. 53. 22.
CHAPPEL, William, a learned and pious biftiop of
Cork, Cloyne, and Rofs in Ireland, born in Notting-
hamfhire in 1582. When the troubles began under
Charles I. he was profecuted by the puritan party in
parliament, and retired to Derby, where he devoted
himfelf to ftudy till his death in 1649. He wrote
Methodus Concionandi, 3. e. “the Method of Preach¬
ing :” and he is one of thofe to whom the Whole Duty
tf Man has been attributed. He left behind him alfo
his own life written by himfelf in Latin, which has
been twice printed.
CHAPTER, in ecclefiaftical polity, a fociety or
community of clergymen belonging to the cathedrals
• and collegiate churches.
It was in the eighth century that the body of canons
began to be called a chapter. The chapter of the ca¬
nons of a cathedral were a Handing council to the bi-
Ihop, and, during the vacancy of the fee, had the jurif-
diebion of the diocefe. In the earlier ages, the bifhop
was head of the chapter; afterwards abbots and other
dignitaries, as deans, provofts, treafurers, &c. were
preferred to this diftindion. The deans and chapters
had the privilege of choofing the biftiops in England j
but Henry VIII. got this power veiled in the crowm :
and as the fame prince expelled the monks from the
jcathedrals, and placed fecular canons in their room,
thofe he thus regulated were called deans and chapters
of the new foundation ; fuch are Canterbury, Win-
dicfter, Ely, Carlille, &c. See Dean.
v Chapter, in matters of literature, a divifion in a
book for keeping the fubjed treated of more clear and CWr
diftind. |j
CHAR, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of SALMO. Charadeg
CHARA. See Botany Index.
CHARABON, a fea port town on the northern
coaft of the illand of Java in the Eaft Indies. E. Long.
10. 8. S. Lat. 6.
CHARACENE, the moft fouthern part of Sufiana,
a province of Perfia, lying on the Perfian gulf, be¬
tween the Tigris and the Eulaeus. It was fo named
from the city of Chorax, called firft Alexandria, from
its founder Alexander the Great j afterwards Antio-
chia, from Antiochus V. king of Syria, who repaired
and beautified it \ and laftly, Chorax Spafinae, or Pa-
finae, that is, the Mole of the Spafines, an Arabian
king of that name having fecured it againft the over¬
flowing of the Tigris, by a high bank or mole, extend¬
ing three miles, which ferved as a fence to all that
country. Dionyfius Periegetes, and Ifidorus, author
of the Parthicse Manfiones, were both natives of this
city. The fmall diftridl of Characene wras feized by
Pafines, the fon of Sogdonacus, king of the neighbour¬
ing Arabs, during the troubles of Syria, and eredled
into a kingdom. Lucian calls him Plyfpafines, and
adds, that he ruled over the Characeni and the neigh¬
bouring people : he died in the 8 5th year of his age.
The other kings of this country wre find mentioned by
the ancients are, Teraeus, who died in the 92d year
of his age, and after him Artabazus the feventh, a*
Lucian informs us, who was driven from the throne
by his own fubje&s, but reftored by the Parthians.
And this is all we fi. id in the ancients relating to the
kings of Characenej
CHARACTER, in a general fenfe, fignifies a mark,
or figure, drawn on paper, metal, ftone, er other mat¬
ter, with a pen, graver, chiffel, or other inftrument,
to fignify or denote any thing. The word is Greek,
formed from the verb, infculperef
“ to engrave, imprefs,” &c.
The various kinds of chara&ers may be reduced to
three heads, viz. Literal CharaBers, Humeral Charac¬
ters, and Abbreviations.
I. Literal CHARACTER, is a letter of the alphabet,
ferving to indicate fome articulate found, expreffive
of fome idea or conception of the mind. See Al¬
phabet.
1. Thefe may be divided, with regard to their na¬
ture and ufe, into Nominal CharaBers, or thofe we pro¬
perly call letters; which ferve to exfprefs the names of
things: See Letter. Real CharaBers; thofe that
inftead of names exprefs things and ideas : See Idea,
&c. Emblematical or Symbolical CharaBers ; which
have this in common with real ones, that they exprefs
the things themfelves j but have this further, that
they in fome meafure perfonate them, and exhibit their
form : fuch are the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyp¬
tians. See Hieroglyphic, Symbol, &c.
2. Literal CHARACTERS may be again divided, with
regard to their invention and ufe, into particular and
general or univerfal.
Particular CHARACTERS, are thofe peculiar to this,
or that nation. Such are the Roman, Italic, Greek,
Hebrew, Arabic, Gothic, Chinefe, &c. charaBers.~—
See Hebrew, Gothic, Chinese,
Univerfal
c H A . [ 391 ] c H A
gl ufters. Vniverfal CHARACTERS) are alfo real char afters, and
M.rr—“’make what feme authors call a Philofophical Lan¬
guage.
That diverfity of charafters ufed by the feveral na¬
tions to exprefs the fame idea, is found the chief ob-
ftacle to the advancement of learning : to remove this,
feveral authors have taken occafion to propofe plans
of charafters that fliould be univerfal, and which each
people fhould read in their own language. The cha-
rafter here is to be real, not nominal: to exprefs things
and notions 5 not, as the common ones, letters or founds:
yet to be mute, like letters, and arbitrary j not emble¬
matical, like hieroglyphics.
Thus, every nation fhould retain its ovrn language,
yet every one underftand that of each other, without
learning it; only by feeing a real or univerfal char after,
which fhould fignify the fame things to all people, by
what founds foever each exprefs it in their particular
idiom. For inftance, by feeing the charafter deflined
to fignify to drink, an Englifhman fhould read to drink ;
a Frenchman, boire ; a Latin, bibere ; a Greek nimv ;
a Jewr, nnw ; a German, trincken ; and fo of the reft ;
in the fame manner as feeing a horfe, each people ex-
preffes it after their own manner; but all mean the
fame animal.
This real charafter is no chimera; the Chinefe and
Japanefe have already fomething like it. They have
a common charafter, which each of thofe nations un¬
derftand alike in their feveral languages ; though they
pronounce them with fuch different founds, that they
do not underftand one another in fpeaking.
The fir ft and moft confiderable attempts for a real
charafter, or philofophical language, in Europe, are
thofe of Bifhop Wilkins and Dalgarme : but thefe,
with how much art foever they were contrived, have
yet proved ineffectual.
M. Leibnitz had fome thoughts the fame way; he
thinks thofe great men did not hit the right method.
It was probable, indeed, that by their means, people
who do not underftand one another might eafily have
a commerce together ; but they have not hit on true
real charafters.
According to him, the charafters fhould refemble
thofe ufed in algebra ; which, in effeft, are very
fimple, yet very expreflive ; without any thing fuper-
fluous or equivocal; and contain all the varieties re-
■quired.
The real charafter of Bifhop Wilkins has its juft ap-
plaufe: Dr Hook recommends it on his own know¬
ledge and experience, as a raoft excellent fcheme ; and
to engage the w'orld to the ftudy thereof, publiihes
fome fine inventions of his own therein.
M. Leibnitz tells us, he had under confideration an
alphabet of human thoughts ; in order to a new philofo¬
phical language, on his own fcheme : but his death
prevented its being brought to maturity.
M. Lodwic, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, gives
us a plan of an univerfal alphabet or charafter of another
kind : this was to contain an enumeration of all fuch
fmgle founds, or letters, as are ufed in any language ;
by means wheredf, people fhould be enabled to pro¬
nounce truly and readily any language; to deferibe
the pronunciation of any language that fhall be pro¬
nounced in their hearing, fo as others accuftomed to
this language, though they had never heard the lan¬
guage pronounced, fhall at firft be able truly to pro- Chara&cr?,
nounce it: and, laftly, this charafter to ferve as a itand-
ard to perpetuate the founds of any language. In
the Journal Litteraire, an. 1720, we have a very inge¬
nious project for an univerfal character. The author,
after obviating the objections that might be made a-
gainft the feafiblenefs of fuch fchemes m the general,
propofes his own : his charafters are to be the common
Arabic, or numeral figures. The combinations of thefe
nine are fufficient to exprefs diftin&ly an incredible
quantity of numbers, much more than we fhall need
terms to fignify eur adtions, goods, evils, duties, paf-
fions, &c. Thus is all the trouble of framing and
learning any new charafter at once faved; the Arabic
figures having already all the univerfality required.
The advantages are immenfe. For, \tjio. We have
here a liable, faithful interpreter ; never to be cor¬
rupted or changed, as the popular languages continu¬
ally are. ido. Whereas the difficulty of pronouncing
a foreign language is fuch as ufually gives the learner
the greateft trouble, and there are even fome founds
which foreigners never attain to, in the charafter here
propofed this difficulty has no place : every nation is
to pronounce them according to the particular pronun¬
ciation that already obtains among them. All the dif¬
ficulty is, the accuftoming the pen and the eye to affix
certain notions to charafters that do not, at firft fight,
exhibit them. But this trouble is no more than we
find in the ftudy of any language whatever.
The inflexions of words are here to be exprefled by
the common letters. For inftance, the fame charafter
fhall exprefs a filly or a colt, a horfe or a mare, an old
horfe or an old mare, as accompanied with this or that
diftinXive letter, which fhall fhow t^e fex, youth, ma¬
turity, or old age ; a letter alfo to exprefs the bignefs
or fize of things; thus v. g. a man with this or that
letter, to fignify a great man, or a little man, &e.
The ufe of thofe letters belongs to the grammar ;
which, once well underftood, would abridge the voca¬
bulary exceedingly. An advantage of this grammar
is, that it would only have one declenfion and one
conjugation : thofe numerous anomalies of grammars
ans are exceeding troublefome ; and arife hence, that
the common languages are governed by the populace,
who never reafon on what is beft : but in the charafter
here propofed, men of fenfe having the introduXion of
it, would have a new ground, whereon to build regu¬
larly.
A new univerfal charaXer has been propofed by Mr
Northmore of London, by which different nations may
communicate their fentiments to each other. His ori¬
ginal plan was, to make the fame numerical figure re-
prefent the fame word in all languages. But he found
afterwards that it might be improved, by ufing a figure
not for every word, but every ufeful word. And even
thefe he thinks might be abbreviated by adopting cer¬
tain uniform fixed figns, the number of which would
not exceed 20, for the various parts of fpeech. Words
of negation, he propofed, to be expreffed by a prefixed
fign. A few inftances will explain the author’s meaning.
Suppofe the number 5 to reprefent the wordJee,
6 — — a man,
7 — —
8 —» — never,
9 — — /,
“I
C H A [ 392 ]
“ I would then (fays he) exprefs the tenfes, genders, pendage
cafes, &c. in all languages^ in fome fuch uniform man¬
ner as the following :
(0
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(3)
(9)
(10)
oo
(12) 4-6
(13) 7
Cm) 7
AV
Cm) 7
_7
C16)—7
5 =
5= =
5- =
~6 =
'6 =
6 =
^ =
prefent tenfc, — fee,
pcrfeEl tenfe, —- faw,
perfeB participle, —- feen,
prefent participle, feeing,
future, — — will fee,
fubflantive, —
perfonalfubfantive, fpeftator,
nominative cafe, — a man,
genitive, — of a man,
dative, — — to a man,
feminine, — -—a woman,
plural, — •— men,
poftive, —- —- happy,
comparative, — happier,
fuperlative, — happieft,
as above, N° 6. — happinefs,
negation, — — unhappy,
“ From the above fpecimen, I fhould find no difficul¬
ty in comprehending the following fentence, though
it were written in the language of the Hottentots :
A •'*—
g? 6. I never faw a more unhappy woman.
“ Thofe languages which do not ufe the pronoun
prefixed to the vferb, as the Greek and Roman, &c.
may apply it, in a fmall charafter, fimply to denomi¬
nate the perfonj thus, inftead of 9, 8, .5, I never faw ;
they may write, 8, 3.5, which will fignify that the
verb is in the firft perfon, and will ftill have the fame
meaning.”
Our author thinks, that according to this fcheme of
an univerfal charafter, about 20 figns, and lefs than
10,000 chofen words (fynonyms being fet afide), would
anfwer all the ends propofed •, and that foreigners, by
referring to their numerical di&ionary, would eafily
comprehend each other. He proceeds next to fiiew
how appropriate founds may be given to his figns, and
an univerfal living language formed from the univerfal
charaBers.
To attain this end, he propofes to diftinguifh the ten
numerals by ten monofyllabic names of eafy pronun¬
ciation, and fuch as may run without difficulty into one
another. To illuftrate his fcheme, however, he calls
them, for the prefent, by their common Englifh names j
but w'ould pronounce each number made ufe of by ut¬
tering feparately its component parts, after the manner
of accountants. Thus, let the number 6943 reprefent
the word ho>fe, he would not, in the univerfal language,
call a horfe fix thoufandnine hundred and forty-three, but
fix, nine, four, three, and fo on for all the words of a
fentence, making the proper flop at the end of each.
In the fame manner, a diftinft appellation muft be ap¬
propriated to each of the prefixed figns, to be pronoun¬
ced immediately after the numeral to which it is an ap-
C H A
Thus, if plu be the appellation or the fign Charadtew
of the plural number, fix, nine, four, three, phi will
be horfes.
“ Thus (fays our author), I hope, it is evident that
about 30 or 40 diftimR fyllables are fufficient for the
above purpofe •, but I am much miftaken if eleven only
will not anfwer the fame end. This is to be done by
fubftituting the firft 20 or 30 numerals for the figns,
and faying, as in algebra, that a term is in the power
of fuch a number, which may be exprelfed by the Am¬
ple word under. Ex. gr. Let 6943 reprefent the word
horfe • and fuppofe 4 to be the fign of the plural num¬
ber, I would write the word thus ; and pro¬
nounce it, fix, nine, four, three, in the power of or un¬
der four. By thefe means eleven diftinft appellations
would be fufficient, and time and ufe would much ab¬
breviate the pronunciation.”
But the difficulty is not in inventing the moft Am¬
ple, eafy, and. commodious charaBer, but in engaging
the feveral nations to ufe it 5 there being nothing they
agree lefs in, than the underftanding and purfuing their
common intereft.
3. Literal characters may again be divided, with re-
fpeCt to the nations among whom they have been in¬
vented, into Greek characters, Roman characters, He¬
brew characters, &c. The Latin character now ufed
through all Europe, was formed from the Greek, as the
Greek was from the Phoenician j and the Phosnieian,
as well as the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic characters,
were formed from the ancient Hebrew, which fubfifted
till the Babylonifh captivity; for after that event the
character of the Aflyrians, which is the fquare Hebrew
now in ufe, prevailed, the ancient being only found on
fome Hebrew medals, commonly called Samaritan me¬
dals. It was in 1091 that the Gothic characters, in¬
vented by Ulfilas, were abolifhed, and the Latin ones
eftablifhed in their room.
Medallifts obferve, that the Greek character, con-
fifting only of majufcule letters, has preferved its uni¬
formity on all medals, as low as the time of Gallienus,
from which time it appears fomewhat weaker and
rounder : from the time of Conftantine to Michael we
find only Latin characters : after Michael, the Greek
characters recommence j but from that time they be¬
gan to alter with the language, which was a mixture of
Greek and Latin. The Latin medals preferved both
their characters and language as low as the tranflation
of the feat of the empire to Conftantinople: towards
the time of Decius the character began to lofe its
roundnefs and beauty ; fome time after, it retrieved
and fubfifted tolerably till the time of Juftin, when it
degenerated gradually into the Gothic. The rounder,
then, and better formed a charaCter is upon a medal,
the fairer pretence it has to antiquity.
II. Numeral Characters, or characters ufed to ex¬
prefs numbers, are either letters or figures.
The Arabic charaCter, called alfo the common one,
becaufe it is ufed almoft throughout Europe in all forts
of calculations, confifts of thefe ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4,
S, 7, 8, 9, o. ,
The Roman numeral charaCter confifts of feven ma¬
jufcule letters of the Roman alphabet, viz. I, V, X,
L, C, D, M. The I denotes one, V five, X ten,
L fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and M a thou-
fand. The I repeated twice makes two, II j thrice,
three,
C H A [ 393
Four is expreffed thus, IV. as I before V
lifters, three, III.
' or X takes an unit from the number expreifed by thefe
letters. To exprefs fix, an I is added to a V, VI. ;
for feven, two, VII. 5 and for eight, three, VIII. Nine
is expreffed by an I before X, thus, IX. The fame
remark may be made of the X before L or C, except
that the diminution is by tens ; thus, XL denotes
forty, XC ninety, and LX fixty. The C before D
or M diminifties each by a hundred. The number
five hundred is fometimes expreffed by an I before a
C inverted, thus, 13 j and inltead of M, which figni-
fies a thoufand, an I is fometimes ufed between two
C’s the one direft, and the other inverted, thus, CID.
The addition of C and D before or after raifes CI3 by
tens ; thus, CCIDD expreffes ten thoufand, CCCID33
a hundred thoufand. The Romans alfo expreffed any
number of thoufands by a line drawn over any numeral
lefs than a thoufand 5 thus, V denotes .iVe thoufand,
LX fixty thoufand j fo likewife m is one million, mm
is two millions, &c.
The Greeks had three ways of expreffmg numbers:
1. Every letter, according to its place in the alphabet,
denoted a number, from at, one, to twenty-four.
2. The alphabet was divided into eight units, « one,
/3 two, y three, &c. j into eight tens, < ten, k twenty,
A thirty, &x.; and eight hundreds, g one hundred,
r two hundred, t three hundred, Stc. 3. I Hood for
one, n five, A ten, H a hundred, X a thoufand M ten
thoufand; and when the latter IT enclofed any of thefe,
except I, it {bowed the enclofed letter to be five times
its value j as j |Z| fifty, |h| five hundred, |x| five thou-
fend, |m"| fifty thoufand.
The French CHARACTERS ufed in the chamber of ac¬
counts, and by perfons concerned in the management
of there venue, is, properly fpeaking, nothing elfe than
the Roman numerals, in letters that are not majufcule:
thus, inftead of expreffmg fifty-fix by LVI, they de¬
note it by fmaller characters, lyj.
III. Characters of Abbreviations, &c. in feveral
ef the arts, are fymbols contrived for the more concife
and immediate conveyance of the knowledge of things.
For the
Characters ufed in Algebra, fee Algebra, In¬
troduction.
Of the AfpeCts.
<5 or S Conjunction A Trine
SS Semifextile Bq Biquintle
* Sextile Vc Quincunx
Q Quintile
D Quartile
Td Tredecile
Oppofition
Dragon’s head
Dragon’s tail
a
'IS
Of Time.
A. M. ante meridiem, before the fun comes upon the
meridian. '
G. or N. noon,
P.M./w/? meridiem, when the fun is pall the meridian,
CHARACTERS in Commerce*
D° ditto, the fame S or r {hillings
N° numero, or number d pence or deniers
^ folio, or page lb pound weight
C or 0 hundred weight, R° redo 1 r ,■
or 112 pounds V0 vero y°
] C
£. or /. pounds Sterling
pr per or by, pr ann.
by the year, pr cent.
H A
Rx rixdollar
Dc ducat
P. S. pofifcript, 8cc.
CHARACTERS in Geometry and Trigonometry.
the character of paral- V equiangular or fimi-
lelifm iar
triangle equilateral
  quare ^ an angle
l_l O reCtangle ^
O circle j_
0 denotes a degree j thus, 450 implies 45 degrees.
1 denotes a minute j thus, 5c/ is 50 minutes. tr,
denote feconds, thirds, and fourths: and the fame
characters are ufed when the progreflions are by tens,
as it is here by fixties.
Ctraradters.
A
□
right angle
perpendicular
CHARACTERS in Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, &c.
D. D. doCtor in divini-
( ) parenthefis
£ ] crotchet
- hyphen
’ apoltrophe
emphafis or accent
breve
•• dialyfis
A caret and circumflex
-f £ and * references
§ feCtion or divifion
paragraph
“ quotation
ty
V. D. M. minifter of the
word of God
LL. D. doCtor of laws
J- V. D. doCtor of ci¬
vil and common law
M. D. doCtor in phyfic
A. M. mailer of arts
A. B. bachelor of arts
F. R. S. fellow of the roy¬
al fociety.
For the other characters ufed in Grammar, fee Com¬
ma, Colon, Semicolon.
CHARACTERS among the ancient Lawyers, and in ancient
Infcriptions.
§ paragraph
ff digefts
Scto. fenatus confulto
E. extra
S. P.Q.R. fenatus po-
pulufque Romanus
P. P. pater patriae
C. Code
C. C. confules
T. titulus
P. P. D. D. propria
pecunia dedicavit
D. D. M. dono dedit
ihonumentum.
CHARACTERS in Medicine and Pharmacy.
IJo recipe
d, da, or ana, of each
alike
lb a pound, or a pint
§ an ounce
5 a drachm
a fcruple
gr. grains
B or fs half of any
thing
cong. congius, a gallon
coch. cochleare, a
fpoonful
Characters upon Tomb-fones.
M. manipulus, a hand¬
ful
P. a pugil
P. AE. equal quanti¬
ties
S. A. according to art
q. s. a fufficient quan¬
tity
q. pi. as much as you
pleafe
P. P. pulvis patrum, the
Jefuits bark.
quarters
Vol. V, Part L
S. V. Silte viator, i. e. Stop traveller.
M. S. Memoriae facrum, i. e. Sacred to the me¬
mory.
3^ D.
C H A t
a&ers. I). M. Diis manibus.
l,J—' J. H. S. Jefus.
X. P. a character found in tbe catacombs, about
the meaning of which authors are not agreed.
Characters ufed in Mlijic, and of Mufical Notes with
their proportions, are as follows.
3
FI
o
chara&er of a large 8 f
a long 4
a breve 2
a femibrevfe I
crotchet
quaver
femiquaver,
demifemiquaver
394 1 . C H A
ply for aid, in all important tranfaftions, to men whofe CHafr,ftp-
integrity is unimpeached. When we choofe an affifl- r*-
ant, a partner, a fervant, our firft inquiry is concerning
his character. When we have occation for a counfel-
lor or attorney, a phyfician or apothecary, whatever
we may be ourfelves, we always choofe to truft our
property and perfons to men of the beft character.
When we fix on the tradefmen who are to fupply us
with neceflaries, we arc not determined by the fign of
the lamb, or the wolf, or the fox, nor by a.ihop fitted
up in the molt elegant tafte j but by the fairelt repu¬
tation. Look into a daily newfpaper, and you will
T3
, a minim -5-
% character of a fharp note ; this chara&er, at the
beginning of a line or fpace, denotes that all the notes
in that line are to be taken a femitone higher than in
the natural feries •, and the fame affe£ls all .the oftaves
above and below, though not marked : but when pre¬
fixed to any particular note, it (hows that note alone
to be taken a femitone higher than it would be with¬
out fuch a character.
j? or b, chara&er of a flat note : this is the con¬
trary to the other above j that is, a femitone lower.
chara&er of a natural note : when in a line or
feries of artificial notes, marked at the beginning [) or
the natural note happens to be required, it is de¬
noted by this charafter.
£ 'character of the treble cliff.
|—| character of the mean cliff.
Q; bafs cliff.
•J or •£, characters of common duple time, fignify-
inp- the meafure of two crotchets to be equal to two
notes, of which four make a femibreve.
C$3 charafters that diftinguifh the movements
of common time, the firit implying flow, the fecond
quick, and the third very quick.
^ J-j characters of Ample triple time, the
meafure of which is equal to three femibreVes, or to
three minims. _ . •
ft or -/tt, characters of a mixed triple time, where
the meafure is equal to fix crotchets, or fix quavers.
or I, or -t%, or f, or |, characters of compound
triple time.
fir, -A, hh or ttt, or XV, characters of that fpecies
of triple time called the meafure of twelve times.
Character, in human life, that which is peculiar
in the manners of any perfon, and diftinguifhes him
from all others.
Good Character, is particularly applied to that con¬
duct which is regulated by virtue and religion 5 in an
inferior but very common fenfe, it is underftood of
mere honefty of dealing between man and man. The
importance of a .good character m the commerce of
life feems to be univerfally acknowledged.—'lo thofe
who are to make their own way either to wealth or
honours, a good character is ufually no lefs neceflary
than addrefs and abilities. To tranferibe the obferyation
ef an elegant moralifl : though human nature is de¬
generate, and corrupts itfelf ftill more by its own in¬
ventions 5 yet it ufually retains to the laft anyfteem
for excellence. But even if we are arrived at fuch an
extreme degree of depravity as to have loft our native
reverence for virtue 5 yet a regard to oTir own intereft
and fafety, which we feldora lofe, will lead us to ap-
fee, from the highefi: to the loweft rank, how import¬
ant the characters of the employed appear to the em¬
ployers. After the advertifement has enumerated the
qualities required in the perfon wanted, there conftant-
ly follows, that none need apply who cannot bring an
undeniable character. Offer yourfelf as a candidate
for a feat in parliament, be promoted to honour and
emolument, or in any refpeCt attraCt the attention
of mankind upon yourfelf, and if you are vulner¬
able in your character, you will be deeply wound¬
ed. This is a general teftimony in favour of ho¬
nefty, which no writings and no practices can poflibly
refute.
Young men, therefore, whofe characters are yet
unfixed, and who confequently may render them juft
fuch as they wifti, ought to pay great attention to the
firft fteps which they take on entrance into liic. d hey
are ufually carelefs and inattentive to this objeCt. Ihey
purfue their own plans with ardour, and negleCt the
opinions which others entertain of them. By iom@
thoughtlefs aCtion or expreflion, they fuffer a mark to
be imprefled upon them, which fcarcely any fubfequent
merit can entirely erafe. Every man will find lome
perfons, who, though they are not profeffed enemies,
yet view him with an envious ora jealous eye, and who
will gladly revive any tale to which truth has given the
flighteft foundation.
In this turbulent and confufed feene, where our
words and aCtions are often mifunderftood, and often-
er mifreprefented, it is indeed difficult even for in¬
nocence and integrity to avoid reproach, abufe, con¬
tempt, and hatred. Thefe not only hurt our intereft
and impede our advancement in life, but forely. affliCl
the feelings of a delicate and tender mind. It is then
the part of wifdom firft to do every thing in our power
to preferve an irreproachable character, and then to let
our happinefs depend chiefly on the approbation of our
own confidences, and on the advancement of our inte¬
reft in a world where liars fhall not be believed, and
where flanders fhall receive countenance from none
but him who, in Greek, is called by way of eminence,
Diabolus, or the calumniator.
Character, in Poetry, particularly the epopee and
drama, is the refult of the manners or peculiarities by
which each perfon is diftinguifhed from others.
The poetical character, fays M. Boflu, is not pro¬
perly any particular virtue or quality, but a compofi-
tion of feveral which are mixed together, in a c^1“e*
rent degree, according to the neceffity of the fable an
the unity of the attion : there muft be one, however,
to reign over all the reit 5 and this muft be found, m
fome degree, in every part. The firft quality m A-
chiiles, is wrath; in Ulylfes, diffimulation j and in
iEneas,
C H A [ 395 ] C H A
Lara&er, /Eneas, tnildnefs : but as thefe ebara^ers cannet be
aracter- al0ne, they mull be accompanied with others to em-
lltic- , belliib them, as far as they are capable, either by
lv'”’y hiding their defers, as in the anger of Achilles, which
is palliated by extraordinary valour •, or by making
them centre in fome folid virtue, as in Ulyffes, whole
dillimulation makes a part of his prudence ; and in
/Eneas, whole mildnefs is employed in a fubmiffion to
the will of the gods. In the making up of which
union, it is to be obferved, the poets have joined to¬
gether fuch qualities as are by nature the moil; com¬
patible ; valour with anger, piety with mildnefs, and
prudence with diflimulation. The fable required pru¬
dence in Ulyffes, and piety in /Eneas ‘, in this, there¬
fore, the poets were not left to their choice : but Ho¬
mer might have made Achilles a coward without a-
bating any thing from the jultnefs of his fable j fo that
it was the neceffity of adorning his chara&er, that
obliged him to make him valiant: the character, then,
of a hero in the epic poem, is compounded of three
forts of qualities: the firll; effential to the fable ; the
fecond, embellilhments of the firft j and valour, which
fultains the other two, makes the third.
Unity of charader is as neceffary as the unity of
the fable. For this purpofe a perfon Ihould be the
fame from the beginning to the end : not that he is
always to betray the fame fentiments, or one paflion j
but that he Ihould never fpeak nor ad ineonfiftently
with his fundamental charader. lor inftance, the
weak may fometimes Tally into a Avarmth, and the
brealt of the paflaonate be calm, a change which often
introduces in the drama a very affeding variety : but
if the natural difpofxtion of the former Avas to be repre-
fented as boifterous, and that of the latter mild and
loft, they w’ould both ad out of charader, and contra-
did their perfons.
True charaders are fuch as Ave truly and really fee
in men, or may exift without any contradidion to
nature : no man queftions but there hare been men
as generous and as good as /Eneas, as paffionate and
as violent as Achilles, as prudent and Avife as Ulyffes,
as impious and atheiftical as Mezentius, and as amo¬
rous and paffionate as Dido } all thefe charaders,
therefore, are true, and nothing but juft imitations
of nature. On the contrary, a charader is falfe when
an author fo feigns it, that one can fee nothing like
it in the order of nature Avherein he defigns it ftiall
ftand : thefe charaders ftiould be Avholly excluded from
a poem, becaufe tranfgreffing the bounds of probabili¬
ty and reafon, they meet Avith no belief from the read¬
ers ; they are fidions of the poet’s brain, not imita¬
tions of nature j and yet all poetry confifts of an imita¬
tion of nature.
Character is alfo ufed for certain viftble qualities,
Avhich claim refped or reverence to thofe veiled there-
Avith.—The majefty of kings gives them a charader
which procures refped from the people. A bilhop
Ihould fuftain his charader by learning and folid piety,
rather than by Avorldly luftre, &c. Fhe laAV of na¬
tions fecurcs the charader of an ambaffador from all
infults.
Character, among naturalifts, is fynonymous Avith
the definition of the genera of animals, plants, &c.
CHARACTERISTIC, in general, is that Ayhich
charuderizes a thing or peribn, i. e. conftitutes
See CHA- Chai'aco:
iltic,
its charader, Avhereby it is diftinguilhed.
RACTER.
Characteristic, is peculiarly ufed in grammar,
for the principal letter of a Avord : Avhich is preferved
in moll of its tenfes and moods, its derivatives and
compounds.
CHARACTERISTIC of a Logarithm, is its index or ex¬
ponent. See Logarithm.
CHARACTERISTIC Triang/e of a Curve, in the higher
geometry, is a redilinear right-angled triangle, whofe
bypothenufe makes a part of the curve, not lenlibly
different from a right line. It is lo called, becauio
curve lines are ufed to be dilfinguiihed hereby. See
Curve.
CHARADE, the name of a neAv fpecies of compo-
fttim or literary amufement. It owes its name to the
idler Avho invented it. Its fubjed mull be a word of
tAvo fyllables, each forming a ditlind Avord : and thefe
tAvo fyllables are to be concealed in an enigmatical
defeription, firit feparately, and then together. The
exercife of charades, if not greatly inftrudive, is at
leal! innocent and amuling. At all events, as it has
made its way into every falhionable circle, and has
employed even Garrick, it Avill fcarcely be deemed un-
Avorthy of attention. The fillinefs indeed of moll that
have appeared in the papers under this title, are not
only dellitute of all pleafantry in the Hating, but are
formed in general of words utterly unfit for the pur¬
pofe. They have therefore been treated Avith the con¬
tempt they deferved. In trifles of this nature, inac¬
curacy is Avithout excufe. The following examples
therefore are at leaft free from this blemilh.
I.
Charade.
My frf, hoAvever here abufed,
Defigns the fex alone j
In Cambria, fuch is cuftom’s poAv’r,
’Tis Jenkin, John, or Joan.
My fecond oft is loudly call’d,
When men prepare to fift it:
Its name delights the female car ;
Its force, may none refift it:
It binds the Aveak, it binds the ftrong.
The Avealthy and the poor 5
Still ’tis to joy a paffport deem’d,
For fullied fame a cure.
It may enfure an age of blifs,
Yet mis’ries oft attend it;
To fingers, ears, and nofes too,
Its Ararious lords commend it.
My whole may chance to make one drink,
Though vended in a fifli fhop $
’Tis noAv the monarch of the feas,
And has been an archbifhop. Her-ring.
II.
My firf, when a Frenchman is learning Engiifl:,
ferves him to fwear by. My fecotid, is either hay or
corn. My whole, is the delight of the prefent age j
and Avill be the admiration of pofterity. Gar-rick.
HE
My frf, is plowed for various reafons, and grain is
frequently buried in it to little purpofe. My fecond,
is neither riches nor honours; yet the former Avould
generally be given for it, and the latter is often tafte*
lefs Avithout it. My whole applies equally to fpring,
fummer, autumn, and Avinter : and both fiih and flelh,
3 D 2 praifo
c H A [ 396 ] C H A
Charade praife and cnnfure, mirth and melancholy, are the bet-
Charcoal. ter f°r being in ^ Sea'M
Myyfr/?, with the molt rooted antipathy to a French¬
man, prides himfelf, whenever they meet, upon flick¬
ing clofe to his jacket. My fecond, has many virtues,
nor is it its leail that it gives name to my firfl. My
°k'hoie, may I never catch ! Tar-tar.
V.
My is one of England’s prime boafls $ it rejoi¬
ces the ear of a horfe, and anguifhes the toe of a man.
My fecond, when brick, is good ; when flone, better j
when wooden, bell of all. My whole, is famous alike
for rottennefs and tin. Corn-wall.
VI.
My jirj} is called bad or good,
May pleafure or offend ye ;
My fecond, in a thirfly mood,
May very much befriend ye.
Vly whole, though flyled a “ cruel word,”
May yet appear a kind one j
It often may with joy be heard,
With tears*may often blind one. Fare-well.
VII.
My jtrjl is equally friendly to the thief and the lover,
the toper and the fludent. My fecond is light’s oppo-
fite : yet they are frequently feen hand in hand 5 and
their union, if judicious, gives much pleafure. My
whole, is tempting to the touch, grateful to the fight,
fatal to the taite. Night-fhade.
CHARADRIUS, the Plover and Dotterel.
See Ornithology Index.
CHARAG, the tribute which Chriflians and Jews
pay to the grand fignior.
It conliils of ten, twelve, or fifteen francs per an¬
num, according to the eflate of the party. Men be¬
gin to pay it at nine or at fixteen years old •, women
are difpenfed with, as alfo priells, rabbins, and reli¬
gious.
CHARAIMS, a fe£l of the Jews in Egypt. They
live by themfelves, and have a feparate fynagogue ;
and as the other Jews are remarkable for their eyes,
fb are thofe for their large nofes, which run through
all the families of this fe£l. Thefe are the ancient
Effenes. They flriftly obferve the five books of Mo-
fes, according to the letter 5 and receive no written
traditions. It is faid that the other Jews would join
the Charaims ; but thofe not having obferved the ex-
aft rules of the law with regard to divorces, thefe think
they live in adultery.
CHAR ANTI A. See Momordica, Botany In¬
dex.
CHARBON, in the manege, that little black fpot
or mark which remains after a large fpot in the cavity
of the corner teeth of a horfe : about the feventh or
eighth year, when the cavity fills up, the tooth being
fmooth and equal, it is faid to be rafed.
CHARCAS, the fouthern divifion of Peru in
South America, remarkable for the filver mines of Po-
tofi.
CPIARCOAL, a fort of artificial coal, or fuel, con¬
fiding of wood half burnt; chiefly ufed where a clear
ftrong fire, without fmoke, is required 5 the humidity
of the wood being here moflly diflipated, and exhaled
in the fire wherein it is prepared.
The microfeope difeovers a furprifing number of Chart!
pores in charcoal : they are difpofed in order, and ‘""“v 1
traverfe it lengthwife ; fo that there is no piece of
charcoal, how long foever, but may be eafily blown
through. If a piece be broken pretty fhort, it maybe
feen through with a microfeope. In a range the 18th
part of an inch long, Dr Hook reckoned 150 pores j
whence he concludes, that in a charcoal of an inch dia¬
meter, there are not lefs than 5,724,000 pores. It is
to this prodigious number of pores that the blacknefs
of charcoal is owing : for the rays of light Unking on
the charcoal, are received and abforbed in its pores,
inUead of being reflefled j whence the body muff of
neceflity appear black, blacknefs in a body being no
more than a want of refleftion. Charcoal was an¬
ciently ufed to diftinguifh the bounds of eftates and in¬
heritances j as being incorruptible, when let very deep
within ground. In effedt, it preferves itfelf fo long,
that there are many pieces found entire in the ancient
tombs of the northern nations. M. Dodart fays,
there is charcoal made of corn, probably as old as
the days of Csefar : he adds, that it has kept fo well,
that the wheat may be ftill diltinguifhed from the
rye j which he looks on as proof of its incorruptibi¬
lity.
The operation of charring wood is performed in
the following manner : The wrood intended for this
purpofe is cut into proper lengths, and piled up in
heaps near the place where the charcoal is intended to
be made : when a fufficient quantity of wood is thus i
prepared, they begin conftrudling their flacks, for
which there are three methods. The firft is this: They
level a proper fpot ©f ground, of about 12 or 15 feet
in diameter, near the piles of wood j in the centre of
this area a large billet of wood, fplit acrofs at one end
and pointed at the other, is fixed with its pointed ex¬
tremity in the earth, and two pieces of w'ood inferted
through the clefts of the other end, forming four right
angles ; againft thefe crofs pieces four other billets of
wood are placed, one end on the ground, and the other
leaning againft the angles. This being finiflied, a
number of large and ftraight billets are laid on the
ground to form a floor, each being as it were the radius
of the circular area : on this floor a proper quantity of
brufh or fmall wrood is ftrewed, in order to fill up the
interflices, when the floor will be complete ■, and in
order to keep the billets in the fame order and pofition
in which they were firft arranged, pegs or flumps are
driven into the ground in the circumference of the cir¬
cle, about a foot diftant from one another: upon this
floor a ftage is built wdth billets fet upon one end, but
fomething inclining towards the central billet j and on
thu-tops of thefe another floor is laid in a horizontal di¬
rection, but of fhorter billets, as the whole is, when
finiflied, to form a cone.
The fecond method of building the flacks for ma¬
king charcoal is performed in this manner : A long
pole is ereCted in the centre of the area above deferi-
bed, and feveral fmall billets ranged round the pole on
their ends: the interftiees between thefc billets and
the pole is filled with dry brufliwood, then a floor is
laid on that ftage, in a reclining pofition, and on
that a fecond floor, &c. in,the fame manner as de-
feribed above ; but in the lower floor there is a billet
larger and longer than the reft, extending from tha
central
C H A
[ 397 ]
C H A
atcoal. central pole to {bine diitance beyond the circumference
'y—-' of the circle.
The third method is this : A chimney, or aperture
of a fquare form, is built with billets in the centre,
from the bottom to the top ; and round thefe, floors
and inclined ftages are erefted, in the fame manner as
in the flacks above defcribed, except that the bafe of
this, inflead of being circular like the others, is fquare}
and the whole flack, when completed, forms a pyra¬
mid.
The flack of either form being thus finifhed, is coat¬
ed over with turf, and the furface plaftered with a
mixture of earth and charcoal duft well tempered to¬
gether.
The next operation is the fetting the flack on fire.
In order to this, if it be formed according to the firft
conflru&ion, the central billet in the upper ftage is
drawn out, and fome pieces of very dry and combuf-
tible wood are placed in the void fpace, called, by
workmen, the chimney, and fire fet to thefe pieces.
If the flack be built according to the fecond conftruc-
tion, the central pole is drawn out, together with the
large horizontal billet above defcribed j and the void
fpace occupied by the latter being filled with pieces of
very dry combuflible wood, the fire is applied to it at
the bafe of the flack. With regard to the third con-
ftru&ion, the fquare aperture or chimney is filled with
ftnall pieces of very dry wood, and the fire applied to
it at the top or apex of the pyramidal flack. When
the flack is fet on fire, either at the top or bottom,
the greateft attention is neceffary in the workman ;
for in the proper management of the fire the chief
difficulty attending the art of making good charcoal
confifts. In order to this, care is taken, as foon as
the flame begins to iiTue fome height above the chim¬
ney, that the aperture he covered with a piece of turf,
but not fo clofe as to hinder the fmoke from pafling
out •, and whenever the fmoke appears to iflue very
thick from any part of the pile, the aperture mufl be
covered with a mixture of earth and charcoal duft.
At the fame time, as it is neceflary that every part of
the flack fhould be equally burnt, it will be requifite
for the workman to open vents in one part and fhut
them in another. In this manner the fire muft be
kept up till the charcoal be fufficiently burnt, which
will happen in about two days and a half if the wood
be dry ; but if green, the operation will not be finifh¬
ed in lefs than three days. When the charcoal is
thought to be fuffiiciently burnt, which is eafily known
from the appearance of the fmoke, and the flames no
longer iffuing with impetuofity through the vents •, all
the apertures are to be clofed up very carefully with a
mixture of earth and charcoal duft, which, by exclud¬
ing all accefs of the external air, prevents the coals
from being any further eonfumed, and the fire goes out
of itfelf. In this condition it is fuffered to remain, till
the whole is fuflieiently cooled ; when the cover is re¬
moved, and the charcoal is taken away. If the whole
procefs is fkxlfully managed, the coals will exaftly re¬
tain the figure of the pieces of wood : fome are laid to
have been fo dexterous as to char an arrow without al¬
tering even the figure of the feather.
There are confiderable differences in the csals of
different vegetables, in regard to their habitude to
fire ; the very light coals of linen, cotton, fome fungi,
Charcoal.
&c. readily catch fire from a fpark, and foon burn
out j the more denfe ones of vroods and roots are fetv'*"'
on fire more difficultly, and burn more flowly : the
coals of the black berry-bearing alder, of the hazel,
the willow, and the lime tree, are faid to anfwer beft
for the making of gunpowder and other pyrotechnicai
compofitions, perhaps from their being eafily inflam¬
mable : for the reduction of metallic calces thofe of
the heavier woods, as the oak and the beech, are pre¬
ferable, thefe feeming to contain a larger proportion of
the phlogiftic principle, and that, perhaps, in a more
fixed ftate j confidered as common fuel, thofe of the
heavy woods giv1; the greateft heat, and require the
moft plentiful fupply of air to keep them burning j
thofe of the light woods preferve a glowing heat, with¬
out much draught of air, till the coals themfelves are
confumed j the bark commonly crackles and flies about
in burning, which the coal of the wood itfelf very fel-
dom does.
Mathematical inftrument makers, engravers, &c,
find charcoal of great ufe to polifli their brafs and cop¬
per plates after they have been rubbed clean with
povflered pumice ftone. Plates of horn are poliftiable
in the fame way, and a glofs may be afterwards given
with tripoli.
The coals of different fubftances are alfo ufed as
pigments j hence the bone-black, ivory-black, &c. of
the (hops. Moft of the paints of this kind, befides
their incorruptibility, have the advantage of a full co¬
lour, and work freely in all the forms in which pow¬
dery pigments are applied j provided they have been
carefully prepared, by thoroughly burning the fubjeft
in a clofe veffel, and afterwards grinding the coal into
a powder of due finenefs. Pieces of charcoal are ufed
alfo in their entire ftate for tracing the outlines of
drawings, &c. j in wdiich intention they have an ex¬
cellence, that their mark is eafily wiped out. For
thefe purpofes, either the finer pieces of common char¬
coal are picked out and cut to a proper fliape j or the
pencils are formed of wood, and afterwards burnt into
charcoal in a proper veffel well covered. The a.lifts
commonly make choice of the fmaller branches of the
tree freed from the bark and pith ; and the willow and
vine are preferred to all others. T his choice is con¬
firmed by the experiments of Dr Lewis, who has found Philofoph.
that the wood of the trunks of trees produces charcoal C0°Jn^ce
of a harder nature than their fmall twigs or branches 5 ^ ^’'s'
and the hard woods, fuch as box and guaiacum, pro¬
duced coals very fenfibly harder than the fofter woods.
Willow he prefers to all others. The {hells and ftones
of fruits yielded coals fo hard that they would fcarce
mark on paper at all; while the coals of the kernels of
fruits were quite foft and mellow. The feveral coals
produced by the doctor’s experiments were levigated
into fine powder, mixed both with gum water and oil,
and applied as paints both thin and thick, and diluted
with different degrees of white. All of them, when
laid on thick, appeared of a ftrong full black, nor could
it be judged that one was of a finer colour than ano¬
ther •, diluted with white, or when fpread thin, they
had all fomewhat of a bluifli calf.
Horns, and the bones both of fifties and land ani¬
mals, gave coals rather gloffier and deeper coloured than
vegetables j and which, in general, were very hard, fo
as difficultly, or not at all, to ftain paper. Here alfo
the
C H A [ 398 ] C II A
Charge.
Charcoal the hardnefi) of the coal fcemed to depend on that of
the fubjeft from whence it was prepared j for filk,
woollen, leather, blood, and the Hefhy parts of ani¬
mals, yielded foft coals. Some of thefe differed from
others very fenlibly in colour 5 that of ivory is fuperior
to all the reft, and indifputably the fineft of all the
charcoal blacks. The animal coals had much lefs of
the bluifli caft in them than the vegetable, many of
them inclining rather to a brown. Charred pit coal,
on the other hand, feemed to have this bluenefs in a
greater degree. For the chemical properties of char¬
coal fee Chemistry Index.
CHARDIN, Sir John, a celebrated traveller, was
born at Paris in 1643. -^s fath»T, who was a jewel¬
ler, had him educated in the Proteftant religion 5 after
which he travelled into Perfia and India. He traded
in jewels, and died at London in 1713. The account
he wrote of his travels is much efteemed.
CHARENTON, the name of two towns of France,
the one upon the Marmaude in the Bourbonnois j the
other in the Me of France, near the confluence of the
Marne with the Seine.
CFIARES the Lydian, a celebrated ftatuary, Avas
the difciple of Lyfippus ^ and made the famous Colol-
fus of the fun in the city of Rhodes. Flouriftied 288
years before Chrift.
CHARGE, in Gunnery, the quantity of powder
and ball wherewith a gun is loaded for execution.
The rules for charging large pieces in war are, That
the piece be firft cleaned or fcoured within-ftde: that
the proper quantity of powder be next driven in and
rammed down •, care, however, being taken, that the
powder, in ramming, be n«t bruiled, becaufe that wea¬
kens its effeft : that a little quantity of paper, hay,
lint, or the like, be rammed over it: and that the ball
or {hot be intruded. If the ball be red hot, a tompion,
or trencher of green wood, is to be driven in before it.
The common allowance for a charge of powder of a
piece of ordnance, is half the weight of the ball. In
the Britifh navy, the allowance for 32 pounders is but
feven fixteenths of the weight of the bullet. But a
late author is of opinion, that if the powder in all (hip-
cannon whatever was reduced to one-third weight of
for increaf-faQ or even lefs? ft would be of confiderable ad-
wg the vantage, not only by faving ammunition, but by keep¬
ing the guns cooler aad quieter, and at the fame time
more effectually injuring the veffels of the enemy.
With the prefent allowance of powder the guns are
heated, and their tackle and furniture drained ; and
this only to render the bullets lefs efficacious : for a
bullet which can but juft pafs through a piece of tim¬
ber, and lofes almoft all its motion thereby, has a
much better chance of rending and frafturing it, than
if it paffes through with a much greater velocity.
Charge, in Heraldry, is applied to the figures re-
prefented on the efcutcheon, by which the bearers are
diftinguifhed from one another ; and it is to be obfer-
ved, that too many charges are not fo honourable as
fewer.
CHARGE of Lead, denotes a quantity of 36 pigs. See
Pig.
To CHARGE, in the military language, is to attack
the enemy either with horfe or foot.
Charge, in Law, denotes the inftruftions given
Robins's
Fropofal
Jtrevgth
of the
Navy.
to the grand jury, with refpeft to the articles of their Char;
inquiry, by the judge who prelides on the bench. H
Charge, in Law, alfo fignifics a thing done that, ^ar:
bindeth him who doth it j and Difcharge is the remo¬
val of that charge. Lands may be charged in various
ways 5 as, by grant of rent out of it, by ftatutes, judge¬
ments, conditions, warranties, &c.
CHARGE of Horning, in Scots J.aw. See FIorn-
ING.
CHARGE to enter Heir, in Scots Law, a writing paf-
fing under the lignet, obtained at the inltance of a cre¬
ditor, either againft the heir of his debtor, for fixing
upon him the debt as reprefenting the debtor, which
is called a general charge; or, againft the debtor him-
felf, or his heir, for the purpofe of veiling him in the
right of an heritable fubjeft to which he has made
up no title, in order the creditor may attach that fub¬
jeft for payment of his debt, in the fame manner as if
his debtor or his heir were legally veiled in it by fer-
vice or otherwife. This laft kind is called a fpccial
charge.
Charge, or rather Overcharge, in Painting, is an
exaggerated reprefentation of any perfon \ wherein the
likenefs is preierved, but at the lame time ridiculed.
Few painters have the genius neceffary to fucceed in
thefe charges : the method is, to i'eleft and heighten
fomething already amifs in the face, whether by way
of defeft, or redundancy : thus, v. g. if Nature hath
given a man a nofe a little larger than ordinary, the
painter falls in with her, and makes the nofe extrava¬
gantly long : or if the nofe be naturally too ihort, in
the painting it will be a mere ftump j and thus of the
other parts.
CHARGED, in Heraldry, a ftiield carrying fome
imprefs or figure, is faid to be charged therewith ; fo
alfo, when one bearing, or charge, has another figure
added upon it, it is properly faid to be charged.
Charged, in eleftrical experiments, is when a phial,
pane of glais, or other eleftric fubftance, properly coat¬
ed on both iides, has a quantity of eleftricity commu¬
nicated to it j in which cafe the one fide is always elec¬
trified pofitively, and the other negatively.
CHARIOT, a half coach, having only a feat be*
hind, with a ftool before. See Coach.
The chariots of the ancients, chiefly ufed in war,
were called by the feveral names of btgee, trigee, &.c«
according to the number of horfes applied to draw
them. Every chariot carried two men, who were pro¬
bably the warrior and the charioteer ; and we read of
feveral men of note and valour employed in driving
the chariot. When the warriors came to encounter
in clofe fight, they alighted out of the chariot, and
fought on foot j but when they were weary, which
often happened by reafon of their arrhour, they re¬
tired into their chariot, and thence annoyed their ene¬
mies with darts and miflile weapons. Thefe chariots
were made fo ftrong, that they lafted for feveral gene¬
rations.
Befides this fort, we find frequent mention of the
currus falcati, or thofe chariots armed with hooks or
feythes, with which whole ranks of foldiers were cut
off together, if they had not the art of avoiding the
danger •, thefe were not only ufed by the Periians, Sy¬
rians, Egyptians, &c. but we find them among the an¬
cient
\
G H A [ 399 ] C H A
•jariot. cient Britons and notwithftanding the imperfedl date
/ 0f fome of the moft neceffary arts among that nation
before the invalion of the Romans, it is certain that they
had war chariots in great abundance. By the Greek
and Roman hiftorians, thefe chariots are deferibed by
the fix following names : viz. Benna, Petoritum, Cur-
rus or Carrus, Covinus, BiTedum, and Rheda. The
benna feems to have been a chariot defigned rather for
travelling than war. It contained two perfons, who
were called combennones, from their fitting together in
the fame machine. The petoritum feems to have been
a larger kind of chariot than the benna ; and is thought
to have derived its name from the Britilh word pcd-
war, fignifying four; this kind of carriage having
four wheels. The carrus or currus was the common
cart or waggon. This kind of chariot was ufed by
the ancient Britons, in times of peace, for the purpo-
fes for agriculture and merchandife, and, in time of
war, for carrying their baggage, and v'ives and chil¬
dren, who commonly followed the armies of all the
Celtic nations. The covinus was a war chariot, and a
very terrible inftrument of deftruftion •, being armed
with (harp fcythes and hooks for cutting and tearing
all who were fo unhappy as to come within its reach.
This kind of chariot was made very flight, and had
few or no men in it befides the charioteer •, being de¬
figned to drive with great force and rapidity, and to
do execution chiefly with its hooks and fcythes. The
effedum and rheda were alfo war chariots, probably of
a large fize, and ftronger made than the covinus, de¬
figned for containing a charioteer for driving it, and
one or two warriors for fighting. The far greateft
number of the Britifh war chariots feem to have been
of this kind. Thefe chariots, as already obferved,
were to be found in great numbers among the Britons ;
infomuch, that Ciefar relates, that Caflibelanus, after
diftnifling all his other forces, retained no fewer than
4000 of thefe war chariots about his perfon. The
fame author relates, that, by continual experience,
they had at laft arrived at fuch perfeftion in the ma¬
nagement of their chariots, that “ in the moll fteep
and difficult places they could Hop their horfes upon
full ftretch, turn them which way they pleafed, run
along the pole, reft on their harnefs, and throw them-
felves back into their chariots, with incredible dexte¬
rity.”
Chariots, in the heathen mythology, were feme-
times confecrated to the fun •, and the Scripture ob-
ferves, that Jofiah burnt thofe which had been offered
to the fun by the kings his predeceffors. This fuperfii-
tious cuitom was an imitation of the heathens, and
principally of the Perfians, who had horfes and cha¬
riots confecrated in honour of the fun. Herodotus,
Xenophon, and Quintus Curtius, fpeak of white cha¬
riots crowned, which were confecrated to the fun,
among the Perfians, which in their ceremonies were
drawn by white horfes confecrated to the fame lumi¬
nary.
Triumphal CHARIOT, was one of the principal orna¬
ments of the Roman celebration of a victory.
The Roman triumphal chariot was generally made
of ivory, round like a tower, or rather of a cylindri¬
cal figure *, it was \ fometimes gilt at the top, and or¬
namented with crowns; and to reprefent a victory
raorc naturally, they ufed to ilain it with blood. It
was ufually drawn by four white horfes $ but often- Chariot
times by lions, elephants, tygers, bears, leopards, H
dogs, c£C. . -
CHARISIA, in the heathen theology, a wake, or
night feftival, inftituted in honour of the Graces. It
continued the whole night, moft of which time was
fpent in dancing} after which, cakes make of yellow
flour mixed with honey, and other fweatmeats, w'ere
dillributed among the ailiftants.—Chanfta is alfo fome¬
times uied to fignify the fweatmeats ufed on fuch occa-
fions.
CHARI SI US, in the heathen theology, a furname
given to Jupiter. The word is derived from
gratia, “ grace” or “favour;” he being the god by
whofe influence men obtain the favour and affedtion of
one another. On which account the Greeks ufed at
their meals to make a libation of a cup to Jupiter
Charifius.
CHARISTIA, a feftival of the ancient Romans,
celebrated in the month of February, wherein the rela¬
tions by blood and marriage met, in order to preferve
a good correfpondence ; and that if there happened to
be any difference among them, it might be the more
ealily accommodated by the good humour and mirth
of the entertainment. Ovid. Fajl. i. 617.
CHARISTICARY, commendatory, or donatory,
a perfon to whom is given the enjoyment of the reve¬
nues of a monaftery, hofpital, or benefice.
The Charifticaries among the Greeks, were a kind
of donatories, or commendatories, who enjoyed all the
revenues of holpitals and monafteries, without giving
an account thereof to any perfon.—The original of
this abufe is referred to the Iconoclaftfe, particularly
Conftantine Copronymus, the avowed enemy of the
monks, whofe monafteries he gave away to ftrangeri.
In after times, the emperors and patriarchs gave many
to people of quality, not by way of gift to reap any
temporal advantage from them, but to repair, beautify,
and patronize them. At length avarice crept in, and
thofe in good condition were given away, efpecially
fuch as were rich; and at laft they were all given
away, rich and proor, thofe of men and of women, and
that to laymen and to married men.
CHART! Y, among divines, one of the three grand
theological virtues, confifling in the love of God and
of our neighbour, or the habit and dflpofition of lov¬
ing God with all our heart, and our neighbour as our-
felves.
Charity is alfo ufed for the effeft of a moral vir¬
tue, which confifts in fupplying the neceflities of
others, whether with money, counfel, affiftance, or the
like.
As pecuniary relief is generally the moft efficacious,
and at the fame time that from which we are moft apt
to excufe ourfelves, this branch of the duty merits par¬
ticular illuftration ; and a better cannot be offered than
what is contained in the following extra&s (if we may
be permitted to make them) from the elegant Moral
Syjiem of Archdeacon Pa/eij.
Whether pity be an inftintl or a habit, it is in faft
a property of our nature, which God appointed; and
the final eaufe for which it was appointed, is to afford
to the miferable, in the compaffion of their fellow-
creatures, a remedy for thofe inequalities and diftreffes
which God forefaw that many muft be expofed to,
under
mxrhf.
C H A [40
under every general rule for the diiliibutlon of pro*
pcrty.
The Chriftian Scriptures are more copious and ex-'
plicit upon this duty than almoft any other. The de-
Icription which Chriil hath left us tif the proceedings
ef the laft day, eftablithes the obligation of bounty
beyond controverfy. “ When the Son of Man (hall
come in his glory, and all the holy angels with him,
then fhall he lit upon the throne of his glory, and be¬
fore him lhall be gathered all nations 5 and he fhall
feparate them one from another. Then fhall the King
fay unto them on his right hand, Come ye blefled of
my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for you from
the foundation of the world : For I was hungered,
and ye gave me meat j I was thirfly, and ye gave me
drink j I was a ftranger, and ye took me in ; naked,
and ye clothed me j I was lick, and ye vifited me; I
was in prifon, and ye came unto me. And inafmuch
as ye have done it to one of the leaf! of thefe my bre¬
thren, ye have done it unto me.” It is not neceflary
to underhand this paffage as a literal account of what
will actually pafs on that day. Suppofing it only a
fcenical defeription of the rules and principles by
which the Supreme Arbiter of our deftiny will regu¬
late his deciiions, it conveys the fame leffon to us : it
equally demonftrates of how great value and import¬
ance thefe duties in the fight of God are, and what
hrefs will he laid upon them. The apoftles alfo de-
feribe this virtue as propitiating the divine favour in
an eminent degree. And thele recommendations have
produced their effect. It does not appear that, before
the times of Chriftianity, an infirmary, hofpital, or
public charity of any kind, exifled in the world j
w'hereas molt countries in Chriftendom have long
abounded with thefe inflitutions. To which may be
added, that a fpirit of private liberality feems to
flourifh amidlt the decay of many other virtues : not to
mention the legal provifion for the poor, which ob¬
tains in this country, and which was unknown and
Unthought of by the moft polifhed nations of antiqui-
tY-
St Paul adds upon the fubjeft an excellent direc¬
tion and which is praflicable by all who have any
thing to give. “ Upon the firft day of the week (or
any other ftated time) let every one of you lay by in
ffore, as God hath profpered him.” By which the
apoftle may be underftood to recommend, what is the
very thing wanting with molt men, the being charitable
upon a plan; that is, from a deliberate comparifon of
our fortunes with the reafonable expences and expefta-
tions of our families, to compute what we can fpare,
and to lay by fo much for charitable purpofes, in fome
mode or other. The mode will be a confideration af¬
terwards.
The effeft which Chriftianity produced upon feme
ef its converts, was fuch as might be looked for from
a divine religion coming with full force and miracu¬
lous evidence upon the confciences of mankind. It
overwhelmed all worldly conftderations in the expec¬
tation of a more important exiftence. “ And the mul¬
titude of them that believed were of one heart and of
4>ne foul 5 neither faid any of them that aught of the
things which he poffeffed was his own *, but they had
all things in common.—Neither was there any among
them that lacked j for as many as were poffeilors of
o ] C H A
lands or houfes fold them, and brought the prices of Ckfi
the things that were fold, and laid them down at the ''““V
apoftles feet j and diftribution was made unto every
man according as he had need.” A£ls iv. 32.
Neverthelefs, this community of goods, however it '
manifefted the fincere zeal of the primitive Chriftians,
is no precedent for our imitation. It was confined to
the church at Jerufalem 5 continued not long there j
was never enjoined upon any (Adis v. 4.) j and, al¬
though it might fuit wi h the particular circumftances
of a fmall and feleft foeiety, is altogether impra&ica-
ble in a large and mixed community.
'The conduft of the apoftles upon the occafion de-
ferves to be noticed. Their followers laid down their
fortunes at their feet : but fo far were they from ta¬
king advantage of this unlimited confidence to enrich
themfelves or eftablifh their authority, that they foon
after got rid of this bufmefs as inconfiftent with the
main object of their mifiion, and transferred the cufto-
dy and management of the public fund to deacons
elefted to that office by the people at large (A£ts vi.).
There are three kinds of charity, our author ob-
ferves, which prefer a claim to attention.
1. The firft, and apparently one of the beft, is to
give ftated and confiderable fums, by way of penfton
or annuity to individuals or families, with whofe beha¬
viour and ditlrefs we ourfelves are acquainted. In
fpeaking of confiderable fums, it is meant only, that
five pounds, or any other fum, given at once, or di¬
vided amongft five or fewer families, will do more good
than the fame fum diftributed amongft a greater num¬
ber in (hillings or half crowns •, and that, becaufe it is
more likely to be properly applied by the perfons who
receive it. A poor fellow' who can find no better ufe
for a (hilling than to drink his benefa&or’s health, and
purchafe half an hour’s recreation for himfelf, would
hardly break into a guinea for any fuch purpofe, or be
fo improvident as not to lay it by for an occafion of
importance, for his rent, his clothing, fuel, or (lock of
winter’s provifion. It is a (fill greater recommenda¬
tion of this kind of charity, that penfions and annui¬
ties, which are paid regularly, and can be expeQed at
the time, are the only way by which we can prevent
one part of a poor man’s fufferings, the dread of
want.
2. But as this kind of charity fuppofes that proper
objefts of fuch expenlive benefactions fall within our
private knowledge and obfervation, which does not
happen to all, a fecond method of doing good, which
is in every one’s power who has the money to fpare,
is by fubfeription to public charities. Public charities
admit of this argument in their favour, that your mo¬
ney goes farther towards attaining the end for which
it is given, that it can do by any private and feparate
beneficence. A guinea, for example, contributed to
an infirmary, becomes the means of providing one*-pa-
tient, at leaft, with a phyfician, furgeon, apothecary,
with medicine, diet, lodging, and fuitable attendance j
which is not the tenth part of what the fame aftilUnce,
if it could be procured at all, would coft to a lick per-
fon or family in any other fituation.
3. The laft, and, compared with the former, the
lowed exertion of benevolence, is in the relief of beg¬
gars. Neverthelefs, the indiferiminate rejedion of all
who implore our alms, in this way, is by no means ap¬
proved.
c H A [ 401 ] C H A
j iarlty. proved. Some may perifh by fuch a conduct. Men
are fometimes overtaken by diltrefs, for which all
other relief would come too late. Belides which, re-
folutions of this kind compel us to offer fuch violence
to our humanity, as may go near, in a'iittle while, to
fuffocate the principle itfelf j which is a very ferious
conlideration. A good man, if he do not furrender
himfelf to his feelings without referve, will at lead; lend
an ear to importunities which come accompanied with
outward atteftations of diffrefs $ and after a patient
hearing of the complaint, will diredt himfelf by the
circumftances and credibility of the account that he
receives. ^
There are other fpecies of charity well contrived to
make the money expended go far; fuch as keeping
down the price of fuel or provilions in cafe of a mono¬
poly or temporary fcarcity, by purchafing the articles
at the beft market, and retailing them at prime coft,
«r at a fmall lofs j or the adding a bounty to a parti¬
cular fpecies of labour, when the price is accidentally
depreffed.
The proprietors of large eftates have it in their
power to facilitate the mainttmance, and thereby en¬
courage the eftablilhment of families (which is one of
the nobleft purpofes to which the rich and great can
convert their endeavours), by building cottages, fplit-
ting farms, eredling manufadlures, cultivating waftes,
embanking the fea, draining marlhes, and other expe¬
dients, which the lituation of each eftate points out.
If the profits of thefe undertakings do not repay the
expence, let t^e authors of them place the difference
to the account of charity. It is true of almoft all
fuch projects, that the public is a gainer by them,
whatever the owner be. And where the lofs can be
fpared, this confideration is fufficient.
It is become a quellion of fome importance, Under
what circumftances works of charity ought to be done
in private, and when they may be made public with¬
out detrading from the merit of the adion ? if indeed
they ever may, the Author of our religion having de¬
livered a rule upon this fubjed, which feems to enjoin
univerfal feerecy. “ When thou doe ft alms, let not
thy left hand know what thy right hand doth; that
thy alms may be in fecret: and thy Father which feeth
in fecret, himfelf fhall reward thee openly.” (Matt,
vi. 3, 4.). From the preamble to this prohibition it
is plain, that our Saviour’s foie defign was to forbid
cftentation, and all publilhing of good works which pro¬
ceeds from that motive. “ Take heed that ye do not
your alms before men, to be feen of them; otherwife ye
have no reward of your Father which is in heaven 5
therefore, when thou doeft thine alms, do not found a
trumpet before thee, as the hypocrites do, in the fy-
nagogues and in the ftreets, that they may have glory
of men. Verily I fay unto thee, they have their re¬
ward,” v. 2. There are motives for the doing our
alms in public beftdes thofe of oftentation $ with which
therefore our Saviour’s rule has no concern : fuch as
to teftify our approbation of fome particular fpecies of
charity, and to recommend it to others; to take off
the prejudice which the want, or, which is the fame
thing, the fuppreflion,’ of our name in the lift of con¬
tributors, might excite againft the charity or againft
ourielves. And fo long as thefe motives are free from
any mixture of vanity, they are in no danger of invad-
Vol. V. Part II. ’
ing our Saviour’s prohibition : they rather feem to com¬
ply with anothef dire<ftion which he has left us : “ Let
your light fo fliine before men, that they may fee your
good works, and glorify your Father which is in hea¬
ven.” If it be neceffary to propofe a precife diftinclion
upon the fubjeft, there can be none better than the fol¬
lowing : When eur bounty is beyond our fortune or
ftation, that is, when it is more than could be cxpefted
from us, our charity fliould be private, if privacy be
prafticable : when it is not more than might be expect¬
ed, it may be public : for we cannot hope to influence
others to the imitation of extraordinary geherofity, and
therefore want, in the former cafe, the only juftifiable
reafon for making it public.
The pretences by which men excufe themfelves from
giving to the poor are various 3 as,
1. “ That they have nothing to fpare 3” i. e. no¬
thing, for which they have not fome other ufe 5 no¬
thing, which their plan of expence, together with the
favings they have refolved to lay by, will not exhauft 3
never reflecting whether it be in their power, or that
it is their duty, to retrench their expences, and con¬
tract their plan, “ that they may have to give to them
that need 3” or rather that this ought to have been
part of their plan originally.
2. “ That they have families of their own, and that
charity begins at home.” A father is no doubt bound
to adjuft his economy w ith a view to the reafonable de¬
mands of his family upon his fortune 3 and until a fuf-
ficiency for thefe is acquired, or in due time probably
will be acquired (for in human affairs probability is-
enough, he is juftified in declining expenjive liberality 3
for to take from thofe who want, in order to give to
thofe who want, adds nothing to the flock of public
happinefs. Thus far, therefore, and no farther, the
plea in queftion is'an excufe for parfimony, and an an-
fwer to thofe who folicit our bounty.
3. “ That charity does not conlift in giving money,
but in benevolence, philanthropy, love to all mankind,
goodnefs of heart,” &c. Hear St James. 11 If a bro¬
ther or filter be naked, and deftitute of daily food, and
one of you fay unto them, Depart in peace, be ye
warmed and filled, notvvithftanding ye give them not
thofe things vehich are needful for the body, what doth
it profit ?” (James ii. 15, 16.).
4. “ That giving to the poor is not mentioned in
St Paul’s defcription of charity, in tb»e 13th chapter
of the firft epiftle to the Corinthians.” This is not a
defeription of charity, but of good nature 3 and it is
not neceflary that every duty be mentioned in every
place.
5. “ That they pay the poor rates.” They might
as well allege that they pay their debts 5 for the poor
have the fame right to that portion of a man’s property
which the laws aflign them, that the man himfelf has
to the remainder.
6. “ That they employ many poor perfons—for
their own fake, not the poor’s—otherwife it is a good
plea.
7. “ That the poor do not fuffer fo much as we
imagine 3 that education and habit have reconciled
them to the evils of their condition, and make them
eafy under it.” Habit can never reconcile human na¬
ture to the extremities of cold, hunger, and thirft,
any more than it can reconcile the hand to the touch
3 E *ff
Cliai /fy-
Charity.
C H A r 402 ] G H A
of a red-hot iron : befides, the queition 13 not/how un¬
happy any one is, but how much more happy we can
make him.
8. “ That thefe people, give them what you will,
will never thank you, or think of you for it.” In the
firft place, this is not true : in the fecond place, it
was not for the fake of their thanks that you relieved
them.
9. “ That we are fo liable to be impofed upon.” If
a due inquiry be made, our motive and merit is the
feme •, befides that the diftrefs is generally real, what¬
ever has been the caufe of it.
10. “ That they Ihould apply to their parilhes.”
That is not always practicable : to which we may add,
that there are many requifites to a comfortable fub-
liftence, which parifh-relief does not always fupply;
and that there are feme who would fuffer almoft as
much from receiving parifh-relief as by the want of it j
and laftly, that there are many modes of charity, to
which this anfwer does not relate at all.
11. “ That giving money encourages idlenefs and
vagrancy.” This is true only of injudicious and indif-
criminate generofity.
1 2. “ That we have too many obje&s of charity at
home to bellow any thing upon ftrangers j or that
there are other charities which are more ufeful, or Hand
in greater need.” The value of this excufe depends
entirely upon the fa&, whether we aftually relieve thofe
neighbouring objects, and contribute to thofe other
charities..
Befides all thefe excufes, pride, or prudery, or
delicacy, or the love of eafe, keep one half of the world
out of the way of obferving what th« -other half
fuffer.
CHAR ITT Schools, are fchools erefted and maintain¬
ed in various parilhes by the voluntary contributions of
the inhabitants, for teaching poor children to read,
write, and other neceffary parts of education. See
School.
Brothers of ChARITT, a fort of religious hofpitallers,
founded about the year 1297, lince denominated Bil¬
let ins. They took the third order of St Francis, and
the fcapulary, making the three ufual vows, but with¬
out begging.
Brothers of CHARITT, alfo denotes an order of hofpi¬
tallers, Hill fublifting in Romilh countries, whofe buli-
nefs is to attend the fick poor, and minifter to them
both fpiritual and temporal fuccour.
They are all laymen, except a few prielts, for ad-
minillering the facraments to the lick in their hofpi-
tals. The brothers of charity ufually cultivate bota¬
ny, pharmacy, forgery, and chemiilry, which they
pra£life with fuccefs.
They were firlt founded at Granada, by St John de
Dieu ; and a fecond eRabliihment was made at Madrid
in the year 1553 } the order was confirmed by Grego¬
ry XIII. in 1572: Gregory XIV. forbade them to take
holy orders j but by leave of Paul V. in 1609, a few
®f the brothers might be admitted to orders. In 1619
they were exempted from the jurifdiflion of the bilhop.
Thofe of Spain are feparated from the reft 5 and they,
as well as the brothers of France, Germany, Poland,
and Italy, have their diftinfl generals, who refide at
Rome. They were ffrft introduced into France by Mary
of Medicis in 1601, and have lince built a fine hofpi- eiian
tal in the fauxbourg of St Germain. ||
CHARITT of Hippolitus, a religious congregation
founded about the end of the 16th century, by one Ber- '"""‘V’
nardin Alvarez,, a Mexican, in honour of St Hippolitus
the martyr, patron of the city of Mexico j and ap¬
proved by Pope Gegory XIII.
CHARITY of our Lady, in church hiftory, a religious
order in France, which, though charity was the princi¬
pal motive of their union, grew in length of time fa
diforderly and irregular, that their order dwindled, and
at laft became extinct.
There is ftill at Paris, a religious order of women,
called nuns liojpitallers of the charity of our lady. The
religious of this hofpital are by vow obliged to admini.
Her to the neceflities of the poor and lick, but thofe
only women.
CHARLATAN, or Charletan, fignifies an em¬
piric or quack, who retails his medicines on a public
llage, and draws people about him with his buffoone¬
ries, feats of aftivity, &c. The word, according to
Calepine, comes from the Italian, ceretano; of Cceretutn%
a town near Spoletto in Italy, where thefe impoftors
are faid to have firft rifen. Menage derives it from
ciarlatano, and that from circulatorius or circulator, a
quack.
CHARLEMAGNE, or Charles I. king of France
by fucceflion, and emperor of the weft by conqueft in
800 (which laid the foundation of the dynafty of the
weftern Franks, who ruled the empire 472 years till
the time of Rodolphus Aufpurgenfis, the founder of
the houfe of Auftria). Charlemagne was as illuftrious
in the cabinet as in the field j and, though he could
not write his name, was the patron of men of letters,
the reftorer of learning, and a wife legiflator $ he want¬
ed only the virtue of humanity to render him the moft
accomplilhed of men j but when we read of his behead¬
ing 4500 Saxons, folely for their loyalty to their prince,
in oppoling his conquefts, we cannot think he merits
the extravagant encomiums bellowed on him by feme
hiftorians. He died in 814, in the 74th year of his
age, and 47th of his reign.
France had nine fovereigns of this name, of whom
Charles V. merited the title of the ’wife (crowned in
1364, died in 1380): and Charles VIII. fignalized
himfelf in the field by rapid vidlories in Italy ; (crown¬
ed in 1483, died in 1498). The reft do not deferve
particular mention in this place. See (Hi/lory of)
France.
CHARLEMONT, a town of the province of
Namur in the Aullrian Netherlands, about eighteen
miles fouth of Namur. E. Long. 4. 40. N. Lat,
50. 10.
Charlemont is alfo the name of a town of Ire¬
land, fituated on the river Blackwater, in the county
of Armagh, and province of Ulfter, about fix miles
fouth-eaft of Dungannon. W. Long. 6. 50. N. Lat.
i0, 1^‘
CHARLEROY, a ftrong town in the province of
Namur in the Auftrian Netherlands, fituated on the ri¬
ver Sambre, about 19 miles weft of Namur. E. Long.
46. 20. N. Lat. 50. 30.
CHARLES Martel, a renowned conqueror in
the early annals of France. He depofed and reftored
Childerie
c H A [ 403 ] C H A
-juries. Oiilderic king of France 5 and had the entire govern-
—v—-1 mcnt of the kingdom, firft with the title of mayor of
the palace, and afterwards as duke of France ; but he
would not accept the crown. He died regretted, in
741-
CHARLES lc Gros, emperor of the weft in 881, king
of Italy and Suabia, memorable for his reverie of fortune j
being dethroned at a diet held near Mentz, by the
French, the Italians, and the Germans, in 887 ; after
which he was obliged to fubfift on the bounty of the
archbifhop of Mentz. He died in 888.
Charles V. (emperor and king of Spain) was fon
of Philip I. archduke of Auftria, and of Jane queen of
Caftile. He was born at Ghent, February 24. 1500.
and fucceeded to the crown of Spain in 1517. Two
years afterwards he was chofen emperor at Francfort
after the death of Maximilian his grandfather. He
was a great warrior and politician : and his ambition
was not fatisfied with the many kingdoms and pro¬
vinces he pofleffed ; for he is fuppofed, with reafon, to
have afpired at univerfal empire. He is faid to have
fought 60 battles, in moll of which he was vi&orious.
He took the king of France (Francis I.) prifoner, and
fold him his liberty on very hard terms j yet after¬
wards, when the people of Ghent revolted, he alked
leave to pafs through his dominions : and though the
generous king thus had him in his power, and had an
Opportunity of revenging his ill treatment, yet he re¬
ceived and attended him with all pomp and mag¬
nificence. He facked Rome, and took the pope pri¬
foner ; and the cruelties which his army exercifed
there are faid to have exceeded thofe of the northern
barbarians. Yet the pious emperor went into mourn¬
ing on account of this conqueft : forbade the ringing of
bells •, commanded proceffions to be made, and prayers
to be offered up for the deliverance of the pope his
prifoner*, yet did not inilift the leaft punilhment on-
thofe who treated the holy father and the holy fee
with fuch inhumanity. He is accufed by fome Romilh
writers of favouring the Lutheran principles, which he
might eafily have extirpated. But the truth is, he found
his account in the divifions which that feft occafioned j
and he forever made his advantage of them, fometimes
againft the pope, fometimes againft France, and at
other times againft the empire itfelf. He was a great
traveller, and made 50 different journeys into Germany,
Spain, Italy, Flanders, France, England, and Africa.
Though he had been fuccefsful in many unjuft enter-
prifes, yet his laft attempt on Metz, which he befteged
with an army of 100,000 men, was very juft, and very
unfuccefsful.
Vexed at the reverfe of fortune which feemed to
attend his latter days, and oppreffed by ficknefs, which
unfitted Kim any longer for holding the reins of go¬
vernment with fteadinefs, or to guide them with ad-
drefs, he refigned his dominions to his brother
Ferdinand and his fon Philip ; and -retreated to the
monaftery of St Juftus near Placentia in Eftrema-
dbra.
When Charles entered this retreat, he formed fuch
a plan of life for himfelf as would have fuited a pri¬
vate gentleman of moderate fortune. His table was
neat, but plain j his domeftics few ; his intercourfe
with them familiar *, all the cumberfome and ceremo¬
nious forms of attendance on his peribn were entirely
abolifticd, as deftruclive of that focial eafe and Iran- chirk*.''
quillity which he courted in order to footlie the remain-
der of his days. As the mildnefs of the climate, toge¬
ther with his deliverance from the burdens and cares
of government, procured him at firft a coniklerable
remiflion from the acute pains of the gout, with which
he had been long tormented, he enjoyed perhaps more
complete fatisfabtion in this humble folitude than all
his grandeur had ever yielded him. The ambitious
thoughts and projedls which had fo long engroffed and
dilquieted him were quite effaced from his mind. Far
from taking any part in the political tranfablions of
the princes of Europe, he reftrained his curiolity even
from an inquiry concerning them 5 and he feemed to
view the bufy feene which he had abandoned with
all the contempt and indifference ariling from his
thorough experience of its vanity, as well as from the
pleafing reflection of having difentangled himfelf from
its cares.
Other amufements, and other fubjebls, now occupied
him. Sometimes he cultivated the plants in his gar¬
den with his own hand ; fometimes he rode out to
the neighbouring wood on a little horfe, the only one
that he kept, attended by a fmgle fervant on foot.
When his infirmities confined him to his apartment,
which often happened, and deprived him of thefe more
ablive recreations, he either admitted a few gentlemen
who refided near the monaftery to vifit him, and en¬
tertained them familiarly at his table j or he employed
himfelf in ftudying mechanical principles, and in form¬
ing curious works of mechanifm, of which he had al¬
ways been remarkably fond, and to which his genius
■was peculiarly turned. With this view he had enga¬
ged Turriano, one of the moft ingenious artifts of that
age, to accompany him in his retreat. He laboured
together with him in framing models of the moft ufe-
ful machines, as well as in making experiments with
regard to their refpebtive powers 5 and it was not fel-
dom that the ideas of the monarch aflxfted or perfebled
the inventions of the artift. He relieved his mind at
intervals with flighter and more fantaftic works of me¬
chanifm, in fafhioning puppets, which, by theftrublure
of internal fprings, mimicked the gelturcs and actions
of men, to the no fmall aftonilhment of the ignorant
monks, who, beholding movements which( they could
not comprehend, fometimes diftrufted their own lenfes,
and fometimes fufpebted Charles and Turriano of be¬
ing in compabt with invilible powers. He was parti¬
cularly curious with regard to the conftrubtion of clocks
and watches *, and having found, after repeated trials,
that he could not bring any two of them to go exabtly
alike, he reflebted, it is faid, with a mixture of fur-
prife as well as regret, on his own folly, in having be¬
llowed fo much time and labour in the more vain attempt
of bringing mankind to a precife uniformity of fenti-
ment concerning the intricate and myfterious doblrinea
of religion.
But in what manner fbever Charles difpofed of the
reft of his time, he conftantly referved a confiderable
portion of it for religious exereifes. He regularly at¬
tended divine fervice in the chapel of the monaftery,
every morning and evening j he took great pleafure
in reading books of devotion, particularly the works
of St Auguftine and St Bernard ; and converfed much
with his eonfeffor, and the prior of the napnaltery,
3 E 2 ort
Charles.
C H A [ 404 ] c H A
en pious fubjt&s. Thus did Charles pafs the firft year
of his retreat in a manner not unbecoming a man per¬
fectly difengaged from the affairs of this prefent life,
and Handing on the confines of a future world, either
in innocent amufements which foothed his pains, and
relieved a mind worn out with excefhve application to
bufinefs 3 or in devout occupations, which he deemed
necefl'ary in preparing for another Hate.
But, about fix months before his death, the gout,
after a longer intermiffion than ufual, returned with
a proportional increafeof violence. His fhattered con-
ftitution had not ftrength enough remaining to with-
fland fuch a {hock. It enfeebled his mind as much as
his body 3 and from this period we hardly discern any
traces of that found and mafeuline underftanding which
diflinguifhed Charles among his cotemporaries. An
illiberal and timid luperffition depreffed his fpirit. He
had no relifh for amufements of any kind. He endea¬
voured to conform, in his manner of living, to all the
rigour of monaftic auflerity. He delired no other
fociety than that of monks, and was almoft continu¬
ally employed in chanting with them the hymns of the
mitfal. As an expiation for his fins, he gave himfelf
the difeipline in fecret, with fuch feverity, that the
whip of cords which he employed as the initrument of
his punifhment, was found, after his deceafe, tinged
with his blood. Nor was he fatisfied with thefe adls
of mortification, which, however fevere, were not
unexampled. The timorous and diflruflful folicitude
which always accompanies fuperftition, Hill continu¬
ed to difquiet him, and depreciating all that he had
done, prompted him to aim at fomething extraordina¬
ry, at fome new and fingular aft of piety, that would
difplay his zeal, and merit the favour of heaven.
The aft on which he fixed was as wild and uncom¬
mon as any that fuperftition ever fuggefted to a dif-
ordered fancy. He refolved to celebrate his own ob-
fequies before his death. He ordered his tomb to be
erefted in the chapel of the monaftery. His domef-
tics marched thither in funeral proceffion, with black
tapers in their hands. He himfelf followed in his
fhroud. He was laid in his coffin with much folem-
nity. The fervice for the dead was chaunted 3 and
Charles joined in the prayers which were offered up
for the reft of his foul, mingling his tears with thole
which his attendants ffied, as if they had been cele¬
brating a real funeral. The ceremony clofed with
fprinkling holy water on the coffin in the ufual form,
and, all the affiftants retiring, the doors of the chapel
were fhut. Then Charles rofe out of the coffin, and
withdrew to his apartment, full of thofe awful fenti-
ments which fuch a fingular folemnity was calculated
to infpire. But either the fatiguing length of the ce¬
remony, or the impreffion which this image of death
left on his mind, affefted him fo much, that next day
he was feized with a fever. His feeble frame could
not long refift its violence 3 and he expired on the
2ift of September, after a life of 58 years 6 months
and 21 days.
Chari.es I. ”) Kings of Britain. See Britain,
Charles II. j N° 49 254.
Charles Xli. king of Sweden, was born in 1682.
.By -his father’s will, the adminiftration was lodged in
the hands of the queen dowager Eleonora, with five
ienators, till the young prince was 18; but he was
declared major at 15? by the ftates convened at Stock- Chari;
holm. The beginning of his adminiftration raifed nov"““Y'
favourable ideas of him, as he was thought both by
Swedes and foreigners to be a perfon of mean capaci¬
ty. But the difficulties that gathered round him, loon
afforded him an opportunity to difplay his real charac¬
ter. Three powerful princes, Frederick king of Den¬
mark, Auguftus king of Poland and elector of Saxony,
and Peter the Great czar of Mufcovy, prefuming on
his youth, confpired his ruin [ftmoft at the fame in-
ftant. Their meafures alarming the council, they
w^ere for diverting the ftorm by negotiations 3 but
Charles, with a grave refolution that aftoniffied them,
faid, “ I am relolved never to enter upon an unjuft
war, nor to put an end to a juft one but by the
deftruftion of my enemies. My refolution is fix¬
ed : I will attack the firft who Ihall declare againft
me 3 and when I have conquered him, I may hope
to ftrike a terror into the reft.” The old counlel-
lors received his orders with admiration 3 and were
ftill more furprifed when they faw him on a fudden
renounce all the enjoyments of a court, reduce his
table to the utmoft frugality, drefs like a common fol-
dier, and, full of the ideas of Alexander and Csefer,
propofe thefe two conquerors for his models in every
thing but their vices. The king of Denmark began
by ravaging the territories of the duke of Holftein.
Upon this Charles carried the war into the heart of
Denmark, and made fuch a progrefs that the king of
Denmark thought it beft to accept of peace, which
was concluded in 1700. He next refolved to ad¬
vance againft the king of Poland, who had blocked up
Riga. He had no fooner given orders for his troops
to go into winter quarters, than he received advice
that Narva, where Count Horne was governor, was
befieged by an army of 100,000 Mufcovites. This
made him -alter his meafures, and move towards the
czar 3 and at Narva he gained a furprifing viftory,
which coft him not above 2000 men killed and wound¬
ed. The Mufcovites were forced to retire from the
provinces they had invaded. He purfued his con-
quefts, till he penetrated as far as where the diet of
Poland was fitting 3 when he made them declare the
throne of Poland vacant, and eleft Staniflaus their
king : then making himfelf matter of Saxony, he ob¬
liged Auguftus himfelf to renounce the crown of Po¬
land, and acknowledge Staniflaus by a letter of con¬
gratulation on his acceffion. All Europe was furprif¬
ed with the expeditious finiffiing of this great negotia¬
tion, but more at the diflntereftednefs of the king of
Sweden, who fatisfied himfelf with the bare reputa¬
tion of this viftory, without demanding an inch of
ground for enlarging his dominions. After thus re¬
ducing the king of Denmark to peace, placing a new
king on the throne of Poland, having humbled the
emperor of Germany, and protefted the Lutheran re¬
ligion, Charles prepared to penetrate into Mufcovy,
in order to dethrone the czar. He quickly obliged
the Mufcovites to abandon Poland, purfued them into
their own country, and wTon feveral battles over them.
The czar, difpofed to peace, ventured to make fome
propofals 3 Charles only anfwered, “ I will treat with
the czar at Mofcow.” When this haughty anfwer
was brought to Peter, he faid, “ My brother Charles
* ftill affefts to aft the Alexander, but I flatter my-
1
Charles.
C H A [
felf he will not in me find a Darius.”
'juftified him : for the Mufcovites, already beaten into
difeipline, and under a prince of fuch talents as Peter,
entirely deftroyed the Swedilh army at the memorable
battle of Pultowa, July 8. 1709; on which decifive
day, Charles loft the fruits of nine years labour, and
of almoft 100 battles! The king, with a fmall troop,
purfued by the Mufcovites, paffed the Borifthenes
to Oczakow in the Turkiih territories : and from
thence, through defert countries, arrived at Ben¬
der ; where the fultan, when informed of his arrival,
fent orders for accommodating him in the beft man¬
ner, and appointed him a guard. Near Bender Charles
built a houfe, and intrenched himfelf} and had with
him 1800 men, who were all clothed and fed, with
their horfes, at the expence of the grand fignior.
Here he formed a defign of turning the Ottoman
arms upon his enemies} and is faid to have had a pro-
xnife from the vizir of being fent into Mufeovy with
200,000 men. While he remained here, he infenfibly
acquired a tafte for books ; he read the tragedies of
Corneille and Racine, with the works of Defpreaux,
whofe fatires he reliftred, but did not much admire his
other works. WJien he read that paffage in which
the author reprefents Alexander as a fool and a mad¬
man, he tore out the leaf. He would fometimes play
at chefs : but when he recovered of his wounds, he. re¬
newed his fatigues in exercifing his men: he tired
three horfes a-day •, and thofe who courted his favour
were all day in their boots. To difpofe the Ottoman
Porte to this war, he detached about 800 Poles and
Coffacks of his retinue, with orders to pafs the
Niefter, that runs by Bender, and to obferve what
paffed on the frontiers of Poland. I he Mufcovite
troops, difperfed in thofe quarters, fell immediately
upon this little company, and purfued them even to
the territories of the grand fignior. This was what
the king expected. His minifters at the Porte ex¬
cited the Turks to vengeance; but the czar’s money
removed all difficulties, and Charles found himfelf in
a manner prifoner among the Tartars. He imagined
the fultan was ignorant of the intrigues of his grand
vizir. Poniatowlky undertook to make his complaints
to the grand fignior. The fultan, in anfwer, fome
days after, fent Charles five Arabian horfes, one of
which was covered with a faddle and houfing of great
richnefs ; with an obliging letter, Jiut conceived in fuch
general terms, as gave reafon to fufpeft that the mi-
nifter had done nothing without the fultan’s confent :
Charles therefore refufed them. Poniatowlky had. the
courage to form a defign of depofing the grand vizir,
who accordingly was deprived of his dignity and
wealth, and banilhed. The feal of the empire was
given to Numan Cuproughly ; who perfuaded his ma¬
iler, that the law forbade him to invade the czar, who
had done him no injury ; but to fuccour the king of
Sweden as an unfortunate prince in his dominions.
He fent his majefty 800 purfes, every one of which
amounted to 500 crowns, and advifed him to return
peaceably to his own dominions. Charles rejedled
this advice, threatening to hang up the bafhaws, and
lhave the beards of any janizaries who brought him
fuch meffages, and fent word that he ftiould depend
upon the grand fignior’s promife, and hoped to re¬
enter Poland as a conqueror with an army of lurks.
405 3 C H A
The event After various intrigues at the Porte, an order was ^
fent to attack this head of iron, as he was called, and '
to take him either alive or dead. He flood a liege in
his houfe, with 40 domeftics, againft the lurkilh
army ; killed no lefs than 20 janizaries with his own
hand ; and performed prodigies of valour on a very un-
neceffary and unwarrantable occafion. But the houfe
being fet on fire, and himlelf wounded, he was at
laft taken prifoner, and fent to Adrianople, .wffiere
the grand fignior gave him audience, and promifed to
make good all the damages he had luftained. At
laft, after a ftay of above five years, he left Turkey ;
and, having difguifed himfelf, traverfed 'Wallachiar
Tranfylvania, Hungary, and Germany, attended only
by one perfon : and in fixteen days riding, during which
time he never went to bed, came to Strallund at mid¬
night, November 21. I714- His boots were cut from
his fwollen legs, and he was'put to bed ; where, when
he had llept fome hours, the firft thing he did was to
review his troops, and examine the Hate of the fortifi¬
cations. He fent out orders that very day to re¬
new the war with more vigour than ever. But af¬
fairs were now much changed : Auguftus had recover¬
ed the throne of Poland ; Swyeden had loft many of its
provinces, and was without money, trade, credit, or
troops. The kings of Denmark and Pruffia feized the
illand of Rugen ; and belieged him in Straliund,
which furrendered ; but Charles efcaped to Carlfcroon.
When his country was threatened with invafion by
fo many princes, he, to the furprife of all Europe,
marched into Norway with 20,000 men. A very
few Danes might have Hopped the Swedilh army ; but
fuch a quick invafion they could not forefee. Europe
was yet more at a lofs to find the czar fo quiet, and
not making a defeent upon Sweden, as he had before
agreed with his allies. 1 his inaftion was the conle-
quence of one of the greateft defigns, and at the fame
time the moll difficult of any, that were ever formed
by the imagination of man. In Ihort, a fcheme was
fet on foot for a reconciliation with the czar ; for .re¬
placing Staniflaus on the throne of Poland; andfetting
James II.’s fon upon that of England, befides re-
ftoring the duke of Holftein to his dominions. Charles
was pleafed with thefe grand ideas, though
building much upon them, and gave. his
leave to aft at large. In the mean time,
was going to make a fecond attempt upon Norway in
1718; and he flattered himfelf with being matter of
that kingdom in fix months ; but while he was exa¬
mining the works at Frederickfhall, a place of great
ftrength and importance, wffiich is reckoned to be the
key of that kingdom, he was killed by a {hot from the
enemy, as has been generally believed, though it has
been alfo reported that he fell by the treachery of one
of his own officers, who had been bribed foj: that pur-
^ This prince experienced the extremes of profperity
and of adverfity, without being foftened by the one
or difturbed for a moment at the other ; but was a man
rather extraordinary than great, and fitter to be ad¬
mired than imitated. He was honoured, by the Turks
for his rigid abftinence from wine, and his regularity in
attending public devotion.
As to his perfon, he was tall and or a noble mien,
had a fine open forehead, large blue eyes, flaxen hair,
fair
Charles.
without
minifter
Charles
Charles
Charles’s
Fort.
C H A t 1 C H A
fair complexion, a handfome nofe, but little beard,
and a laugh not agreeable. His manners -w ere hartli
and auftere, not to lay favage : and as to religion, he
was indifferent towards all, though exteriorly a Lu¬
theran, and a ftrong believer in predeflination. A few
anecdotes will illurtrate his charafter. No dangers,
however great, made the lead: impreflion upon him.
When, a horfe or two were killed under him at the
battle of Narva, in 1700, he leaped nimbly upon frefli
ones, faying, “ Thefe people find me exercife.” One
day, when he was dictating letters to a fecretary, a
bomb fell through the roof into the next room of the
houfe where they were fitting. The fecretary, terri¬
fied left the houfe fhould come down upon them, let
his pen drop out of his hand : “ What is the matter ?”
fays the king calmly. The fecretary could only reply,
“ Ah, Sir, the bomb.” “ The bomb (fays the king) !
what has the bomb to do with what I am dictating to
you ! Go on.”
He preferved more humanity than is ufually found
among conquerors. Once, in the middle of an add km,
finding a young Swedifh officer wounded and unable
to march, he obliged the officer to take his horfe, and
continued to command his infantry on foot. The
princefs Lubomirfki, who was very much in the intereft
and good graces of Auguftus, falling by accident into
the hands of one of his officers, he ordered her to be
fet at liberty : faying, “ That he did not make wrar with
women.” One day, near Leipfic, a peafant threw
himfelf at his feet, with a complaint againft a grenadier,
that he had robbed him of certain eatables provided
for himfelf and his family. “ Is it true (faid Charles
fternly), that you have robbed this man ?” The fol-
dier replied, “ Sir, I have not done near fo much
harm to this man as your majefty has done to his
mafter j for you have taken from Auguftus a kingdom,
whereas I have only taken from this poor fcoundrel a
dinner.” Charles made the peafant amends, and par¬
doned the foldier for his firmnefs : “ However, my
friend (fays he to him), you will do well to recollect
that if I took a kingdom from Auguftus, I did not take
it for myfelf.”
Though Charles lived hardly himfelf, a foldier did
not fear to remonftrate to him againft fome bread,
which was very black and mouldy, and which yet wras
the only provifion the troops had. Charles called for
a piece of it, and calmly ate it up j faying, “ that it
was indeed not good, but that it might be eaten.”
From the danger he was in in Poland, when he beat the
Saxon troops in 1702, a comedy was exhibited at Ma-
tienburg, where the combat was reprefented to the dif-
advantage of the Swedes. “ Oh, (fays Charles, hear¬
ing of it), I am far from envying them this pleafure.
Let them beat me in the theatres as long as they will,
provided I do but beat them in the field.” He wrote
i'ome obfervations on war, and on his own campaigns
from 1700 to 1709 : but the MS. was loft at the un¬
fortunate battle of Pultowa.
CHARLES’S cape, a promontory of Virginia, in
North America, forming the northern headland of the
ftrait that enters the bay of Chefapeak.
CHARLES'S Fort, a fortrcfs in the county of Cork,
and province of Munfter in Ireland, fituated at the
mouth of Kinfale harbour. W. Long. 8. 20. N. Lat.
51. 21.
CHARLESTON, the metropolis of South Carolina, Charleft;
is the moft conliderable town in the ftate ; fituated in V*“
the diftrid of the fame name, and on the tongue of
land formed by the confluent ftreams of Aftiley and
Cooper, which are ftiort rivers, but large and navi¬
gable. Thefe waters unite immediately below the city,
and form a fpacious and convenient harbour 5 which
communicates wfith the ocean juft below Sullivan’s
illand, which it leaves on the north, feven miles fouth-
eaft of Charlefton. In thefe rivers the tide rifes, in
common, about 6i feet } but uniformly rifes 10 or 12
inches more during a night tide. The fad is certain ;
the caufe unknown. The continual agitation which
the tides occafion in the waters which almoft furround
Charlefton, the refreffiing fea-breezes which are regu¬
larly felt, and the fmoke arifing from fo many chim¬
neys, render this city more healthy than any part of
the low country in the fouthern ftates. On this ac¬
count it is the refort of great numbers of gentlemen,
invalids from the Weft India ifiands, and of the rich
planters from the country, who come here to fpend
the fickly months, as they are called, in queft of health
and of the focial enjoyments which the city affords*
And in no part of America are the focial bleffings en¬
joyed more rationally and liberally than here. Un-
affeded hofpitality, affability, eafe of manners and ad-
drefs, and a difpolition to make their guefts welcome,
eafy, and pleafed with themfelves, are charaderiftics
of the refpedable people of Charlefton. In fpeaking
of the capital, it ought to be obferved, for the honour
of the people of Carolina in general, that when in com¬
mon with the ether colonies, in the conteft with Bri¬
tain, they refolved againft the ufe of certain luxuries,
and even neceffaries of life j thofe articles, which im¬
prove the mind, enlarge the underftanding, and cor-
red the tafte, were excepted; the importation of book*
was permitted as formerly.
The land on which the town is built is flat and
low, and the water brackiffi and unwholefome. The
ftreets are pretty regularly cut, and open beautiful
profpeds, and have fubterranean drains to carry off
filth and keep the city clean and healthy j but are tob
narrow for fo large a place and fo warm a climate.
Their general breadth is from 35 to 66 feet. The
houfes which have been lately built, are brick, with
tiled roofs. The buildings in general are elegant, and
moft of them are neat, airy, and well fumiftied. The
public buildings are, an exchange, a ftate-houfe, an
armoury, a poor-houfe, and an orphan’s houfe. Here
are feveral refpedable academies. Part of the old
barracks has been handfomely fitted up, and converted
into a college, and there are a number of ftudents ;
but it can only be called as yet a refpedable academy.
Here are two banks, a branch of the national bank,
and the South Carolina bank, eftabliffied in 1792. The
houfes for public worfhip are two Epifcopal churches,
two for Independents, one for Scotch Prelbyterians, •
one for Baptifts, one for German Lutherans, two for
Methodifts, oue for French Proteftants, a meeting-
houfe for Quakers, a Roman Catholic chapel, and a
Jewifti fynagogue.
Little attention is *paid to the public markets; a
great proportion of the more wealthy inhabitants ha¬
ving plantations from which they receive fupplies of
almoft every article of living. The country abounds
with
C H A [ 407 J C H A
ijrlefton witli poultry 2nd wild ducks. Their beef, mutton and
U veal are not generally of the belt kind j and few filh
^lo'te’s are ^ounc^ “1 t^ie rnarhet.
Inland. fn 1787, it was computed that there were 1600
v-y—»houfes in this city, and 15,000 inhabitants, including
5400 Haves; and what fevinces the healthinefs of the
place, upwards of 200 of the white inhabitants were
above 60 years of age. In 1791, there were 16,359
inhabitants, of whom 7684 were Haves. This city
has often fuffered much by fire : the lafi: and rnoft de-
firu&ive happened as late as June 1796.
Charlefton vras incorporated in 1783, and divided
into three wards, which choofe as many wardens, from
among whom the citizens ele& an intendant of the
city. The intendant and wardens form the city-coun¬
cil, who have power to make and enforce bye-laws for
the regulation of the city.
The value of exports from this port, in the year
ending November 1787, amounted to 505,2781. 19s.
5d. iterling. The number of veffels cleared from the
cuftomhoufe the fame year, was 947, meafuring
62,118 tons j 735 of thefe, meafuring 41,531 tons,
were American *, the others belonged to Great Bri¬
tain, Ireland, Spain, France, and the United Nether¬
lands.
CHARLES'S Wain, in AJlronomy, feven ftars in the
conftellation called Urfa Major, or the Great Bear.
CHARLETON, an ifland at the bottom of Hud-
{bn’s bay, in North America, fubjedl to Great Britain.
W. Long. 80. o. N. Lat. 53. 30.
Charleton, Walter, a learned Englifh phyfician,
born in 1619, was phyfician in ordinary to Charles I.
and Charles II. one of the firft members of the royal
fociety, and prefident of the college of phyficians. He
wrote on various fubjefts *, but at laft his narrow cir-
cumftances obliged him to retire to the ifland of Jerfey,
where he died in 1707.
CHARLOCK, the Englifh name of the Rapha-
Nus, It is a very troublefome weed among corn, be¬
ing more frequent than almofl: any other. There are
two principal kinds of it: the one with a yellow' flow'er,
the other with a white. Some fields are particularly
fubjeft to be overrun with it, efpecially thofe which
have been manured with cow-dung alone, that being
a manure very favourable to the growth of it. The
farmers in fome places are fo fenfible of this, that they
always mix horfe' dung with their cow dung, w hen they
ufe it for arable land. When barley, as is often the
cafe, is infefted with this weed to fuch a degree as
to endanger the crop, it is a very good method to mow
•down the charlock in May, w’hen it is in flower, cut¬
ting it fo low' as juft to take off the tops of the leaves
of barley with it: by this means the barley will
get up above the weed : and people have got four
quarters of grain from an acre of fuch land as would
have fcarce yielded any thing without this expedient.
Where any land is particularly fubjeft to this weed,
the belt method is to fow it wuth grafs feed, and make
a pafture of it \ for then the plant will not be trouble¬
fome, it never growing where there is a coat of grafs
upon the ground.
^ueen CHARLOTTE’S Island, an ifland in the
South fea, firft difeovered by Captain Wallis in the
Dolphin, in 1767, who took poffeflion of it in the
name of King George III. Here is good water, and
plenty of cocoa nuts, palm nuts, and feurvy grafs. The Qxtixn
inhabitants are of a middle ftature and dark com- Charlotte’s
plexion, with long hair hanging over their ftroulders $
the men are well made, and the women handfome $ Charpen-
their clothing is a kind of coarfe cloth, or matting, tier,
which they faften about their middle. ■' v
^ueen CHARLOTTE'S Ijlands, a clufter of South fea
ifiands, difeovered in 1767 by Captain Carteret. He
Counted feven, and there wrere fuppoi'ed to be many
more. The inhabitants of thefe iilands are deferibed
as extremely nimble and vigorous, and almoft as well
qualified to live in the water as upon land : they are
very warlike j and, on a quarrel with fome of Captain
Carteret’s people, they attacked them with great re-
folution 5 mortally wounded the mafter and three of
the failors ; were not at all intimidated by the fire
arms j and at laft, notwithftanding the averfion of »
Captain Carteret to fired blood, he was obliged to fe-
cure the watering places by firing grape Ihot into the
woods, which deftroyed many of the inhabitants.
Thefe iflands lie in S. Lat. 11. E. Long. 164. They
are fuppofed to be the Santa Cruz of Mandana, who
died there in 1595.
CHARM, a term derived from the Latin carmen,
“ a verfe j” and ufed to denote a magic pow er, or fpell,
by which, with the afliftance of the devil, forcerers
and witches were fuppofed to do wonderful things, far
furpafiing the power of nature.
CHARNEL, or Charnel-house, a kind of por¬
tico, or gallery, ufually in or near a churchyard, over
which were anciently laid the bones of the dead, after
the flelh was wholly confumed. Charnel-houfes are now
ufually adjoining to the church.
CHARON, in fabulous hiftory, the fon of Erebus
and Nox, whofe office was to ferry the fouls of the
deceafed over the waters of Acheron, for which each
foul was to pay a piece of money. For this reafon
the Pagans had a cuftom of putting a piece of money
into the mouth ef the dead, in order that they might
have fomething to pay Charon for their paffage.
CHARONDAS, a celebrated legiflator of the Thu-
rians, and a native of Catanea, in Sicily, flouriffied 446
before Chrift. He forbade any perfon’s appearing
armed in the public affemblies of the nation 5 but one
day going thither in hafte, without thinking of his
fword, he wras no fooner made to obferve his miftake
than he ran it through his body.
CHAROST, a town of France, in Berry, with the
title of a duchy. It is feated on the river Arnon. E..
Long. 2. 15. N. Lat. 46. 56.
CHAROUX, a town of France, in the Bourbon-
nois, feated on an eminence, near the river Sioulle. It
has two pariffies, which are in different diocefes. E.
Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 46. 10.
CHARPENTIER, Francis, dean of the French
academy, was born in 1620. His early capacity in¬
clined his friends to educate him at the bar : but he
-was much more delighted with the ftudy of languages-
and antiquity than of the law' $ and preferred repofe
to tumult. M. Colbert made ufe of him in eftabliflv-
ing his new academy of medals and inferiptions j and
no parfon of that learned fociety contributed more
than himfelf toward that noble feries of medals which
were ftruck on the confiderable events that diftinguifli-
ed the reign of Louis XIV. He publiflied feveral
works,
C H A [408] c H A
Charpen- works, Ykick were all well received j and died in
ti‘l|r 1702.
Charta. CHARR. See SaLMO, ICHTHYOLOGY Index.
——CHARRON, Peter, the author of a book entitled
Of Wifdotn, which gained him great reputation, was
born at Paris in the year 1541. After being advocate
in the parliament of Paris for five or fix years, he ap¬
plied himfelf to divinity j and became fo great a preach¬
er, that the bifhops of feveral diocefes offered him the
higheft dignities in their gift. He died at Paris, fud-
denly in the ftreet, November 16. 1603.
CHART, or Sea Chart, an hydrographical map,
or a proje&ion of fome part of the earth’s fuperficies in
piano, for the ufe of navigators.
Charts differ very confiderably from geographical or
land maps, which are of no ufe in navigation. Nor are
fea charts all of the fame kind, fome being what we
call plane charts, others Mercator charts, and others
globular charts.
Plane CHART, is a reprefentation of fome part of the
fuperficies of the terraqueous globe, in which the me¬
ridians are iuppofed parallel to each other, the paral¬
lels of latitude at equal diflances, and conlequently the
degrees of latitude and longitude everywhere equal to
each other. See PLANE Chart.
Mercator''* CHART, is that where the meridians are
ftraight lines, parallel to each other, and equidiftant j
the parallels are alfo ftraight lines, and parallel to
each other j but the diftance between them increafes
from the equinoiftial towards either pole, in the ratio
of the fecant of the latitude to the radius. See Na¬
vigation.
Globular CHART, a meridional projection, wherein
the diftance of the eye from the plane of the meridian,
upon which the projection is made, is fuppofed to be
equal to the fine of the angle 450. This projeaion
comes the neareft of all to the nature of the globe, be-
caufe the meridians therein are placed at equal di-
ftances j the parallels alfo are nearly equidiftant, and
eonfequently the feveral parts of the earth have their
proper proportion of magnitude, diftance, and fitua-
tion, nearly the fame as on the globe itfelf. See GLO¬
BULAR Projection.
Hydrographic CHARTS, fheets of large paper, where¬
on feveral parts of the land and fea are deferibed, with
their refpeftive coafts, harbours, founds, flats, rocks,
(helves, fands, &c. together vfith the longitude and la¬
titude of each place, and the points of the compafs.
See Mercator'1* Chart.
Stenographic CHARTS, particular deferiptions of the
(pots, appearances, and maculae of the moon. See A-
STRONQMY Index.
Topographic CHARTS, draughts of fome fmall parts
of the earth only, or of fome particular place, with¬
out regard to its relative fituation, as London, York,
' &c*
- CHARTA, or Carta, primarily fignifies a fort of
paper made of the plant papyrus or bibhts. See Paper
and Charter.
CHARTA Emporetica, in Pharmacy, &lc. a kind of
paper made very foft and porous, ufed to filter withal.
See Filtration, &c.
Charta is alfo ufed in our ancient cuftotns for a
charter, or deed in writing. See Charter.
Magna CHARTA, the great charter of the liberties of Mig;
Britain, and the bafts of our laws and privileges. Chart!]
This charter may be faid to derive its origin from v~’
King Edward the Confeffbr, who granted feveral pri¬
vileges to the church and ftate by charter : thefe liber¬
ties and privileges were alfo granted and confirmed by
King Henry I. by a celebrated great charter now loft j
but which was confirmed or re-ena&ed by King Hen¬
ry II. and King John. Henry III. the fucceffor of this
lait prince, after having caufed 1 2 men make inquiry
into the. liberties of England in the reign of Henry I.
granted a new charter; which was the fame as the pre-
ient magna charta. This he feveral times confirmed,
and as often broke ; till, in the 37th year of his reign,
he went to Weftminfter Hall, and there, in prefence of
the nobility and biftiops, who held lighted candles in
their hands, magna charta was read, the king all the
time holding his hand to his bread, and at laft folemn-
ly fwearing faithfully and inviolably to obferve all the
things therein contained, See. Then the bilhops ex-
tinguiftung the candles, and throwing them on the
ground, they all cried out, “ Thus let him be extin-
guiihed, and (link in hell who violates this charter.”
It is obferved that, notvithftanding the folemnity of
this confirmation, King Henry, the very next year,
again invaded the rights of his people, till the barons
entered into a Avar againft him ; when, after various
fuccefs, he confirmed this charter, and the charter of
the foreft, in the 5 2d year of his reign.
This charter confirmed many liberties of the church,
and redreffed many grievances incident to feodal te¬
nures, of no fmall moment at the time ; though now,
unlefs confidered attentively and wdth this retrofpeft,
they feem but of trifling concern. But, befides thefe
feodal provifions, care was alfo taken therein to protect
the fubjeft againft other oppreflions, then frequently
arifing from unreafonable amercements, from illegal
diftreffes or other procefs for debts or fervices due to
the crown, and from the tyrannical abufe of the pre¬
rogative of purveyance and pre-emption. It fixed the
forfeiture of lands for felony in the fame manner as it
ft ill remains; prohibited for the future the grants of
exclufive fiftieries ; and the eredtion of new bridges fo
as to opprefs the neighbourhood. With refpedt to
private rights, it eftabliflied the teftamentary power
of the fubjedl over part of his perfonal eftate, the reft
being diftributed among his wife and children; it laid
down the law of dower, as it hath continued ever fince;
and prohibited the appeals of Women, unlefs after
the death of their hulhands. In matters of public po¬
lice and national concern, it enjoined an uniformity of
weights and meafures; gave new encouragements to
commerce, by the protedlion of merchant ftrangers;
and forbade the alienation of lands in mortmain. With
regard to the adminiftration of juftice, befides prohi¬
biting all denials or delays of it, it fixed the court of
common pleas at Weftminfter, that the fuitors might
no longer be haraffed with follow ing the king’s per-
fon in all his progreffes; and at the fame time brought
the trial of iffues home to the very doors of the free¬
holders, by directing aflizes to be taken in the proper
counties, and eftabliftung annual circuits : it alfo cor-
redted fome abufes then incident to the trials by wager
of law and of battle; directed the regular aw ard-
c H A [ 4©9 ] C H A
^gna ing of inquefts for life or member ; pronibited the
bhatu king’s inferior minifters from holding pleas of the
11 crown, or trying any criminal charge, whereby many
parter' forfeitures anight otherwife have unjuftly accrued to
^ ' . the exchequer •, and regulated the time and place of
holding the inferior tribunals of juftice, the county-
court, Iheriff’s torn, and court-leet. It confirmed and
eftablilhed the liberties of the city of London, and all
other cities, boroughs, towns, and ports of the king¬
dom. And laftly (which alone would have merited
the title that it bears, of the great charter'), it protefl-
ed every individual of the nation in the free enjoyment
of his life, his liberty, and his property, unlefs declared
to be forfeited by the judgment of his pears, or the law
of the land.
This excellent charter, fo equitable, and beneficial
to the fubjeft, is the moil; ancient written law in the
kingdom. By the 25th Edward I. it is ordained, that
it fliall be taken as the common law ; and by the 43d
Edward III. all ftatutes made againft it are declared
to be void.
CHARTER, in Law, a written inilrument, or evi¬
dence of things acted between one perfon and ano¬
ther. The word charter comes from the Latin charta,
anciently ufcd for a public and authentic act, a dona¬
tion, contract, or the like, from the Greek
“ thick paper” or “ paiteboard,” whereon public afts
were wont to be written. Britton divides charters in¬
to thofe of the king, and thofe sf private perfons.
1. Charters of the king, are thofe whereby the king
paffeth any grant to any perfon or body politic, as a
charter ofexemption, of privilege, &c. j cluirter ofpardon,
whereby a man is forgiven a felony, or other offence
committed agajnft the king’s crown and dignity j char¬
ter of the fortjl, wherein the laws of the foreft are
comprifed, fuch as the charter of Canutus, &c.
2. Charters of private perfons, are deeds and inftru-
ments for the conveyance' of lands, &c. And the pur-
chafer of lands fhall have all the charters, deeds, and
evidences, as incident to the fame, and for the main¬
tenance of his title.
CHARTER-Governments in America. See Colony.
CHARTER-Land, fuch land as a perfon holds by char¬
ter j that is, by evidence in writing j otherwife called
freehold.
CHARTER?ARTY, in Commerce, denotes the
inftrument of freightage, or articles of agreement for
the hire of a veffel. See Freight, &c.
The charterparty is to be in writing } and tobefign-
cd both by the proprietor or the matter of the fliip,
and the merchant who freights it. It is to contain the
name and the burden of the veffel; the names of the
mailer and the freighter 5 the price or rate of freight j
and the time of loading and unloading 5 and the other
conditions agreed on. It is properly a deed, or poli¬
cy, whereby the mailer or proprietor of the veffel
engages to furniih immediately a tight found veffel,
well equipped, caulked, and flopped, provided with an¬
chors, fails, cordage, and all other furniture to make
the voyage required, as equipage, hands, victuals, and
other munitions ; in confideration of a certain fum to
be paid by the merchant for the freight. Laitly, The
ftfip with all its furniture, and the cargo, are refpec-
tively fubje6led to the conditions of the charterparty.
The charterparty differs from a bill of lading, in that
VOL. V. Part II.
the firfl is for the entire freight, or lading, and that Ch. rtcr-
both for going and returning; whereas the latter is Pa*ly
only for a part of the freight, or at mofl only for the cimrybdi*,-
voyage one way. ■ ^ - -- -•
Boyer fays, the word is derived from hence, that
per medium charta incidebatur, et fc febai charta par¬
tita ; becaule, in the time when notaries were lefs
common, there was only one inilrument made for
both parties ; this they cut in two, and gave each
his portion ; joining them together at their return, to
know if each had done his part. This he obferves to
have been pradlifed in his time j agreeable to the me ¬
thod of the Romans, who, in their llipulations, ufed to
break a llaff, each party retaining a moiety thereof as-
a mark.
CHARTOPHYLAX, the name, of an officer of
the church of Conflantinople, who attends at the door
of the rails when thd f&crament is adminiftered, and
gives notice to the priefts to come to the holy table.
He- reprefents the patriarch upon the bench, tries all
ecclefiallical caufes, keeps all the marriage regifters,.
affifts at the confecration of biffiops, and prefents the.
bilhop eledt at the folemnity, and likewife all other
fubordinate clergy. This office refembles in feme lliape
that of the bibliothecarius at Rome.
CHARTRES, a large city of France, in tjie pro¬
vince of Orleannois, fituated on the river Eure, itr
E. Long. 1. 32. N. Lat. 48. 47. It is a biffiop’s fee.
CHARTREUSE, or Chartreuse-grand, a ce¬
lebrated monaftery, the capital of all the convents of
the Carthufian monks, fituated on a fieep rock in the
middle of a large foreft of fir trees, about feven mile*
north-eaft of Grenoble, in the province of Dauphiny
in France. E. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. ^5. 20. See Car¬
thusians.
From this mother convent, all the others of the fame
order took their name ; among which was the Char-
treufe of London, corruptly called the charterhoufe, now
converted into an hofpital, and endowed with a reve¬
nue of 600I. per annum.
Here were maintained 80 decayed gentlemen, not
under 50 years of age •, alfo 40 boys are educated and
fitted either for the univerfity or trades. Thofe fent
to the univerfity have an exhibition of 20I. a-year for
eight years : and have an immediate title to nine
church-livings in the gift of the governors of the hof¬
pital, who are fixtecn in number, all perfons of the firft
diftinclion, and take their turns in the nomination of x
penfioners and fcholars.
CHART ULARY, Chartularius, a title given
to an ancient officer in the Latin church, who had the
care of charters and papers relating to public affairs.
The chartulary prefided in ecclefiaftical judgments, in
lieu of the pope. In the Greek church the chartulary
was called chartophylax ; but his office was there much
more confiderable j and fome even diftinguifh the chaiv
tulary from the chartophylax in the Greek church. See
Chartophylax.
CHARYBDIS, in Ancient Geography, a whirlpool
in the ftraits of Meffina, according to the poets 5 near
Sicily, and oppofite to Scylla, a rock on the coaft of
Italy. Thucydides makes it to be only a ftrong ffux
and reflux in the ftrait, or a violent reciprocation of
the tide, efpecially if the wind lets fouth. But on di¬
ving into the Charybdis, there are found vaft gulfs
3 F ana
C H A [ 410 ] C H A
Charybdis, and wliirl pools below, which produce all the commo-
, tion on the furface of the water.
”~~v Charijbdis is ufed by Horace to denote a rapacious
proftitute.
CHASE, or CliACE, in Law, is ufed for a driving
of cattle to or from any place j as to a dilfrefs, or fort-
let, &c.
Chase, or Chace, is alio a place of retreat for deer
and wild beails •, of a middle kind between a foreft
and a park, being ufually lefs than a foreft, and not
poffelTed of fo many privileges ; but wanting, v. g.
*See Yorejl. courts of attachment, fwainmote, and juftice feat*.
Yet it is of a large extent, and flocked both with a
greater diveriity of wild beafts or game, and more
keepers, than a park. Crompton obferves, that a fo¬
reft cannot be in the hands of a fubjeft, but it forth¬
with lofes its name, and becomes a chafe; in regard all
thofe courts lofe their nature when they come into the
hands of a fubjeft ; and that none but a king can make
a lord chief juftice in eyre of the foreft. See JUSTICE
in Eyre.
The following hiftory of the Engliih chafe is given
Brit’jh by Mr Pennant. “ At firft the beafts of chafe had
&ool. i. 42. whole ifland for their range •, they knew no other
limits than the ocean, nor confeffed any particular ma-
fter. When the Saxons had eftablilhed themfelves in
the heptarchy, they were referved by each fovereign
for his own particular diverfion. Hunting and war, in
thofe uncivilized ages, were the only employ of the
great; their aftive, but uncultivated minds, being fuf-
ceptible of no pleafures but thofe of a violent kind,
fuch as gave exercife to their bodies, and prevented
the pain of thinking.
“ But as the Saxon kings only appropriated thofe
lands to the ufe of forefts which were unoccupied, fo
no individuals received any injury •, but when the Con-
queft had fettled the Norman line on the throne, this
pafiion for the chafe was carried to an -excefs, which
involved every civil right in a general ruin ; it ftipet'-
feded the confideration of religion even in a fuperfti-
tious age : the village communities, nay even the moft
facred edifices, were turned into one vaft wafte, to
make room for animals, the objefts of a lawlefs ty¬
rant’s pleafure. The new foreft in Hampfhire is too
trite an inftance to be dwelt on 5 fanguinary laws w'erfe
enabled to preferve the game y and in the reigns of
William Rufus, and Henry I. it was lefs criminal to
deftroy one of the human fpeciefc than a beaft of chafe.
Thus it continued while the Norman line filled the
throne *, but when the Saxon line was reftored under
Henry II. the rigour of the foreft laws was immediate^
ly foftened.
“ When our barons began to form a power, they
claimed a vaft, but more limited, traft for a diverfion
that the Englilh were always fond of. They were
very jealous of any encroachments on their refpeftive
bounds, which were often the caufe of deadly feuds j
fuch a one gave caufe to the fatal battle of Chevy-chafe ;
a fa<ft which, though recorded only in a ballad, may,
from what we know of the manners of the times, be
founded on truth; not that it was attended with all
the eircumftanccs which the author of that natural but
heroic eompofition hath given it ; for, on that day
neither a Percy nor a Douglas fell: here the poet
fetms to have claimed his privilege, and mixed with
this fray fome of the events of the battle of Otter- Chafi
bourne. '"""“'V' K ‘
“ WThen property became happily more divided
by the relaxation of the feodal tenures, thofe exten-
five hunting grounds became more limited ; and as
tillage and hulhandry increafed, the beafts of chafe
were obliged to give way to others more ufeful to the
community. The vaft trails of land, before dedicat¬
ed to hunting, were then contradled ; and, in propor¬
tion as the ufeful arts gained ground, either loft their
original deftination, or gave rile to the invention of
parks. Liberty and the arts feem coeval ; for when
once the latter got footing, the former protellcd the
labours of the induftrious from being ruined by the li¬
centious fportfman, or being devoured by the obje&s
of his diverfion : for this reafon, the fubjefts of a def-
potic government ftill experience the inconvenien¬
ces of vaft waftes and forefts, the terrors of the
neighbouring hulbandmcn ; while in our well regu¬
lated monarchy very few chafes remain. The Eng¬
lilh ftill indulge themfelves in the pleafures of hunting;
but confine the deer kind to parks, of which England
boafts of more than any other kingdom in Europe,
The laws allow every man his pleafure ; but confine
them in fuch bounds as prevent them from being in¬
jurious to the meaneft of the community. Before the
Reformation, the prelates feem to have guarded fuffi-
ciently againft this w'ant of amufement; the fee of Nor-
wich, in particular, being poffeffed, about that timo,
of thirteen parks.”
Chase, in the fea language, is to purfue a {hip ;
which is alfo called giving chace.
Stern-C'IIACE, is when the chafer follows the chafed
aftern dire&ly upon the fame point of the compafs.
To lie with a flip's fore-foot in a CHASE, is to fail
and meet with her by the neareft diftance; and fo to
crofs her in her w ay, or to come acrofs her fore-foot.
A lliip is faid to have a good chafe, when lire is fo
built forward on, or a-ftern, that ftie can carry many
guns to (hoot forwards or backwards ; according to
which flie is faid to have a good forward or good fern
chafe.
CHASE Guns, are fuch whofe ports are either in the
head (and then they are ufed in chafing of others) ; or
in the ftern, which are only ufeful when they are pur-
fued or chafed by any other {hip.
Chace of a Gun, is the whole bore or length of a
piece taken withinfide.
Wild-goofe CHACE, a term tifed to exprefs a fort of
racing on horfeback ufed formerly, which reftmbled
the flying of wild geefe ; thofe birds generally going
in a train one after another, not in confufed flocks afe
other birds d®. In this fort of race the two horfeS,
after running twelve fcore yards, had liberty, which
horfe foevert. could take the leading, to ride what
ground the jockey pleafed, the hindmoft horfe being
bound to follow him within a certain diftance agreed
on by the articles, or elfe to be W'hipped in by the
tryers and judges who rode by ; and whichever horfe
could diftance the other w on the race. I his fort of
racing was not long in common ufe ; for it was found
inhuman, and dellruftive to good horfes, when two
fuch were matched together. For in this cafe neither
was able to diftance the other till they were both
ready to fink under their riders; and often two very
good
h. 1. i.
c 5—60.
* Vf i-
r i. a6i—
: I. iii.
_ C H A [4,
good horfcs were both fpoiled, and the wagers forced
to be drawn at laft. The mifchief of this fort of
racing foon brought in the method now in ufe, of run¬
ning only for a certain quantity of ground, and deter¬
mining the plate or wager by the coming in firft at the
poll.
Chasing of Gold^ Silvery &c. See Enchasing.
CHASTE tree. See Vitex, Botany Index.
CHASIITY j Purity of the body, or freedom
from obfcenity.—The Roman law juftifies homicide
in defence of the chartity either of one’s felf or rela¬
tions ; and fo alfo, according to Selden, flood the law
in the Jewilh republic. Our law likewife juftifies a
woman for killing a man who attempts to ravifh her.
So the huiband or father may juflify killing a man who
attempts a rape upon his wife or daughter j but not
if he takes them in adultery by confent for the one is
forcible and felonious, but not the other.
Chaftity is a virtue univerfally celebrated. There is
indeed no charm in the female fex that can fupply its
place. Without it, beauty is unlovely, and rank is
contemptible; good breeding degenerates into wan-
tonnefs, and wit into impudence. Out of the nume¬
rous inftances of eminent chaftity recorded by authors,
the two following are felected on account of the leffon
afforded by the different modes of conduct which they
exhibit.
Lucretia was lady of great beauty and noble ex¬
traction ; the married Collatinus, a relation of Tar-
quinius Superbus king of Rome. During the fiege
of Ardea, which lafted much longer than was expefted,
the young princes- paffed their time in entertainments
and diverfiens. One day as they were at fupper *, at
Sextus Tarquin’s, the king’s eldeft ton, with Colla¬
tinus, Lueretia’s hutband, the converfation turned on
the merit of their wives : every one gave his own the
preference. What fignify fo many words ?” fays
Collatinus; “ you may in a few hours, if you pleafe,
be convinced by your own eyes, how much my Lu¬
cretia excels the reft. We are young : let us mount our
horfes, and go and furprife them. Nothing can better
decide our difpute than the ftate we {hall find them
in at a time when moft certainly they will not expeCl:
us.?* They were a little warmed with -wine : “ Come
on, let us go,” they all cried together. They quickly
galloped to Rome, which was about twenty miles from
Ardea, where they find the princeffes, wives of the
young Tarquins, furrounded with company, and every
eircumftance of the higheft mirth and pleafure. From
thence they rode to Collatia, where they faw Lucre¬
tia in a very different fituation. With her maids about
her, (be was at work in the inner part of her houfe,
talking of the dangers to which her hufband was ex-
pofed. The victory was adjudged to her unanimoufly.
She received her guefts with all poflible politenefs and
civility. Lucretia’s virtue, which Ihould have com¬
manded refpeCt, was the very thing which kindled in
the breaft of Sextus Tarquin a ftrong and deteftable
paffion. Within a few days he returned to Collatia;
and upon the plaufible excufe he made for his vifit, he
was received with all the politenefs due to a near rela¬
tion, and the eldeft fon of a king. Watching the fit-
teft opportunity, he declared the paffion fhe had excit-
®d at his laft vifit, and employed the moil tender entrea¬
ties, and all the artifices poffible to touch a woman’s
1 5 C it a
heart \ but all to no purpofe. He then endeavoured Chaftity
to extort her compliance by the moft terrible threat- ' 
enings. It was in vain. She ftill perfifted in her re-
folution ; nor could ffie be moved even by the fear of-
death. But when the monftcr told her that he would
firft difpatch her, and then having murdered a Have,
would lay him by her fide, after which he would fpread
a report, that having caught them in the aCt of adul¬
tery, he had puniihed them as they deferved ; this
feemed to (hake her refolution. She hefitated, not
knowing which of thefe dreadful alternatives to take,
whether, by confenting to dillionour the bed of her
hufband, whom fhe tenderly loved j or, by refufing, to
die under the odious character of having proftituted
her perfon to the lull of a Have. He faw the ftruggle
of her foul j and feizing the unlucky moment, obtain¬
ed an inglorious conqueft. Thus, Lucretia’s virtue,
which had been proof againft the fear of death, could
not hold out againft the fear of infamy. The young-
prince having gratified his paffion, returned home as in
triumph. On the morrow, Lucretia overwhelmed with
grief and defpair, fent early in the morning to defire her
father and her huiband to come to her, and bring with
them each a trufty friend, affuring them there was no
time to lofe. They came with all fpeed, the one ac¬
companied with Valerius (fo famous after under the
name of Publicola), and the other with Brutus. The
moment fhe faw them come, ffie eould not command
her tears ; and when her hufband afked her if all was
well ? “ By no means,” faid fhe, “ it cannot be well
with a woman after fhe has loft her honour. Yes, Cob-
latinus, thy bed has been defiled by a firanger : but
my body only is polluted j my mind is innocent, as
my death ffiall witnefs. Promife me only not to fuffer
the adulterer to go unpunifhed : it is Sextus Tarqui-
nius, who laft night, a treacherous gueft, or rather cruel
foe, offered me violence, and reaped a joy fatal to nte j
•but, if you are men, it will be ftill more fatal to him.”
All promifed to revenge her ; and at the fame time,
tried to comfort her with reprefenting, “ That the
mind only fins, not the body; and where the confent
is wanting, there can be no guilt.” “ What Sextus
deferves,” replies Lucretia, “ I leave you to judge ;
but for me, though I declare myfclf innocent of the
crime, I exempt not myfelf from punifhment,. No
immodeft woman ffiall plead Lucretia’s example to
outlive her difhonour.” Thus faying, flie plunged
into her breaft a dagger fhe had concealed under her
robe, and expired at their feet. Lucretia’s tragical
death has been praifed and extolled by Pagan writers,
as the higheft and moft noble aft of heroifm. The
Gofpel thinks not fo : it is murder, even according to
Lucretia’s own principles, fince ftie punifhed with death
an innocent perfon, at leaft acknowledged as fuch by
herfelf. She was ignorant that our life is not in our
own power, but in his difpofal from whom we receive
it. St Auftin, who carefully examines, in his book De
Civitate Deiy what we are to think of Lucretia’s death,
cpnfiders it not as a courageous aft ion flowing from
a true love of chaftity, but as an infirmity ~ a woman
too fenfible of worldly fame and glory j and who, from
a dread of appearing in the eyes of men an accomplice
of the violence the abhorred, and of a crime to which
ffie was entirely a ftranger, commits a real crime upon
herfelf voluntarily and defignedly. But what cannot
3 F 2 be
Chnteau-
Chinon.
C H A t 4*
GJiaftity be fufficiently admired in this Roman lady, is her ab¬
horrence of adultery, which fhe feems to hold fo deteft-
able as not to bear the thoughts of it. In this fenfe,
Ihe is a noble example for all her fex.
Chiomara, the wife of Ortiagon, a Gaulifh prince,
was equally admirable for her beauty and chaftity.
During the war between the Romans and the Gauls,
A. R. 563, the latter were totally defeated on Mount
Olympus. Chiosnara, among many other ladies, was
taken prifoner, and committed to thp care of a centu¬
rion, no lefs paflionate for money than women. He
at firit endeavoured to gain her confent to his infa¬
mous defires 5 but not being able to prevail upon her,
and fubveat her conftancy, he thought he might em¬
ploy force with a woman whom misfortune had redu¬
ced to llavery. Afterwards, to make her amends for
that treatment, he offered to reflore her liberty : but
not without ranfom. He agreed with her for a certain
fum, and to conceal this defign from the other Ro¬
mans, he permitted her to fend any of the prifoners fhe
Ihould choofe to her relations, and affigned a place
near the river where the lady ihould be exchanged for
gold. By accident there was one of her own flaves
among the prifonera. Upon him fhe fixed $ and the
centurion foon after carried her beyond the advanced
pofls, under cover of a dark night. The next evening
two of the relations of the princefs came to the place
appointed, whither the centurion alfo carried his cap¬
tive. When they had delivered him the Attic talent
they had brought, which was the fum they had agreed
on, the lady, in her own language, ordered thofe who
came to receive her to draw their fwords and kill the
centurion, who was then amufing himfelf with weigh¬
ing the gold. Then, charmed with having revenged
the injury done her chaftity, fhe took the head of the
officer, which ffie had cut off with her own hands, and
hiding it under her robe, went to her hufband Ortiagon,
who had returned home after the defeat of his troops.
As foon as fhe came into his prefence, ffie threw the
centurion’s head at his feet. He was ftrangely fur-
prifed at fuch a fight : and afked her whofe head it
was, and what had induced her to do an aft fo un¬
common to her fex ? With her face covered with a hid¬
den bluffi, and at the fame time expreffing her fierce
indignation, ffie declared the outrage which had been
done her, and the revenge ffie had taken for it. Dur¬
ing the reft of her life, fhe ftedfaftly retained the fame
attachment for the purity of manners which conftitutes
the principal glory of the fex, and nobly fuftained the
honour of fo glorious, bold, and heroic an action.——
This lady was much more prudent than Lucretia, in
revenging her injured honour by the death of her ra-
viffier, rather than by her own. Plutarch relates this
faft, in his treatife upon the virtue and great a&ions
«f women \ and it is from him we have the name of
this, which is well worthy of being tranfmitted to po-
fterity.
The above virtue in men is termed continence. See
Continence.
CHATEAU-BRIant, a town of France in Bri-
ianny, with an old caftle. W. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat.
47* 4°*
CHATEAV-Chinon, a town of France in Nivernois,
and capital of Morvant, with a conliderable manufac¬
tory of cloth. E, Long. 3’ 4^* N. Lat. 47* 2.
49- 35-
CHATEAU-Renaud, a town of France, in the Gatenois,
where clothes are made for the army, and where there
is a trade in faffran. E. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat. 48. O.
This is alfo the name of a town of Touraine, in France,
with the title of marquifate. E. Long. 2. 41. N. Lat.
47- 22-
ChATEAU-Roux, a town of France, in Berry, with the
title of a duchy. It has a cloth manufacture, and is
feated in^a very large pleafant plain on the river Indre,
in E. Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 46. 49.
CHATEAU- Thiery, a town of France, in Champagne,
with the title of a duchy, and a handfome caftle on an
eminence, feated on the river Maine, in E. Long. 3.
23. N. Lat. 49. 12.
ChaTEAU-Vtiain, a town of France, in Champagne,
with a caftle, and the title of a duchy j feated on the
river Anjou. E. Long. 2. 59. N. Lat. 48. o.
CHATEL, or Chate, a town of Loraine, in the
Vofque, feated on the river Mofelle, eight miles from
Mirecourt.
CHATEL-Allon, a maritime town of France, in Sain-
tonge, five miles from Rochelle ; formerly very confi-
derable, but now greatly decayed.
CHATEL-Chalon, a town of France, in Franche Comte,
remarkable for its abbey of BenediCline nuns. E. Long.
5. 25. N. Lat. 46. 50.
CHATELET, a town of the Netherlands, in.Na¬
mur, feated on the Sambre, in the biffiopric of Liege.
E. Long. 4. 28. N. Lat. 50. 25.
Chatelet, the name of certain courts of juftice
eftabliftied in feveral cities in France. The grand
chatelet at Paris is the place where the prefidial or or¬
dinary court of juftice of the provoft of Paris is.kept j
confifting of a prefidial, a civil chamber, a criminal
chamber, and chamber of policy. The little chatelet
is an old fort, now ferving as a prifon. ^
CHATELLERAULT, a town of France, m Poi¬
tou, with the title of a duchy 5 feated in a fertile and
pleafant country, on the river Vienne, over which there
is a handfome ftone bridge. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat-
2 ] CHA
CHATZAU-BetUpTiin, a very ftrong caftle of Piedmont Chate;'
in Italy, and in the marquifate of Saluces, belonging to ^auE!.
the king of Sardinia. It was taken by the combined
army of France and Spain in 1744, and was reftored 1 ^
by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
CHATEAU-du-Loire, a town of France, in Maine, fa¬
mous for fuftaining a fiege of feven years againft the
Count of Mans. It is feated on the river Loire, in E,
Long. o. 25. N. Lat. 47. 40.
CHATEAU-Dun, an ancient town of France, and ca¬
pital of the Dunois, with a caftle and rich monaftery i|
leated on an eminence near the river Loire, in E. Long.
I. 26. N. Lat. 48. 4.
CHATEAU-Neuf, the name of feveral towns of France,
viz. one in Perche j another in Angumois, on the
river Charente, near Angoulefme $ a third in Berry,
feated on the river Cher j and feveral other fmall
places.
CHATEAU-Portien, a' town of France, in Champagne,
and in a diftrift called Portien, with a caftle built on a-
rock, near the river Aifne. E. Long. 4. 23. N. Lat.
46. 34. •
CHATHAM, a town of Kent, adjoining to Ro.
chefter, and feated on the river Medway. It .is .the
principal
C H A [ 413 ] C H A
iLthatn principal ilation of the royal navy $ and the yards and
1 I) magazines are furniflied with all kinds of naval ftores,
l eterton. as we]j[ as materials for building and rigging the largcit
of war. The entrance into the river Medway
is defended by Sheernefs and other forts j notwith-
ftanding which, the Dutch fleet burnt feveral fhips of
war here in the reign of Charles II. after the peace of
Breda had been agreed upon. In the year 1757, by
dire&ion of the duke of Cumberland, feveral addition¬
al fortifications were begun at Chatham j fo that now
the fhips are in no danger of an infult either by land
or water. It has a church, a chapel of eafe, and a
Ihip ufed as a church for the failors. It has likewife
about 500 houfes, moftly low, and built with brick j
the ftreets are narrow, and paved 5 and it contains
about 3000 inhabitants. The principal employment of
the labouring hands is fhip-building in the king’s yard
and private docks. This town gave title of earl to
that great ftatefman William Pitt in the reigns of
George II. and III. E. Long. o. 40. N. Lat. 51.
20.
CHATIGAN, a town of Alia, in the kingdom of
Bengal, on the moft eafterly branch of the river Gan¬
ges. It is but a poor place, though it was the firft
the Portuguefe fettled at in thefe parts, and who ftill
keep a fort of pofleflion. It has but a few cotton ma¬
nufactures } but affords the belt timber for building of
any place about it. The inhabitants are fo fufpicious
of each other, that they always go armed with a
fword, piftol, and blunderbufs, not excepting the priefts.
It is fubjedl to the Great Mogul. E. Long. 91. 10.
N. Lat. 23. o.
CHATILLON sur Seine, a town of France, in
Burgundy, divided into two by the river Seine. It is
32 miles from Langres, and 40 from Dijon *, and has
iron works in its neighbourhood. E. Long. 4. 33.
N. Lat. 47. 45.
CHATRE, a town of France, in Berry, feated on
the river Indre, 37 miles from Bourges. It carries
on a confiderable trade in cattle. E. Long. 1. 55.
N. Lat. 46. 35.
CHATTELS, a Norman term, under which were
anciently comprehended all moveable goods 5 thofe im¬
moveable being termed yfc/or fee.
Chattels, in the modern fenfe of the word, are
all forts of goods, moveable or immoveable, except fuch
as are in the nature of freehold.
CHATTERER. See Ampelis, Ornithology
Index.
CHATTERTON, Thomas, a late unfortunate
poet, v/hofe fate and performances have excited in no
fmall degree the public attention, as well as given rife
to much literary controverfy. He was born at Briftol,
Nov. 20. 1752; and educated at a charity fchool on
St Auguftine’s Back, where nothing more was taught
than reading, writing, and accounts. At 14 years of
age, he was articled clerk to an attorney at Briftol,
with whom he continued about three years ; yet, though
his education was thus confined, he difeovered an early
turn towards poetry and Englifh antiquities, and par¬
ticularly towards heraldry. How foon he began to be
an author is not known. In the Town and Country
dVIagazine for March 1769, are two letters, probably
from him, as they are dated from Briftol, and iubferib-
ed with his ufiaal fignature, D. B. that is, Dunhelmus Chattertori.
Bri/Iolienfx. The .former contains fhort extracts from —y—^
two MSS. “ written 300 years ago by one Rowley a
monk,” concerning drefs in the age of Henry II. $ the
latter, “ Ethelgar, a Saxon poem,” in bombaft profe.
In the fame magazine for May 1769, are three commip-
nications from Briftol, with the fame fignature D. B.
one of them entitled, “ Obfervations upon Saxon He¬
raldry, with drawings of Saxon Achievements j” and
in the fubfequent months of 1769 and 1770, there are
feveral other pieces in the fame magazine, which are
undoubtedly of his compofition.
In April 1770, he left Briftol, difgufied with his
profeflion, and irreconcileable to the line of life in
which he was placed 5 and coming to London in hopes
of advancing his fortune by his pen, he funk at once
from the fublimity of his views to an abfolute depen¬
dence on the patronage of bookfellers. Things, how¬
ever, feem foon to have brightened up a little with him j
for, May 14. he writes to his mother, in high fpirits,
upon the change of his lituation, with the following
far«aftic reflexions upon his former patrons at Briftol.
“ As to Mr —, Mr , Mr , &c. &c. they
rate literary lumber fo low, that I believe an author,
in their eftimation, muft be poor indeed : but here
matters are otherwife. Had Rowley been a Londoner
inftead of a Briftowyan, I could have lived by copying
his works.” In a letter to his lifter, May 30. he informs
her that he is to be employed in writing a voluminous
Hiftory of London, to appear in numbers the begin¬
ning of next winter. Meanwhile, he had written fome-
thing in praife of Beckford, then lord mayor, which
had procured him the honour of being prefented to his
lordlhip j and, in the letter juft mentioned, he gives
the following account of his reception, with certain
obfervations upon political writing. “ The lord mayor
received me as politely as a citizen could : but the devil
of the matter is, there is no money to be got on this
fide of the queftion.—However, he is a poor author
who cannot write on both fides.—Effays on the patriotic
fide will fetch no more than what the copy is fold for.
As the patriots themfelves are fearching for places,
they have no gratuity to fpare.—On the other hand,.
unpopular effays will not even be accepted, and you muft
pay to have them printed *, but then you feldom lofe
by it, as courtiers are fo fenfible of their deficiency in
merit, that they generoufly reward all who know how
to daub them with the appearance of it.”
He continued to write inceffantly in various perio¬
dical publications. July II. he tells his filler that
he had pieces laft month in feveral magazines; in The
Gofpel Magazine, The Town and Country, The Court
and City, The London, iTe Political Regifter, &c.
But all thefe exertions of his genius brought in fo little,
profit, that he was foon reduced to the extremeft indi¬
gence ; fo that at laft, oppreffed with poverty and
difeafe, in a fit of defpair, he put an end to his exift-
ence, Auguft 1770, with a dofe of poifon. This un¬
fortunate perfon, though certainly a moil extraordinary
genius, feems yet to have been a moft ungracious com¬
pofition. He was violent and impetuous to a ftrange
degree. From the firft of the above cited letters he
feems to have had a portion of ill humour and fpleen
more .than enough for a lad of 17; and the editor of
C H A [ 414 J C H A
jpxatteitgn. his Mifcellanies records, et that iie poileffed all the vi-
v'-——' ces antl irregularities of youth, and that his profligacy
was at leaft as confpieuous his abilities.”
In 1777 were publiflied in one volume 8vo, Poems,
fuppofed to have been written at Briltol, by Thomas
Rowley and others, in the 1 ith century : the greateft
part now firit publiflied from the molt authentic copies,
with an engraved fpecimen of one of the MSS. To
which are added, a Preface, an introductory Account
of the feveral Pieces, and a GloiTary.” And in 1778,
were publiflied, in one volume 8vo, “ Mifcellanies in
Profe and Verfe by Thomas Chatterton, the fuppofed
author of the Poems publiflied under the names of
Rowley, &c.”
Of Rowley’s poems, we have the following account
in the preface, given in the words of Mr George Cat-
eot of Briltol, to whom, it is faid, the public is in¬
debted for them. “ The firft. difeovery of certain MSS.
having been depoflted in Redclift church above three
centuries ago, was made in the year 1768, at the time
of opening the new bridge at Briltol j and was owing
to a publication in Farley’s Weekly Journal, OCt. 1.
containing an account of the ceremonies obierved at
the opening of the old bridge, taken, as it was faid,
from a very ancient MS. This excited the curiofity
of ibme perfons to inquire after the original. The
printer, Mr Farley, could give no account of it, or of
the perfon who brought the copy } but, after much in¬
quiry, it was difeovered that this perfon was a youth
between 15 and 16 years of age, whofe name was
Thomas Chatterton, and whofe family had been fex-
tons of Redclift church for near 150 years. His fa¬
ther, who was now dead, had alfo been mailer of the
free fchool in Pile-ftreet. The young man was at firft
very unwilling to difeover from whence he had the ori¬
ginal : but, after many promifes made to him, was at
laft prevailed on to acknowledge that he had received
this, together with many other MSS. from his father,
who had found them in a large cheft in an upper room
over the chapel, on the north fide of Redclift church.”
It is added, that foon after this Mr Catcot commenced
an acquaintance with Chatterton, and partly as pre-
fents, partly as purchafes, procured from him copies
of many of his MSS. in profe and verfe j as other co¬
pies were difpofed of in like manner to others. It is
concluded, however, that whatever may have been
Chatterton’s part in this very extraordinary tranfadlion,
whether he was the author, or only (as he conftantly
alierted) the copier of all thefe productions, he appears
to have kept the fecret entirely to himfelf, and not to
have put it in any one’s power to bear certain teftimo-
«y either of his fraud or of his veracity.
Th is affair, however, hath fince become the founda¬
tion of a mighty controverfy among the critics, which
hath yet fcarcely fubfided. The poems in queftion,
.publilhed in 1777, were republilhed in 1778, with an
44 Appendix, containing fome obfervations upon their
..language j tending to prove that they were written,
not by any ancient author, but entirely by Chatter¬
ton.” Mr Warton, in the third volume of his Hilfory
•of Englilh Poetry, hath efpoufed the fame fide of the
queftion. Mr Walpole alfo obliged the world with a
Letter on Chatterton, from his prefs at Strawberry-hill.
On the other hand have appeared, “ Obfervations” up¬
on thefe poems, “ in which their authenticity is afccr-
tained,” by Jacob Bryant, Efq.; 1781, 2 vols. 8vo. jChatter ,
and another edition of the “ Poems, with a Comment, ChauJ I
in which their antiquity is confidered and defended, by '
Jeremiah Milles, D, D. dean of Exeter, 1782,” 410.
In anfwer to thefe two works, we have had three
pamphlets : I. “ Curfory Obfervations on the Poems,
and Remarks on the Commentaries of Mr Bryant and
Dr Milles •, with a falutary propofal addreffed to the
friends of thefe gentlemen.” 2. “ An Archaeological
Epiftle to Dean Milles, editor of a fuperb edition of
Rowley’s Poems, &c.” 3. “ An Inquiry into the au¬
thenticity of the Poems attributed to Thomas Rowle'y,
in which the Arguments of the dean of Exeter and M r
Bryant are examined, by Thomas Warton j” and other
pieces in the public prints and .magazines : All prepa¬
ratory to the complete fettlement of the bufinefs in
“ A Vindication of the Appendix to the Poems called
Rowley’s, in reply to the Anlwers of the dean of Exe¬
ter, Jacob Bryant, Elq. and a third Anonymous Wri¬
ter "x with fome further Obfervations upon thefe Poems,
and an Examination of the Evidence which has been
produced in lupport of their Authenticity. By Tho¬
mas Tyrwhitt, 1782,” 8vo.
CHAUCER,Sir GEOFREY,aneminentEnglilhpoet
in the 14th century, born at London in 1328. After
he left the umverfity,-be travelled into Holland, France,
and other countries. Upon his return he entered him¬
felf in the Inner I emple, where he ftudied the muni¬
cipal laws of England. His firft ftation at court was
page to Edward III. and he had a penfion granted
him by that prince till he could otherwile provide for
him. Soon after we find him gentleman of the king’s
ptivy chamber ; next year, fliield-bearer to the king.
Efteemed and honoured, he fpent his younger days in
a conftant attendance at court, or for the moft part liv¬
ing near it, in a fquare ftone houfe near the park-gate
at Woodftock, ftiil called Chaucer's Houfe.
_ Soon after, having got the duke of Lancafter for
his patron, Chaucer began every day to rife in great-
nefs. .In 1373, he was fent with other perfons to the
republic of Genoa to hire fliips for the king’s navy
(our want of {hipping in thofe times being ufually fup-
phed by fuc-h means) ; and the king was fo well fatis-
fied with his negotiation, that, on his return, he ob¬
tained a grant of a pitcher of wine daily in the port
of London, to be delivered by the butler of England j
and foon after was made comptroller of the cuftoms
for w ool, wool fells, and hides 5 an office which he
difeharged with great diligence and integrity. At this
period, Chaucer’s income was about 1000I. a-year j
a fum which in thofe days might well enable him to
live, as he fays he did, with dignity in office, and hef-
pitality among his friends. It w'as in this meridian
blaze of profperity, in perfect health of body and peace
of mind, that he wrote his moft humorous poems.
His fatires againft the priefts were probably written to
oblige his patron the duke of Lancafter, who favoured
the caufe of Wickliff, and endeavoured to expofe the
clergy to the indignation of the people. In the laft
year of Edward III. our poet was employed in a com-
miffion to treat with the French j and in the begin¬
ning of King Richard’s reign> he was in fome degree of
favour at court.
I he duke of Lancafter at laft finding his views
checked, began to abandon Wickliff’s party: upon
which
c H A [ 4I
wliich Chaucer likevife, how much foever he had
efpoufed that divine’s opinions, thought it prudent to
conceal them more than he had done. With the duke’s
intereil that of Chaucer entirely funk ; and the former
pafling over fea, his friends felt all the malice of the
oppolite party. Thefe misfortunes occalxoned his writing
that excellent treatife, The TeJ)ament of Love, in imi¬
tation of Boethhis on the Confolation of Philofophy.
Being much reduced, he retired to Woodftock, to com¬
fort himfelf with fludy, which produced his admirable
treatife of the Afrolabe.
The duke of Lancaller at laft furmeunting his trou¬
bles, married Lady Catharine Swynford, lifter to Chau¬
cer’s wife j fo that Thomas Chaucer, our poet’s fon,
became allied to moft of the nobility, and to feveral of
the kings of England. Now the fun began to Ihine
upon Chaucer with an evening ray j for by the influ¬
ence of the duke’s marriage, he again grew to a con-
Cderable (hare of wealth. But being now 70, he re¬
tired to Dunnington caftle near Newbury. He had
not enjoyed this retirement long before Henry IV. fon
of the duke of Lancafter, aflumed the crown, and in
the lirft year of his reign gave our poet marks of his
favour. But however pleafmg the change of affairs
might be to him at firft, he afterwards found no fmall
inconveniences from it. The meafures and grants of
the late king were annulled : and Chaucer, in or¬
der to procure frelh grants of his penflons, left his re¬
tirement, and applied to court: where, though he
gained a confirmation of fome grants, yet the fatigue
of attendance, and his great age, prevented him from
enjoying them. He fell fick at London : and ended
his days in the 7 2d year of his age, leaving the world
as though he defpifed it, as appears from his fong of
Flie from the Prtfe. The year before his death he had
the happinefs, if at his time of life it might be fo call¬
ed, to fee the fon of his brother-in-law (Hen. IV.) feat-
ed on the throne. He was interred in Weftminfter ab¬
bey j and in 1556, Mr Nicholas Bingham, a gentleman
of Oxford, at his own charge, erefted a handfome mo¬
nument for him there. Caxton firft printed the Can¬
terbury Tales; but his works were firft collefted and
publilhed in one volume folio, by William Thynne,
London, 1542. They were afterwards reprinted in
1561, 1598, 1602. Oxford, 1721.
Chaucer was not only the firft, but one of the beft
poets which thefe kingdoms ever produced. He was
equally great in every fpecies of poetry which he at¬
tempted ; and his poems in general poflefs every kind
of excellence, even to a modern reader, except me¬
lody and accuracy of meafure ; defefts which are to be
attributed to the imperfeft ftate of our language, and
the infancy of the art in this kingdom at the time when
he wrote. “ As he is the father of Englifh poetry
(fays Mr Dryden), fo I hold him in the fame degree of
veneration as the Grecians did Homer, or the Romans
Virgil. He is a perpetual fountain of good fenfe,
learned in all fciences, and therefore fpeaks properly on
all fubjefts. As he knew what to fay, fo he knows alfo
when to leave off; a continence which is pradlifed by
few writers, and fcarcely by any of the ancients, ex¬
cept \'irgil and Horace.” This charafter Chaucer cer¬
tainly deferved. ♦He had read a great deal; and was a
man of the world, and of found judgement. He was
the firft Englifti poet who wrote pottle ally, as Dr John-
5 1 c H A
ion obferves in the preface to his Diftionary, and (he
might have added) ■who wrote like a gentleman. He
had alfo the merit of improving our language confider-
ably, by the introduction and naturalization of words
from the Provencal, at that time the moft poliftied dia¬
led in Europe.
CHALC1S, in Ancient Geography, the country of
the Chauci, a people of Germany : divided into the
Minores, now Ef Friejland, and the county of Olden¬
burg ; and into the Majores, now the duchy of Bremen
and a part of Lunenburg.
CH AUD Medley, in Law, is of much the fame im¬
port with CHANCE Medley, The former in its etymo¬
logy fignifies an affray in the heat of blood or paffion :
the latter, a caiual affray. I he latter is in common,
fpeech too often erfoneoufly applied to any manner of
homicide by rnifadventure ; whereas it appears by
the flat. 24 Hen. VIII. c. 5. and ancient books
(Standf. P. C. 16.), that it is properly applied to fuch
killing as happens in felf-defence upon fudden encoun¬
ter.
CHAL, a town of the Eaft Indies, on the coaft of
Malabar, in the province of Baglana, and kingdom oi
Vifapour. Its river affords a good harbour for fmall.
veffels. The town is fortified, and fo is the ifland on
the fouth fide of the harbour. It had formerly a good
trade, but is now miferably poor. It was taken by the
Portuguefe in 1507, to whom it ftill belongs. It is 15
miles fouth of Bombay, and five miles from the fea.
E. Long. 72. 45. N. Lat. 18. 30.
CHAULIEU, William Amfryede, Abbe
d’Amale, one of the moft polite and ingenious of the
French poets, w'as born in 1639, and di^d at the age
°f 84. The moft complete edition of his poems is that
printed in two vols. 8vo, in 1733.
CHAUMONT, a town of France, in Champagne,
and in' the diilrift of Bafligni, of which it is the capi¬
tal. It is feated on a mountain near the river Marne.
E. Long. 5. 15. N. Lat. 48. 6.
CHAUNE, a town of France, in Picardy, and in
the diftrift of Sanfterre, with the title of a duchy. E.
Long. 2. 5 9. N. Lat. 49. 45.
CH A UNTRY. See Chantry.
CHAUNY, a town of France, in Picardy, feated on
the river Oife, in Chantry. E. Long. 3. 17. N. Lat.
49- 37-
CHAUVIN, Stephen, a celebrated minifter of the
reformed religion, born at Nifmes, left France at the
revocation of the edift of Nantz, and retired to Rot¬
terdam, where he began a new Journal des Spavans'y
and afterwards removing to Berlin, continued it there
three years. At this laft place, he wras made profef-
for of philofophy, and difeharged that office with much
honour and reputation. His principal work is a philo-
fophical diftionary, in Latin, which he publilhed at
Rotterdam in 1692 ; and gave a new edition of it much
augmented, at Levarden, in 1703, in folio. He died
in 1725, aged 85.
CHAVEZ, a ftrong town of Tralos-Montes in Por¬
tugal, feated at the foot of a mountain on the river
Tamega. It has two fuburbs, and as many forts ; one
of which looks like a citadel. Between the town and
fuburb of Magdalena, is an old Roman ftone bridge
about 92 geometrical paces long. W. Long. 7.-1.
N, Lat. 41. 45.
CHAZELLES,
Chaucer
II
Chavez.
 S—J
t
C H A r 4I<5 ] CHE
chazell.es, CHAZELL.ES, Jeak Matthew, a celebrated
^ dans^* ^'renc^ mathematician and engineer, was born at Joyous
i ^ ■' . in 1657. M. du Hamel, with whom he got acquaint¬
ed, finding his genius incline towards aftronomy, pre-
fented him to M. CatTmi, who employed him in hisob-
fervatory. In 1684, the duke of Mortemar made ufe
of Chazelles to teach him mathematics j and, the year
after, procured him the preferment of hydrography
profeffor for the galleys of Marfeilles, where he fet
up a fehool for young pilots defigning to ferve aboard
the galleys. In 1686, the galleys made four little
campaigns or rather four courfes, purely for exercife.
'Chazelles went on board every time with them, kept
his fehool upon the fea, and fliowed the practice of
what he taught. In the years 1687 and 1688, he made
two other fea campaigns, in which he drew a great
Tnany plans of ports, roads, towns, and forts, which
Were lodged with the minifters of date. At the be¬
ginning of the war which ended with the peace of
Kyfwick, feme marine officers, and Chazelles among
the rell, fancied the galleys might be fo contrived as
to live upon the ocean j that they might ferve to tow
the men of war when the wind failed or proved con¬
trary, and alfo help to fecure the coad of France upon
the ocean. Chazelles was fent to the wed coads in
July 1689, to examine the practicability of this
fcheme j and in 1690, fifteen galleys new built fet fail
from Rochefort, and cruifed as far as Torbay, in Eng¬
land, and proved ferviceable at the defeent upon Tin-
mouth. After this, he digeded into order the ob-
fervations he had made on the coads of the ocean j
and drew didinft maps, with a portulan to them, viz.
a large deferiptioh of every haven, of the depth, the
tides, the dangers and advantages difeovered, &c.
Thefe maps were inferted in the Neptune Franfoife,
publilhed in 1692, in which year Chazelles w as engi¬
neer at the defeent at Oneille. In 1693, Monfieur de
Pontchartrain, then fecretary of date for the marine,
and afterwards chancellor of France, refolved to get
the Neptune Franfoife carried on to a fecond volume,
which was alfo to take in the Mediterranean. Cha¬
zelles defired that he might have a year’s voyage on
this fea, fo£ making adronomical obfervations j and the
requed being granted, he paffed through Greece, Egypt,
and other parts of Turkey, with his quadrant and tele-
fcope in his hand. When he was in Egypt, he mea-
fured the pyramids : and finding the fides of the larged
precifely facing the four cardinal points, naturally con¬
cluded this pofition to have been Intended, and alfo that
the pdles of the earth and meridians had not fince de¬
viated. Chazelles likewife made a report of his voyage
in the Levant, and gave the academy all the fatisfac-
tion they wanted concerning the pofition of Alexandria:
upon wffiich he wras made a member of the academy in
1695. He died in 1710.
CHAZINZARIANS, a fe& of heretics who rofe
in Armenia in the feventh century. The word is
formed of the Armenian chnxus, “ crofs.” They are
alfo called Jlaurolatrce, which in Greek fignifies the
fame as Clia%in%arians in Armenian, viz. adorers of
the crofs ,• they being charged with paying adoration
to the crofs alone. In other refpe&s they were Nedo-
rlans ; and admitted two perfons in Jefus Chrid : Ni-
cephorus aferibes other Angularities to them •, particu¬
larly their holding an annual fead in memory of the
dog of their falfe prophet Sergius, which they called CWr
art%ihart%es. r‘a'-j
CHESAPEAK BAY, in North America, the en- qJ.,
trance between Cape Henry and Cape Charles, run-u—y, i
ning up 300 miles between Virginia and Maryland.
It is navigable almod all the way for large diips, and
has feveral navigable rivers that fall into it, by means
of which fhips go up to the very doors of the planters,
to take in their lading of goods.—Here was a fea en¬
gagement in 17S1 between the Britiffi fleet under Ad¬
miral Graves confiding of 19 (hips of the line, and
the French fleet of 24 line-of-battle flaps under the
Count de Grafl'e, which ended in the Count’s keeping
ofleffion of the bay, by which Lord Cornwallis and
is whole army w ere made prifoners of war at York-
town, being inveded both by fea and land by very fu-
perior number's.
CHEATS, are deceitful praftices in defrauding, or
endeavouring to defraud, another of his known right,
by means of feme artful device, contrary to the plain
rules of common honedy : as by playing with falfe
dice, or by caufing an illiterate perfon to execute 3/
deed to his prejudice, by reading it over to him in
words different from thofe in which it was written,
&c.—If any perfon deceitfully get into his hands or
poffeflion any money or other things of any other per-
fon’s, by colour of any falfe token, &.c. being convict¬
ed, he fliall have fuch punifliment by imprifonment,
fetting upon the pillory, or by any corporeal pain ex¬
cept pains of death, as fliall be adjudged by the per¬
fons before whom he rtiall be convidfed.—As there are
frauds which may be relieved civilly, and not punifhed
criminally j fo there are other frauds which in a fpe-
cial cafe may not be helped civilly, and yet fliall be pu-
niflied criminally. Thus, if a minor goes about the
town, and, pretending to be of age, defrauds many
perfons by taking credit for a confiderable quantity of
goods, and then infifling on his nonage, the perfons in¬
jured canriot recover the value of their goods, but they
may inflidt and punifli him for a common cheat. Per¬
fons convidfed of obtaining money or goods by falfe
pretences, er of fending threatening letters in order
to extort money or goods, may be puniflied with fin*
or imprifonment, or by pillory, whipping, or trahfpor-
tation.
CHEBRECHIN, a town of Poland, in the province
of Red Ruflia and palatinate of Bellkow. It is feated on
the declivity of a hill 5 and the river Wicrpi waters its
walls, and afterwards falls into the river Bog. The
Jews there are very rich. E. Long. 23. 51. N. Lat.
5°- 35-
CHECAYA, in Turkifli affairs, the fecond officer
of the janizaries, who commands them under the aga,
and is otherwife called protogero.
There is alfo a checaya of the treafury, ffables, kit¬
chen, &c. the word fignifying as much as lieutenant,
or the fecond in any office.
CHECK, or ChECK-RoI/, a roll or book, wherein
are contained the names of fuch perfons as are attend¬
ants and in the pay of the king, or other great perfon-
ages, as their houfehold fervants.
C/eri of the CHECK in the king's houfehold, has the
check and controlment of the yeomen of the guard,
and all the ufliers belonging to the royal family, al¬
lowing their abfence er defers in attendance, or.dnni-
nilhing
CHE [ 417 [ CHE
(Sjeck nlihing their wages for the fame, &c. He alfo, by
II himfelf or deputy, takes the view of thofe who are to
'lieek5, watch in the court, and has the fetting of the watch,
C/erk of the CHECK in the royal dock yards, an offi¬
cer who keeps a mufter or regifter of all the men em¬
ployed aboard his majefty’s (hips and veffels, and alfo
of all the artificers and others in the fervice of the na¬
vy at the port where he is fettled.
Check, in falconry, a term ufed of a hawk, when
(he forfakes her proper game, to fly at pies, crows,
rooks, or the like, that crofs her in her flight.
CHECKY, in Heraldry, is when the fhield, or a
bordure, &c. is chequered, or divided into chequers
or fquares, in the manner of a chefsboard.
This is one of the moll noble and molt ancient fi¬
gures ufed in armoury 5 and a certain author faith,
that it ought to be given to none but great warriors,
in token of their bravery : for the chefsboard repre-
fents a field of battle 5 and the pawns placed on both
fides reprefent the foldiers of the two armies, which
move, attack, advance, or retire, according to the will
of the gamefters, who are the generals.
This figure is always compofed of metal and colour.
But fome authors would have it reckoned among the
feveral forts of furs.
CHEEK, in Anatomy, that part of the face fituat-
cd below the eyes on each fide.
Cheeks, a general name among mechanics, for al-
moft all thofe pieces of their machines and inftruments,
that are double and perfectly alike. Thus, the cheeks
of a printing prefs are its tw’o principal pieces; they
are placed perpendicular, and parallel to each other j
ferving to fuftain the three fommers, viz. the head,
flielves, and winter, whicli bear the fpindle and other
parts of the machine. See PRINTING Prefs.
The cheeks of a turner's lathe, are tw'o long pieces
of w ood, between which are placed the puppets, which
are either pointed or otherwife, ferving to fupport the
work and the mandrils of the workman. Thefe two
pieces are placed parallel to the horizon, feparated
from one another by the thicknefs of the tail of the
puppets, and joined with tenons to twro other pieces
of w ood placed perpendicularly, called the legs of the
lathe.
Cheeks of the glacier's vice, are two pieces of iron
joined parallel at top and bottom *, in which are the
axles, or fpindles, little wheel, culhions, &c. whereof
the machine is compofed.
The cheeks of a mortar, or the brackets, in Artillery,
are made of ftrong planks of wood, bound with thick
plates of iron, and are fixed to the bed by four bolts ;
they rife on each fide of the mortar, and ferve to
keep her at what elevation is given her, by the help of
ftrong bolts of iron which go through both cheeks,
both under and behind the mortar, betwixt which are
driven quoins of wood ; thefc bolts are called the brack¬
et bolts ; and the bolts which are put one in each end
of the bed, are the traverfe bolts, becaufe with hand-
fpikes the mortar is by thefe traverfed to the right or
left.
Cheeks, in Ship-building, are tw'o pieces of tim¬
ber, fitted on each fide of the maft at the top, ferv¬
ing to ftrengthen the mafts there. The uppermoft
bail or piece of timber in the beak of a fliip is called
Vol. V. Part II.
the cheek. The knees which fatten the beak head to Cheeks,
the fhip are called cheeks ; and the fides of any block, Cheete*
or the fides of a (hip’s carriage of a gun, are alfo * '
called cheeks.
CHEESE, a fort of food prepared of curdled milk
purged from the ferum or whey, and afterwards dried
for ufe.
Cheefe differs in quality according as It is made from
new or fkimmed milk, from the curd which feparates
fpontaneouily upon Handing, or that which is more
fpeedily produced by the addition of runnet. Cream
alfo affords a kind of cheefe, but quite fat and butj ra-
ceous, and which does not keep long. Analyzed che¬
mically, cheefe appears to partake much more of an
animal nature than butter. It is infoluble in every li¬
quid except fpirit of nitre, and cauftic alkaline ley.
Shaved thin, and properly treated with het w^att r. ?t
forms a very ftrong cement if mixed with quicklime Sre :V.
When prepared with hot water, it is recommended —
in the Swedilh Memoirs to be ufed by anglers as a
bait j it may be made into any form, is. not foftened
by the cold water, and the fifties are fond of it.—As
a food, phyficians condemn the too free ufe of cheefe.
When new, it is extremely difficult of digeftion: when
old, it becomes acrid and hot ; and, from Dr Perci-
val’s experiments, is evidently of a feptic nature. It
is a common opinion that old cheefe digefts every
thing, yfifcis left undigefted itfelf 5 but this is without
any folid foundation. Cheefe made from the milk of
ffieep digefts fooner than that from the milk of cows,
but is lefs nourifliing j that from the milk of goats
digefts fooner than either, but is alfo the leaft nou-
riffiing. In general, it is a kind of food fit only for
the laborious, or thofe whofe organs of digeftion are
ftrong.
Every country has places noted for this commodity:
thus Cheftiire and Gloucefter cheefe are famous in Eng¬
land ; and the Parmefan cheefe is in no lefs repute
abroad, efpecially in France. This fort of cheefe is
entirely made of fweet cow-milk : but at Rochefort in
Languedoc, they make it of ewes milk •, and in other
places it is ufual to add goat or ewes milk in a certain
proportion to that of the cow. There is likewife a
kind of medicated cheefe made by intimately mixing
the expreffed juice of certain herbs, as fage, baum,
mint, &c. with the curd before it is falhioned into a
cheefe.—The Laplanders make a fort of cheefe of the
milk of their rein deer j which is not only of great fer¬
vice to them as food, but on many other occafions. It
is a very common thing in thefe climates to have a
limb numbed and frozen with the cold : their remedy
for this is the heating an iron red hot, and thrufting it
through the middle of one of thefe cheefes ; they catch
what drops out, and with this anoint the limb, which
foon recovers. They are fubjedt alfo to coughs a. d
difeafes of the lungs, and thefe they cure by the fame
fort of medicine : they boil a large quantity of the
cheefe in the freflr deer’s milk, and drink the decoc¬
tion in large draughts warm feveral times a-day. They
make a lefs ftrong decodlion of the fame kind alfo,
which they ufe as their common drink, for three or
four days together, at feveral times of the year. For
an account of the different proceffes for making cheefe,
fee Cheese, Agriculture Index.
CHEEi>E-Remtet. See Galium and Runnet.
3 G CHEGOE,
CHE
[ 4i
CHEGOE, or Nigua, the Indian name of an in¬
fect common in Mexico, and alfo found in other hot
countries, where it is called pique, is an exceeding fmall
animal, not very unlike a flea, and is bred in the duft.
It fixes upon the feet, and breaking infenfibly the cu¬
ticle, it nellies betwixt that and the true fkin, which
a)lb, unlefs it is immediately taken out, it breaks, and
pierces at lalt to the flelh, multiplying with a rapidity
almoft incredible. It is feldom difeovered until it
pierces the true Ikin, when it caufes an intolerable
itching. Thefe infetts, with their aftonilhing multi¬
plication, would foon depopulate thofe countries, were
it lefs eafy to avoid them, or were the inhabitants lefs
dexterous in getting them out before they begin to
fpread. On the other hand, nature, in order to leffen
the evil, has not only denied them wings, but even
that conformation of the legs and thofe ftrong mufcles
which are given to the flea for leaping. The poor,
however, who are in fome meafure doomed to live in
the dull, and to an habitual negleft of their perfons,
fuffer thefe infedts fometimes to multiply fo far as to
make large holes in their flelh, and even to occafion
dangerous wounds.
CHEIRANTHUS, Stock-gilliflower, or Wall-
flower. See Botany Index.
CHE KAO, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of an
earth found in many parts of the Ealt Indies, and
fometimes ufed by the Chinefe in their porcelain ma-
nufadtures. It is a hard and ftony earth j and the
manner of ufmg it is this : they firlt calcine it in an
open furnace, and then beat it to a fine powder. This
powder they mix with large quantities of water : then
Birring the whole together, they let the coarfer part
fubfide ; and pouring off the reft yet thick as cream,
they leave it to fettle, and ufe the matter wdiich is
found at the bottom in form of a foft pafte, and will
retain that humidity a long time. This fupplies the
place of the earth called hoache, in the making of that
elegant fort of china-ware which is all white, and has
flowers which feem formed by a mere vapour within its
furface. The manner of their ufing it is this : they
fir ft make the veffel of the common matter of the ma-
nufadturc j when this is almoft dry, they paint upon it
the flowers, or whatever other figures they pleafe, with
a pencil dipt in this preparation of the chekao j v hen
this is thoroughly dry, they cover the whole veflel
■with the varnilh in the common way, and bake it as
ufual. The confequence is, that the whole is white :
but the body of the veffel, the figures, and the varnilh,
being three different fubftances, each has its own par¬
ticular white 5 and the flowers being painted in the
fineft white of all, are diftindtly feen through the var¬
nilh upon the veffel, and feem as if traced by a vapour
0nly. The hoache does this as well as the chekao j
and has. befides this the quality of ferving for making
the porcelain ware either alone, or in the place of ka¬
olin : the chekao has not this property, nor any other
fubftance befides this hoache, which appears to be the
fame with our fteatites or foap-rock.
CHEKE, Sir John, a celebrated ftatefman, gram¬
marian, and divine, of an ancient family in the Me of
Wight, was born at Cambridge in the year 1514, and
educated at St John’s college in that univerfity j where,
after taking his degrees in arts, he was firft chofen
Greek le&urer, and in J540 profeffor of that lan-
8 ] CHE
guage, with .a ftipend of 40I. a-year. In this ftation Ckke;
he was principally inftrumental in reforming the pro- Che-kya,
nunciation of the Greek language, which, having been '-“’’Y-'
much negledted, was imperfectly underftood. About
the year IJ43 he was incorporated matter of arts at
Oxford, where, we are told, he had ftudied for fome
time. In the following year he was fent to the court
of King Henry VIII. and appointed tutor for the La¬
tin language, jointly with Sir Anthony Cooke, to
Prince Edrvard, about which time he was made canon
of the college newly founded at Oxford •. wherefore he
mult have now been in orders. On the acceflion of
his royal pupil to the crown, Mr Cheke was firft re¬
warded wdth a penfion of 100 merks, and afterwards
obtained feveral confiderable grants from the crown.
In 1550 he was made chief gentleman of the privy-
chamber, and was knighted the following year j in
1552, chamberlain of the exchequer for life j in 1553,
clerk of the council j and foon after fecretary of flats
and privy-counfellor. But thefe honours were of fliort
duration. Having concurred in the' meafures of the
duke of Northumberland for fettling the crown on the
unfortunate Jane Grey, and aCted as her fecretary
during the nine days of her reign, on the acceflion of
Queen Mary, Sir John Cheke was fent to the Tower,
and ftript of the greateft part of his poffeflions. In
September 1554 he obtained his liberty, and a licenfe
from her majefty to travel abroad. He went firft to
Bafil, thence to Italy, and afterwards returned to
Stralburg, where he was reduced to the neceflity of
reading Greek leftures for fubfiftence. In 1556 he
fet out in an evil hour to meet his wife at Bruffels «
but, before he reached that city, he was feized by or¬
der of King Philip II. hoodwinked, and thrown into
a waggon $ and thus ignominioufly conducted to a
Ihip, which brought him to the Tower of London.
He foon found that religion was the caufe of his im-
prifonment j for he was immediately vilited by two
Romifh priefts, who pioufly endeavoured to, convert
him, but without fuccefs. However, he was at laft
vifited by Fleckenham ; who told him from the queen,
that he muft either comply or burn. This powerful
argument had the defired effect $ and Sir John Cheke
accordingly complied in form, and his lands, upon cer¬
tain conditions, were reftored j but his remorfe foon
put an end to his life. He died in September 1557,
at the houfe of his friend Mr Peter Olborne in Wood-
ftreet, London, and .was buried in St Alban’s church.
He left three fons, the eldeft of whom, Henry, was
knighted by Queen Elizabeth. Pie wrote, 1. A Latin
tranflation of two of St Chryfoftom’s homilies. Lond.
1543, 4to. 2. The Hurt of Sedition. Lond. 1549,
1576, 1641. 3. Latin Tranflation of the Englifh Com¬
munion Service. Printed among Bucer’s opufcula.
4. DepronunciationeGreece?. Bafil, 1555, 8vo. 5. Se¬
veral letters publiflied in hi* life by Strype j and a
great number of other books.
CHE-KYANG, or Tche-KIANG, a maritime pro¬
vince of China, and one of the molt confiderable in
the empire $ is bounded on the fouth by Fo-kien j on
the north and weft by Kiang-nan and Kiang-fi ; and
on the eaft by the fea. The air is pure and healthful,
and the foil fertile, being watered by a number of ri¬
vers and canals, as well as fprings and lakes. The
chief produce is filk j a vaft quantity of which is cul¬
tivated
CHE [ 419 ]
kyang. txvated Iiere, and for which the whole country is cover- inhabitants
c H E
ed with mulberry trees. Thefe are purpofely checked
in their growth by the natives, experience having
taught them, that the leaves of the fmalleft trees pro¬
duce the belt lilk. The Huffs made in this province,
which are embroidered with gold and filver, are rec¬
koned the belt in the empire j and notwithltanding a
valt exportation to the Japan and Philippine illands, as
well as to every part of China, and to Europe, fuch an
abundance is left in the province, that a complete fuit
of lilk may be bought here as cheap as one of the
coarfelt woollen in France.
This province is alfo remarkable for a particular fpe-
cies of mulhrooms, which are exported to every part of
the empire. They are pickled, and then dried j when
they will keep good for a whole year. When ufed
they mult be foaked in water, which renders them as
frelh as at firlt. Here alfo the tallow tree is met
with •, and the province affords excellent hams, and
thofe fmall gold filhes with which the ponds are ufually
flocked.
Che-kyang contains 11 cities of the firlt clafs, 72
of the third, and 18 fortrelfes, which, in Europe, would
be accounted large cities. The principal of thefe are,
1. Hang-tcheou-fou, the metropolis, accounted by the
Chinefe to be the paradife of the earth. It is four
leagues in circumference, exclufive of the fuburbs j and
the number of its inhabitants is computed at more
than a million, and 10,000 workmen are fuppofed to
be employed within its walls in manufacturing of filk*
Its principal beauty is a fmall lake, clofe to the w-alls
on the weltern fide, the water of which is pure and
limpid, and the banks alraolt everywhere covered with
flowers. Its banks are likewife adorned with halls and
open galleries fupported by pillars, and paved with
large flag Hones for the convenience of thofe who are
fond of walkings and the lake itfelf is interfered with
caufeways cafed with cut Itone, openings covered with
bridges being left in them for the palfage of boats. In
the middle are two illands with a temple and feveral
pleafure houfes, and the emperor has a fmall palace in
the neighbourhood. The city is garrifoned by 300Q
Chinefe and as many Tartars, and has under its jurif-
didion feven cities of the third clafs. 2. Hou-tcheou-
fou is alfo fituated on a lake, and manufactures an in¬
credible quantity of filk, infomuch, that the tribute
of a city under its jurifdiCtion, amounts to more than
500,000 ounces of filver. 3. Ning-po-fou, by Euro¬
peans called Liampo, is an excellent port, oppofite to
Japan. Eighteen or twenty leagues from it is an
illand called Tcheou-chan, where the Englilh firlt land¬
ed on their arrival at China. 4. Ning-po is remark¬
able for the filk manufactured there, which is much
elteemed in foreign countries, efpecially Japan, where
it is exchanged for gold, filver, and copper. 5. Chao-
hing-fou, fituated in an extenfive and fertile plain, is re¬
markable for a tomb about half a league diftant, which
is faid to be that of Yu. The people of this province
are faid to be the molt verfed in chicanery of any in
China. 6. Tchu-tcheou-fou, remarkable for having
ln its neighbourhood pines of an extraordinary fize,
capable of containing 40 men in their trunks. The
ingenious, polite, and courteous toCke-kyUNg*
ftrangers, but very 1'uperfl.itious. II.,
CHELIDONIAS, according to Pliny, an anniver-
fary wind, blowing at the appearance of the fwallows ;
•therwife the Favonius, or Zephyrus.
CHELIDONIUM, Celandine, and Horned or
Prickly Poppy. See Botany Index.
CHELIDONIUS LAPIS, in NaturalHi/tory, a Hone
faid by the ancients to be found in the itomachs of
young fwallows, and greatly eiteemed for its virtues
in the falling ficknefs.
CHELM, a town of Poland, capital of a palatinate
of the fame name. It is fituated in the province of
Red Ruffia. E. Long. 23. 30. N. Lat. 51. 25.
CHELMSFORD, the county town of Eflex, fi¬
tuated on the river Chelmer, in E. Long. o. 20*
N. Lat. 51. 40. It fends two members to parlia-
ment.
CHELONE. See Botany Index.
CHELSEA, a fine village fituated on the northern
bank of the riyer Thames, a mile weftward of Well-
minller, remarkable for a magnificent hofpital of in¬
valids and old decrepid foldiers j and a plealure „oufc,
called Ranelagh, to which a great deal of fine com¬
pany refort in fummer j and a noble botanic garden
belonging to the company of apothecaries. The roy¬
al hofpital of invalids was begun by Charles II. car¬
ried on by James IL and finilhed by King William.
It cqpfifts of a yaft range of buildings, that form three
large fquares, in which there is an uncommon air of
neatnefs and elegance obferved. It is under the di-
re&ion of commiflioners, who confill generally of the
officers of Rate and of war. Thefe is a governor with
5001. falary, a lieutenant-governor with 4001. and a
major with 250I. befides inferior officers, fexjeants, cor¬
porals, and drums, with above 400 men, who all do
garrifon duty: and there a reabove 10,000 out-penfioners,
who receive an annuity of 7 1. 12s. 6s. each; all which
expence is defrayed by a poundage deducted from the
army, deficiencies being made good by parliament. 
The botanic garden is very extenfive, enriched with
a vaft variety of domeftic and exotic plants, the origi¬
nal flock of which was given to the apothecaries of
London by Sir Hans Sloane.—At Ranelagh garden
and amphitheatre, the entertainment is a fine band of
mufic, with an organ and fome of the beft voices ; and
the regale is tea and coffee.
CHELTENHAM, or Chiltenham, a market
town of Gloucefterffiire, feven miles north-eaff 0^
Gloucefter. W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 51.50. It is
chiefly remarkable for its mineral waters, of the fame
kind with thofe of Scarborough. See Scarbo¬
rough.
CHEMISE, in fortification, the wall with which
a baftion, or any other bulwark of earth, is lined for its
greater fupport and ftrength : or it is the folidity of
wall from the talus to the ftone roiv.
Fire CHEMISE, a piece of linen cloth, fteeped in a
compofition of oil of petrol, camphor, and other com-
buftible matters, ufed at fea to fet fire to an enemy’s
veffel.
3 G 3
CHEMISTRY,
[ 420 ]
CHEMISTRY.
INTRODUCTION.
Sefcnition. {CHEMISTRY is defined, by Dr Black, to be “ the
ftudy of the effe£ts produced by heat and by
mixture, in all bodies, or mixtures of bodies, natural
or artificial, with a view to the improvement of the
arts, and the knowledge of nature or, according to
the definition propofed by the learned editor of his lec¬
tures, “ chemiftry is the ftudy of the effefls of heat
and mixture, with the view of difcovering their gene¬
ral and fubordinate laws, and of improving the ufeful
arts.”
Fourcroy has defined 44 chemiftry to be that fcience
■which teaches the knowledge of the intimate and reci¬
procal aftion of all the bodies in nature on one ano¬
ther.” To this definition it has been objefted, that it
requires much explanation, that the terms reciprocal
and intimate adtion not being readily underftood, would
need new definitions to explain them, and that it em¬
braces more than what ftridtly belongs to the fcience
of chemiftry. When motion is communicated, or ta¬
ken away by the collifion of different bodies, the ac¬
tion between thefe bodies is intimate and reciprocal j
but the ftudy of this aftion belongs to mechanics, and
not to chemical fcience.
Perhaps no definition of chemiftry has yet been gi¬
ven which is of fufficient logical precifion to be entire¬
ly free from objedtion. Xhe objedt of chemiftry, how¬
ever, admits of no ambiguity. It is the province of
natural hiftory to arrange and diftribute natural bo¬
dies into claffes a©d orders, each being accurately cha-
radlerized, fo that the objefts which it includes may
be readily fecognized and diftinguifhed by eafy marks
of reference. Mechanical fcience is employed about
the external properties of bodies, and their effedts on
each other, the force and meafure of which are fubjedt
to calculation} but it is the objedt of chemiftry. to dif-
cover the component parts of bodies, to examine the
properties and ufes of the combinations formed, either
naturally or artificially, from thefe fimple fubftances,
and to obferve and trace the law’s by which thefe com¬
binations take place.
Sect. I*. Dmjlon of Natural Knowledge.
Variety of When w’e confider the immenfe and endlefs variety
•bjects im- 0f objects which prefent themfelves to the eye, it muft
appear, at firft fight, jmpoflible to acquire even a ge¬
neral knowledge of their qualities and properties. And,
indeed, the longeft life, with themoft vigorus mind and
the moft indefatigable induftry, w ould be greatly in¬
adequate to the talk of examining every individual ob¬
jedt. Hence it is, by a law of the human .mind, that
arrange the objedts of our mveftigations into certain
claffes, the individuals of which are found to poffefs
certain general properties. Thefe are again fubdivid-
ed into other claffes with additional diferiminatiye
marks j and thefe laft are ftill farther fubdivided, till
arrive at the individual j and, if the arrangement
Bienle
be corredt, this muft poffefs all the charadteriftic marka
of reference to the general and fubordinate divilions of
that clafs of ebjedts to which it belongs. In this way
the mind is aided in its inveftigations, and the commu¬
nication of knowledge' is facilitated and improved. ^
Thus it is the province of natural hiftory to arrange Natural
the objedts which come under our obfervation, and to hiftory.
deferibe them with fuch precifion and accuracy as they
may be eafily diftinguilhed from each other. It may
be confidered as a deferiptive view of the material
world in a ftate of reft or inaftion, without taking in¬
to account the motions or mutual adtion of bodies on
each other. It is the firft fuccefsful ftep in the pro-
grefs of knowledge. 4
But the operations of nature are feldom at reft. Natural
Change fucceeds change, new combinations are form-P11110^
ed, and new productions make their appearance. The
primary planets revolve round the fun as their centre j
the fecondary planets, or the moons, attradted by the
primary, perform fimilar revolutions; the air of the
atmofphere preffes on the furface of the earth with a
certain force j a ftone, when unfupported, falls to the
earth in a courfe diredted towards its centre j water
deprived of a certain portion of heat becomes folid,
and appears in the form of ice j wdien combined with a
greater portion of heat than what is neceffary to retain
it in the fluid ftate, it affumes the form of vapour, af-
cends into the atmofphere, is there by. certain procef-
fes robbed of its heat, and re-appears in the form of
rain j or, w’hen a greater portion is abftradted, takes
that of fnoiv or hail, and falls to the earth. A. feed
is put into the ground; and if heat., air, and moifture
be applied, it germinates and fprings up; and with
the addition of light, if the operation of the fame
agents be continued, it becomes a new plant., puts forth
leaves and flowers, and produces feeds fimilar to that
from which it fprung. J
Now’ to determine what are thefe changes, to ob-Phyfo
ferve the laws by which fuch changes are effedted, and
to afeertain the meafure and quantity of the effedt pro¬
duced, belong to that department of knowledge which
is included under the general term natural philofophj
or phyfics. But of thefe changes or motions, feme are
obvious and palpable $ others entirely elude our fenfes.
We fee a ftone defeend to the earth j and experience
informs us, that it falls with a force in a certain pro¬
portion to its weight and the height from which it fell.
The peculiar change or motion which takes place when
water affumes the folid form, when a fluid undergoes
the procefs of fermentation or when a combuftible bo¬
dy is burned, is altogether imperceptible. Thefe mo¬
tions are too minute to be recognized. The effedt is
produced before we can difeover the change. i
Thus natural philofophy divides itfelf intotw’o great cheinift1?’
branches. The objedts of the ff are the fenfible
changes or motions which are obferved in the material
world 5 and the confideration of thefe objedts is, pro¬
perly fpeaking, natural philofophy or .phyfics. The
fecund great branch, which is employed in difeovering
C H E M I
jLjuc. laws, and appreciating the effe£s,.of the infenfible
T;n. motions of bodies, conftitutes the fcience of chemi-
T‘'W ftry (a).
Sfxt. II. Of the ObjeEts and Importance of Chemijlry.
The importance and extenfive utility of this fcience
tnult appear obvious to thofe who have at all confider-
ed the fabject. But for the fake of others who are yet
unacquainted with it, we {hall take a general view of
jl in the objects which it embraces, and the advantages to
x: lining be derived from the ftudy of chemiftry, whether in ex-
11 ll plaining many of the ftriking operations of nature, or in
lh :,lue' improving the arts of life.
The moft wonderful effeas, after frequent repeti¬
tion, become familiar, and ceafe to produce any emo¬
tion in the mind. It is on this account that many of
the moft ftriking appearances of nature pafs unheeded
as trifling occurrences, and are unnoticed by common
obfervers. Had we been always accuftomed to the ri¬
gour of winter, and never known the genial warmth
of fpring, or experienced the ripening fummer’s heat,
the aftonilhing changes effe&ed by the return of thefe
feafons could not fail to fill us with admiration. Thefe
changes are of fuch univerfal influence, that they are
limited to no department of nature. 1 heir beneficial
effefts are felt in the inanimate as well as in the ani¬
mated creation. The fame power which is feen in the
gay profufion of the vegetable tribes, reftores to a new
exiftence myriads of animals, whofe vital funttions had
been fufpended. The air, the earth, the waters, fwarm
with life. ciri
Xhe principal agent in the product ion of thefe changes
is heat j an agent, the moft powerful and irrefiftible
in its operations, unlteiited in its effefts, and extenfive
in its importance and utility. I his agent, therefore,
afting fo powerfully in chemical operations, becomes an
efiential objeft of chemical fcience. Clofely conne&ed
with heat is light, which is alfo a powerful agent m
many of the procefles of nature. This, too, is necef-
farily a fubjeft of chemical inveftigation, not lefs curi¬
ous and interefting. buch, indeed, is the univerfal im¬
portance of light and heat in all the proceffes of na¬
ture, that no change takes place, no new combination
is formed, or new product makes its appearance, in
which the one or the other, or both, are not evolved
or abforbed.
In the knowledge of the conftitution of the atmo-
fphere, in inveftigating the changes to which it is fub-
je£t, the variations of temperature, winds, dew, rain,
hail, and fnow, chemiftry is our principal, our only a-
tisfa&ory guide. Thefe remarkable changes aie to be
confidered as immenfe chemical operations, and can
only be explained by chemical laws.
in But in the mid ft of the infinite variety of objeCts
fljiludy tffrom which man muft derive the means of his comfort,
his happinefs and his luxuries, the means, it might e
added, of his very exiftence, chemiftry affords him the
moft important aid. Whether his refearches be car¬
ried into the mineral, the vegetable, or the anima
S T R Y.
kingdoms, the ftudy and cultivation of chemical fcietice Introduc-
become effentially requifite for the fuccefsful progrefs iri.tecn‘..,
of his inveftigations. . # 9
Of the importance of chemiftry to the mineralogift, Minerals,
the limited and unfettled ftate ef this fcience previous to
the improvements of modern chemiftry, is a convincing
proof. In mineralogy, the knowledge of chemiftry is
not only neceffary in dete&ing and diferiminating the
various fubftances of which the globe which we inhabit
iscompofed, in feparating and purifying thefe fubftances,
but alfo in preparing and accommodating them to the
numerous purposes of life. 10
Of the knowledge which we poffefs of the vegeta- Vegetable^
ble kingdom, chemiftry furnifhes a very large ftiare.^
It is from this fcience that we derive the means of
tracing the progrefs of vegetation, of illuftrating the
peculiar functions of plants, and difeovering the .com¬
pounds which are formed from a few Ample principles,
the nature and properties of thefe compounds, and their
relative proportions, which exhibit an immeme variety
ef new produ&ions, many of them of the.utmoft im¬
portance to man, on account of their nutritious quali¬
ties, or indirectly ufeful to. him by affording nourifti-
meat to thofe animals which he employs as food.
Hence the advantage of applying chemical knowledge
to agriculture, in determining the nature of the foil fit
for the reception of plants, their proper food, and the
mode of fupplying it in the preparation of manures.
With thefe objeCts in view, chemiftry helds out incal¬
culable advantages in the improvement of many de¬
partments of agriculture and rural economy, many of
which, from the rapid and fucaefsful progrefs of the
fcience, there is room to hope, may be foon ob¬
tained. , r. 11
Nor is the application of chemical, fcience to the Animals,
economy of animals lefs limited in its importance and
utility. It not only contributes to the means of de-
compofing animal matters, and of exhibiting and ex¬
amining feparately the conftituent parts of animal fub¬
ftances j but alfo ferves to. explain in fome meafure
many of the effential functions of the living anniial
body : fuch are digeftion, refpiration, fecretion, which,
fo far as matter is concerned, and the changes which
it undergoes, are to be confidered as true chemical
nroceffes, and can only be inveftigated by chemical
principles. But it is here neceffary to obferve, that
the functions of the living vegetable or animal cannot
be wholly accounted for from the nature of chemical
aCtion, without taking into confideration the exiftence
of the vital principle, which counteracts and regulates-
the operation of chemical agents, aids and promotes
the beneficial effeAs of thofe that are ufeful to its
health and growth, and refills and deftroys thofe that
are hurtful. . . , .
The utility of chemiftry m medicine is too obvious Medicine,
to require much illuftration. Such, indeed, is its im¬
portance that it is now univerfally received and ac¬
knowledged as one of the effential branches of medical
education. So far as the principles of chemiftry can
be applied in inveftigating the nature of the functions
. r .i arro ire are indebted to-the Introductory Lectures of Pro*
(a) For this view of the divifion of natural know led,-, j
feffor Robiufon of Edinburgh.
CHEMISTRY,
422
Intnxluc- of the animal body in a {late of health, or can be, em-
, tK'n' ployed in accounting for the irregular aft ion of thefe
powers, whether exceffive or deficient, which indicates
a deranged ftate of the funftions, and conftitutes dif-
eafe, its relation to medicine mult be confidered clofe
and intimate. But the medical art comprehends more
than a bare knowledge of the ftrufture and funftions
of the animal body. It alfo includes an accurate
knowledge of the fubftances employed as remedies, of
their nature and properties as fimple fubitances, and
their new qualities and effefts under new combina-
• lions. This knowledge can only be acquired by the
lludy of chcmiltry, which is indebted to medicine for
fome part of its progrefs as an art, in the difeoveries
which were accidentally made by the rude and un¬
certain experiments of medical praftitioners in the
early ages, to afeertain the fenfible qualities and falu-
tary effefts of the remedies which they employed.
Chemiftry, by its rapid progrefs in modern times, has
amply repaid thefe advantages, and in the hands of
the intelligent and accurate obferver, has greatly con¬
tributed to give more rational and fimple views of me-
dical fcxence.
The arts. confidering the application of chemiftry to the
improvement of the arts of civilized life, a wide field
of contemplation opens to our view. So extenfive
indeed are its influence and importance, that in
moft of the arts, many of the proceffes, in fome all
that are employed, depend on chemical principles.
Barely to mention fome of thefe arts will afford am¬
ple illuftration of its extenfive utility. In the art of ex-
trafting metals from their ores, in purifying and com¬
bining them with each other, and in forming inftru-
ments and utenfils, whether for ufeful or ornamental
purpofes, almoft all the proceffes are purely chemical.
The efiential improvements which modern chemiftry
has introduced in the manufafture of glafs and porce¬
lain fhew its importance and utility in thefe arts. Nor
has it contributed lefs by the application of its princi¬
ples to the arts of tanning, foapmaking, dyeing, and
bleaching. All the proceffes in baking, brewing, and
fiiftilling, moft; of the culinary arts, and many others
in domeftic economy, are chemical operations. In
Ihort, wherever, in any of the proceffes of nature or of
art, the addition or the abftraftion of heat takes place j
wherever fubftances in combination are to be decom-
pofed or feparated $ wherever the union of fimple fub¬
ftances is wanted, and new compounds are formed,
there effefts are produced which can only be explain¬
ed and underftood by chemical principles.
From this view of the extenfive application of che¬
mical fcicnce in explaining many of the operations of
nature, and in elucidating many of the proceffes of the
arts of life, thofe who have not confidered the objefts
which it embraces will be enabled to judge of the im¬
portance of this ftudy.
But however much we may be interefted in obferv-
ing and admiring the changes and effefts produced by
chemical aftion, if we extend our views, and confider
chemiftry as a feience, as the fubjeft of philofophical IntrodjL
investigation, it will command a greater ftiare of our Aon. |
attention and ftudy. And perhaps there is no ftudy *
better calculated to promote and encourage that ge- as Jjb 1
nerous and ardent love of truth which confers dignity ence. C' b I
and fuperiority on thofe who fuecefsfully purfue it.
Chemiftry is not one of thofe barren difeuflions which
terminate in the difeovery of fome fpeculative truth,
■which is merely gratifying to curiofity. In this
view, indeed, no fcience holds out more interefting
fubjefts of refearch, in the lingular and furprifing
changes which everywhere prefent themfelves. And
it is furely no fmall recommendation to the ftudy of
chemiftry, that while we ftore the mind with intereft¬
ing truths, we add fomething to the ftock of human
knowledge, which is perhaps immediately applicable
to fome of the moft important purpofes of life. Thus
might the value of the fafts and difeoveries in any
fcience be fairly eftijnated, in proportion as they en¬
large our refources by their ufeful application, and in-
tereft and gratify the mind as fubjefts of curious fpe-
culation. from both thefe confiderations the whole
range of chemical fafts derives the higheft value j and
from thefe confiderations chemiftry is entitled to a di-
ftinguiflied place among the fciences. is I
Chemiftry has yet a higher claim to our attention jn ^ (
and confide,ration, as it affords us fome of the moft te^piTJ *
ftriking proofs of the w'ifdom and beneficence of the the works
Creator of the univerfe. A machine conftrufted byofnatuKi
human art is admired according to the fimplicity of its
contrivance, and the extent of its ufefulnefs j and in
proportion to the perfeftion which we difeover, we
eftimate the ingenuity and excellence of the plan of
the artift. But the works of man, with all his boafted
Ikill and attainments, fink into nothing when brought
into comparifon with the works of nature. In our
examination of the former, every ftep of our progrefs
is obleured wuth defefts : in contemplating the latter,
we behold perfeftion rife on perfeftion, and new won¬
ders meet our view. By the aid which we derive from
chemiftry w'e are enabled to take a minuter furvey of
the great fyftem of the univerfe. And fo far as our
limited powers can comprehend it, the whole is nicely
balanced and adjufted, and all its changes tend to the
moft beneficial purpofes. What on a fuperficial view
were feeming imperfeftions and defefts, a clofer infpec-
tion points out to be real excellencies. In all the
changes which are conftantly going forward, the more
clofely we obferve and examine them, the more we
Ihall admire the fimple means by which they are ac-
Compliftied, and the intelligent defign and perfeft
wifdom which are difplayed in the beneficial ends t©
which they are direfted.
Sect. III. lliflonj of Chemijlry.
The word chemiftry, which is fuppofed to have
been of Egyptian origin, feems to have been firft ufed
in a very extenftve fenfe (b). It appears to have in¬
cluded
(b) According to fome it is derived from the word kema, which was fuppofed to be a book of fecrets given
to the women by the demons. Others derive it from Cham the fon of Noah, from whom Egypt took the
name of Chemie, or Ckamie. Sometimes the origin of the word is aferibed to Chemmij, a king of the Egyptians;
and
S3 §
C H E M
[J due- eluded all the knowledge which the ancients poffeffed
»• of natural objects. It wras afterwards more limited in
"f''—^ its fignification, and folely confined to the art of work¬
ing metals. The great importance which the ancients
attached to this art was probably the caufe of this li¬
mitation. Such indeed was its importance, that thofe
who were fuppofed to have difeovered or improved it,
were regarded by mankind as their greateft benefaftors.
They were raifed above the level of the human race,
were deemed worthy of being enrolled among the gods j
and temples and ftatues were confecrated to their hon-
eur.
It is not neceffary minutely to trace the hiftory of
chemiftry to the remote periods of antiquity, or labour
to prove its origin to be coeval with the early ages of
the Avorld. Man indeed could not exift long without
fome knowledge of chemical proceffes j and as he im¬
proved in civilization and accurate,obfervation, this
knowledge muft have been improved and extended.
Tubal-Cain, who is mentioned in the facred Scriptures,
as a worker in metals, and is fuppofed to have given
rife to the fabulous ftory of Vulcan, in ancient mytho¬
logy and poetry, is confidered by fome as the firll
s chemift whofe name has been tranfmitted to the pre-
foiftry fent times. But although the working of metals, and
si:ii as other chemical arts, were known in the earlieft ages of
n the world j and among the Egyptians, Greeks, and
Romans, many of the arts dependent on chemiftry had
reached fome degree of perfection j yet this knowledge
muft be regarded as confifting only of a number of
fcattered, unconnected faCts, which deferve not to be
dignified with the name of fcience. A carpenter may
ereCt a piece of machinery, arranged and conftruCted
exaCtly fimilar to what he has feen, without the know¬
ledge of a fingle principle of its conftruCtion ; but the
man of fcience, who can neither handle the axe nor the
chiffel, obferves and eftimates the power and operation
of all its parts, and determines the general effeCt of the
whole machine.
Nor will it afford us much inftruCtion to purfue the
fuppofed hiftory of chemiftry, even to a later period.
Mofes, who is faid to have been lldlled in all the
wifdom of the Egyptians, has been ranked among the
number of the firft chemifts : and as a proof of his
knowledge of chemiftry, the means he employed of
diffolving the golden calf made by the Ifraelites, to
render it potable, are adduced. It is faid, that Demo¬
critus, of all the Greeks who travelled into Egypt to
' acquire knowledge, was alone admitted into their my-
^ie fteries. According to Diodorus Siculus, the art of
iir's’ chemiftry had made very confiderable progrefs among
the Egyptians. The knowledge of their priefts is
fuppofed to have confifted chiefly ef chemical proceffes.
They were acquainted, it is faid, with the preparation
of many medicines, perfumes, plafters, and foaps 5 they
ufed burnt allies as cauftic fubftances 5 they fabricated
bricks, glafs, porcelain ; they painted on glafs, and
praCtifed the art of gilding with filver and gold. They
extracted natron or loda from the mud of the Nile.
I S T R Y. 43;
They prepared alum, fea-falt, and fal ammoniac $ and Mroduc.
befides working in gold and copper, they poffeffed many t'on~
other proceffes in metallurgy. The extraction of oils, v
and the preparation of wine and vinegar, were well
known j and they w ere alio acquainted with the art of
dyeing filk by means of mordants. ig
Fewer traces of chemiftry are found among the Greeks,
Greeks, although they derived the knowledge of many
of the arts from Egypt. The ancient philofophers of
Greece, as Pythagoras, Thales, and Plato, were more
devoted to the cultivation of mathematical and aftrono-
mical knowledge, than the phyfical fciences. Some
chemical arts, however, w^ere not unknown to this people.
1 he alloy of metals formed at Corinth has been much
celebrated. Cinnabar was employed in fome parts of
Greece. Tychius knew' the art of tanning leather j
Plato has deferibed the procefs of filtration ; Hippo¬
crates was acquainted with that of calcination j Galen
Ipeaks of diftillation per defeenfum, and the word etnbic
is mentioned by Diolcorides a long time before the A-
rabic particle al was prefixed to it. According to A-
thenseus, there was a manufactory of glafs eftablilhed
at Lelbos. Democritus of Abdera prepared and ex¬
amined the juices of plants : Ariftotle and Theophraftus
treated of ftones and of metals.
The Phoenicians are fpoken of as being acquainted phoemci-
with the making of glafs, and the celebrated Tyrian ans,
purple w as found among this people. They w'ere alfo
fldlled in the w orking of metals and other mineral fub¬
ftances. The Perfians are faid firft to have diftinguifhed
the metals by the names of the planets, which they re¬
tained for many centuries. 20
Among the Chinefe, if wre may believe their hifto- Clunefe,
rians, many chemical arts were known from the earlieft
ages : they were acquainted with nitre, borax, alum,
gunpowder, verdigris, mercurial ointments, fulphur,
and colouring matters j nor were the arts of dyeing
linen and filk, paper-making, manufacturing of pottery
and porcelain, unknown. They were {killed in the art
of alloying metals, and in the wwking of ivory and of
horn. From the early knowledge which the Chinefe
poffeffed of thefe arts, they have been fuppofed by fome
to have been a colony from Egypt. ai
The wars in which the. Romans were almoft conftant- Romans*
ly engaged, and the fpirit which prompted them to mi¬
litary affairs, gave them neither time nor tafte to culti¬
vate and improve the arts of peace. Chemiftry, there¬
fore, appears to have been little known among that peo¬
ple. Petronius indeed fpeaks of malleable glafs, which
W'as prefented te Csefar 5 and the fame, or a fimilar faCt,
is mentioned by Pliny with regard to Tiberius. But
this art, it appears, was long known before the time of
the Romans.
To us it may appear fomew'hat lingular, that che--
miftry, now of luch univerfal importance to mankind,
ftiould be indebted, in fome meafure, for its origin as
an art, and for fome part of its progrefs, to one of the
lefs noble or generous of the human paflions. Yet, in
its early dawn, it was cultivated by men who were in-
ftigated
and fometimes to the Greek word which fignifies liquid, becaufe the art was at firft applied in the pre¬
paration of liquids j and fometimes to the Greek verb t0 Pour out»” becaufe chemiftry is the art of fufing
tnetals.
4.24. C H E M I
Introdue- fijgated by avarice to profecute and ftudy it. About
. , the 10th century, or perhaps earlier, a fet of men
arofe, and continued to flourilh till the 16th, who af-
22 fumed, by way of dxftinftion, the name of alchetmjh.
The alche- that is, the chemifls, becaufe they conlidered themfelves,
mifts. on account of the knowledge they poffelled, more
highly favoured than the reft of mankind. It was
natural enough for men who obferved the remark¬
able changes produced by chemical action, to be
ftruck with the effedts j and overlooking the varia¬
tions and differences in the refult of their opera¬
tions, which were the confequences of partial or
inaccurate obfervation, to flatter themfelves that their
power over the fubftaixces on which they operated,
was only limited by their wilhes. Hence, perhaps,
originated all the extravagances and follies, fimilar in¬
deed to thofe of fpeculators and projedlors of every
age, with which the hiftory and works of the akhe-
miftical writers are filled. Many of the alchemifts, it
is not improbable, were the dupes of their own igno¬
rance and credulity ; but many more, there is little
doubt, took advantage of the ignorance and barbarity
which prevailed in the' dark ages, during which period
ihey chiefly flouriftied, and impofed on the weaknefs
and credulity of mankind.
It was one of the firft principles among the alehe-
mifts, that all metals are compoled of the fame in¬
gredients, or, that the fubftances which enter into
the compofition of gold, are found in all metals, but
mixed with many impurities, from which, by certain
proceffes, they might be freed. The great, the conftant
objeift of all their labours and refearches was the dif-
covery of a fubftance poffeffed of th« wonderful pro¬
perty of converting the bafer metals into gold, which,
on account of its fcarcity and durability, is more
valued and efteemed than the other metals, which are
more abundant, and generally more ufeful. This ce¬
lebrated fubftance was denominated the philofophers
Philofo- Jlone i and thofe who were fo Angularly fortunate as to
jphers (tone. accompliih this great difcovery, or thofe to whom it
was imparted by others, were regarded, as might na¬
turally be expe&ed, as the peculiar favourites of
heaven. When they were in poffeflion .of this grand
fecret, they were ranked among the higheft order of
alchemifts, and then aflumed the name of adepts ; and
thus initiated, they profeffed themfelves mafters of the
enviable fecret of tranfmuting or changing metals of
inferior value, into gold.
But the adepts never feem to have thought of en¬
riching themfelves by their great difcoveries. They
were too generous to monopolize the wealth of the
world. They accordingly offered their fervices to
•thers, and liberally propofed to communicate the
fruit of their labours for a moderate reward. The
ambitious man to procure riches, that he might in-
creafe his power, and the opulent man to add to his
wealth, eagerly fought after, employed, and encouraged
them in the prefecution of their extravagant fchemes.
They were therefore kept in the pay of princes, to
fill and repair their exhaufted treafuries, and^ of great
men who afpired after boundlefs wealth. Thefe flat¬
tering hopes, it may well be fuppofcd, were never re¬
alized. The rich profpeift fled before them, and the
golden prize which they often fuppofed was juft within
fheir reach, eluded their eager grafp. The magni-
23
S T R Y.
tude of the plan, however, fired the imagination, IntroSd
and produced fomething like convi£lion in the mind,, tl0iJ
of the pofiibility, and even certainty, of obtaining
the objeft of all their wifties and all their labours. With
unabating ardour, w ith unexampled afliduity, they pur*
fued their refearches, perfuading themfelves and their
employers, that they wets on the point of being foon
in poffeflion of unlimited wealth.
But the alchemifts beholding man by anticipation
poffeffed of immenfe riches, law that fomething more
was requifite, that he might be fecured in the unin¬
terrupted enjoyment of them. Experience fatally taught
them, that the feeble frame of man was liable to the
pains and languor of difeafe $ that gold and filver
could neither prevent the fit of a fever, nor give to the
poffeffor tire bleflings of conftant health. Thus an¬
other moft defirable objefl was held up to view, and
deluded their diftempered minds into the falfe hope of
attaining it. This w-as the famous panacea, or uni-Unfve‘.
verfal medicine, which was to cure all difeafes; andmedicu
not only to cure, but abfolutely to prevent their oc¬
currence. Thus fortunate in the enjoyment of vaft
riches j thus bleffed with unbroken health, the defires
of man were yet unfatisfied. Another feeming evil
ftill remained, w'hich was naturally to be dreaded as
the deftroyer of this fancied feene of apparently per¬
fect felicity. The melancholy refleftion, that it was
limited by the Ihort fpan of human life, roufed the al-
chemifls again into exertion, and produced new' efforts
of ingenuity m their labours, to fecure to man ex¬
emption from the common lot of mortality. In ima¬
gination they had difeovered the means of prolonging
life at pleafure to an indefinite length, of refeuing
man from the grave, and of making him immortal
upon earth.
Such were the extraordinary views and purfuits of
the alchemifts. The exadl period of the origin of this
ftudy is unknown $ nor can it now be afeertained w hat
progrefs it had made, or indeed whether it was at all
cultivated among the ancients. Julius Eirmieus Ma-
ternus is the firft hiftorian who mentions this ftudy as
well knoivn in his day , and the period when he flou¬
riftied was about the beginning of the 4th century.
A fubfequent author, iEneas Blafius, who lived in the
following century, alfo makes mention of it: and Sui-
das defines the term by informing us, that it is the art
of making gold and filver. Dioclefian, he fays, pro¬
hibited all chemical operations, during his perlecution
of the Chriftians, that his fubjefts might not be infti- I
gated to a£ts of rebellion againft him by the formation
of gold. In feme places where gold is waftied down
in minute particles, by brooks and rivulets from the
mountains, it is cuftomary to fufpend the fkins of ani¬
mals in the water, by which means the particles con¬
taining the gold are detained j a cir.cumftance from
which the fabulous ftory of the golden fleece probably
derived its origin. Suidas, however, who flouriflied
in the 1 oth century, is not entitled to any high degree
of credit, efpecially as the ancient authors are wholly
filent as to the. fubjedt of alchemy.
It is from the phyficians of Arabia that we ob¬
tain the moft fatisfaftory evidence concerning al¬
chemy. Avicenna, v/ho lived in the icth century,
is faid to have writen on this fubjedl, according.to
one of his own difciplcs, who like wile takes notice
fj x'dac-
U'.V
Pitipal
ill fcmifts-
C H E M
of rofe-water and fume otter ctcmical preparations j
and in the 12th century -vve find the cultivating an ac¬
quaintance with the chemifts recommended to phyficians.
Another Arabian writer fays, that the method of pre¬
paring rofe-water, &c. was at that time well underftood.
Thefe proofs of the exiftence of alchemy among the A-
rabians, and particularly from the particle Jil prefixed
to it, have induced fome to conclude, that the do&rine
of the tranfmutation of metals firft originated with the
Arabians, which the crufades were inftrumental in in¬
troducing into Europe, as well as the rapid conquefts of
the Arabians, in Europe, Afia, and Africa. At that
period Europe was in a ftate of the utmoft barbarity,
owing to the incurfions of the northern nations ; but
fome of the feienees, among which alchemy was com¬
prehended, were happily revived by the Arabians : and
about the middle of the 17th century, the extravagance
of fuch as were the profeffors of alchemy arrived at its
greateft height.
It appears that the alchemifts began to be eftablifh-
ed in the weft of Europe, as early as the ninth cen¬
tury ; and between the eleventh and fifteenth cen¬
turies, this ftudy was in its moft flourilhing ftate. A-
mong the principal alchemifts who flouriihed during
this period, and who were diftinguifhed for their dif-
coveries and writings, were Albertus Magnus, Roger
Bacon, Arnoldus de Villanova, and Raymond Lully.
They all lived in the 13th century. Albertus Magnus
was a Dominican monk of Cologne, and was regarded
by his cotemporaries, no doubt on account of his ftu-
dies, as a magician. He was born in the year 1205,
and died in 1280. He left numerous works, one of
the moft curious of which is a treatife entitled De Jll-
chemia, which exhibits a diftinft view of the ftate of
chemiftry at the time he lived. Roger Bacon, ano¬
ther monk, was born in the county of Somerfet in
England in 1214, and died in 1294. He was cele¬
brated for many ingenious inventions and difeoveries
m chemiftry and mechanics. Among thefe are men¬
tioned the camera obfeura, the telcfcope, and gunpowder.
His works difeover aftoniftiing fagacity and acutenefs,
and, confidering the age in which he lived, are com-
pofed with no fmall degree of elegance and concifenefs.
Some of them, however, bearing the charadler of the
times, are myftical and obfeure. Arnoldus de Villa-
nova, was a native of Languedoc in France, and was
born about the year 1240. He has mentioned the
mineral acids, and joined to his chemical ftudies exten-
five knowledge in medicine. His writings are diftin-
guilhed by all the obfeurity of the alchemiftical authors.
Raymond Lully, whofe reputation raifed him to the rank
of adepts was born at Barcelona in 1235. He wrote
tn ftrong waters and metals. His laft will and tefta-
ment is one of the moft celebrated of his writings ;
and thefe are not lefs obfeure than thofe of his cotem¬
poraries.
About the end of the 14th century, Bafil Valentine,
a German Benediiftine monk, was the firft who for¬
mally applied chemiftry to medicine. He was the
original difeoverer of many of the virtues of antimonial
medicines *, and in his celebrated treatife on antimony,
entitled Currus triuntphalis Antimonii) are found many
preparations which have fince been announced to the
vorld as new difeoveries. About the fame time lived
Vol. V. Part II.
have been greatly
425
Introduc-
I S T R Y.
Ifaacus Hollandus, whofe works
commended by Boerhaave.
In the beginning of the 16th century arofe Paracel-
fus, one of the moft extraordinary men who ever lived. paracelius
He was born in 1493, near Zurich in Switzerland.
Of a bold and enterprifing fpirit, he defpifed the com¬
mon rules of conduit by which men are ufually guid¬
ed. By this means he railed his reputation to a great
height 5 he became an enthufiaft ill chemiftry, and in
the application of fubftances prepared by chemical pro- 2~
ceflcs to the cure of difeafes. He was the firft public the finfc
teacher of chemiftry in Europe, having been appointed Pu^^c
to deliver lectures on that fubieit in the city of Balil :
but his reftlefs fpirit did not permit him to remain longw 1 3
in this lituation. In two years he was involved in a
quarrel with the magiftrates, from whom he had re¬
ceived his appointment, and he left the city. Defpi-
fing the common principles of medical practice, and
having performed fome wonderful cures by the free
ufe of opium and mercury, he thought he had dif-
covered the univerfal medicine, and promifed immor¬
tality to himfelf and to his patients. But while he
thus made fuch flattering promifes, his own fate was
a fad proof of the futility and abfurdity of his doftrine.
For after an almoft uninterrupted courfe of debauchery,
having wandered a great part of his life from place to
place, he died at an inn in Saltzburg, in the 48th year
of his age.
A great number of medical praftitioners, in the
courfe of the 16th century, adopted and propagated
the principles of Paracelfus. Among the moft diftin-
guilhed of thefe was Van Helmont, a man of confidera-
ble genius, who was born in the year 1577. Many of
the followers of Paracelfus were greatly devoted to the
ftudy of chemiftry 5 and this, w ith the abfurd and un- 28
principled condudl of their mafter, tended not a little to h?my
bring the views and fpeculations of the alchemifts intodeclines’
difrepute. Chemiftry, now freed from the trammels of
alchemy, confifted only of a number of detached, un-
connefted fafts. To bring thefe fadts together in one
point of view, and to arrange them into clalfes, fo that
the knowledge of them might be applied to ufeful pur-
pofes, and to thofe objedls to which future relearches
might be advantage^ufly diretted, wrere now' wanted.
This talk was accompliflied by Beecher, v'ho diftin- Chemifhy
guilhed himfelf by the extent of his views, in a work a flumes the
entitled, Physica fubterranea, which was publifhed attm'm ol: a
Frankfort in the year 1669. This was the firft dawn tcience‘
of chemical fcience, and the publication of Beecher’s
■work formed an important tera in the hiftory of its pro-
Srefs- . . . * 30
In taking a retrofpeclive view of the progrefs of Difeoveries
chemiftry, previous to the publication of Beecher’s of th<? al-
work, wTe find that a great number of important faffs c^ieml^s*
had been difeovered and colledted. To the clafs of
acids, the fulphuric, the nitric, and the muriatic, were
added 5 the alkalies w'ere better known, and the volatile
alkali was obtained from fal ammoniac by Balil Valen-,
tine, by decompofing it by means of foda or potafs j
the fulphate of potafs prepared in three or four different
w'ays, received as many different names ; the-nitrate of
potafs was called nitre, a name w hich was formerly ap¬
plied to foda •, Sylvius difeovered the muriate of potais,
which he denominated digejlive fait; and Glauber,
/ . 3 11 thy
CHEMISTRY.
426
Intnxhic- the fulphate of foda, to which he gave the name 'ivon-
Uon' derful fait, though better known by the name of Glau-
""" bfr’s fait, by which it is ftill diftinguilhed. Some of
the earthy falts began to be known about this period,
and among others the muriate of lime, which received
the name of fixed fal ammoniac.
The earths themfelves were alfo better known 5 lime
water was prepared, and fome of the alkaline fulphu-
rets were pointed out and examined.
The properties of fome of the metallic falts were flu-
died and examined \ the nitrate of fdver, under the name
and form of crystals of Diana, and of lapis infernaUs ;
the muriate of filver, under that of luna cornea. The
two muriates of mercury were deferibed, and employed
for various purpofes. The red precipitate, arcanum
corallmum, faccharum faturni ox fugar of lead, the but¬
ter of antimony, and the pow'der of algaroth, were either
difeovered, or their properties more attentively invefti-
gated and afeertained.
During this period alfo, the diflinftion was made be¬
tween the brittle and the ductile metals. Bifmuth, zinc,
antimony, and even arfenic itfelf, were obtained in a
metallic date. A number of oxides, fome metallic dyes,
fulminating gold, turpith mineral, the faline precipitates
of mercury, or the mercurial oxides of different colours,
minium and litharge, colcothar, the faffron of Mars, and
diaphoretic antimony, were difeovered, and their prepa¬
ration fufficiently deferibed.
During this period, the preparation of oils by diflil-
lation commenced, and the diflinftion w as made between
volatile and empyreumatic. Ethers wrere difeovered,
and the fpirit of wine was well known by the fame name,
alcohol, which it at prefent bears.
'Then hi- ®ut however extravagant it may feem to us, the hif-
tiovj ufeful. tory of the alchemifls is inflruftive, as it affords a ufe-
ful lelfon to moderate our expe&ations in the purfuit of
knowledge, and to reflrain them within the bounds
which the Almighty has preferibed as the range of our
invefligations j for of the knowledge and of the power
of man, as well as of that of the natural elements, he
has probably fixed the limits, and faid, Hitherto fhalt
thou come, but no farther. This hiflory is inftruttive
alfo, as it prefents a lingular and extraordinary feature
in the hiflory of mankind ; but it is immediately ufe¬
ful to our prefent purpofe, as it fhows us the commence¬
ment of chemical refearches. It is true, chemiflry in
the hands of the alchemifls, like every other depart¬
ment of knowledge during the dark ages, was involved
in myflery, and the knowledge of it communicated in a
barbarous jargon, to be underflood only by the initi¬
ated, and fcarcely to be decyphered and comprehended
at the prefent day, with the affiftance of the extenfive
knowledge ©f chemical fa£ts which we now poffefs.
But notwithflanding the extravagance of the objefts
they purfued, the means they employed were ufeful to
the progrefs of chemiflry. By their inceffant labours,
difeovery was added to difeovery, fadts were multiplied
on fadls, but thefe were unaccompanied with any regu-
lar train of refearch or reafoning.
dif- But notwithflanding thefe important difeoveries, it may
coveries appear furprifing that they were not more numerous,
compara- 'j'he alchemills had laboured inceffantly in chemical
ttvely few. purfujts for near a thoufand years, and with all the zeal
and ardour of enthufiafls ; the labour of whole lives was
exhaufled, and immenfe fortunes were difiipated in en¬
deavouring to obtain the grand object of all their re- Introd
fearches. Confidering the long period during which t‘or'
they flourifhed, and the numbers who were employed ^
in thefe purfuits, there is indeed room for wondtr, that
they bequeathed to the firfl fcientific inquirers fo fmall
a flock of chemical knowledge. But the fpirit w hich
prevailed among the alehemifts was diredlly hoflile to
the free communication and accumulation of know¬
ledge. The prominent feature of the charafter of the
alchemifls was fecrecy. This indeed was clofely con¬
nected with the nature of the object, to attain which
all their purfuits and inquiries were diredted 5 and fo
flrongly was this impreffed upon their minds, that they
believed, or pretended to believe, that the dreadful
wrath of heaven would fall on him who fliould prefume
to difclofe to any, but to the initiated, the fecrets of the
art. That fpirit which arofe from motives of avarice
and felf-conceit, became at lafl one of the leading prin¬
ciples of their condudl. With fo great, fo important
an objedl in view, as the difeovery of the means of put¬
ting themfelves in poffcflion of unlimited wealth, it is
little to be wondered at, if they fliould carefully con¬
ceal from the world, and even from each other, the
fteps in the progrefs which led to the accomplifhment
of this end. Thus, all their proceffes were carried on
in private, all their difeoveries were kept fecret. In
their pretended communication of knowledge with each
other, they employed certain figns and figures, and af-
fumed a myfterious mode of writing, that they might
be underftood only by adepts, and might be totally un¬
intelligible to the red of mankind.
Confidering this fpirit, and the charafter which dif-
tinguilhed the alchemills, it was fcarcely to be expett-
ed that they Ihould reveal to the world, either by
fpeech or writing, difeoveries which moll of them pro¬
bably believed w ere to be of fuch vail benefit to them-
felves. And in this view, wre Ihould rather be furprifed
that any of their proceffes were ever made known.
But here vanity, and even avarice, probably had con-
fiderable influence in calling forth what they pretend¬
ed was an account of their attainments and difeoveries.,
Some of the alchemifls, perhaps by means of trick and
impoflure, had acquired a high reputation for know¬
ledge, and had impofed a belief on many, that they
were actually in poffeflion of the philofophcr’s ftone.
They were therefore fought after, and often received
great rewards for their labour, in proving the effe£ls,
or trying the fucceis of this wonderful agent. To be
thus employed was perhaps the objeft of many in the
publication of their works. But, at the fame time,
they cautioully avoided revealing their knowledge, by
employing myllerious and metaphorical language. Thus
we may account for the impenetrable obfeurity <md
numerous abfurdities which characterized their writ¬
ings.
In this view, therefore, of the character of the al¬
chemifls, it is not to be expeded that the flore of
chemical fa£ls could be very ample from their la¬
bours. And indeed, confidering the caution with
which they concealed and carried on all their procefics,
it is not improbable that many important difeoveries
were never announced by the firft obfervers j for the
very appearance of any thing newr or unexpefted, would
flatter their hopes that they had advanced another ftep
toward the attainment of their obje&s, and that the next
roduc-
ion.
34
S il «n-
p f?s the
tory of
2 ;her.
35
C aiftry
ft lied in
3«
tain.
ti:
!7
ranee.
i ll’s dir.
G H E M
would put them in full poffefiion of it. Thus, fuch a
difeovery would be held inviolably fecret, and in this
way it might be loft for ever.
We have already mentioned, that the work of Bee¬
cher gava the firft fcientific form to chemical know¬
ledge. This appeared about the middle of the feven-
teenth century, when the light of knowledge began
to fpread over Europe, and chemiftry received its
(hare. The fa£ts which had been accumulated by the
labours of the alchemifts, and to which Beecher had
given a fyftematic form, were ftill farther methodized
and extended by his pupil Stahl. Indeed, fo much
was done by the latter, in ftmplifymg and improving
the theory of his mafter, that it was afterwards deno¬
minated from his name the Stahlian or pklogijiic theory.
This theory was then received and adopted by all
chemifts, and continued to flourith for more than half
a century.
After the middle of the feventeenth century, the efta-
blilhment of philofophical focieties in Europe greatly
contributed to the diffufton of knowledge. It was about
this time that the academy of fciences was eftabliftied
in France, and fome of its members rofe high in re¬
putation by their experiments and difeoveries in che¬
miftry. The royal fociety of London was alfo found¬
ed about the fame period j but its members, after the
example of Newton, were more occupied in mechani¬
cal philofophy, and paid lefs attention to chemical
fcience. It was not, however, entirely overlooked.
Newton himfelf threw out fome important hints, and
took fome general views of chemical phenomena $
Boyle, along with his refearches in mechanical philo.
fophy, profecuted the ftudy of chemiftry j and the ex¬
periments of Hooke and Mayow, on the nature of com-
buftion and refpirable air, difeover a high degree of
fagacity and Ikill in their inveftigations.
Towards the middle of the eighteenth century, the
ftudy of chemiftry became general, and even falhion-
able, in France. Before this time Homberg, Geoffroy,
and Lemery, had diftinguilhed themfelves by their
chemical experiments and difeoveries. Among thefe
Geoffroy is ftill defervedly celebrated for his inven¬
tion of the tables of chemical affinities, an ingenious
method of exhibiting, at one view, the principal re-
fults of experiments in this fcience. Thefe tables were
afterwards improved by feveral chemifts, but efpecially
by Rouelle, Wenzel, and Bergman.
But the difeovery of Dr Black formed one of the moft
important rnras in the hiftory of this feience, and gave
a new and unexpefted turn to the views of chemifts.
It was the object of Dr Black’s refearches to difeover
the caufe of the remarkable change which a piece of
limeftone undergoes when it is calcined or burnt, and
to p@int out the reafon of the great difference of the
properties of this fubftance in its different ftates ; and
his inveftigations were crowned with fuccefs. For,
m the year 1755, he afeertained that thefe changes
Were owing to the combination or feparatioa of a pe¬
culiar kind of air, different in its properties from the
air of the ahnofphere. When this air is combined
with lime, it is in the mild ftate, or the ftate of
limeftone : when this air is driven off, which is the
procefs of calcination or burning, the limeftone has
changed its properties ; it is reduced to the cauftic
ftate, and has loft conftderably of its weightand this
I S T R Y. 427
lofs of weight, Dr Black proved, was efca&ly equal to Introduc-
the weight of the air which had been driven off. To , ^
this air Dr Black gave the name offixed air; becaufe,
when united to the lime and other fubftances, with
which it enters into combination, it is in a fixed ftate.
This difeovery, one of the moft important in chemiftry,
opened a new field for inveftigatioh j for it had hot
been once iufpe&ed, that aerial fubftances formed com¬
binations with folid bodies.
< From this time, the progrefs of chemiftry was ra¬
pid and brilliant. Fa61s and difeoveries were daily
multiplied, and a fpirit of enthufiafm for the ftudy burft
forth, and was diffufed far and wide. In the year Other^m-
1774, Prieftley, who had contributed largely to portant dif*
the ftock of chemical knowledge, difeovered pure orcovcricS*
vital air, and that this air only was fit for the purpofes
of refpiration and combuftion. In the year 1781 Mr
Cavendilh, another ingenious Englilh chemift, proved
that water is not a fimple element, but that it is com-
pofed of pure or vital air, and inflammable air j or,
in chemical language, of oxygen and hydrogen.
But, previous to this time, two chemifts had ap¬
peared in Sweden, had diftinguilhed themfelves by
their zeal, ingenuity, and indefatigable induftry, and
had merited and obtained the higheft reputation for
the valuable difeoveries which they had made in che¬
mical fcience. Thofe who are at all acquainted with
the hiftory of chemiftry, need not be told, that thefe
celebrated names are thofe of Bergman and Scheele $
names which will not be forgotten, as long as modefly,
candour, and truth, are honoured and relpefted among
mankind.
In the mean time, the French chemifts were not idlei
The celebrated Lavoilier, in conjundtion with fome of
his philofophical friends, confirmed, by the moft dech
five experiments, the trath of Mr Cavendilh’s difeoverv
of the compofition of water, which was now received
and adopted by almoft every chemift. The fame un¬
fortunate philofopher, whofe bright career was cut
fliort by the horrors of the French revolution, had, pre¬
vious to the time alluded to, enriched chemical fcience
with many valuable and important fafts. He had
greatly contributed to overthrow the phlogiftic theorv,
by a feries of accurate experiments and obfervations on
the calcination of metals. It had now become a qae-
ftion, whether metals, during the procefs of calcina¬
tion, gave out any fubftance ; that is, whether they
contained any phlogifton j and Lavoifier inconteftably
proved, that metals cannot be calcined, excepting in
contadt with pure air, and that the calx thus obtain¬
ed was, in all cafes, exadtly equal to the weight of
the metal, and the quantity of air which bad difap-
peared.
Chemiftry, by its rapid and unexampled progrefs,
had now fo far extended itfelf, and had accumulated fo
large a body of fadts, that the barbarous, unmeaning,
and arbitrary language which the alchemifts employed
to veil their mylieries, and part of which had been
adopted and imitated in language equally obfeure and
arbitrary by the earlier chemifts, rendered it extremely
difficult to *be acquired or undferftood. This was loud¬
ly and juftly complained of, but the difficulties in the
way of remedying it feemed almoft infurmountable, 4°
The French chemifts, however, undertook the arduous
talk, and completely fucceeded in their labours. To ture.
3 H a thefe
4-28
C H E M I
mong the
ancients.
Intmduc- tliefe. illuftrieus philofophcrs we are indebted for the
, tIon’ prv'cnt language of chemiftry, which is fo conftrufted,
v ~ " ' that every word, and every combination, has an appro¬
priate meaning, and is intended to exprefs the nature
and compofttion of the fubftance which is reprefented.
It is to this improvement in its language, that we are
to afcribe the facility and precifion with which the
knowledge of chemiftry can now be communicated,
and which has undoubtedly contributed greatly to its
general diffufion and cultivation. And if there be any
ground for hope of its future progrefs, from diftinguilh-
ed talents, ardent zeal, and unceafing induftry, thofe
w'ho are now engaged in the ftudy of this fcience give
fair promife of a rich harveft.
Sect. IV. Of the Firjl 'Principles of Bodies, and of the
Methods of Jludying and arranging them.
Elements of I. According to the ancient philofophers, all matter
bodies a- conufted of four principles or elements. Thefe were
fire, air, water, and earth j and this opinion, with cer¬
tain modifications, feems to have univerfally prevailed.
But the difcoveries of modern chemiftry have proved,
that three of thefe elements, at leaft, are compound
fubftances. Fire is a compound of light and heat ; air
is compofed of oxygen and azotic gafes ; and water con-
lifts of oxygen and hydrogen.
The alchemifts, not fatisfied with this divifion of the
principles of bodies, adopted another, which was more
appropriate to the nature of their labours and experi-
42 ments, and wras better calculated to explain the appear-
The aiche- ances wfith which they were acquainted. The elements
nnfts. 0f aq bodies, according to their theory, w&tefaltfulphur,
and mercury: and thefe were long known among the al¬
chemifts by the appellation of the triaprima. Thefe prin¬
ciples were admitted by all the alchemiftical writers till
the time of Paracelfus, who alfo adopted.them, and added
two more to the number. Thefe five elements or prin¬
ciples are thus charafterized. Every thing came un¬
der the name of fait which was foluble or fapid j all
inflammable fubftances were called fulphur ; and every
volatile fubftance, which flies off without burning, w'as
called mercury or fpirit. What was liquid and infipid
svas called phlegm or water ; every thing that was dry,
infipid, fixed, and infoluble, was called earth, or caput
mortuum. The two laft, which were added by Para¬
celfus, are the water and earth of the ancients. Ac¬
cording to the original theory of the alchemifts, all bo¬
dies may be decompofed by fire, and refolved into
their three conftituent principles. The mercury or fpirit,
during the procefs of combuftion, efcapes in the form
of fmoke *, the fulphur is inflamed j and the fait, which
wfas fuppofed to be the fixed principle, remains behind.
But Beecher, whom we have already mentioned as
the founder of chemical fcience, perceiving the vague
and unfettled notions of the alchemifts, with regard to
the principles of bodies, generalized and Amplified
ftill more, the chemical fafts wdiich were then known.
According to his theory, all bodies confifted of earth
and water. Under the former he included every thing
that was dry, and under the latter, whatever w'as hu¬
mid. He admitted three earthy principles, namely,
the fufible earth, the inflammable earth, and the mer¬
curial earth. The firft was the principle of drynefs,
ef infufibility and hardnefs. The fufible earth, corn-
43
Beficher’s
cienieiits.
S T R Y.
bined with water, conipofed an acid, which was call- Introip
ed the univerfal acid, becaufe all other acids owed ^ j
their properties to it. The inflammable earth was V'|J
confidered as the principle of combuftibility j and the
mercurial earth was the principle of volatility. The
fufible and the mercurial earths, with water, compofe
common fait; and the inflammable earth, with the
univerfal acid, forms fulphur. The metals were com¬
pofed of thefe three earths in equal proportions. When
the mercurial earth was in fmall proportion, the com¬
pound was fone; when the fufible was in greater pro¬
portion, the compound was precious fones; and the
compounds are the colorific earths, when the inflam¬
mable earth is in the greateft, and the fufible in the
fmalleft proportion.
This theory of Beecher was confiderably modified stayr
by his pupil Stahl. The inflammable earth of Bee¬
cher feems to have been changed by him into the prin¬
ciple of inflammability or fixed fire, which he diftin-
guifhed by the name of phlogi/lon. He admitted the
univerfal acid, but rejefted the mercurial earth. The
number of elements in the theory thus modified by
Stahl, amounted to five. Thefe were, air, water,
phlogiflon, earth, and the univerfal acid.
This mode of confidering the elements of bodies, or
their firft principles, and of admitting fuch arbitrary
and erroneous diftin£lions, is jultly baniftied from che¬
mical fcience. All fubftances are fuppofed to be Ample,
which have not been decompofed, without regard to their
primitive elements or principles, the knowledge of w hich
is, perhaps, beyond the reach of human power ever to
arrive at.
2. To acquire the knowledge of thofe properties of
bodies, inveftigation of which is properly included un¬
der the chemical fcience, two methods are employed :
The one is the method of analyfis or decompofition 5 the
other is that of fynthefis, or compofition. By the one,
the different Ample fubftances of which compound bodies
confift, are feparated, and their properties individually
examined ; by the other, the fimple fubftances are com¬
bined together, and the properties of the new com¬
pound are confidered and inveftigated. ^
Different kinds or modes of analyfis have been admit-Analjflj
ted and deferibed by chemical writers. Some bodies,
v'hen expofed to the adlion of heat and air, undergo a to¬
tal feparation of their component parts. This is called
fpontaneous analyfis. Thus, fome minerals, and all ve¬
getable and animal matters, w’hen they are deprived of
life, in favourable circumftances ftowfly feparate into
their component parts j and in the fame way the prin¬
ciples of which fome liquids are compofed, re-adt on
each other, and fppntaneoufly feparate, which gives an
opportunity of inveftigating the nature, of thefe fub¬
ftances.
Analyfis by fire operates by the accumulation of
caloric in bodies ; and by the power which it has of
feparating their particles to favour their examination.
But this inftrument of analyfis is to be confidered only
as one of the means which ftiould concur with many
others, to throw light on the real compofition of bodies.
For it will afterwards appear, that the different quan¬
tities of caloric accumulated in bodies, have the great-
eft effedts in giving different refults, and changing the
order of decompofition.
Another mode of analyfis is by means of re-agents.
This.
■
CHEMISTRY.
l i oduc- This is conduced by placing the compound body which
' I .on* js t-0 be examined, in contadl with various fubftances,
which have the power of feparating its conftituent parts.
It is here that the genius and fcience of the chemift
appear molt confpicuous ; for every fubftance in nature,
and all the produdls of art, become valuable initru-
nients in his hands, to afcertain the nature, and to
examine the properties, of the fubftances which come
under his examination. The different means of analy-
fis which chemifts have employed, to arrive at the
knowledge of compound bodies, have been deemed of
fuch importance and utility, that chemiftry has been
I 146 called the fcience of anali//is.
S :he&. Synthefis, or compofition, is the union of two or
piore Ample fubftances. This union, from whence
refults a new compound, has become an important
ftep in arriving at the knowledge of the properties
of bodies, and in forming a number of products ufe-
ful in the arts, and neceffary to our wants ; and thus it
is confidered by chemifts as in fome meafure the in-
verfe of the method of analyfis, as the perfection of
their art, and one of the great inftruments of their
operations. The method of fynthefis or compofition,
confidered as a chemical procefs to acquire the know¬
ledge of the intimate and reciprocal aClion of bodies,
is in reality more frequently employed than that of
analyfis j and the name of the fcience, if we were to
regard thefe two methods, fliould rather be called the
fcience of fynthejis than the fcience of analyfis. In all
cafes of complicated analyfis, the operations are fyn-
thetic. Compounds of an inferior order are formed,
but more numerous than the firft compounds which
were fubjeCled to analyfls or examination.
But befides, there are many bodies which have ne¬
ver yet been decompofed. It is only by compofition or
fynthefis, that is, by combining them with others, and
by examining the nature of the compounds which are
formed by this combination, that their chemical pro¬
perties can be inveftigated.
However various the operations of chemiftry may be j
however numerous and different from each other the
refults which are obtained; they may aft be referred
to analyfis or fynthefis, and be regarded either as com¬
binations or decompofttions } and to thefe two general
methods, all our operations may be limited..
3. It muft be univerfally allowed, that it is of vaft
importance, in acquiring or communicating knowledge,
to have a clear view of the objedls of our ftudies } and
this becomes the more neceffary, as the fa£ts in any
fcience are accumulated, and the objects which it
comprehends become more numerous. In many of
the arrangements of chemical knowledge which have
been propofed to the world, the objects of this fci¬
ence have been clalfed together according to certain
refemblances in one or two points, while they are to¬
tally diftin6t in all others. But an arrangement which
is founded on the properties and characters of lubftances
which have not been fully ascertained and generally
admitted, muft tend to obftruft, rather than facilitate
the acquifttion of fcience. If, for inftance, the objects
of chemical knowledge are to be arranged according
to their eombuftibility or incombuftibility, the nature
of the procefs of combuttion fliould be fully under-
ftood, and the effects of combuftion on the fubftances
to be claffed in this way, clearly eftablilhcd. If all
429
this has not been previoufly attended to, the principles Introduc-
of the arrangement muft be falfe, and muft unavoid- Uon' ,
ably lead to error. As a proof of the truth of our re- v "
marks, the fame fubftance has been confidered by one
chemift as a combuftible body, wdiile it is arranged by
another among the clafs of combuftibles j and even by
the fame chemift it is faid to be combuftible at one
time, and incombuftible at another, according to the
theory which then prevails. ^
Without purfuing any method of arrangement Arrange-
founded on particular theories or fyftems, we ihall en-ment•
deavour, in the following treatife, to lay before our
readers a full view of the prefent ftate of chemical
fcience j and in arranging the great body of fahts of
which the fcience confilts, wre ftiali obferve the two
follow'ing rules. 1. To introduce the fubftances to be
examined according to the fimplicity of their compo¬
fition ; and, 2. According to their importance as che¬
mical agents. The plan which we propoie to purfue,
in treating of thefe different claffes of bodies, is, 1. To
confider their properties as Ample fubftances, and, 2. The
combinations which they form with thofe which have
been already deferibed. By this method of arrange¬
ment, and by following out this plan, we hope to
have lefs anticipation and repetition than in moft other
fyftems which have yet been propofed. But we wiftv
not to think too confidently of our own labours. We
flrall probably be confidered by the world as the worft
judges in this cafe ; and wre are not too felfiflr to fub-
mit to the opinion of thofe to whom it is addrefled, to
whofe candour and impartiality we implicitly truft.
We may however obferve, that this arrangement has
been found extremely convenient for teaching the fci¬
ence j and wre hope that our readers will find it equal¬
ly fo in acquiring the knowledge of it.
According to the principles which we have ftated,
the following table exhibits a view of the order which
we fhall obferve in this treatife. In the prefent date
of chemical fcience, and in its application to explain
the phenomena of nature, or to improve the arts of
life, the whole may be conveniently arranged into
twxnty chapters.
I. Affinity.
II. Light.
III. Heat.
IV. Oxygen Gas.
V. Azotic Gas and its combinations.
VI. Hydrogen, &c.
VII. Carbone, &c.
VIII. Phosphorus, &c.
IX. Sulphur, &c.
X. Acids, &c.
1. Sulphuric,
2. Nitric,
3. Muriatic,
4. Oxymuriatic, &c. &c.
XI. Inflammable Substances..
1. Alcohol,
2. Ether,
3. Oils.
XII. Alkalies,
1. Potafti and its combinations.
2. Soda, &c.
3. Ammonia, See.
XIIL
43^
Introduc¬
tion.
4*
■explained.
CHEMISTRY.
XIII. Earths.
1. Lime and its combinations.
2. Barytes, &c.
3. Strontites, 8tc.
4- Magnolia, &c.
5. Alumina, &c.
6. Silica, &c.
7. Yttria, &.c.
8. Glueina, &c.
9. Zirconia, &c.
XIV. Metals.
1. Arfenic and its combinations.
2. Tungften, &c.
3. Molybdena, &c.
4. Chromium, &c.
5. Columbium, &c.
6. Titanium, &c.
7. Uranium, &c.
8. Cobalt, &c.
9. Nickel, &c.
10. Manganefe, &c.
11. Bifmuth, &c.
12. Antimony, &c.
13. Tellurium, &c.
14. Mercury, &.
15. Zinc, &c. t
16. Tin, &c.
17. Lead, &c.
18. Iron, &c.
19. Copper, &c.
20. Silver, &c.
21. Gold, &c.
22. Platina, &c.
XV. The Atmosphere.
XVI. Waters.
1. Sea water.
2. Mineral waters.
XVII. Minerals.
1. Component parts.
2. Analyfis.
XVIII. Vegetables.
1. Funftions.
2. Decompolition.
3. Component parts.
3IIX. Animals.
1. Funftions.
2. Decompolition.
3. Component parts.
XX. Arts and Manufactures.
1. Soaps.
2. Glals.
3. Porcelain.
4. Tanning.
5. Dyeing.
6. Bleaching.
In the above arrangement, the firft diaper treats of
affinity, or the laws of chemical aftion. In the two
following chapters, the properties of light and heat are
detailed. Thefe are confidered as material fubftances;
but their properties can only be known in combina¬
tion with other bodies, as they have never been found
in a feparate Hate. Oxygen, azote, and hydrogen,
which are confidered as the bafis of oxygen, azotic,
and hydrogen gafes, are treated of in the 4^, 5th,
and 6th chapters j but thefe fubftances, as well as light Intro,,,
and heat, are not cognizable by our fenfes. They are tion ’
known in a ftate of combination, the aeriform or gafe- ''“'"V' w ‘
oub ftate, when they are combined with caloric, or the
matter of heat. The three following fubftancos, car-
bone, phofphorus, and fulphur, which are the fubje&s
of the 7th, 8th, and 9th chapters, are conftdered as
fimple, becaufe they have never been decompofed.
They can be exhibited in the folid ftate. Two of them
being very abundantly diffufed in nature, and entering
into an immenfe number of combinations with other
bodies j and the third, namely, phofphorus, pofleffing
very lingular properties, it becomes of great importance
that they Ihould be early known.
The acids are treated of in the 10th chapter. They
are naturally arranged in this place, becaufe the con-
ftituent parts of fome of the molt important are derived
from the fubftances which have been already treated of.
But the properties of the clafs of acid bodies ought alfo
to be early known, becaufe they are the moft powerful
inftruments of analyfis in the hands of the chemift. In¬
deed fuch is their importance in his inveftigations, that
in many of them he can fcarcely proceed a fingle ftep
without their aid.
The bodies treated of in the nth chapter, name¬
ly, alcohol, ether, and oils, under the head of in¬
flammable fubftances, are properly introduced, be¬
caufe the nature and properties of the fubftances which
enter into their compofition have been previoully exa¬
mined $ becaufe one of them is the refult of a chemical
a£Hon between the acids and alcohol j and becaufe fome
of them are employed as chemical agents. In the
12th, 13th, and 14th chapters, the properties and com¬
binations of the alkalies, earths, and metals, are detail¬
ed. Excepting one, thefe three clafles of bodies are
fimple, undecompounded fubftances. Many of them
have long been the fubjefts of chemical inveftigation,
and they afford fome of the moft important and intereft-
ing chemical refearches. They are firft to be treated
of as fimple fubftances j and next, as they enter into
combination with the different claffes of bodies which
are already knewn, particularly with that of the acids,
forming the numerous claffes of alkaline, earthy, and
metallic falts, moft of which are of vaft importance, not
only as objedls of chemical refearch, but alfo of exten-
five utility in the arts of life.
In the fix following chapters, our chemical know¬
ledge is to be applied in explaining the appearances of
nature, fo far as they are fuppofed to depend on che¬
mical adlion. The 15th chapter treats of the chemi¬
cal changes and combinations which take place in the
atmofphere. The waters, as they are found on the
earth j the different ingredients with which they are
impregnated ; the nature and quantity of thefe ingre¬
dients, and the methods of difeovering and afeertain-
ing them, form the fubjedt of the 16th chapter. The
17th chapter is employed in giving a view of the com¬
ponent parts of mineral productions, and in deferibing
the methods of analyzing or feparating the parts which
enter into their compofition. The functions of vege¬
tables and animals, or thofe changes which take place
in them in the living ftate, which feem to be depend¬
ent on chemical aCtion j the changes which they un¬
dergo by fpontaneous analyfis, or reparation into their
conftituent parts, and the nature and properties of
the!'®
CHEMISTRY.
43i
1 ffimty. tritfc elements, will be the fubject of difcufllon in the
'-v—- 18th and 19th chapters. The 20th chapter, in which
chemical fcience is applied to the improvement of arts
and manufactures, is not one ©f the leaft important and
interefting; and a full view of this part of the fubjeCl
would exhauft the whole of the ufeful detail of chemi¬
cal knowledge. But, in the following treatife, it is
not propofed to enter at full length into the different
branches of the arts and manufactures, but only to give
a flight view of their general principles, fo far as they
depend on chemiltry, referring for the particular dif-
cuilion of each to the different heads under which they
will be found arranged in the courfe of the work.
1
4?
py
so
Chon
ained
<1
1 tahl
Chap. I. Of AFFINITY.
Before w'e enter into the detail of thofe changes
which take place by the aCtion of bodies upon each
•ther, producing compounds which are poffeffed of to¬
tally different properties, and thus exhibiting the cha¬
racters of chemical aCtion, it is neceffary to take a
view of the circumitances in w hich thefe changes are
effeCted, or, in other words, the laws of combination
or chemical affinity.
The term affinity, which is the expreffion of a force
by which fubftances of different natures combine with
each other, feems to have been pretty early employed by
chemical writers. Barchufen, it w ould appear, is among
the firlt who employed it, and thus characterizes it. “Arc-
tam enim atque reciprocam inter fe habent affinitatem.”
It was afterwards brought into more general ufe, and its
application more precifely defined by Boerhaave *. His
words are remarkable. “ Particulas folventes et folu-
tae, fe affinitate fuse naturae colligunt in corpora homo-
genea.” And to explain his meaning ftill more clear¬
ly, he adds, “ non igitur hie etiam aCtiones mechani-
cce, non propulfiones violentae, non inimicitise cogi-
tandas, fed amicitia.” To avoid the metaphorical ex¬
preffion affinity, Bergman propofed the term attraction ;
and to diltinguifli chemical attraction, which exifts on¬
ly between particular fubftances, from that attraction
which exiits between all the bodies in nature, he pre¬
fixed the word eleBive. The word affinity, however, is
now generally adopted, and employed by all chemifls.
The different tendency of bodies to combine with
each other, or the relative degree of affinity w'hich ex-
ids between them, could not long be overlooked by
thofe whofe attention was occupied in obferving che¬
mical changes. And to explain this difference of ac¬
tion, a maxim of the fchoolmen was adopted} Jimile
venit adfinite. The fame doCtrine was held by Bee¬
cher, that fubftances which were capable of chemical
combination, poffeffed a fimilarity of particles. Other
attempts were made to explain chemical aCtion, by
confidering folvents as confiding of points, finer or
coarfer, which were mechanically difpofed to enter in¬
to the pores of certain fubftances which they were ca¬
pable of holding in folution. But Stahl, as appears
from his works, rejeCted the notion of mechanical
force, and aferibes the power of folvents to contaCt, or
to the attraction of cohefion. “ Combinationes quaf-
cunque non aliter fieri, quam per arCtam appofitionem.”
And afterwards, he fpeaks ftill more precifely when he
fays, “ non per modum cunei, neque per modum in-
<urfus, in unam partieulam feparandam, fed potius per-
modum apprehenfionis, feu arClce applicationis j” and Affinity.^
then he adds, “ eft inde rationi quam maxima; tonfen-
taneum, quod effeCtus tales potius arCtiore unione foL>
ventis cum folvente contingant, quam nuda et fimplici
formali inftrumentali diviftone f.” f Spccim,
Having made this important ftep in the conCidera-Heccber.
tion of chemical aCtion, the experiments and obferva-fe<-^’^
tions of the fagacious chemift led him to conclude that
a combination between two fubftances, once formed,
could not be deftroyed, without effecting a more intir
mate union of one of the conftituent parts with fome
other fubitance.
The next ftep in the method of obferving and ftudy- Tables in#
ing chemical affinity was made by Geoffrey the elder, vented,
He collcCted the fcattered faCts, to determine the force
or meafure of their degrees of union, and to eftablifh
rules of analyfis and compofition. His firft table of af¬
finity was prefented to the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris in the year 1718. This confifted only of 17
columns which were but imperfeCtly filled up, and ex¬
hibited rules w hich have been moftly changed j but
with all its errors, it ought to be confidered as one of
the firft guides in medical knowledge. ^
The firft material improvement in Geoffroy’s table enlarged,
was made by Gellert, profeffar at Freyberg. In his
Chetnia Metailurgica, publiffied in 1750, there is a
new table of affinity, which extends to 28 columns.
At the bottom of each column there is a lift of fub¬
ftances with which the body at the head of the column
had no aCtion. Rudiger, in the year 1756, inferted a
table of affinity in his fyftem of chemiftry, in which he
reduced the number of columns to 15. In this table
he placed the fixed alkalies and lime parallel with each 54
other, and before ammonia, the column of acids. He and impro*
pointed out alfo with a good deal of accuracy, in a fmallvec*
feparate table, thofe fubftances which refufe to combine
without fome intermediate fubftances.
The next important addition to the knowledge of by Lim-
affinities, was made by M. Lirnbourg. In his table bourg.
the number of columns w'as extended to 33. This ta¬
ble was the fulleft and moft accurate of any that had
yet appeared. He had juftly obferved that zinc, of all
metallic fubftances, fhould be placed at the head in
the column of acids, and that even in the dry way it
precipitated them all. He afferted that lime and the
cauftic alkalies aCted by affinity on animal matters j
and befides, he ftated fome cafes in which a change
took place in the order of affinities, by a change of
temperature, or by the volatility of one of the fub¬
ftances. ^
This fubjeft, the importance of which was fufficient- By Berg-
ly obvious, w:as now affiduoufly inveftigated by many man.
chemifts. The number of tables v'as multiplied, and
the fyftem of affinity more fully efiabliftied. But the
greateft improvement which it had hitherto received,
wns made by the celebrated Bergman, in his differta-
tion on elective attractions, publiflied in the Tranfac-
tions of the Royal Society of Upfal, in the year 1775.-
Thefe tables, editions of which appeared in 1779 and
1783, have been juftly regarded as linking inftances-'
of the fagacity and induftry of the author. The affi¬
nities of 59 fubftanefes are afeertained with great accu¬
racy ; and the diftinftion between thofe that take
place in the moift and dry way, is particularly ftated,
as well as the dillinCUon between fimplc and compound.
affinities*,
, 57.
All budies
attradl.
432 C H E M
, AiIin!ty- afnnities, which has led to the explanation of a great
number of apparent anomalies. Since the time of
Bergman, tins fubject has been profecuted by many of
the moif diftinguilhed philofophical ehemifts. Among
thefe we may mention the induftrious and indefatigable
Kirwan of our own country 3 and among the French
philofophers, Morveau, and more efpecially Berthollet,
diitinguilhed for his fkill and fagacity, who has lately,
in his refearches concerning the laws of affinity, opened
a new field of enquiry, correfted many former errors,
and pointed out fome new laws in this interefting and
important fubjeft.
All bodies with which we are acquainted, are influ¬
enced by a certain force, by which they are attrafted,
or drawn towards each other. A done, when it is
unlupported, falls to the ground 3 the planets are at¬
tracted by the fun 3 two polithed plates of metal, of
glafs, or of marble, when brought into clofe contaft,
adhere w ith a certain force 3 a piece of wood or done
requires a condderable degree of force to feparate the
particles, or to draw it afunder 3 and lime and fulphu-
ric acid enter into fuch clofe combination, that it re¬
quires an equal degree of force to overcome that com¬
bination, or to feparate the particles from each other.
Whatever may be the nature of thefe attractions, or
the caufe of thefe different combinations, or whether
they are to be aferibed to the fame univerfal law per¬
vading matter, tis fome have fuppofed, they have been
deferibed by philofophers under different names. The
attraction which exifls between all bodies in the folar
fydem, was denominated by Newton, by the general
term attraBion; and he demondrated that this uniform
and univerfal law' w'as precifely the fame as the lavr of
gravitation, or the defeent of heavy bodies towards the
earth 3 and that this attraction was an effential proper¬
ty of all matter 3 that the minuted particles, in propor¬
tion to their bulk, w'ere equally influenced with the
larged maffes 3 that the fame power which retained the
planets in their orbits, gave form to the drops of rain.
We have faid, that thefe different forces or. attrac¬
tions have been didinguiffied by different names. That
attraction which is exerted between tw'o poliffied fur-
faces brought into contaCt, has been called adhejion.
When particles of the fame nature are attraCled or held
together, the expreffion of the force by which this is
effeCted, has received the name of cohejion, homogene¬
ous affinity, or the attraBion of aggregation ; but when
diffimilar particles, or the particles of twm fubdances
of different qualities, combine together, the force or at¬
traction which is here exerted has been called heteroge¬
neous affinity, the attraBion of compofition, or, driCtly
fpeaking, chemical affinity. In the three following fec-
tions, wre propofe to give an account of the opinions and
doCtrines which have been held by philofophers with
regard to the nature and force of thefe attractions. Of
the two fird we lhall only take a fhort view' 3 but fliall
enter more fully into the detail of the latter, namely,
chemical affinity, which more driCtly belongs to our
prefent fubjeCt.
Sect. I. Of Adhesion.
By adheffon, then, is to be underdood, that force
which retains different fubdances in contaCt with each
other. Thus, water adheres to the finger, which is
5.8
Different
names of
affinity.
I S T II Y.
faid to be wet, and mercury brought into contaCl w ith Affin
gold, adheres w ith great force. Adhefion takes place, y
either between tw 0 folids, as marble or glafs 3 or be- 51
tween folids and fluids, as when water riles in capilla- ^n w!l ij
ry tubes 5 or between two fluids, as v/ater and oil, InCesiti
an experiment made by Dr Defaguliers, he oblerved, pens,
that two plates of glafs, of one-tenth of an inch in dia¬
meter, adhered with a force equal to 17 ounces. The
adhefion of two fluids has been proved by the experi¬
ment of Lagrange and Cigna, as that of oil and w ater,
between which it was formerly fuppofed there exided
a natural repulfion 3 and the experiments on capillary
attraction, and particularly the afeent of water between
two panes of glafs, which was afeertained by Dr Brook
Taylor, have ellablilhed the attraction between folids
and fluids.
This adhefive force, or the caufe of this attraction, ^cco^
has been differently accounted for by philofophers. In for.
a differtation on the w eight of the atmofphere, pub-
lilhed in 1682 by James Bernoulli, he aferibes the
refidance which two poliflied pieces of marble oppof-
ed to their feparation to the preflure of the air 3 and
in proof of this, he dates as a faCt, that the two plates
could be eaiily feparated in vacuo. But it has been
fuppofed that he had either never attempted to verify
this faCt, or that the experiment had been accompanied
by fame fallacy. From the experiments made by Dr
Taylor, he concluded that the intenfity of the adhefive
power of furfaces might be meafured by the weight
which was required to feparate them. About the fame
time Mr Haw kfbee proved by experiment, that the aff-
hefion of furfaces and capillary attraction were not to
be aferibed to the preffure of the atmofphere, as Ber¬
noulli had fuppofed 3 but Lagrange and Cigna, after
having proved the adhefion between oil and water,
thought that it was owing to a different caufe from
that of attraction. They fuppofed that it was occafioned
by the preflure of the air, and that the opinion of Dr
laylor w as not well founded. Such were the opinions
held by philofophers on this fubjeCt, when Morveau, in
the year I773> was to inftitute a feries of experi¬
ments on adheiion, which he exhibited at Dijon. By
thefe experiments he proved, that this attraction was
not owing to the preflure of the air, but entirely to
the attraction of the two fubftances .between them-
felves. I o prove this, a poliflied plate of glafs was
fufpended from the arm of a balance, and placed in
contaCt with a furface of mercury. The weight ne-
eefiary to feparate the two furfaces was equal to nine
gros and fome grains. The whole apparatus was pla¬
ced under the receiver of an air-pump, which was ex-
haulted of the air as much as poffible. It required
exaCtly the fame force to feparate the furfaces. The
lame dilk of glafs brought into contaCt with pure wa¬
ter, adhered to it W’ith a force equal to 258 grains; hut
from the furface of a folution of potalh, it required only
a force of 210 grains. This inequality of effeCts with
equal diameters, and in the inverfe order of the re-
fpeCtive denfities, feemed not only to be detifive in
favour of Dr Taylor’s method, but appeared to point
out the poffibility of applying it to the calculation of
chemical affinities. For the force of adhefion being
neceffarily proportional to the points of contaCl, and
the fum of the points of contaCt not varying in the
adhefion of a fluid and a folid with equal lurfaces, but
by
6i
f iveau’s
wi¬
ll !«•
Grains.
446
429
418
397
372
204
142
126
1*5
8
161
A Hrd’!
C H E M
by the figure of their'conlHtuent parts, the difference of
the refults points out to us precifely a caufe analogous to
that which produces affinity, the force of which it becomes
eafy, in thele circutnftanccs, to meafure and compare.
To afeertain the accuracy of this method, plates of
the different metals, of an inch in diameter, and of equal
thicknefs, perfeftly round, and well polifhed, were
procured. They were furniflied, each with a fmall
ring in the centre, to keep them fufpended parallel to
the horizon. Each of the plates was fufpended in turn
to the arm of an affay balance, and exaftly counter-
poifed by weights in the oppofite feale. Thus balan¬
ced, the plate was applied to the furface of mercury
in a cup, by Hiding it over the mercury in the fame
manner as is pra&ifed for filvering mirrors, to exclude
the whole of the air. Weights were then put into
the oppofite fcale, till the adhefion between the plate
and the mercury was broken. In each experiment
frefh mercury was employed. The following table ex¬
hibits the refults of thefe experiments.
Gold adheres to mercury with a force equal to
Silver - ...
Tin - - * . _
Lead - - - - .
Bifmuth - - - -
Zinc - . .
Copper - - - .
Antimony .
Iron - - - - .
Cobalt ....
In confidering the remarkable differences, it muff ap¬
pear that the preffure of the atmofphere has no influ¬
ence, fince its effects muff have been precifely fimilar j
nor do they depend on the difference of polifh on the
furface j for a plate of iron, Amply fmooth and filed,
adheres more ftrongly than a plate of the fame diameter
which has received the higheft polilh. Nor are thefe
differences owing to the difference of denfity ; for in
this cafe filver fhould follow lead ; cobalt would ad¬
here with a greater force than zinc, and iron greater
than that of tin. On the contrary, the order of their
denfities is reverfed. What then^s the order in which
the adhefion of thefe different fubffances takes place ?
It is precifely, fays Merveau, the order of affinity, or
the degrees of the greater or lefs folubility of the me¬
tals for mercury. Gold, of all the metals, attrafts
mercury moff ftrongly j but mercury diffolves neither
iron nor cobalt, and therefore they are placed at the bot¬
tom of the lift. This eorrefpondence, he farther ob-
ferves, cannot certainly be the effe6t of chance, but
that it clearly depends on the general property of mat¬
ter called attra6Hon. This property which is always
the fame, and always fubjeft to the fame laws, pro¬
duces very different effe&s, according to the different
diftances between the particles occafioncd by the variety
of elementary forms j and that thus it may be poflible
to eftimate the force of chemical affinity by the force
sof adheiion. In the prefent cafe, for inffance, the real
affinities which tend to combine mercury with gold,
filver, zinc, and copper, may be exprefled by the above
numbers 446, 429, 204, and 142.
Achard of Berlin, convinced by Morveau’s experi¬
ments, of the accuracy of Dr Taylor’s method, faw its
importance in chemiffry 1 and having examined the
Vgju V. Part II.
433
Affinity.
^3
I S T R Y.
principle, made a great number of applications of it,
which he publilhed in 1780. The refult of thefe ob-
fervations, if accurately obtained, can alone guide us in
effimating the points of contact by adhefion, and by
calculating the points of contaft, to afeertain the fi¬
gure of the particles which touch, and the refulting
affinities. Three effential conditions are neceffary for Reqiufite?.
the accuracy and uniformity of each experiment.
1. That the folid body whofe adhefion with a fluid is
to be ellimated be fo fufpended as to be in a horizontal
pofition, and that the force employed to detach it,
fhould always a£t in a line which forms a right angle
wdth the furface of the fluid. 2. That there be no air
interpofed between the furface of the folid and the
fluid : and, 3. That the weights employed as a coun-
terpoife may be added, efpecially towards the end, in
Very fmall quantity, not more than a quarter of a grain
each j and to avoid any fudden jerk, they fhould be
placed gently in the fcale.
The firft point which he wifhed to afeertain was,
whether the difference of atniofpherieal preffure, the
temperature remaining the fame, caufed any difference
in the adhefion of furfaces. For he found that the
adhefive force between a plate of glafs and diftilled
water was the fame at all pr ffures, but the uniformity
.of the refults varied when he operated at different
degrees of temperature, while the elevation of the
barometer continued the fame ; and he found that this
variation did not arife from the different temperatures
of the furrounding air, but from that of the water.
When the fluids are colder, the adhefion is.the ftronger ;
and the reafon is obvious : as they contain more matter
under the fame volume, they ought to prefent a greater
number of points of contaft in the fame fpace; and
fince the force of the adhefion is in proportion to the
number of the points of contact, it ought to increafe
when the fluids are condenfed by cold, and to diminifh
when they are rarefied by heat. Achard did not flop
by obferving thefe variations of the force of adhefion
between glafs and water heated to different tempera¬
tures j he fubje&ed them to calculation, to verify his
obfervations, and render their application eafy to all de¬
grees. The following table exhibits the force of ad¬
hefion by obfervation, and alfo by calculation. He
proceeded on the following data.
Let x be the temperature of the water, y the corre-
fponding adhefion, o its coefficient, and a the conftant
force. We have then the equation x—a—b ?/. To
find the value of a and he employed two obferva¬
tions ; the one in which water at i04°of Sulzer’s ther¬
mometer, adhered to the glafs dilk with a force equal
to 80 grains, and the other in which water at ^6°
adhered with a force equal to 89 grains. Proceeding
from thefe two terms I04°=ra—80 b
56 —a—8gb7
we have <7—530
<==-!?
9
And thus the relation of the temperature of water to
its adhefion to glafs may be thus expreffed : XO0530---
; and from thence are deduced the correfyonding
values of .r and y for all the adhefions of glaft to water
at any temperature. Such are the data from which,
and the correfponding experiments, Achard formed
3 I the
434 CHEMISTRY.
Affinity, the table which exhibits the adhelive force of a glafs
"" 'r~ v dilk of 14 inch in diameter, to water at different tempe¬
ratures j and (hewing the difference of the refults.
TABLE I.
64
Adhefion
tif glafs to
v/Rter.
Degrees of
Sulzer’s
Therm.
Degrees of
Fahren.
Therm.
95
9°
8j
80
75
70
65
60
55
5°
45
40
35
3°
25
20
15
10
141.687
I35*9I4
130.141
124.q68
H8.595
112.822
107.049
101.276
95*5°3
89.730
83*957
78.184
72.411
66.638
60.865
55.092
49.319
43*546
Adhefion
by Experi¬
ment.
Adhefion
found by
Calculation.
8i.25grs.
82.5
83*75
84*5
85*75
86.
87.25
88.5
89.
90.2 c
90*75
92.
92.75
93*75
94*5
95*75
96.25
97*5
81.55
82.5
83*43
84*37
85*3i
86.25
87.18
88.12
89.06
90.
90.93
91.87
92.81
93*73
94.68
95.62
96.56
97*5
Difference.
—0.3
O.
+ o*34
+0.13
-{-0.46
—0.25
4-0.07
4-0.38
—0.06
4-0.25
—0.16
+ 0.13
—0.04
4-0.02
—0.18
+0.13
—0.31
o.
The temperature being fuppofed to continue the AfBt
fame, if this principle be well founded, the force ofwVJ
adhefion of any given body with water, ought not on¬
ly to increafe or diminifh according to the extent of
furface, butthefe differences ought to be as the differ¬
ence of the furfaces.
If then /> be the force with which a difk of glafs
whofe diameter is a, adheres to water, and y the force
of adhefion of another difk, whofe diameter is £, we
l?p
(hall have the proportion a* b* w p : y and y——-.
To verify the order of this progreffion, either with
vrater or other fluids, Achard employed difks of glafs
from to 7 inches in diameter, having firfl afcertain-
ed their force of adhefion with thefe fluids, by the
number of grains which were neceffary to overcome it*
He afterwards calculated the fame by the above equa¬
tion. The following Table exhibits the refults of ex¬
periment and of calculation, which if the procedure
be free from error, correfpond as nearly as could be
expefled.
-To different
fluids.
TABLE II.
The force of adhefion between glafs difks of different diameters* and different kinds of fluids, determined by
experiment and calculation.
Diam. af
the diflt
Diltilled water.
Inches.
i*5
i*75
2.
2.25
2*5
2-75
3*25
3*5
3*75
6.
Expenm.
grs.
364*
494*5
647.25
818.75
1010.
1223.5
1457*
I7°9*
1981.5
2257-
2587.
4044. 4044
5824-5
!7926.
25
Calcul
grs.
49*5
647.
819.
ion
1223
1456.
1708.
1982
2257
2588
5824,
7927.
Alcohol.
Liquid ammonia.
Exper.
grs.
Calcul.
grs
2l6.
294.25
384*
457*5
600.
725.
863.25
294*
384*
457*
600.
726.
864.
1015.
1177.
I35°*
1538.
2399*
3455*5
4703*
1014
1176.
I35°*
*536.
2400.
Experim.
grs.
328.
447*
582.
738.
912.
1103.
I31I*5
1538.25
1786.
2049.
2332*
3645.
Calcul
grs.
446.
583.
738*
9II.
1102.
1312.
539<
i785*
2050.
2332'
3644*
3456.'5248.25
4704. 7143.
5248.
7I43i
Solution of potafh.
Experim.
grs.
420.
571-
746.
945*
1167.
I4IO*75
1680.5
1970.
2287.
2624.5
2986.
4665.8
6721.
9146.
Calcul.
grs.
571*
746.
945*
1166.
1411.
1680.
I97I*
2286.
2625.
2986.
4666.
6720.
9146.
Oil of turpentine.
Experim.
grs.
240.
326.5
425.
539*
667.
806.
961.
1126.5
I3°5*75
Calcul.
grs.
326.
426.
540*
666.
806.
960.
1x26.
1306.
1500
1707.
2666.
3839*5
5227.
1500.
1706.
2666.
3840.
5226.
Linfeed oil.
Expenm.
grs.
268.
363*25
475*
604.
744-
901.
1072.25
1259.
*458.5
1675**5
I9°5*
2977.
42^9.25
5835-75
Galcul.
grs.
364*
476.
603.
744*
900.
1072.
1258.
I459*
*675*
1905.
2977.
4288.
5836.
Achaid
CHEMISTRY.
Iffinity. Achard alfo inftitutcd a feries of experiments with
i •'v different folid fubftances, formed into dilks of equal
diameters, and applied to the furface of different fluids.
The following table (hows the relults of thofe experi¬
ments j but from thefe refults it appears, that the force
of adhefion does not depend on the fpecific gravity,
either of the folid or the fluid ; nor does it correfpond
435
with the order of chemical affinities. But befides, fome Affinity.^
of the refults cannot be admitted as perfedtly legitimate, 'f "_
on account of the chemical action which would necef-
farily take place when fome of the fubftances were
brought into contact j as fome of the metals would be
a£ted on by the acids, and others by the folutions of
metallic falls.
TABLE III.
The force of adhefion of different folxds, in difks 1.5 inch in diameter, with water and other fluids, at 70*
Fahrenheit’s thermometer, determined in grains.
66
Of different
folids to dif¬
ferent fluids.
From all thele obfervations, then, we may conclude,
that the force of adhefion between different bodies is
altogether independent of the preffure of the air; that
it varies according to the number of points of contact
of the touching furfaces j and that it is probably ow¬
ing to the fame caufe as the force of affinity. It ap¬
pears alfo, that the force of adhefion between folids and
fluids is in the inverfe ratio of the temperature indicat¬
ed by the thermometer, and the direft ratio of the
fquares of their furfaces ; that different folids adhere
with different degrees of force to the fame fluid •, but
fiill it muft be allowed, that experiments and obferva¬
tions are yet wanting, to derive any advantage from
the refults of adhefive force which have been obtained,
in the cultivation of chemical affinities.
Sect. II. Of the AttraBian of Aggregation.
6*!
That force which is inherent in the particles of mat-Cohdioa.
ter, by which they are held together, and form maffes,
is called cohefion ; and when particles of the fame kind
are united together, it is denominated the cttfiaBion of
aggregation, or homogeneous eff.nitij. It is probably
the fame in kind with that which wre have already con-
3 I 2 fidered*
43<S
63
Difference
of force.
C H E M I
Affinity, fidered, but differing in degree. Thus, it requires a
' v much greater force to feparate the particles of a mafs
of marble, than two polifhed furfaccs of the fame fub-
ftance brought into contact,
As the force of cohefion oppofes itfelf to chemical
afhon, fo that the chemiit in his refearches is obli¬
ged to deftroy or overcome it j it becomes a matter
of conliderable importance to be able to eftimate it.
This force is very different in different bodies. A
very great force is neceffary to overcome the power of
cohefion among the particles of an iron or gold wire,
while a fmall degree of force can feparate the particles
of a piece of wood or ftone. To afcertain this force,
experiments have been made by different philofophers,
and particularly by Mufchenbroeck, on that of the
cohefion of folid bodies. A rod of the fabftance whofe
cohefive force was to be eftimated, was fufpended per¬
pendicularly, and weights attached to the lowrer extre¬
mity. The weight neceffary to deftroy the cohefive
force of the particles of matter in the rod, or to tear
it afunder, was confidered as the meafure of that force.
The following are the refults of his experiments made
on different fubftances. The fubftances employed were
rods of an inch fquare, and the numbers in the table
indicate pounds avoirdupois.
S T R Y,
Steel, bar
Iron, bar
Iron, caft
Copper, caft
Silver, caft
Gold, caft
Tin, caft:
Bifmuth,
Zinc,
Antimony,
Lead, caft
Metals,
135,000
74»500
50,100
28,600
41,500
22,000
4,440
2,900
2,600
1000
860
Alloys of Metals.
Gold 2 parts, filver I part.
Gold 5, copper 1,
Silver 5, copper I,
Silver 4, tin 1,
Copper 6, tin 1,
Brafs,
Tin 3, lead I,
Tin 8, zinc 1,
Tin 4, antimony I,
Lead 8, zinc I,
Tin 4, lead 1, zinc I,
28,000
50,000
48,500
41,000
J5>00°
51,000
10,200
10,000
13,000
4,500
13,000
Woods.
Locuft tree,
Jujeb,
Beech and oak,
Orange,
Alder,
Elm,
Mulberry,
Willow,
Alh,
Plum,
Elder,
Pomegranate,
Lemon,
Tamarind,
Fir,
Walnut,
Pitch pine,
Quince,
Cyprefs,
Poplar,
Cedar,
9,2^0 Affim:
8.750
8,33o
8,130
7,656
6.750
6,000
5,500
4,880
Bones.
Ivory,
Bone, -»
Horn,
Whalebone,
Tooth of fea-calf,
16,270
I5,250
8,750
7,500
4,075
69
20,100
18.500
17,300
iJ,5°o
13,900
13,200
12.500
12,500
12,000
11,800
10,000
9,75®
Various opinions have been entertained of the na-Opinion,
ture of this cohefive force. According to Newton, as1*16111151
we have already obferved, it is properly effential to all co*ie:;
matter, and the caufe of the variety obferved in the 70
texture of different bodies. “ The particles,” fays he, Newton,
“ of all hard homogeneous bodies which touch one
another, cohere with a great force ; to account for
which fome philofophers have recourfe to a kind of
hooked atoms, which, in effeft, is nothing elfe but t»
beg the thing in queftion. Others imagine that the
particles of bodies are connefted by reft j that is, in
effect, by nothing at all } and others by confpiring
motions, that is, by a relative reft among themlelves.
For myfelf, it rather appears to me, that the particles
of bodies cohere by an attractive force, whereby they
tend mutually towards each other : which force, in the
very point of contact, is very great j at little diftances
is lefs, and at a little farther diftance is quite infenfi-
ble.” 1, . 7i
“ If compound bodies,” Dr Defaguliers obferves, Defagu.
“ be fo hard as by experience we find fome of them h*15’5*
to be, and yet have a great many hidden pores with¬
in them, and confift of parts only laid together $
no doubt thofe fimple particles which have no pores
within them, and which were never divided into parts,
mull be vaftly harder. For fuch hard particles gather¬
ed into a mafs, cannot poflibly touch in more than a
few points j and therefore much lefs force is required
to fever them, than to break a folid particle whofe
parts touch throughout all their furfaces, without any
intermediate pores or interftices. But how fuch hard
particles only laid together, and touching only in a
few points, Ihould come to cohere fo firmly, as in fad
we find they do, is inconceivable $ unlefs there be
fome caufe by which they are attrafted aad preffed to¬
gether. Now, the fmalleft particles of matter may
cohere by the ftrongeft attraftions, and conftitute larger,
whofe attractive force is feebler : and again, many of
thefe larger particles cohering, may conftitute others
ftill larger, whofe attractive force is ftill weaker j and
fo on for feveral fucceflions,' till the progreflions end
in the largeft particles, on which the operations in che-
miftry, and the colours of natural bodies, do depend j
and which, by cohering, compofe bodies of a fenfible
magnitude.” 7 a
A theory, which poffeffes great ingenuity and plau- gj^ich'
fibility, has been propofed by Bofcovich, to account
for cohefive attraction 5 and feme fuppofe, that it is on
immaterial
'll
ned.
C H E M
immaterial means or powers that this attraction, ac¬
cording to this theory, depends. Dr Hutton * feems
to think, that Dr Prieftley applies it in this view, in
the following paflage, in which he attempts to folve
fome difficulties with regard to the Newtonian doc¬
trine of light. “ The eafieft method,” fays Dr Priefl-
ley, fpeaking of this fubjeft, “ of folving all diffi¬
culties, is to adopt the hypothefis of Mr Bofcovich,
who fuppofes that matter is not impenetrable, as has,
perhaps, been univerfally taken for granted •, but that
it conlifts of phylical points only, endued with powers
of attraction and repulhon, in the fame manner as fo-
lid matter is generally fuppofed to be : provided, there¬
fore, that any body move with a fufficient degree of ve¬
locity, or have a fufficient momentum to overcome any
powers of repulfion that it may meet with, it will find
no difficulty in making its way through any body what¬
ever j for nothing elfe will penetrate one another but
powers fuch as we know do in faft exiil in the fame
place, and counterbalance or overrule one another.
The moft obvious difficulty, and indeed almoft the on¬
ly one, that attends this hypothefis, as it fuppofes the
mutual penetrability of matter, arifes from the idea of
the nature of matter, and the difficulty we meet with
in attempting to force two bodies into the fame place.
But it is demonftrable, that the firft obftruftion arifes
from no adtual contact of matter, but from mere powers
of repulfion. This difficulty we can overcome, and
haring got within one fphere of repulfion, we fancy
that we are now impeded by the folid matter itfelf.
But the very fame is the opinion of the generality of
mankind, with refpeft to the firft obftrueftion. Why,
therefore, may not the next be only another fphere of
repulfion, which may only require a greater force than
we can apply to overcome it, without difordering the
arrangement of the conftituent particles, but which
may be overcome by a body moving with the ama¬
zing velocity of light f.”
According to the theory of Bofcovich, the firft
elements or atoms of matter are indivifible, unextend¬
ed, but fimple, homogeneous, and finite in number.
They are difperfed in one immenfe fpace, in fuch a
manner, that any two or more may be diftant from
each other any affignable interval. This interval may
be indefinitely augmented or diminifhed, but cannot en¬
tirely vaniffi. Actual contact of the atoms is therefore
impoffible, feeing that the repulfive power which pre¬
vents the entire vaniffiing of the interval muft be fuf-
fieient to deftroy the greateft velocities by which the
atoms tend to unite. The repulfive power muft en¬
circle every atom, muft be equal at equal diftances
from the atoms, and, moreover, muft increafe as the
diftance fron the atoms diminiffies. On the contrary,
if the diftance from the atoms increafes, the repulfive
power will diminilh, and at laft will become equal to
nothing or vanilh j then, and not till then, an attrac¬
tive porver commences, increafes, diminiffies, vanifhes.
But the theory does not flop here ; for it fuppofes,
that a repulfive power fucceeds to the fecond or at-
traftive, increafes, diminifties, vaniffies •, and that there
are feveral alternations of this kind, till at the laft an
attraftive power prevails; and though diminiftiing fen-
fibly, as the fquares of the diftances increafe, extends
to the moft diftant regions of our fyftem. All the va¬
rieties of cohefion, Bofcovich. has ffiown, may be fa-
1 S T R Y. 437
tisfa£lorily accounted for from the diverfity of fize, fi- Affinity,
gure, and denfity of the cohering particles. 1 v
Bodies exift in three different ftates, which are quite jn
diftinct from each other } in the folid ftate, the liquid, three ftates.
and in the ftate of elaftie fluid. Solidity, he fuppofes,
is the confequence of the irregular figure of the parti¬
cles, and their great deviation from the fpherical form,
by which free motion among them is prevented. And Solid,
thus, in folid bodies, tbe motion of one particle is followed
by that of the whole mafs j or if the motion of the whole
mafs requires a greater force to effect it than what is
neceffary to deftroy the cohefion of the particles, the lat¬
ter takes place. The diverfity in folids arifes from the
various degrees of force in the limits of cohefion. ^
The particles of fluid bodies, according to Bofeo-Fluid,
vich, are fpherical, and their forces are more directed
to their centres than to their furfaces ; by which mo- ^
tion is freely allowed when any force is applied. Flu-Of three
ids, he fuppofes, are of three kinds : one in which thekin<*s*
particles have no mutual powrer, as fand and fine pow¬
ders : one in which they have repulfive power $ i'uch
are the elaftic fluids, as air : and the third in which
they have an attr&ftive power, as w'ater, mercury, &c.
And thefe three kinds are produced by the primary,
differences in the particles which compofe them.
There is a clafs of bodies which are intermediate Vifcid fub»-
between the folids and fluids; the nature of which may ftances.
be explained on the fame principles. Thefe are the
vifcid fubftances, the particles of which attract each
other more ftrongly than the fluids, but not fo ftrong-
ly as the folids. In thefe bodies the particles deviate
fo far from the fpherical form, as to produce a cer¬
tain refiftance among each other, and to impede their
relative motion. ^
According to this theory, chemical phenomena may s0iut7l0n^
be traced to the fame principle, namely the law of
the forces and the differences in the particles which
thence arife. Solution, for inftance, is thus explained.
The particles of fome, folid bodies have a lefs attrac¬
tion for each other than for the partiejes of feme
fluids, and confequently when thefe are applied to
each other, the particles of the folid feparate, and
combine with thofe of the fluid ; and thus a mixture of
the two is formed. But the feparation of the particles
of the folid can only take place fo long as the parti¬
cles of the fluid are in the Iphere of their attraftion y
and when either of them get beyond it, or when the
attraftion of the mixture thus formed becomes equal-
to the attraftion of the particles of the folid for each
other, no farther folution takes place, and the fluid is
faid to be faturated. But if, into this mixture, another
folid, whofe particles have a greater attraclion for the
fluid, be introduced, the fluid will leave the former
folid and combine with the particles of the latter.
The particles of the former will fall to the bottom, or
what is called precipitation takes place. go
Subftances which are diffolved, may not only be ob- Evapora-.
tained again by precipitation, but alfo by flowly ab-tiofi.
flra&ing part of th% fluid in which they are diffolved.
This is called evaporation, and the folid bodies which
are thus flowly formed, generally affume fome regular
fliape, and are denominated c/yrta/r. As the'fluid is ,
removed, the particles cojne gradually into the fphere
of the attractive power of each other, and thus attain
to fome limit of cohefion. when the fluid which kept
them.
438
CHEMISTRY.
* Sec Bof.
covich's
‘theory.
8x
Cryftalliza-
'tion.
l Affinity, tlicrn afunder is removed. But when a folid is ob-
^ tained by precipitation, the fluid is fuddenly removed
from betwixt the particles, which are confequently
left beyond the fphere of attraftion of each other, and
do not therefore aflume any regular form. And thus
it will follow, that the more flowly the procefs of eva¬
poration goes on, the more regular will be the cryftals
which are formed ; and this correfponds with experi¬
ment and obfervation *.
Thus, folid bodies are found, either in irregular
maffes, or aflume regular forms by cryftallization j and
the fame fubitances which are capable of a {Turning
regular figures, uniformly affeft the fame form •, fub-
jeft, however, to certain variations from particular cir-
cumftances. No bodies can afiume the form of
cryftals, excepting fuch as can be reduced to the fluid
ftate. This, as is well known, is the ufual method of
<€ryftallizing falts. The fubflances to be cryftallized
are diffolved in water, which is then flowly evapora¬
ted •, and as the bulk of the fluid is diminiflied, the
particles gradually come nearer to each other, combine
together, and form cryftals. Thefe cryftals, which
are at firft fmall, receiving the addition of other par¬
ticles, become larger, and fall to tbe bottom by their
gravity.
Some faline bodies which are very foluble in hot
water, are diflolved but in fmall proportion in cold
•water. Hot water, which is faturated with any of
thefe falts, is no longer capable of holding them in fo-
lution when it cools. The particles then gradually
approach each other, and arrange themfelves according
to certain determinate forms, or in other words, they
eryftallize. Many of the faline bodies which cryftal-
lize in this manner, when they aflume the folid form,
combine with a confiderable portion of water, which
is called the water of crystallisation. But on the
other hand, there is another clafs of faline bodies which
aflume regular forms according to a different law. Be¬
ing equally foluble in hot and in cold water, they can¬
not be cryftallized by cooling the fluid in which they
are diffolved, but by diminifhing its quantity j and this
is effedted by continuing the application of heat ; that
is, by the procefs of evaporation. Salts which are
cryftallized in thefe circumftances, contain but a fmall
quantity of water of cryftallization. This is the cafe
with common fait, which is cryftallized by boiling the
fluid which holds it in folution.
Many fubftances affume regular forms which are not
foluble in any liquid. Such, for inftance, is the cafe
with metallic fubftances, and with glafs, as well as
fome other bodies. To cryftallize fubftances of this
nature, they muft be fubjedled to fufion, and thus by
combining with caloric, they are reduced to the liquid
flate, and the particles being feparated from each other,
are left at liberty to arrange themfelves into regular
forms, or to cryftallize, and by flow and gradual cool¬
ing, the cryftals are obtained more perfedl.
But what is the caufe that the particles of bodies,
in thefe circumftances, arrange themfelves in this man¬
ner f or what is the caufe of the fame bodies in the
Accounted fame circumftances affuming regular figures ? According
for by to fome of the ancient philofophers, the elements of
bodies conlifted of certain regular geometrical figures ;
but it does not appear that they employed this theory
to explain cryftallization. The regular figure of cry-
Si
ftals was afcribed by the fchoolmen to their fubftantial
forms * while others .fuppofed that it was owing merely r < |
to the aggregation of the particles, without, however,
explaining the reafon of this aggregation, or of the re¬
gular figures which it formed. . J!
According to Newton, and the theory of Bofcovich NewtoJ
-which we have quoted, the particles of bodies which
are held in folution by a fluid, are arranged in regular
order, and at regular diftances. When the force of co-
hefion between the particles and the fluid is diminifh-
ed, it is increafed between the particles themfelves ;
they therefore feparate from the fluid, and combine to¬
gether in groups, which are compofed of the particles
neareft to each other. If it be fuppofed, that the par¬
ticles which compofe the fame body have the fame
figure, the aggregation of any determinate number of
fuch particles will produce fimilar figures. According g
to the ingenious theory of the abbe Hauy, the inte- by HatJ
grant particles always combine in the fame body in
the fame way ; they attach themfelves together by the
fame faces or the fame edges ; but thefe faces and edges
are different in different cryftals. And although the
lame fubftances are obferved to cryftallize in a great
variety of different forms, yet they all contain what
Hauy calls the primitive form, or have it within them
as a nucleus j and this nucleus or primitive figure may
be extra&ed by careful mechanical divifion. If then wh0 at
the figure of cryftals is owing to the figure of the in-cribesit
tegrant particles, and to the peculiar mode of their ar¬
rangement in combination, thefe particles, when they
are left at full liberty, as is the cafe when they arc
diflblved in a fluid, will combine in the fame way, and
thus the cryftals of the fame body will always exhibit
fimilar forms. ^
In profecuting this fubjefl, Hauy found that all the the prim
primitive forms of cryftals which he had obferved,,ive ftrK
might be reduced to fix j namely,
1. The parallelepiped.
2. The tetrahedron.
3. The octahedron.
4. The regular fix-fided prifm.
5. The dodecahedron, terminated by equal rhombs.
6. The dodecahedron, with triangular faces, compo¬
fed of two pyramids, united bafe to bafe.
But the nucleus or primitive form of a cryftal, he ob-
ferves, is not the laft term of its mechanical divifion. It
may be fubdivided parallel to its different faces, and
fometimes alfo in different directions. If the nucleus
or primitive form be a parallelepiped, which cannot b*
fubdivided, but in a direction parallel to its faces, as
takes place in carbonate of lime, it is obvious that the
integrant particle or molecule is fimilar to the nucleus ^
itfelf. And he has found by experiment, that thepjgUrcc>f
figure of the integrant particles of all cryftals may betheinte-
reduced to the three following. Thefe are, grant pw-
1. The tetrahedron, or the fimpleft of all pyramids. t‘c^5,
2. The triangular prifm, or the fimpleft of all the
prifms.
3. The parallelepiped, or the fimpleft of the folids,
which have their faces parallel.
From thefe primitive forms, the difference of fize,
proportion, and denfity of the different particles of
bodies, he fuppofes, may account for all the differences
of attra&ion which take place in fimple aggregation
and compofition of bodies. The integrant particles
fometimes
C H E M
•nity. fometimes unite by their faces, and fometimes by their
r"-' edges, in forming the primitive cryftals > and this
accounts for the different figures of the primitive
cryfials, which are compofed of integrant particles
of the fame form. But bodies when they are cry-
ilallized, do not always exhibit the fame primitive
form. The deviations from this, and the varieties of
;3 forms which are produced, are called by Hauy fecond-
jjdary ary farms. In fome falls, for inftance, the primitive
form is the o&ahedron j but in deviating from this
form, they affume, when eryftallizcd, that of the cube
or the dodecahedron.
Thefe fecondary forms feem to depend fometimes
®n variations in the ingredients which compofe the in¬
tegrant particles of particular bodies, the folvent in
which the cryftals are formed, or the different de¬
crements of the laminae of the cryftals. But for a full
view of this ingenious theory, fee Crystallization.
Sect. III. Of the AttraElion of Composition.
Bodies which are compofed of particles of the fame
nature cohere with a certain force, as in the particles
©f water or of mercury, and thofe of wood or of me¬
tal ; and this force, we have feen, afts with very dif¬
ferent degrees of intenfity. In the two former, the
water and the mercury, it is comparatively weak, but
If in the two latter it is very powerful.
* lined. But the diflimilar particles of bodies alfo enter into
combination j and thus combined, form homogeneous
fubftances, whofe particles cohere with very great
force j and wherever thefe combinations take place,
the force of cohefion between the particles of each of
the bodies muft be deftroyed or overcome, before the
new combination can take place. Thus a piece of
marble is diffolved in muriatic acid; but before this
can take place, the force of cohefion which exifted be¬
tween the particles of the marble muft be overcome j
or, in other words, the force of attraction between the
particles of muriatic acid and the particles of the mar¬
ble is greater than that between the particles of mar¬
ble themfelves. This attraction then which exifts be¬
tween the particles of fubftances of a different nature,
has been called the attra&ion of compojition, heterogene¬
ous affinity, or more properly chemical affiniti/.
TT affini- ^ attraction, or this affinity, does not exift be-
typitcd. tween the particles of all bodies. Thus there is no
affinity between a piece of marble and water, as is the
cafe between marble and muriatic acid j and it is faid
that there is no affinity bctAveen oil and water, becaufe
the particles of the one do not enter into combination
it with thofe of the other.
Ircjirtance Chemiftry may be faid to be the hiftory of affinities,
as it confifts in the detail of the numerous and various
compofitions and decompofitiens which take place
among natural bodies. Without attending to the phe¬
nomena which arife from affinity, the chemift could
carry on no procefs, either of fynthefis or nnalyfis *,
for it is by means of their affinities that the chemical
nature of bodies can be difcovered.
In taking a general view of the phenomena which
depend upon chemical attraction, the changes or events
which are the refults of this aCtion, have been divided
into certain claffes, and from their being, conftant and
I S T R Y. 439
uniform, they have been characterized by the name of Affinity.
laws of chemical affinity. Thefe may be confidered as ' " v
chemical axioms which are the principles or foun¬
dation of the fcience, and therefore it is neceffary that
they fhould be well underftood, before we enter into
the detail of the fads which it embraces. ^
The celebrated Fourcroy, whofe indefatigable la-Laws,
hours and extenfive views in chemical fcience will al¬
ways be admired and valuecf, has arranged the faCts
which depend on chemical affinity under ten different
heads, which he has denominated the laws of affinity.
In illuftrating this interefting part of chemical fcience,
we fhall obferve the fame arrangement.
First Law.
Chemical affinity takes place only between bodies of a yy
different nature, or between diffimilar particles. Affinity
This law, when confidered as a law of chemical
finity, maybe regarded as negative j for when the par-particles,
tides of bodies of the fame nature combine together,
it is by the force of cohefion, and therefore comes
under that fpecies of affinity called the attraction of
aggregation. No chemical adion has taken place,
no new compound is formed j which are the charac¬
ter iftics of chemical affinity.
But as an inftance of the effed of chemical affinity
between two bodies of a different nature, we may re¬
fer to the experiments above alluded to, of the combina¬
tion which takes place between a piece of marble and
muriatic acid j for by mutual ad ion between thefe
two bodies the marble has difappeared, and the acid
has totally changed its properties. The compound^
which is the refult of this combination, proves that
the heterogeneous bodies have entered into intimate
union with each other.
Chemical affinity may ad between two bodies, and
a combination take place, when thefe bodies are totally
uncombined with all others. In this cafe the combi¬
nation is produced by the force of affinity between the
two bodies •, but when one or both of thefe bodies is
in a ftate of combination with others, the bodies which
are faid to have the greater affinity for each other, do
not entirely combine together, and leave the bodies with
which they were firft in combination. Suppofe A and B
are two bodies which have an affinity for each other, and
are in a ftate of combination j and fuppofe C is a third
body which has a ftronger affinity for the body B than
the affinity which exifts between A and B. Now,
the body C having a greater affinity for the body B
than what exifts between the compound body AB
when it is brought into circumftances where the
force of that affinity can be exerted, the compound
body AB will be decompofed, that is, the body C
will combine with the body B, and will leave the
body A. It was formerly fuppofed by chemical phi-
lofophers, that this decompofition w as complete j that
is, as in the cafe ftated above, the affinity between C
and B being greater than the affinity between A and
B, the body C, wF-m in fufficient quantity, abftradted
every particle of the body B from its combination’
wfith the body A. But the experiments and obferva*-
tions of the fagacious Berthollet have placed this mat¬
ter in a new’ light. This will be beft illuftrated by
detailing fomc of the experiments by which this ingc-
CHEMISTRY.
44°
Affinity, nious philofopher lias clearly afcertained many curious
t^"r v£ad;s with regard to chemical affinity (d).
Examples. ^■^le Sulphuric acid has a very ftrong affinity for the
earth called barytes, forming with it a compound which
is infoluble either in hot or cold water. Sulphuric
acid al/b has an affinity for potaffi, but it is much weaker
than that which exifts between the acid and barytes $
yet the potaffi, although poffeffed of the weaker affinity,
abftrafts part of the fulphuric acid from the barytes,
and combines with it. This is proved by Berthollct
in the following experiment.
1. He took equal quantities of pure potaffi, and
fulphate of barytes (e), and boiled them together in a
fmall quantity of water. According to the views of
former chemifts with regard to chemical affinity, no
decompofition ffiould take place, becaufe the affinity
between the fulphuric acid and the barytes was ftrong-
er than that between the acid and the potaffi. But
from the refult of this experiment it appears, that the
fulphate of barytes was partially decompofed by the
potaffi, and that the fulphuric acid was divided be¬
tween the two bafes j that is, between the barytes and
the potaffi.
2. The oxalic acid has a greater affinity for lime than
for potaffi $ but if oxalate of lime, that is oxalic acid
combined with lime, be boiled along with potaffi in a
fmall quantity of water in the proportion of one part
of the oxalate of lime to two of the potaffi, a partial de-
* Refear- compofition of the oxalate of lime will take place, part
c£es' n of the oxalic acid is abftrafted from the lime, and com-
r««/c bines with the potalh *.
Affinity in- 3. One part of phofphate of lime was boiled together
creafed by in a fmall quantity of water with two parts of potaffi.
the mafs. 'phe pbofphoric acid has a greater affinity for lime
than for potalh *, but from this experiment it appeared
that the phofphate of lime was partially decompofed,
and part of the phofphoric acid having combined with
the potaffi, formed the new compound, phofphate of
potaffi.
From thefe experiments Berthollet obferves, that
the bafes which are fuppofed to form the ftrongeft
combinations with the acids may be feparated from
them by others whofe affinities are fuppoft-d to be
weaker, and that the acid divides itfelf between the
two bafes. Where a fmall quantity only of the decom-
poling fubftance is employed, the effect is not percep¬
tible *, but if a large quantity be employed, as in one
of the above experiments, if the fulphate of barytes had
been treated with fucceffive portions of potaffi, it would
have been ultimately and almoft entirely decompofed $
for the weaker affinity of any body is made up by in-
crealing the quantity of that body.
Bergman has remarked, that if fix times as much of
the decompofing fubftance be employed as is fufficient
to faturate the bafe, a decompofition will be effefted,
which may be eonfidered as total, becaufe the oppofing
fubftance retains fo fmall a part of that with which it
was combined, that it mayefcape the obferver’s notice, Affiji
and be confidered as an evanefeent quantity. But the
above experiments ftiew, that a fimilar decompoiition
could be produced, if the reverfe of the experiment
which Bergman recommends had been attempted.
When one fubftance a£ts on another in combination
with a third, the fubjedt of combination divides itfelf
between the two others, not only in proportion to the
energy of their refpeefive affinities, but alfo in propor¬
tion to their quantities. The two fubftances which
aft on the combination may be confidered as oppofing
forces afting on the fubjeft of combination, and ftiaring
it between them in proportion to the intenfity of their
aftion 5 and this intenfity may be eftimated by the
quantity of the fubftance and the energy of its affinity.
The effeft, therefore, muft increafe or diminiffi as the
quantity increafes or diminilhes. Thus it appears that
eleftive affinity in general does not aft as a determinate
force by which one body can completely feparate ano¬
ther from a combination j but that in all compofitions
and decompofitions produced by affinity, there is a par¬
tition of the fubjeft of the combination between the two
bodies, the energy of whofe affinities is oppofed, and the
proportions of this partition depend not folely on the
difference of energy in the affinities, but alfo on the
difference of the quantities of the bodies j for it has
beenobferved that an excefs of the quantity of the body
w'hofe affinity is the weaker, compenfates for the weak-
nefs of affinity.
-• Second Law.
Chemical affinity takes place only between the ultimate A^n^l
particles of bodies. betwee
The attraction of aggregation or cohefion which is the ult.
exerted between the integrant particles of bodies, jsmatep:
oppofed to the aftion of chemical affinity. F*r, as intic'es'
the cafe juft mentioned, of the combination that takes
place between a piece of marble and muriatic acid, the
force of cohefion between the particles of the marble
muft be overcome before chemical aftion begins, and
a new compound can be formed. The new compound
confifts of the conftituent particles of the two bodies,
which are now' intimately united by the force of affini¬
ty which exifts between them.
Third Law.
Chemical affinity takes place between fever al bodies. Betwe"
It is not merely compounds confifting of the parti-feveral I
cles of two bodies, that are formed by chemical affini-dies-
ty, for we ffiall find that there are numerous iaftances
of three or four fubftances entering into chemical com¬
bination. Alum, a well known fubftance, is a com¬
pound of three fubftances which have entered into che¬
mical union. Thefe are, fulphuric acid, alumina or
pure clay, and potafir. The fame thing happens alfo
in all thofe compounds which are called triple falts,
which confift, like alum, of three different fubftances;
but
(d) The reader, it is hoped, w ill find no difficulty in underftanding the general reafonings on this fubjeft ; but
he will be able to comprehend it fully, after the fubftances whofe affinities are given as examples, are treated of
in detail in their proper places.
(e) This is the compound of fulphuric acid and barytes, according to the new chemical nomenclature, the
principles of which will be afterwards explained.
CHEMISTRY.
Ifinlty.
v —
T\
jffl’oy or
Bials.
99
( : body
8 It be
H-
CO
\\ of
iility.
but the moft rcmatkable inilances of the effefts of
chemical affinity on feveral bodies are obferved in the
alloys of fome of the metals. The temperature at
which the metals are fufed is generally pretty high,
but an alloy of fome of them may be brought to a Hate
of fufion at a low temperature. This is the cafe with
the alloy of bifmuth, lead, and tin, which may be melt¬
ed at the temperature of boiling water, which is far
below the fufing point of any of the uncombined metals,
and (hews by this change of their properties, that a
chemical union has been effefted.
Fourth Law.
T/iat chemical affinity may take place between two bo¬
dies, it is neceffiai'y that one of them be in the liquid or
fluidflate.
The folution of a folid body in a fluid, may be con-
fidered as the deiirudtion of the cohdion of its parti¬
cles, and their equal diffufion in that tiuid. It is the
combination of the particles of the folid with thofe of
the fluid 5 and the compound ftill pofleffes the charac-
teriftic phyfical properties of the fluid. Thus, in the
firft place, the force of cohefion between the particles
of a folid body is deftroyed, by its folution in a fluid j
which force mull always be overcome before a new
compound can be formed by the action of chemical af¬
finity. But, 2dly, The particles of a body diffolved
in a fluid are in their ultimate, or at leaft very minute,
flate of divifion ; by which means the points of contact
between the particles of the body held in folution,
and thofe of any other with which it may combine,
are greatly multiplied $ and thus the operation of che¬
mical aft ion between thefe particles is greatly extended.
Many familiar proceffes are examples of the effedls of
folution, as fugar diffolved in water j common fait in the
fame fluid ; or the experiment mentioned above, of mar¬
ble in muriatic acid. In the procefs of making glafs
we have another example of the fame nature. The
two fubftances which enter into the compofition of
-glafs are in the folid Hate. Thefe are liliceous earth
or fand, and an alkali. But to effe£t the combination
of the two folids, one of them is brought to the fluid
Hate by the application of heat. The alkali firfl: melts,
and in the Hate of fufion the fand or filiceous earth
combines with it, and forms an uniform compound,
W'hich is glafs.
But Berthollet has fliewm, that the folubility of bo¬
dies has a very great influence in modifying the adlion
of chemical affinity. For, he obferves, when a body
is in fome degree foluble, its aftion is compofed of that
of the part diffolved and of that of the part which has
retained its folidity. It follows that its adlion does not
increafe in proportion to the quantity employed.
Lime, for inftance, a£ts by the part diffolved, and
by that which remains folid ; but it is probably the
diffolved part which contribute^ principally to the ef-
feft produced. If the quantity of lime employed in
an experiment be doubled, without increafing the
quantity of the liquid, the quantity of lime diffolved
will rather be diminilhed than increafed, becaufe a part
of the liquid is abforbed by the lime w hich has been
added.
If an infoluble combination can become foluble by
being deprived of a part of its compofition, the incon¬
venience of infolubility is ealily removed, ihus it is
Vol. V. Part II.
when the phofphate of lime is a£ted on by an acid.
The part of it which is within the fphere of action is
inftantly converted into an acidulous phofphate, and
the other part fucceffively, until both the oppofed fub-
flances be reduced to a liquid ftate.
“ When an eliminated Jubilance becomes infoluble,
the precipitate w hich is formed retains a portion of the
fubftance with which it was combined, in proportion
to the individual forces which a£led in the moment of
the precipitation. The operation is no farther in¬
fluenced by this portion, lo that the quantity of the
precipitating body adequate to the precipitation is all
that is neceflary until the end of the operation. But
the cafe is different when the eliminated fubftance af-
fumes the liquid ftate, for then the refiftance increafes
according to the progrefs of the deeompofition; and
hence it follows, if a fubftance nearly infoluble be
oppofed to a combination, and its action be confe-
quently only partial, whilit the fubftance eliminated
remains liquid, that the deeompofition mull be quickly
flopped, whatever may be the force of the affinities^
Becaufe it has been already (hewn that the decompof-
ing aftion, depends not merely on the affinities, but al-
fo on the relative quantities in action. When the ful-
phate of potaffi was decompofed by means of lime, the
operation was neceflarily flopped as foon as the ful-
phuric acid was entirely divided between the potalh
and lime, in proportion to their refpective affinities,
and to the quantity of each which had a£ted on the * Rei thol-
fulphuric acid j that is, in proportion to their refpedtive 5 fe~
maffes * ” Jearcbes.
But fluids in the elaftie flate, or the ftate of gas, Elaftic
produce effedls which are contrary to thofe of the force fluids,
of cohefion j and thus modify in a different manner
the effedls of the particular affinity of each fubllance.
Elafticity a£ts, either by the removal of fome fubftances
from the a£lion of others, or by diminilhing their pro¬
portion within the fphere of a£lion. But if all the
fubftances in adlion be in the elaftic ftate, this effe£l
wdll not follow, becaufe then they all exiil in a fimilar
condition. When a fubftance, on feparating from an
intimate combination, affumes the ftate of gas, it be¬
comes elaftic, and then it can oppofe no further refif¬
tance to the decompofing adlion. And thus it appears
that fubftances of this nature do not a<51 by their mals.
A complete decompofition can then be effefted by the
decompofing fubftance, and no greater quantity of it
is required than wrhat would have been neceffary to
form the compound by direcl combination. 'Ihus,
carbonic acid, which is an elaiiic fluid’, may be dif-
engaged from its combination by another fubftance
whofe affinity for the bafe may be lefs, becaufe that
other fubftance can a£l by its mafs, and can therefore
overcome the affinity of the carbonic acid by its fuo
ceffive action. But if the w hole of the carbonic acid
is to be expelled, the decompofing fubllance mult be
ufed in greater quantity than what is juft necelfary to
produce faturation.
The aftion which takes place when concentrated Example,
fulphuric acid is poured on dry Common fait, that is,
both fubftances being as much as poffible deprived of
v'ater, affords a good illuftration of the effed of the
elaificity of one of the fubftances. Common fait is
compofed of muriatic acid and foda. The affinity
of the fulphuric acid for foda is greater than that
3K y :: of
442 CHEMISTRY.
Affinity, of muriatic acid. When, therefore, the fulphuric acid
^ ~ is poured on the common fait, it combines with the ibda,
and the affinity of the muriatic acid is diminifhed. It
confequently affumes the gafeous Hate, and a£ls no
longer by its mafs. But if a folution of common fait
in water be employed, or a diluted acid, then the mu¬
riatic acid may be retained in the water, and in this
-cafe it can aft by its mafs.
When, therefore, a fubftance is in the flate of gas,
its elallicity is to be conlidered as a force oppofed to the
affinity of liquid fubitances. When the elafticity of
gafeous fubitances is diminifhed, as happens by compref-
lion, they then combine in greater quantity with liquids.
When water is brought into contaft with carbonic acid,
which is in the (late of gas, it does not become faturat-
ed with that acid, becaufe the elafticity of the gafeous
acid oppofes the diilolving power of the water : and be¬
fore its diftblving force is exhaufted, the two forces are
balanced. But when the oppoiing elaftic force is dimi-
nifhed, as by comprefiion, the difiblving power of the
water continues its aftion, and thus it is more fully fa-
turated with the acid.
Fifth Law.
ie3
Change of When bodies combine together, they undergo a change
tempera- ()j temperature.
ture' In all bodies there exifls a certain quantity of calo¬
ric, or the matter of heat •, but when any change takes
place in the nature or conftitution of any body, its
power of retaining that portion of caloric is alfo changed.
During thefe changes heat is either given out or ab-
forbed ; and this increafe or diminution of temperature
becomes obvious to our fenfes, or may be mealured by
the thermometer.
The effefts of this variation of temperature will be
greater or lefs, in promoting or retarding the aftion of
chemical affinity, according to the change which takes
place on the fubtlanees which are decompofed, or ac¬
cording to the ftate of the compound which is formed.
When there is a great elevation of temperature, in con-
fequence of the heat produced by the combination of
fubftances, it is neceflary to attend to the difference of
volatility of which the fubftances are fufceptible by that
elevation of temperature. If the fubftances are not all
in the liquid ftate, or if one of them only be. foluble,
the effeft of heat is to favour their mutual aftion j be¬
caufe the force of cohefion, which afts even between the
particles of bodies in the liquid ftate, is thus diminiffied.
If the expanlion by heat of the one of two fubftances
be greater than that of the other, the more expanded
fubiiance acquires a greater degree of elafticity, and
this, as has been already obferved, muft be conlidered
as a force oppofmg the affinity which exifted between
the two bodies.
In chemical combinations, according to this law, the
temperature changes ^ and it is either mcreafed or di-
minilhed, according to the nature of the combination
which is effefted. This will be belt illuflrated by an
example or two.
104 1. When lime is flaked, that is, when water is
Examples, thrown upon burnt lime, a great elevation of tempera¬
ture takes place. The water enters into combination Affb-. 1
with the lime $ it paffes from the fluid to the folid ftate jy, J '
and, during this change, a great quantity of caloric, or
the matter of heat, is given out, which is the eaufe of
the increafe of temperature (f).
2. As an example of two fluids when mixed together
producing a firnilar effeft, take four parts of concen¬
trated fulphuric acid, and pour it on one part of water j
the temperature of the combined fluids will be elevated
to the boiling point of water.
In the folution of folid bodies in a fluid, there is a
great change of temperature •, but in this cafe it is di-
minilhcd. This is particularly the cafe when falls are
diffolved in water.
1. Take muriate of ammonia, or fal ammoniac, and
diffolve it in water, and while the folution is going on,
if a thermometer be plunged into it, there will be a
confiderable fall of the mercury in confequence of the
abforption of caloric, or the diminution of tempera- -
ture.
2. If one part of water, at the temperature of 30° or
6o° of Fahrenheit, be poured on an equal quantity of
ice, the temperature of the water will be diminiflied t*
the freezing point, or 3 2°.
3. A very low temperature is produced by a mixx
turc of ice and common fait j and a ftill lower by a
mixture of fnow and powdered muriate of lime. But
we {hall become better acquainted with the effefts of
thefe fubftances in explaining the method of producing
artificial cold.
Sixth Law.
The compounds formed by chemical affinity pojfefs new Compm,!
properties, and different from thofe of their confituent have n- i
parts. proper*
We are too little acquainted with the nature of che¬
mical affinity, to be able to determine, a priori, what is
to be the refult of a combination between two fubftances.
No information can be obtained what the nature of the
union will be, from knowing the properties of the fub¬
ftances which are to be combined. It is only by ex¬
periment that the nature and properties of the new
compound can be afeertained.
Unwilling to fuppofe, or unable to conceive, that
the properties of the two fubftances which enter into
combination, had totally difappeared in the new com¬
pound, the earlier chemifts imagined that the proper¬
ties of the latter were of a middle nature, confiding
of the mixed properties of the compofing fubftances.
Hence the compounds of the acids and the alkalies,
were denominated middle falls, fales medh, from pof-
feffing the combined properties of their component fub¬
ftances.
But the truth of this doftrine, with regard to th«
nature of compound fubftances, has been fully dif*
proved by the more accurate obfervations of mo¬
dern chemifts 5 for it is found by experiment that
the compound formed exhibits not a Angle property of
any of the fubftances of which it is compofed. On
the contrary, of two mild and infipid fubftances, a
compound is formed which is highly acrid and corro-
{f) The explanation of this phenomenon will be given, when we come to treat of heat.
t.
C H E M I
inity. five '7 snd tKe tefulfc of the combination of two power-
fully corrofive fubitances, is frequently a mild and in-
fipid compound.
It is indeed one of the chara&eriftics of chemical
affinity, that there be a total change in the proper¬
ties of the fubftances which enter into combination.
This change takes place in the fenfible qualities of
many of the compounds, and fome of thefe, as an illuf-
tration of this law, may be mentioned.
(i.) Changes of colour. The colour of lead is a
bluifh white, but when it combines with oxygen it af-
fumes a bright yellow or red colour, in proportion to
the quantity of oxygen. Cobalt, which is of a gray
colour, when combined with oxygen becomes of a
fine blue j and copper, which is red, combined in the
fame way, exhibits a green colour.
(2.) Changes in fmell. 1. The fmell of muriatic acid
is highly pungent •, ammonia, or the volatile alkali, is
not lefs fo j but when thefe two are combined, form¬
ing muriate of ammonia, or fal ammoniac, the new
compound is perfectly inodorous. This laft is a re¬
markable inftance of two highly volatile and odorous
fubftances becoming fixed in the compound, and defti-
tute of fmell, and thus exhibiting a total change of
their properties.
2. The fmell of fulphur and of potafti is fcarcely
perceptible in the uncombined ftate ; but when they
are united together, and moiftened with water, a moil
fetid and offenfive odour is emitted.
(3.) Changes in tafte. 1. The tafte »f fulphur is near¬
ly inlipid; and oxygen, which is one of the component
parts of the atmofphere, is not only innocent, but ne-
ceifary for the exiftence of animals : but w'hen thefe
two enter into union, the compound formed, which is
fulphuric acid, is one of the moil corrofive fubftances.
2. Sulphuric acicl, which is four and corrofive, forms
a combination with foda, which is alfo of a cerrofive
nature; the refult, which is Glauber fait, or fulphate
of foda, is a compound of a bitter naufeous tafte,
but pofleifing none of the properties of its Component
parts. /
Seventh Law.
The force of chemical affinity, is ejhmated by the force
which is neceffiary to feparate the fubjlances which enter
into combination.
In treating of cohcfton, or the attraction of Hggre-
gation, it wras ftated, that the method employed by
pliilofophers to eftimate that force, was to meafure the
oppofite force, or that which was neceflary to over¬
come the cohefive force. Thus, the w'eight attached
to the lower extremity of a metallic wire perpendicu¬
larly fufpended, which was juft fufficient to tear it
afunder, is confidered as the meafure of its power of
cohefion. But it will appear from what follows that
this law muft be adopted with confiderable modifica¬
tion.
Milieu 1° eftimating the force of chemical affinity, various
he time methods have been propofed by different philofophical
JiUtion; chemifts. It was thought by Wenzel, that the time
which one body required to diffolve another, might be
confidered as the meafure of the force of affinity be¬
tween thefe two bodies 5 but it muft appear from what
has been already faid, that the time of folution inuft
depend greatly on the cohefive force of the body
136
:e of
lity
l07
nated
S T R Y. . Ul
which is to be diffolved, and the nature of the com- AtHint)-. ,
pound which is formed j fo that from thefe deviations,
no certain meafure can be obtained from this method. I0g
According to fome, the meafure of the force of che- Ijv th dif-
mical affinity may be eftimated by the difficulty of fG-fi 'u^tv °*
parating the fubftances which have entered into com-tcPai:atl''n*
bination 5 or, by taking the compound ratio of the fa¬
cility with w'hich they are combined. But as no me¬
thod has been invented to afeertain either the one or
the other, which are the neceflary previous fteps iq
the method propofed, it is impoffible, in this way, to
eftimate the force of chemical affinities. 10$
Obferving the effects of the union and abftraftion of by the af-
caloric, in the operations of chemical affinity, Lavoi-^cr
fier and La Place, in a memoir publiffied in 1783,''“
propofed this as the method of eftimating the force of
affinity. But it feems fcarcely poflible to meafure the
force of chemical affinity between two fubftances by
the degree of temperature which is required to over¬
come the force of cohefion j or, as this degree of tem¬
perature has no meafurable proportion with the force
of chemical affinity, it can afford no data for eftima¬
ting this force. And this quantity being variable and
unknown, a fixed term is wanting to form a fcale of
comparifon.
We have already mentioned, in treating of adliefioq,
the experiments of Dr Taylor on the adhefion of fur-
faces, and the experiments and concluftons of Morveau
and Achard on the fame fubjeef. From thefe Mor¬
veau has propofed to deduce a method of eftimating
the force of chemical affinities. But for an account
of this, we refer the reader to the firft fe£tion. IIC
A different method has been propofed by Mr Kir- KirwanV
v’an, in his experiments and oblervations on the
tractive powers of mineral acids*. He obferves,voit
that the principal end which he had “ in viewr was, ixxifi,
to afeertain and meafure the degrees of affinity or
attraction that fubfift between the mineral acids, and
the various bafes with which they may be combined j
a fubjeCt of the greateft importance, as it is upon
this foundation that chemiftry, confidered as a fciencc,
muft finally reft j and though much has been already
done, and many general obfervations laid down on
this head, yet fo many exceptions have occurred, even
to fuch of thefe obfervations as feem to have been moft
firmly eftabliflied, that not only a variety of tables of
affinity have been formed, but many very eminent
chemiils have been induced to doubt whether any gene¬
ral law w hatfoever could be traced f.” f/£j& p.341
u The difeovery of the quantity of real acid in each
of the mineral acid liquor#, and the proportion of
real acid taken up by a given quantity of each bafis
at the point of faturation, led me unexpectedly to what
feems to me the true method of inveftigating the quan¬
tity of attraction which each acid bears to the feveral
bales to which it is capable of uniting. For it was
impoffible not to perceive,
lit, That the quantity of real acid neceffary to fa-
turate a given weight of each bafe, is inverfely as the
affinity of each bafe to filch acid.
2dlv, That the quantity of each bafe requifite to
faturate a given quantity of each acid, is direCtly as- _ ,
the affinity of each acid to fuch bafe.
Thus, 100 grs. of each of the acids require for their
faturation, a greater quantity of fixed alkali than, of
3 K 2 calcareous
444 CHEMISTRY.
, Affinity- calcareous earths, more of this earth than of volatile of magnefia, than of earth ©f alum j as may be feen Affijj
alkali, more of this alkali than of magnefia, and more in the following table. W~Y'4
Quantity of bafe taken up by 100 grs. of each of the three acids.
Sulphuric acid
Nitric acid
Muriatic acid
Potafh.
.grs
215
2IJ
215
Soda.
grs.
I^S
165
158
Lime.
grs.
no
96
89
Ammonia
grs.
90
87
79
Vlagnefia.
grs.
80
75
71
Alum
grs.
75
65
55
“ As thefe numbers,” Mr Kirwan obferves, “ agree
with what common experience teaches us concerning
the affinity of thefe acids w ith their refpeftive bafes,
they may be confidered as adequate expreffions of the
quantity of that affinity. Thus, the affinity of the
fulphuric acid to potaffi, that is, the force with which
they unite to each other, is to the affinity with which
the fame acid unites to lime, as 215 grs. to no j and
to that which the nitric acid bears to lime, as 21 c to
tit 96.”
Objections. But to this method of Mr Kirwan obje&ions
have been made by Morveau and Berthollet. It is
ftated that the eflential principle of the force of affi¬
nity being in the direct ratio to the quantity of bafe,
is not fully eftabliffied. According to the experiments
of Morveau, a quantity of fulphuric acid containing
100 grs. of real acid, required for faturation 201 grs.
of cryfiallized carbonate of potafh : a quantity of nitric
acid which contained 100 grs. of real acid, required
302 grs. for faturation j and a quantity of muriatic acid
containing ico grs. of real acid, required no lefs than
9°5 grs. of the fame fait for faturation. From thefe
experiments it appears, .that Mr Kirwan’s calculations,
are erroneous, or that the principle on which he has pro¬
ceeded is falfe •, for equal quantities of real acids re¬
quire for faturation different quantities of potafh j and
befides, the quantity of bafe required is in the inverfe
ratio to the force of affinity, which is the reverfe of
Mr Kirwan’s principle.
Mr Kirwan, however, has acknowledged the force
of thefe objections, and has deduced the proportion of
real acid in the nitric and fulphuric acids, from lefs
exceptionable principles. His table, therefore, which
expreffes in numbers the ftrength of affinities, is confi¬
dered as the moff correCI which has yet been publifli-
ed $ and his general principle, that the quantity of bafe
required to faturate a given quantity of real acid, is
the expreffion of the force of affinity between the acid
and the bafe, feems to receive additional confirma¬
tion in proportion to the progrefs of chemical know¬
ledge.
Mr Kirwan has correCled the quantity of bafe taken
up by 100 parts of fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and
carbonic acids, as will be feen in the following table*.#Anal
Min. Wt
ten.
100 pts.
Potafli.
Soda.
Ammonia.
Barytes.
Strontites.
Lime.
Magnefia.
Sulphuric
Nitric
Muriatic
Carbonic
121.48
117.7
177.6
95-1
78.32
73-43
136.2
149.6
26.05
4°-35
58.48
200.
178.12
314.46
354-5
138.
116.86
216.21
231- +
70.
55-7
118.3
122.
57-92
47.64
89.8
50.
But according to the experiments and obfervations
®f Berthollet, as the force of affinity varies in propor¬
tion to the mafs of any body, no method, however ac¬
curate in other refpe&s, will afford a certain rule for
eftimating the force of chemical affinity.
Eighth Law.
D fferent Bodies have different degrees of affinity for each other.
affinities On the different force of affinity which exifts be-
among tween different bodies, depend many of the moft im-
bodies. portant operations in chemiftry and it is by multiply¬
ing the objedls of this law, that chemical fcicnce can
be improved and extended.
Two kinds. Affinities have been divided into two kinds, Jitnple
' affinity, and compound affinity; or fimple elective at¬
tractions, and double eleCtive attractions.
Between Simple affinity.-—The firft of thefe includes all thofe
two badies. combinations which direCtly take place between two
bodies, or when muriatic acid and lime are combined
together. It is alfo a cafe of fimple affinity, or fingle
elective attraction, when to a Solution which contains
tw o fubftances, there is added a third which produces
the feparation of one of the diffolved bodies. This
takes place when potaffi is added to the folution of
lime in muriatic acid. The potaffi has a ftronger affinity
for the muriatic acid than the lime j it therefore fe-
parates the acid from the lime, combines with it, and
remains in the folution. The lime thus feparated from
its combination, appears in the folid form, and falls to
the bottom. This is called a precipitate. n5
In practical chemiftry precipitates are diftinguilhedprecipk
into feveral kinds. It is faid to be a real or true pre-tales,
cipitate when the body which is difengaged from the
combination falls to the bottom, as in the cafe above,
where the lime fell to the bottom, after being feparated
from the muriatic acid. A falfe precipitate is when
the new compound which is formed falls down, as
when fulphuric acid is added to any folution of lime \
for the compound being infoluble, it appears in the
form of a precipitate. A precipitate is faid to be pure
when the body which hasbeendecompofed, can be formed
again from the feparated conftituent parts 5 and impure
when
C H E M I
4nity. when this cannot be effected j that is, probably, when
r"’"'' the decompofition has not been complete. It fometimes
happens when a body which confifts of two fubftances,
is decompofed by means of a third, that the difengaged
fubftance affumes the elaftic form. This is the cafe
when muriate of ammonia is decompofed by quicklime.
The muriatic acid which is in combination with the
ammonia, unites with the lime, for which it has the
greater attradlion j and the ammonia is fet free, and is
n6 inifantly volatilized.
jjjreen Compound affinity.—But there are fubftances which
n ■ t^ian cannot be decompofed when a third fubftance is pre-
fented. The affinity of the two fubftances A and B
in combination, may be fo much ftronger than the af¬
finity of a third C for either A or B, that no decompo¬
fition will take place when the body C is prefented to
the compound of A andB. Suppofe the two fubftances
A and B are held united with a force equal to 12, and
the force of affinity between the body C and B is equal
only to 8, it is obvious that no change can be effedled,
becaufe the force of affinity between C and B cannot
overcome the cohefive force that exifts between A and
B. But if a fourth body D is prefented to the com¬
pound A and B, and adds with a force on the body A
equal to 6, while the body C a<ds on B with a force
equal to 8, it is evident that the combined aftion of
thefe two forces will overcome the force of affinity be¬
tween A and B, which was fuppofed to be equal to 12,
becaufe the meafure of a force equal to 14 is greater
than one equal to 12 j and in this way the decompofi¬
tion of the body A and B is effe&ed by the united ac¬
tion of two other bodies, which would not have fucceed-
ed had any one been prefented to it fingly. From this
double action a decompofition of this kind is called a
double eleBive atlraBion, a name given by Bergman, or
a cafe of compound or complex affinity, as it has been
propofed to be denominated by later chemifts.
Bergman invented a method of exhibiting thefe at¬
tractions, as in the following diagram.
Nitrate of Potaffi.
Sulphate
of potafti.
Sulphate of filver.
In this example the fubftances to be decompofed are
placed on the right and left fides of the diagram.. 1 hefe
are the fulphate of potaffi, compofed of fulphuric acid
and potaffi on the left fide j and the nitrate of filver,
which confifts of nitric acid and the oxide of filver.
When thefe compounds are combined together, a de-
cempofition is effected by the mutual affinities between
the conftituent parts of the compounds. 1 bus the ful¬
phuric acid in combination with the potalh, forms a
new compound with the oxide of filver, and the ni¬
tric acid in combination with the filver, forms a
new compound with the potafti ; becaufe the fum of
the force of affinities between the nitric acid and the pot-
aih, and the fulphuric acid and the oxide of filver, is
greater than the fum of the affinities between the ful-
Potaffi.
Sulphuric
acid.
Nitric acid.
Oxide of
filver.
Nitrate
of filver.
S T R Y. 445
fulphuric acid and the potafli, and the nitric acid and '■mity~,
the oxide of filver j and thus an exchange of principles w v
takes place, and the new compounds are reprefented at
the top and bottom of the diagram, namely the nitrate
of potaffi and the fulphate of filver.
Mr Elliot in the year 1782 propofed, as an improve¬
ment on Bergman’s method, to reprefent the force of
thefe attractions by numbers. The fame cafe in Mr
Elliot’s method is reprefented in the following dia¬
gram.
Sulphate
of potafli.
Nitrate of potaffi.
Potafti.
8 Nitric acid.
< 9
2
Sulphuric
acid. 4
Oxide of
filver.
Sulphate of filver.
Nitrate
of filver;
As it is thus reprefented, the fulphuric acid and the
potaffi are fuppofed to aft with a force equal to 9 ; and'
the nitric acid and the oxide of filver attraft with a
force equal to 2. The affinity of the potaffi for the
nitric acid is equal to 8 j and the affinity between the
fulphuric acid and the oxide of filver is equal to 4.
But 9 + 2=11, and 8 + 4=125 confequently the fum
of the affinities between the nitric acid and the potaffi,
and the fulphuric acid and the oxide of filver, exceeds
the fum of the affinities between the nitric acid and the
oxide of filver, and the fulphuric acid and the potaffi,
and thus a decompofition is effefted. . iry
But “ in all decompofition,” fays Mr Kirwans, “we Two forces
muff confider, firft, the powers which refill any decom-to be coa-
pofition, and tend to keep the bodies in their prefent1^611*
ftate 5 and 2dly, the powers which tend to effeft a de¬
compofition and a new union. I he firft I fliall call
quiefeent affinities, and the fecond, divellent.
“ A decompofition will always take place when the
fum of the divellent affinities is greater than that of the
quiefeent 5 and on the contrary no decompofition will
happen when the fum of the quiefeent affinities is fupe-
rior to, or equal to that of the divellent: all we have
to do, therefore, is to compare the fums of each of thefe
powers. Thus, if the folutions of fulphate of potafti
and nitrate of lime be mixed together, a double de¬
compofition will take place.” d-his may be illuftra-
ted by the following diagram.
Nitrate of potaffi.
Co
■■o4
s'
Potaffi.
215
+
Nitric
acid.
215 + Quiefeent ^ affinities 96=311.
Sulphuric
acid.
»
II
T I O
Lime.
a
z
Sulphate of lime.
The
44^
CHEMISTRY.
Affiir
The affinities between the nitric acid and lime, and
between the fulphuric acid and the potafli, which taken
together amount 10311, are the quielcent affinities.
The affinities of the lulphuric acid and the lime, and
of the nitric acid and the potafli, are the divellent af¬
finities which are oppofed to the firfl. But the amount
of the latter is equal to 325, that is, the combined af¬
finities of the fubftances which tend to form a new
combination, and thus they overcome the force of
the refiftance of the quiefcent affinities, as 325 exceeds
311-
Another example will ferve to make this decom-
■pofition by double or compound affinity ftill more fa¬
miliar.
Muriate of potafli.
riS
This force
not con-
ftant.
v
Muriate
of
barytes.
Muriatic
acid.
< 36
Barytes.
32
+
T 4
TV
Potafli.
9=45
Carbonic
acid.
Carbonate
of potafli.
Carbonate of barytes.
In this cafe a folution of muriate of barytes is mix.
ed with a folution of the carbonate of potafh. The af¬
finity of the muriatic acid for the barytes, and that of
the potafli for the carbonic acid, are the quiefcent affini¬
ties which are oppofed to any decompofing force. But
on die contrary, the affinity of the muriatic acid for
the potafli, and that of the barytes for the carbonic acid,
are the divellent affinities. The quiefcent affinities arc
only equal to 45, while the fum of the divellent affini¬
ties is equal to 46 •, the latter mull therefore prevail.
The former combinations are broken, and inilead of
muriate of barytes, and carbonate of potafli, we obtain
muriate of potaffi and carbonate of barytes, which lat¬
ter is’infoluble, and is therefore precipitated.
But Berthollet has fliown that the force of affinity
is not conftant and uniform, but is greatly influenced
by the quantity and the ftate of faturation. As, for in-
flance, when two bafes a£t in oppofition on an acid,
the acid divides its action in proportion to their re-
fpeftive mafles. If there be two acids inftead of one,
and no feparation take place, either by precipitation
or cryftallization, both acids will a£t equally on both
bafes, in proportion to their mafles. If each of the
acids be prcvioufly combined with a bafe, and the fo-
lutions of their falts be mixed, the fum of the recipro¬
cal forces will be the fame as before. No muriate of
potafli or fulphate of lime will be formed j but there
will be a combination of potafli, of lime, of fulphuric
and muriatic acid, which will have the fame degree of
faturation as before the mixture. And hence it hap¬
pens, that when two falts are mixed together, the mu¬
tual decompofition of which would produce combina¬
tions of very different proportions, the feparation of the
component parts, which fliould refult from fuch decom¬
pofition, is not perceptible. No change of bafes there¬
fore takes place.
The force of cohefion caufes the feparation which
takes place by precipitation or cryftallization. A
fimiiar effect is produced by the fame caufe, in the ac- AfflJ
tion of complex affinities. If a folution of fulphate of —v 1 "
potafli be mixed with muriate of lime, diffolved in a
fmall quantity of water, the lime brought into contaft
with the fulphuric acid, will be more powerfully influ¬
enced by the force of cohefion, than the potafli. This
is therefore to be confidered as an additional force to
thofe which pre-exiited, and determines the combina- |
tion of the fulphuric acid with the lime, and the preci¬
pitation of the new compound.
In all decompofitions effe&ed by compound affinity,
the prevailing affinity has been aferibed to thofe fub¬
ftances which have the property of precipitating, or of
forming a fait which can be feparated by cryftallization.
Thus the knowledge of the iolubility of falts which may
be formed in a liquid, will point out thofe fubftances
which are leaft foluble, and therefore moft apt to preci¬
pitate. To thefe fubftances chemifts formerly aferibed
the ftrongeft affinity.
Lime, magnefia, ftrontites, and barytes, form infolu-Moft ' ti
ble falts. witl* carbonic acid. When therefore, any offoble c. i
the fpluble falls of thefe earths are mixed with alka- Pou*r!- :* -1
line carbonates, an exchange is produced, from which C'pitatl ’
refult the formation and precipitation of an earthy car¬
bonate. The compound of fulphuric acid and barytes
forms an infoluble fait. When, therefore,, a folution
of a fulphate is mixed with that of a fait of barytes, a
precipitation of fulphate of barytes, which is infoluble,
will be effefted. The fulphate of lime has alfo but
little folubility, and confequently it is much difpofed to
precipitate. Lime therefore decompofes all the fo¬
luble fulphates. But the fulphate of lime being much
more foluble than the fulphate of barytes, the falts of
barytes, which are more foluble than the fulphate of
lime, decompofe it.
There are other circumftances which tend to change
the aftion of compound affinities. This, aft ion is great¬
ly influenced by the greater or lefs folubility of falts.
But the folubility of falts is varied by temperature. In Fenw ;
eftimating the refult of compound affinities, therefore, ture *°
the degree of temperature muft be confidered and ta- con“ “
ken into the account. To give an inftance of this effeft,
nitrate of potafh mixed with muriate of foda, cryftal-
lizes at a low temperature. During the evaporation
the muriate of foda is feparated. No change of bafes
will take place, becaufe the nitrate of foda is fomewhat
more foluble when cold, than nitrate of potafh j and
muriate of potafli is more foluble when hot, than muri¬
ate of foda.
The aftion of complex affinities may alfo be changed
by the formation of a triple fait which precipitates •, * ^crt^
but if the folubility of the combination be known, the
decompofition which is effefted, and the refulting cota-^^f'
pounds, may alfo be forefeen. * ui
According to the theory of Berthollet, all fubflancesReciproc 1
in the liquid ftate exert a reciprocal aftion. In a fo-a^‘on,»
lution of fulphate of potafli and muriate of foda, thefe
two falts are not diftinft, nor do they become fo, until
feme extraneous caufe produces then feparation. Sul¬
phuric and muriatic acids, potalh and foda, arc contain¬
ed in the liquid. To afeertain what combinations are
produced by the force of cryftallization, he made the
following experiments.
“ Experiment 1.—A mixture was made of eq ual parts Force <4
of nitrate of lime and fulphate of potafli : after the fe-T^ "
par a tion
CHEMISTRY.
paration of tliQ fulphate of lime formed in the com-
v .y—i mencement, and of which no further mention fhall
be made in the following experiments, the liquid was
evaporated, and nitrate of petafh and 1’ulphate of lime
were alone obtained by fucccffive operations. Yet,
after the laft evaporation, fome cryftals of fulphate of
potaflr were obtained : there was but a fmall rciidue of
uncryftallizable liquid, in which carbonate of foda and
nitrate of barytes produced precipitations} whence it
appears that it confided of a fmall quantity of fulphu-
ric acid and lime, and very probably of a larger portion
of nitrate of potaih.
“ The quantity of fulphate of lime which precipitated
during this evaporation, was much greater than what
could be diiTolved in an equal quantity of water j
whence it appears that its folubility was augmented by
the action of the other fubftances.
“ Experiment 2.—Two parts of fulphate of potafh,
and one of nitrate of lime, yielded, by the firft evapora¬
tion, fulphate of potaflr and fulphate of lime ; and by the
following, nitrate of potaflr with the two lulphates, the
proportions of which continued to diminiflr until the
falts ceafed to cryftallize: only a few drops of uncrylial-
lized liquid remained, in which no precipitate was
formed on adding to it fome carbonate of foda, but this
effe£t was produced by the nitrate of barytes j whence
it appears probable that the liquid confifled of ful¬
phate of potaftr, and a fmall proportion of nitrate of
potaflr.
“ Experiment 3.—Two parts of nitrate of lime, and
one of fulphate of potaftr, yielded by the firfl evapo¬
ration a Imall quantity of fulphate of lime, and on
cooling, fome nitrate of potaih $ by the luccecding
evaporations nothing but nitrate of potaflr was obtain¬
ed. . After the laft, however, fome cryftals of fulphate
of lime were perceivable on the furface of the liquid.
Though the refidue, which was abundant, was re¬
peatedly put to evaporate and cool, no cryftallization
was efibiled. This uncryftallizable refidue, treated with
alcohol, yielded an abundant precipitate, in the folu-
tion of which in water no precipitate could be pro¬
duced by nitrate of barytes ; whence it appears that
it contained no fulphuric acid, and that it was com-
pofed of pure nitrate of potaflr. What had been dif-
folved in the alcohol was nitrate of lime, with a fmall
proportion of nitrate of potaftr : the uncryftallizable
refidue confifted, therefore, of iritrate of potafli and
nitrate of lime.
“ It appears that the fulphate of lime was rendered
much lefs foluble in this than in the preceding ex¬
periments 5 and that the aft ion of nitrate of lime pre¬
vented a confiderahle quantity of the iritrate of potaftr
from cryftallizing.
“ Sulphate of lime was neceffarily formed in thefe
three experiments, becaufe its component parts were
in contaft •, and the infolubility of the compound
formed by them, occafloned its precipitation to a cer¬
tain extent.
“ In the firfl; and fecond experiments, the fulphate of
lime was rendered much more foluble than it natural¬
ly is, by the aftion of the iubftances. in folution j but
in the third experiment, its folubility was not perceptibly
increafedy for this reafon, probably, that the nitrate of
fmre and nitrate of potaftr, which exirted in the uncry f-
lallizable liquid, had mutually faturated each other fo
447
much as to diminlflr their aftion on the fulphate of Affinity.
lime *. * ^Berthot-
From thefe confiderations, he deduces the theory &f
uncryftaliizable refidues : which the fuccceding ob^t~fcarchesi
vations tend to confirm. art. 13.
“ Saline fubftances exert a mutual aftion, which aug¬
ments their folubility 5 as has been proved by the ex¬
periments publiflred by my learned colleague Vau-
quclin. This reciprocal aftion varies in different falls $
it was once fuppoled that the folubility of the nitrate of
potafli was not augmented by the aftion of earthy falts j
and yet it is augmented more by them than by any
others.
“ There muff be, doubtlefs, in this refpeft, fome dif¬
ference arifiug from the nature of the falts, in the ef-
feft which they produce j but this difference is, in ge¬
neral, very trifling, compared to that refulting from
the force of cryftallization.
“ Experiment 4.—A mixture of equal parts of nitrate
and fulphate cf potafli, yielded by evaporation, and
fucceflively, according to their felubility, fulphate of
potafli and nitrate of potaih, without leaving any un¬
cryftallizable refidue j but having made a funiiar ex¬
periment with a mixture of nitrate and fulphate of fo¬
da, each of which has but a feeble tendency to cryftal¬
lize, and nearly an equal degree of folubility, there was
feparated by cryftallization but a fmall portion of the
fulphate of foda, the other parts of the mixture con¬
tinuing in the liquid ftate, incapable of being cryftal-
lized by any means. Muriate of foda and fulphate of
alumine, fubmitted to the fame treatment, were per¬
ceived to become more foluble j but they were totally
feparated in the end by alternate evaporation and cool-
ing-
“ It appears, then, that fubftances which are endued
wdth an aftive tendency to cryftallize, though rendered
more foluble than they naturally are, feparate however
in the order of their infolubility, without leaving any,
or but very little, uncryftallizable refidue.
“ But when a mixture confiits of falts which have but
a weak tendency to cryftallize, their mutual aftion
counterafts that tendency, fo that a large portion of
uncryftallizable liquid remains : this effeft is ftill more
complete when the mixture contains a fubftance natural¬
ly uncryftallizable, as in the third experiment, in which
there was an excels of witrate of lime, the aftion of
which excefs on the nitrate of potaih rendered a great
part of it uncryftalliz^ble.,, f. • f Ibii*
From this it appears, Berthollet obferves, that the
formatn'iin of, falts obtained by cryftallization, depends
on the proportions of the fubftances which aft on each
other ; and combinations may be formed which vary
from the proportions' of the fubftances employed, cur
the ftage of the operation j that is, from the propor¬
tions which continue in aftion, when the combinations
which might take place are not endued w ith a force
of cohefion fufficient to withdraw them from the fphere
of aftion.
Ninth Law.
Affinity is in the inverfe yatio of faturalion. Affirf 3
In moft of the combinations which take place
tween bodies; there exifts a certain determinate pro- towards the
portion of the quantity of the fubftances which form point of fa-
thc compound. On this indeed depend the conftancy mration.
and
124
Saturation
448 C H E M I
t Affinity, and permanency, botli of natural and artificial com-
-y pounds. It is to this uniformity and permanency that
their chara&eriftic properties are owing j for when the
proportions in compound bodies vary, although the con-
ilituent parts be of the fame nature, yet the properties
of the compound are greatly changed. Thus, in a
cafe already mentioned, the different proportions of
oxygen with lead, different compounds are produced j
with a fmaller proportion of oxygen, the refulting com¬
pound is yellow, but with a greater it is red.
As there are certain limits to the proportion^ in
which bodies combine together, beyond which they
cannot pafs, thefe are called the points of faturatiou ;
and when two bodies, in uniting together, have reach¬
ed this point, they are faid to be faturated, or the one
body is faid to be faturated with the other : in other
words, the change has taken place, and a new com¬
pound is formed. When, for inftance, a fait is diffolv-
ed in w^ater, as common fait, the water combines on¬
ly with a certain proportion ; and whatever quantity of
fait is added beyond this proportion, it falls to the bot¬
tom undiffolved. The reafon of this is, that the parti¬
cles of the fait are held together by their affinity for
each other 5 that is, by the force of cohefion. Now,
before any combination can be effe&ed between the
particles of the fait and the water, this force muff be
overcome. The force of affinity, therefore, between
the watw and the particles of fait, is greater than that
between the particles of fait themfelves, and thus they
are feparated and diffolve in the water : but this force
of affinity between the water and the fait is limited j
and when it has arrived at its utraoft limit, the aftion
between the twro bodies ceafes. The two forces which
were oppofed to each other; that is, the force of affi¬
nity between the water and the fait on the one hand,
and the force of cohelion between the particles of the
fait on the other, are balanced. The water in this cafe
is faid to be faturated w ith fait.
In a fenfe fomewhat fimilar, the word neutralisa¬
tion has been employed. When to an acid there is ad¬
ded the folution of an alkali to a certain point, they
combine together, and form a compound, in which
the properties of the acid and of the alkali totally dif-
appear. They are then faid to have neutralized each
other ; and hence the name of neutralfalls, which has
been given to thefe compounds.
Some bodies, it would appear, enter into combina-
propertions. tion with others, only in one determinate proportion,
and fome in two proportions, and thefe proportions are
denominated their maximum and minimum of fatura-
tion 5 that is, the fmalleft and greateft proportions in
which they combine with each ether. There is an¬
other fet of bodies which combine in any proportion
between the higheft and the lowed points, while a
fourth fet combine only in certain determinate propor¬
tions between thefe points.
Now, from thefe obfervations, let us endeavour to
illuftrate the meaning of this law, by attending to
what takes place in the different combinations of bo¬
dies with each other. A fmaller quantity of fait dif-
folved in a given quantity of water, is held in combi¬
nation by a greater force of affinity, than a greater
quantity ; becaufe this force is to be eftimated by the
affinity which exiffs between the fait and the water,
/.ft1,,
?25
in different
S T R Y.
and its mafs. The nearer, therefore, it cotties to the
maximum or highell point of faturation, the weaker is
the affinity between the water and the fait ; and in ap¬
proximating to this point, this force is gradually dimi-
niffied.
When two bodies combine together in two different
proportions, or what are called the maximum and mi¬
nimum points of faturation, the force of affinity is
greateft between the two bodies at the lowclt point.
Suppofe that two bodies, A and B, can enter into
combination with each other, in two different propor¬
tions. Suppofe the quantity of A is -zz 20 grs. and the
firft portion of B which combines with it is — 10 grs. :
it is evident from this combination, that part of the
force of the affinity of A is exhaufted, but Hill it com¬
bines with another portion of B ; fuppofe this is = 5 grs.
and then it has reached its higheft point of faturation,
or the maximum. But as the lait portion of B, which
combined with A, is retained in the compound by the
force of affinity in A, which remained after its com¬
bination with the firft portion of B, it is obvious that
this force muft be greatly diminilhed, and therefore
the lalt portion of B will be moft eafily feparated from
its combination with A j and this accordingly is found
to hold in all cafes.
Tenth Law.
Between two compound bodies which are not aeled on
by compound affinity, decompofition may take place, if the
affinity of two of the principles for a third be greater
than that which unites this third to one of the two firft,
although, at the moment of abiion, the union between the
two fuft does not exift. 1J(5
This is called difpofing or predifpojing affinity, be-Difpofmj
caufe no change takes place without the influence or affinity. I
aftion of a third body on fome of the compounds j for
it is this adlion which operates the formation of the
compound, and the decompofition of another com¬
pound, without the formation of the firft. To have a
clear conception of this difpofing affinity, let us fup¬
pofe that there are two compounds AB and CD; the
affinity of whofe conftituent parts, that is, the affinity
betw een A and C, and the affinity between B and D,
is not greater than the affinity which exifts between
AB and CD. In this cafe, it is obvious that no de¬
compofition can be effe&ed by compound affinity, be¬
caufe the fum of the quiefeent affinities exceeds the
fum of the divellent; but if the force which tends to
combine B and C together, added to that which tends
to unite the compound BC to D, be greater than the
force of cohefion between the compounds AB and CD,
the refult of this a<ftion will be a decompofition, the for¬
mation of a new compound BCD, and the reparation of
the firft component part A.
Water is compofed of two fubftances, which have
received the names of oxygen and hydrogen. Sulphur
has no direct aftion on water. This ftiews that the af¬
finity between fulphur and any of the conftituent parts
of the w'ater, is not fo great as the affinity of the oxy¬
gen and hydrogen for each other 5 but if fulphur be
united with an alkali, the water is decompofed by this
combination, although there is an affinity between the
alkali and the oxygen. The fulphur combines with
the oxygen of the water, and forms fulphuric acid. It
n ■ IS
CHEMISTRY.
449
V-
rght. Is tHs attraction which favours the decoropofition of
the water, and is therefore called a predifpofing affi¬
nity.
Such then are the phenomena of chemical a£tion,
\vhich have been obferved and claffed together. The
knowledge of the laws of affinity, and the knowledge
of chemiitry, may be regarded as fynonymous terms,
becaufe it is by the obfervation of the laws by which
the changes that take place among bodies by chemical
affinity are produced, that this fcience can be improved
and extended. The detail of chemical fcience, therefore,
may be regarded as the hiftory of affinities. We there*
fore proceed, in the following chapters, to examine the
properties of thofe bodies, the knowledge of which be¬
longs to chemical fcience ; the changes which take
place by the aClion of affinity, and the new compounds
which are the refult of thefe changes; and, at the fame
time, to point out fome of their applications and
ufes.
Chap. II. Of LIGHT.
Light and heat, which are to be treated of in this
and the fucceeding chapters, are highly interefting,
not only as curious fubje&s of fpeculation, but as act¬
ing a very important part in the changes which are
conftantly going on among natural bodies. Indeed no
change happens, in which the one or the other, and
fbmetimes both, is not either abforbed or extricated.
Light, of which we are now to treat, is the principal
agent in many chemical proceffes j and this, as well as
die aftoniffiing velocity of its motions, and the proper¬
ties which it has of penetrating and traverfmg fubftan-
ees with which it comes in contact, render it an object
worthy of great attention.
Light, if it could be defined, is too familiar to eve¬
ry one to require any definition. It is by the light of
the fun, or that which proceeds from burning bodies,
that we are informed of the prefence of objects ; or the
rays of light proceeding from thefe bodies, and enter¬
ing the eye, produce the fenfation of vifion. We have
f [27 no certain knowledge concerning the nature of light.
Ijnions Various conjectures, however, have been made, and
t 'ef13" var^ous theories have been propofed, with regard to it.
'fi :;<e Two of thefe we fliall only mention. According to
Des Cartes, Huygens, and fome other philofophers,
128 all fpace is filled up with a very fubtile fluid, and this
>1 undu. fluid is agitated or put in motion by the fun, or burn-
‘ ing bodies. This motion confifts of vibrations or un¬
dulations, which, extending themfelves and reaching
the eye, render the bodies which have produced thefe
motions vifible.
The other theory is that of Newton and his follow¬
up $rs. According to this theory, light is fuppofed to be
H erial. a real emanation from luminous bodies ; that is, a fub¬
tile fluid, confining of peculiar particles of matter
which are conftantly feparating from luminous bodies,
and, by entering the eye, excite the fenfation of light,
or the perception of the objedts from which it proceeds,
or thofe from which it is refle&ed. This theory, which
has been deduced from a great number of fafts and
observations, was eftabliftied by Newton by mathema¬
tical demonftration. If then it be admitted, that light
is a fubtile fluid, confifting of minute particles, feveral
confequences follow’, which require explanation, with
VoL. V. Part II.
regard to the fize, the velocity, and the momentum of i Light, ^
thefe particles. In what follows, we (hall confider 'r*“
light with regard to its phyfical properties ; its chemi¬
cal properties, or the effects it produces on bodies with
which it enters into combination j and, laftly, the
fources from which it is obtained.
Sect. I. Of the Physical Pboperues of Light.
130
1. One of the moft aftonilhing properties of light L> Velocity
its velocity. It has been obferved by aftronomers, that
the eclipfes of the fatellites of the planet Jupiter ap¬
pear to take place fooner, when that planet is neareft
to the earth, and later when Jupiter is on the op polite ^
fide of his orbit from the earth. Roemer, a Danilh difcovered.
aftronomer, in attempting to account for this apparent
anomaly, proved that it was owing to the difference of
time which the particles of light required, to pafs
through the femidiameter of Jupiter’s orbit: and front
this he demonftrated, that the particles of light move
through one half of the diameter of the earth’s orbit ip
about eight minutes. This difcovery of Roemer has
been fully confirmed by the theory propofed by Dr Confirmed!
Bradley, to account for the aberration of the light of
the fixed ftars. From thefe data it has been comput¬
ed, that light moves writh the velocity of 200,coo
miles in a fecond j—a velocity of which the human
mind can form no diftinft conception. But in com¬
paring this velocity with that of a cannon ball, it may
be obferved, that light paffes through a fpace in about
eight minutes, which a cannon ball with its ordinary
velocity could not traverfe in lefs than thirty-two
years! . - . 133
2. From the remarkable velocity of light, may be Particles
inferred the extreme minutenefs of its particles. The very mi-
force with which moving bodies ftrike, is in propor-nute*
tion to their maffes, multiplied by their velocities. If,
therefore, the one or the other, or both, be increafed,
the ftriking force is proportionally augmented $ and
confequently, if the particles of light were not ex¬
tremely fmall, their excefilve velocity would be high¬
ly deftruftive. Indeed, were they equal in bulk ta
the two millionth part of a grain of fand, this impulfe
would not be lefs than that of fand fhot from the
mouth of a cannon.
The minutenefs of the rays of light may be alfo de¬
monftrated from the great facility w ith which they pe¬
netrate and pafs through tranfparent folid bodies. In
moving through fuch bodies, light feems not to fuffer
the fmalleft diminution of its velocity. If there
is nothing to obftruft the rays of light which proceed
from a candle, it will fill the whole fpace within two
miles around, almoft inftantaneoufly, before it has loft
any fenfible part of its fubftance.
3. When a ray of light falls on a poliftied fubftance Reflection,
in a perpendicular direftion, it is thrown back in the
fame direction *, but when a ray of light falls on the
fame body obliquely, it returns from the furface on the
oppofite fide of a perpendicular line drawn from the
point on which the ray falls, and at an equal diftance
from that perpendicular. The angle which the ray of
light forms with the perpendicular as it falls, is equal
to the angle which it forms with the fame line, when
it is thrown back. The firft angle is called the ang/e
of incidence, and the fecond the angle of rtfcBwn.
3 L Hence
I
*
450 C H E M
I-ight Hence the optical law, that the angle of incidence is
v—i,. ■ eqUaj to angie 0f refleftion. When the rays of
light fall obliquely on polifhed furfaces, they are re-
flefted before they touch thel'e furfaces, which is fup-
pofed to be owing to a repulfion between the particles of
light and the particles of the polifhed body. But when
rays of light fall obliquely on a tranfparent fubltance, as
a plate of glafs, they pafs through to the other fide,
x-ji; and then return to the fame furface, and are reflefted.
tnfle&ion, 4. When a ray of light is admitted into a dark
room, through a fmall hole, it forms a luminous fpot
on any objeft oppofite to that from which the light
proceeds ■, and if the blades of two knives are placed
on oppofite fides of the hole, having their planes pa¬
rallel to the plane of the window Ihutter or pafteboard
through which the ray palfes, when the edges of the
knives are brought near each other, the rays of light
are drawn from their former dire&ion towards the
edges of the knives, and the luminous fpot appears en¬
larged. This is called the infleftion of light. A fi-
milar effe£l is produced by nearly (hutting the eyes,
and looking at a candle. The rays of light appear to
proceed from it in various directions j for the light, in
paffing through the eye-lafhes, is infleCted, and is di¬
vided into feparate beams, diverging from the lumi-
1315 nous objeCt.
Refraction. 5. A ray of light pafling from one medium to ano¬
ther, moves on in the fame d'reftion 5 as, for inftance,
when light paffes from air to water, or from water in¬
to air. But if a ray of light palfes in an oblique direc¬
tion from one medium to another, it is bent from its
former courfe, and then moves on in a new direction :
this is called the refraBion of light. A ftraight rod,
which is introduced obliquely into a veffel of water,
appears bent at the place where it touches the furfaee
of the water. This is owing to the refraftion of the
rays of light paffing from the rarer medium of the air
to the denfer medium of the water.
When the light palfes into a medium of greater den-
fity, as for inftance from air into water, it is refraCted
or bent towards the perpendicular 5 but when it paffes
from a denfer into a rarer medium, as from water into
air, it is refrafted from the perpendicular. The mea-
fure of the quantity of this refraCHon is eftimated by
the denfity of the medium j with this exception, how¬
ever, that if the medium be a combuftible fubftance,
the refraftive power is then found to be greater. It
was from the obfervation of this law of the refraCHon
of light, that the conjecture which was thrown out by
Newton, of the combuftible nature of water and the
diamond, which has been verified by the difeoveries of
modern chemiftry, occurred to the mind of that faga-
cious philofopher.
Speccruan 6. When a ray of light is admitted through a fmall
hole, and received on a white furface, it forms a lu¬
minous fpot. If a denfe tranfparent body be interpo-
fed, the light will be refraCted, in proportion to the
denfity of the medium •, but if a triangular glafs prifm
be interpofed, the light is not merely refraCted, but it
is divided into feven different rays. The ray of light
no longer forms a luminous fpot, but has affumed an
oblong fhape, terminating in femicircular arches, and
exhibiting feven different colours. This image is call¬
ed the fpeClrum, and, from being produced by the
I S T K Y.
prifm, the prifmatic JpeBrum. Thefe different colour- Light
ed rays appearing in different places of the fpeClrum,’-v-
fhew that their refraCHve power is different. Thofe^T^
which are neareft the middle are the leaft refrafted, i0urS( '
and thofe which are the moft diftant, the greateil.
The order of the feven rays of the fpeClrum is the fol¬
lowing : RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, GREEN, BLUE, IN¬
DIGO, violet. The red, which is at one end of the
fpeCtrum, is the leaft, and the violet, which is at the
other end, is the moft refraCled.
Sir Ifaac Newton found, if the whole fpeClrum
was divided into 360 parts, the number of the parts
occupied by each of the colours to be the following :
Red,
Orange,
Y ellow.
Green,
Blue,
Indigo,
Violet,
45 parts
27
48
60
60
40
80
Thefe different coloured rays are not fubjeCl to farther Not fartl
divifion. No change is effeded upon any of them by divilihle.]
being farther refraCled or refleCled j and, as they dif¬
fer in refrangibility, fo alfo do they differ in the power
of inflexion and reflexion. The violet rays are found
to be the melt reflexible and inflexible, and the red
the leaft.
7. Light, it is well known, feems to fuffer no in¬
terruption in paffing through fome bodies 5 fuch are
glafs or water : but it is interrupted in its paffage
through other bodies, as a piece of wood or ftone.
The firft fet of bodies are called tranfparent, and the
other opaque. The denfity of water or of glafs is
greater than that of a piece of wood. It cannot there¬
fore be ow ing to the denfity of the latter, or the clofe- 14,
nefs of the particles which compofe it, that the tranf-Tranfpa-
miffion of light is prevented. In the explanation which
has been given by Newton, it is fuppofed that the par¬
ticles which compofe tranfparent bodies, are of equal
denfity, and are uniformly arranged : but in opaque
bodies he fuppofes the particles are of unequal denfity,
or are not uniformly arranged. From the uniform ar¬
rangement and equal denfity wrhich, according to this
explanation, are fuppofed to exift in tranfparent bodies,
the light paffing through them moves in a ftraight
line, becaufe it is equally attrafted by the particles of 141
the body. But in the latter (the opaque bodies) the Opacity.
attraCHon betw een light and the particles of the body
is unequal j its diredion is conftantly changing, till at
laft it is entirely interrupted.
8. Dr Herfchel, who has made fome interefting dif-Illuminatj
coveries concerning light and heat, found that the il-ingpow.e;
luminating power of the different rays was different.
From the obfervations w hich he made on this fubjeCt,
he fays, that “ with refpeCt to the illuminating powder
affigned to each colour, we may conclude, that the
red-making rays are very far from having it in any
eminent degree. The orange poffefs more of it than
the red, and the yellowr rays illuminate objeCts ftill
more perfeCHy. The maximum of illumination lies in
the brighteft yellow, or paleft green. The green it-
felf is nearly equally bright with the yellow ; but
from the full deep green the illuminating power de-
creafes
CHEMISTRY.
45i
light.
xc.
,6.
creafes very fenfibly j that of the blue is nearly upon a
par with that of the red ; the indigo has much lefs than
the blue j and the violet is very deficient
Sect. II. Of the Chemical Properties of Light.
1. From the properties of light which have now
been detailed, it appears that it is fubjeft to the uni-
ht en verfal law of attraction, as well as other bodies j but
sbodies. it is alfo found to enter into chemical combination
with many fubftances. Thefe fubftances, it has been
difcovered by experiment, after being for fome time
expofed to the light, and carried into a dark place,
appear luminous. It is found, however, that this pro¬
perty is loft when they are kept in the dark, and they
do not recover it till after they have been again ex¬
pofed to the light. Some fubftances poffefs this proper¬
ty in a greater degree than others. One which was
difcovered by Mr Canton, who made a number of ex¬
periments on this phofphorefcent light, as it has been
called, is prepared by the following procefs. He took
fome oyfter-lhells and calcined them, after which they
144 were reduced to powder, and the pureft part of them
nton’s was put through a fine fieve. Three parts of this
rophorus. p0W(Jer were mixed together with one part of the
flower of fulphur 5 the mixture was put into a cruci¬
ble, and firmly preffed to the bottom, which was then
expofed for an hour to a red heat. It was then re¬
moved from the fire, and when it cooled, the pureft
parts of the mixture were fcraped off, and put up in a
well-clofed phial. This is called Canton’s pyrophorus.
When this is expofed to the light for a fhort time, it
becomes fo luminous that obje&s may be diftimftly
perceived in the dark, by the light which it emits. It
lofes the property, however, by being kept in the
dark, but recovers it again when it is expofed to the
light. And, after being kept in the dark for fome
time, the light from the pyraphorus becomes feeble,
or is nearly extinft, but it may be revived or increafed
by plunging the phial into hot water. But, if the
whole of the light has been feparated previous to the
application of heat, no farther application can caufe it
145 to emit light, till it has been expofed to a luminous
’m body. Thus it appears that light enters into com-
' , ichllShtbination with other bodies, and that it afterwards
med. leaves them without having undergone any perceptible
change.
2. If a quantity of purple-coloured fluate of lime
(Derbyfhire fpar) be reduced to coarfe powder, and
expofed to heat in a dark place, it emits a great quan¬
tity of coloured light 5 but when this light which has
been in combination with the fpar is once expelled, it
does not recover its property of rtiining in the dark, as
, in the cafe of Canton’s pyrophorus.
1R It has been fuppofed by fome, that the light, emitted
r 1 ibuftion. hy thefe fubftances is the confequence of flowr combuf-
tion$ but many of the fubftances which have this pro¬
perty are not combuftible, and none of the changes
which take place during this procefs have been obfer-
ved. In fome cafes it would appear that the light which
is given out is different from that to which they were
expofed, and which they muff have abforbed. In fome Light,
of the pyrophori, the blue rays were oblerved to have v f
a greater effeft, and the light which was emitted was
of a red colour.
3. Light, it is well knowm, is given out by a num-Emitted by
ber of animal and vegetable matters, when the procefs at hr al
of putrefaftion commences. In this cafe it leems to™atters»
conftitute one of their component parts. This parti-'J'C,
cularly happens to filh of different kinds, as the her¬
ring and the mackerel; and to this is fuppofed to be
ow'ing the phofphorefcent light of the fea, which ap¬
pears when the water is broken and agitated. Thefe
phenomena were obferved by Mr Boyle and Dr Beale,
both in the flefh of quadrupeds and fifties, and earlier
by Fabricius ab Aquapendente and Bartholin in the
flefti of quadrupeds. Experiments were made on the
fame fubjedt by Mr Canton, ’whom we have already I4s
mentioned, and more lately by Dr Hulme. From the A conftitu.
experiments of the latter he concludes, that this lightent pnnci*
is a conftituent principle of marine fifties ; that it is in-Pie*
corporated v'ith their whole fubftance, making a part
of it, in the fame manner as any other conftituent
principle *, that when this fpontaneous light is extin-
guiflied by fome fubftances, it may be again revived j
that the quantity of light emitted is not in proportion
to the degree of putrefaction, but, on the contrary, the
greater the putreicence, the lefs is the quantity of light
emitted.
For the fake of thofe who may wifti to repeat thefe
experiments, we fhall detail the following made on the
herring and mackerel, in the words of the author.
The Flejh of Herring (g).
(1.) “A frefti herring was fplit, or divided longitu-Dr Hulme’a
dinally by a knife, into two parts. Then about four experi-
drams of it, being cut acrofs, were put into a folu-rnents'
tion, compofed of two drams of Epforn lalt or vitriola-
ted magnefia, and two ounces of cold fpring water
drawn up by the pump. The liquid was contained in
a wide-mouthed three-ounce phial, which was placed in
the laboratory. Upon carefully examining the liquid,
on the fecond evening after the procels was begun, I
could plainly perceive a lucid ring (for the phial was
round) floating at the top of the liquid, the part below
it being dark j but, on ihaking the phial, the whole at
once became beautifully luminous, and continued in
that ftate. On the third evening, the light had again
rifen to the top j but the lucid ring appeared lels vivid,
and, on ftraking the phial as before, tiie liquid was not.
fo luminous as on the preceding night.
(2.) The fame experiment was repeated. On the
fecond night, the liquid, being agitated, was very lumi*
nous 5 on the third, not fo lucid } and on the fourth the
light was extinguilhed.
(3.) With fea fait or muriated natron half a dram, and
two ounces of water. On the fecond night, the liquid,
when agitated, was dark; on the third, lucid j on the
fourth very luminous *, on the fifth, it began to lofe
light', on the fixth, it continued to decreafe 5 and on the.
feventh it was quite gone. Neither the liquid, nor the
herring, had contrafted any putrid fmell.
3 L 2 (4.) With
(g) The quantity ufed in each experiment was about four drams*
45 c
CHEMISTRY.
Light. (4.) With fea Mater two ounces. On the fecond
”~v' night, dark 5 on the third, fourth, and fifth, luminous j
on the fixth, nearly extinft j and on the feventh, total¬
ly. The piece of herring, when taken out and exa¬
mined, was remarkably fweet.
Roe of Herring (h).
(5.) With Epfom fait two drams, and water two
ounces. On the fecond night, the liquid was pretty lu¬
minous j on the third and fourth, Hill luminous j and
on the fifth its light was extinft.
(6.) With Glauber’s fait or vitriolated natron, two
drams to two ounces of water. On the fecond night,
when the phial was Ihaken, as ufual in all thefe expe¬
riments, the liquid was pretty luminous j on the third,
lefs fo} and on the fourth the light was fcarcely vi-
fible.
(7.) With fea water two ounces. On the fecond
night dark; on the third, the liquid was moderately
luminous j on the fourth and fifth, it had ex trailed
much light j and on the feventh it was Hill Ihining.
After this procefs both the roe and the fea water re¬
mained perfe&ly fweet.
The Flefh of Mackerel.
(8.) With Epfom fait twro drams, and water two
ounces. On the fecond night, the liquid was finely il¬
luminated •, on the third, a fimilar appearance j on the
fourth, a diminution of light \ on the fifth, it continued
lucid in a fmall degree j and on the fixth the light was
extinguilhed.
Roe of Mackerel.
} Philo/.
Iran/
1800.
p. 168.
*5°
Colour.
(9.) With Epfom fait two drams, and water two
ounces. On the fecond night, the liquid, when agita¬
ted, was exceedingly bright 5 on the third, the fame j
and on the fourth and fifth, ftill lucid f.
Dr Hulme found that fome fubftances have the
power of extinguilhing this light. It was quickly ex¬
tinguilhed when mixed with water alone, with water
impregnated with lime, carbonic acid gas, or fulphu-
rated hydrogen gas; by fermented liquors and ardent
fpirits ; by the acids, both concentrated and diluted j
by the alkalies when diffolved in water j by many of
the neutral falts, as the folutions of common fait, Ep¬
fom fait, and fal ammoniac. It was alfo extinguilhed
by infufions of chamomile flowers, of long pepper, and of
camphor, made with boiling hot water, but not ufed
till quite cool.
When the fubltances emitting this light were placed
in a freezing medium, the light was in a Ihort time
quite extinguilhed; but when expofed to a moderate
degree of temperature, it was revived. A moderate
degree of heat increafed this light, but it vyas extin-
guilhed by a high temperature, and no luminous ap¬
pearance could again be difcovered.
4. When all the rays of light are refle&ed from any
body, that body is faid to be white 5 but when all the
lays are abforbed, the body which abforbs them is
faid to be black : but experience informs us, that differ- Light,
ent bodies abforb and refleft different rays. Thus, if—y—»
a body abforb all the rays excepting the yellow, that
body is faid to be of a yellow colour j or if a body
refleft the red rays, while the others are abforbed, it
is faid to be red. Thus the colour of the body is cha-
ra£terized by the colour of the ray which is refle&ed j
or, which is the fame thing, this is the caufe of colour¬
ing bodies.
5. One of the moll lingular effedls which is obferved Effedb of
in the combination of light with bodies, is its power of^1 °n
reducing the oxides of the metals. Some of thefe, as, °
for inltance, the red oxide of lead, when expofed to fajts^ ™
the light of the fun, lofe fome of their weight. The
oxide of gold may alfo be reduced in the lame way,
and the white falts of filver become black, and the
oxide is reduced j and when that procefs is going on,
oxygen gas is emitted, which, it would appear, has
been feparated by the attion of light. Some of the
rays are found to have a greater effeft than others.
Scheele, who made a fet of experiments to afcertain
the difference of effeft of the different-coloured rays
in blackening the muriate of filver, difcovered that
the violet ray was the moll powerful in reducing the
oxide of filver.
It was formerly the general opinion, that the colo-Peculiar
rific rays of light were the caufe of the redu&ion of rajs,
the oxides of the metals j but the experiments and ob-
fervations of Meffrs Bockman and Ritter in Germany,
and of Dr Wollalton in England, prove that the mu¬
riate of lilver is more ftrongly and rapidly darkened
by rays of the fun which have been more refra&ed
than the violet rays $ for it appeared that the muriate
was affefted in a fpace lying beyond the violet
light. Thefe rays, therefore, have not the property
of giving light, nor do they produce any fenfible de¬
gree of heat; and thus it appears that there are three
different fets of rays j namely, rays which illuminate,
rays which warm without giving any light (1), and
rays which produce a chemical action on bodies, but
which give neither light or heat. From the confi-
deration of thefe curious and interefting experiments, it
has been very naturally fuppofed, that the chemical
a&ions dependent on folar light are owing to the invi-
fible rays which were refra£ted beyond the violet raysj
and that the colorific rays have no {hare in thefe ac¬
tions : for it has been obferved, that the effedt of. the
different colours increafes with their refrangibility j
and that the whole is owing to the invifible rays which
increafe in number or quantity as they approach to the
violet ray, and are in greateft quantity at a certain
diftance beyond it. 153
6. The abforption of light by plants produces an- Light ah.
other remarkable effea. It has been long known, that forbed by
the green colour of the leaves of plants is produced by P a
the light of the fun. Experiments were firft made to
afqertain this fa& by M. Dufay and fome others of
the French academicians. The fubje&.has been
farther profecuted and extended by Senebier of Ge¬
neva. When feeds are fown in a dark place, they ve¬
getate,
(h) The quantity ufed in each experiment was about four drams.
(1) Thefe will be particularly mentioned in the next chapter.
CHE Ml
it. getate, and the plant grows with eonfiderable luxuri-
' anCe j but it never has any green colour as long as
the light is excluded ; the leaves continue white •, and
this happens although air be freely admitted. When
the plant in this ftate is expofed to the light, the green
colour begins to appear, and the plant aflumes its ordi¬
nary habit. It may be added, that while the plant re¬
mains white, it contains but a final] quantity of com-
buftible matter, and it has but little tafte. When it
affumes the green colour after its expofure to the light,
it acquires its natural tafte, and the ordinary quantity
of combuftible matter. It is upon this principle that
the art of blanching celery and other garden plants
depends j by heaping up the earth about the Items the
light is excluded, and thus they are deprived of any
pungent tafte, and become white and tender (k).
Sect. III. Of the Sources of Light.
i. The principal fource of light is the fun. It has
been a queftion of more curiofity than utility, what is
the caufe of the fun conftantly emitting light, and what
are the means of repairing that wafte ? By calculations
it is fuppofed, that there ought to iffue from one fquare
foot of the fun’s furface in one fecond, Part
of a grain of matter, to fupply the confumption of
light', that is, at the rate of little more than two
grains a-day, or about 4,752,000 grains, or 6701b. in
6000 years, which would have ftiortened the fun’s dia¬
meter about 10 feet, if it was formed of matter of the
..denfity of water only*
Oiw, But at the time this calculation was made, the dif-
p" 9' coveries of Herfchel, of the conftitution of the fun,
were not known. The body of the fun, according to
the obfervations of this philofopher, is not luminous,
but opaque $ and the light which was fuppofed to come
S T R Y. 453
from his furface, proceeds from a luminous atmofphere ^‘ght. ^
which furrounds that body j and there are probably
fome means by which the wafte that is conftantly go¬
ing on, is repaired. The light which comes from the
ftars is of the fame nature with that of the fun. 155 .
2. Another fource of light are burning bodies.. InCombuilion.
all cafes of burning, light is emitted. I his light,
therefore, muft have been in combination with fome of
the fubftances which are employed in thefe proceffes. 156
3. But when bodies, without undergoing the procefsHeat.
of combuftion, are heated to a certain temperature,
they emit light: and it would appear, from experiments
which have been made upon the fubjeft, that all bodies
which are not decompoied before they arrive at the
proper temperature, begin to give out light, exactly at
the fame degree of heat. Iron heated to 635°, ac¬
cording to Sir Ifaac Newton’s experiments, becomes
vifible in the dark •, at 7 5 2° it Ihines brightly ; and be¬
comes luminous in the twilight at 884°. I he tempe¬
rature is above iooo° when it ftrines in broad day
light. A red heat, according to the experiments of
others, commences at the temperature of 8oo°, and
when a body reaches the proper degree of heat, it ap¬
pears luminous, independent of the air. Mr T. Wedg¬
wood, who made a number of experiments on this fub-
je&, found that a piece of iron wire became red hot
when immerfed in melted glafs. Air, therefore, is not
neceffary to the Ihining of ignited bodies.
It was alfo afeertained by Mr Wedgwood, that a
piece of red-hot metal continues to {hine for fome time af¬
ter it has been removed from the fire, w'hich proves that
conftant acceflions of light or heat are not neceffary for
the fliining of ignited bodies. But if the red-hot
metal be ftrongly blown upon, it inftantly ceafes to
fhine, and thus, it appears, when the temperature is di-
minilhed, it ceafes to give out light f. Tranf.
From vol Ixkxia
  P-
(K) This is remarkably illuftrated by the following obfervations of Profeffor Robifon. “ Having occafion
in autumn 1774, to go down and infpedl a drain in a coalwork, where an embankment had been made to eep
off a lateral run of water, and, crawling along, I laid my hand on a very luxuriant plant, having a copious,
deep-indented, white foliage, quite unknown to me. I inquired of the colliers what it was. None ot them
could tell me. It being curious, I made a fod be carried up to the daylight, to learn from the workmen what
fort of a plant it was. But nobody had ever feen any like it. A few days after, looking at the lod, as it lay at
the mouth of the pit, I obferved that the plant had languilhed and died, for want of water, as I imagined. But
looking at it more attentively, I obferved that a new vegetation was beginning, with little fproutmgs irom the
fame Item, and that this new growth was of a green colour. This inftantly brought to my recollcihon the
curious obfervations of M. Dufay } and I caufed the fod to be fet in the ground and care u.y watere . yas
the more incited to this, becaufe I thought'that my fingers had contrafted a fenfible aromatic fmell by handling
the plant at this time. After about a week, this root fet out feveral Items and leaves of common tanly. Ihe
workmen now recollefted that the fods had been taken from an old cottage garden hard by where a great deal
of tanfy was ftill growing among the grafs. I now fent down for more of the fame fluff, and feveral lods were
brought up, having the fame luxuriant white foliage. This, when bruifed between the fingers gave no aroma¬
tic fmell whatever. All thefe plants withered and died down, though carefully watered, and, m each, there
fprouted from the fame flocks frelh ftems, and a copious foliage, and produced, among others, common tanly,
fully impregnated with the ordinary juices of that plant, and of a full green colour I have repeated the
fame experiment with great care on lovage (^levijlicum vu/gare), mint, and caraways. u^ ‘r Piauts r<™e
very well below, in the dark, but with a blanched foliage, which did not fpread upwards, but lay fiat on the
ground 1 in all of them there was no refemblance of lhape to the ordinary o rage o tie p.ant j a o em
died down when brought into daylight j and the flocks then produced the proper plants in their ufual drefs, and
having all their diftinguilhing fmells. , . . . 3 1A r t
From fuch experiments, I thought myfelf entitled to fay that the fun’s rays not only productu the green fecula
of plants, but alfo the diftinguilhmg juices, and particularly the elfential oils. The improvements triad; have ■
been made in chemical fcience fmee that time, have, l think, fully confirmed my conjecture. a' , r . i, 532. *
45+
CHEMISTRY.
*57
Gales not
luminous.
* Phil.
Tranf
vol. Ixxxii.
P-
Attrition
and percuf-
iion.
■\ Ibid.
y. 42.
From the experiments of Mr Wedgwood, it appears
that the gafes do not become luminous, even at a high¬
er temperature. He took an earthen-ware pipe of a
zig-zag form, and placed it in a crucible filled up with
fand. The ends of the pipe were left uncovered.
To one end was attached a pair of bellows, and to
the other a globular veffel with a lateral bent pipe, to
let out air, but exclude the external light, and hav¬
ing a neck in which was inferted a circular plate of
glafs. The crucible, with the fand and the part of
the pipe contained in it, was heated to rednefs. The
eye was fixed in the neck of the veffel, which was then
obferved to be perfectly dark within. A ftream of
air was then directed through the tube from the bel¬
lows, but this air which palled through the red-hot
tube, was not luminous. A fmall ftrip of gold was
then fixed into the orifice of the tube oppofite to the
eye, and after two or three blafts, it became faintly
red} which fhows, that though the air was not lumi¬
nous, it was equal in temperature to what is called red
heat. Dr Darwin made an experiment of the fame
kind, and with a limilar refult. The heated air was
altogether invifible j but when a bit of gold was intro¬
duced, it acquired a bright glow in a few feconds *.
4. Light is alfo emitted by attrition and percuffion.
In the experiments which were made by Mr Wedg¬
wood, on the attrition of bodies, he found that diffe¬
rent coloured rays were emitted ; fometimes it was a
pure white light, as from the diamond •, fometimes of
a faint red, as from blackifh gun flint; and fometimes
of a deep red, as from unglazcd white bifcuit earthen
ware. But this effedl produced by attrition, may per¬
haps be confidered as the fame with that of percuffion.
It is a familiar circumftance, that fparks of light are
emitted, when two hard bodies, as, for inftance, two
quartz Hones, are fmartly {truck againll each other ;
and it appears that light is emitted, or fparks given out,
when thefe bodies are treated by percuffion or attrition,
even under water 5 and they feem equally luminous in at-
mofpheric air, oxygen gas, carbonic acid, or hydrogen
gafes. The emiffion of this light is accompanied with
a peculiar fmell, which varies in different bodies. The
fmell appears to be ftrongell where the friction is great-
eft 5 it has no dependence on the light produced by
attrition, beeaufe it is often very ftrong when no light is
emitted. Rock cryftal, quartz, and other hard bodies,
alfo emit this fmell under water f.
When flint and fteel are ftruck fmartly together, a
fpark is produced which will communicate fire to com-
buftible fubftanees. This fpark has been found to be
a particle of the iron which is driven off, and which
catches fire as it paffes through the air. It is to be
confidered as a cafe of combuftion, and quite different
from what happens when two ftones are rubbed or
ftruck againft each other.
The matter driven off, when ftones of quartz are
ftruck againft; each other, conftfts of fmall, black, fri-
nble bodies, which leave a black ftain when rubbed on
paper, and, when examined with a magnifying glafs,
have the appearance of being fufed. The light is
produced, in thefe cafes, by the fubftanees ftruck to¬
gether having been red hot. Some have fuppofed
that they are a combination with oxygen *, while
•others, who have probably examined them more ac¬
curately, alfert that they are pieces of the quartz fur-
rounded with a quantity of black powder j and having Caloric,
been raifed to a very high temperature, fet fire, in
their paffage through the air, to the combuftible bo¬
dies that are floating in it.
Chap. III. Of CALORIC.
The word Zieat in common language has two dif- Term ex
ferent meanings. When we fay that we feel heat, it plained,
muft mean the fenfation of heat excited in the body ;
but when we fay that the fire or a ftone is hot, it
means that the power of exciting the fenfation of heat
in us, exifts in the ftone or fire. The one is the caufe,
and the other is to be confidered as the effect. The
heat of the ftone or fire is therefore the caufe of the
fenfation of heat in the body. Thus the word heal is
generally employed to exprefs both the fenfation, and
the caule of that fenfation. To prevent any ambiguity
in the ufe of thefe terms, the word caloric has been
adopted in the new chemical n®menclature, to fignify
that ftate or condition of matter by which it excites
in us the fenfation of heat j and in this fenfe it is now
to be employed.
The nature and effefls of caloric or heat are highly
interefting, as curious fubjefts of fpeculation 5 but the
knowledge of them is of the utmoft importance in the
fludy of chemical phenomena, becaufe no change takes
place, no decompofition is effeifted, and no new com¬
pound is formed, without the agency of caloric.
Sect. I. Of the Nature and Properties of CALORIC.
Two opinions have been maintained by philofophers xwo 0pj,
concerning the nature of caloric. According to one, nions.
it is fuppofed to be a peculiar fubtile fluid, of a high¬
ly elaltic and penetrating nature, which is univerfally
diffufed. According to the other opinion, it depends
on a peculiar tremor or vibration which exifts among
the particles of heated bodies. jgj
Among the firft; who feem to have adopted the lat- Bacon’s,
ter opinion, was the celebrated Bacon. In his treatife,
De forma caltdi, which he propofed as a model of
fcientific inveftigation, he enumerates all the fafts
wrhich wrere then known concerning heat j and after a That hem
cautious confideration of thefe facts, he concludes, thatis moti0n'
heat is motion. The fafls on which he founded this
opinion, were derived from foine of the moft familiar
methods by which heat is produced in bodies. A
blackfmith can make a rod of iron red hot by ftriking
it fmartly with a hammer 5 the heavy parts of ma¬
chinery, by friftion upon each other, and the axles of
the wheels of carriages, when heavily loaded, fome¬
times take fire. A fire may be kindled by the friction
of two pieces of dry wood j and the branches of trees
ftrongly rubbed againft each other by the violence of
a ftorm, have fet fire to thick forefts. From the ob-
fervation and confideration of thefe fadls, this eminent
philofopher was led to conclude, that heat is the ef¬
fect of mechanical impulfe. Since the time of Bacon,
this theory has had many followers, and even at the
prefent day it is maintained by fome philofcphers.
But the theory which fuppofes caloric or heat to be pi/iiiA
a diftinft material fubftance, is now more generally fubflauc4*'
adopted. It was firft fuppofed by thofe who favour¬
ed this theory, that this peculiar matter was chief¬
ly characterized by the great elafticity, or repulfive
power,
iloric.
164
!;:,tracled
I«S
iocity.
tS6
J iute
I :icles.
1$
t Its to
i! rtain
1 weight
aiovic,
e H E M
power, of the particles among each other j but befides
this property, Dr Cleghorn fuppofed that it poffeffed
another, namely, that while its particles have a ftrong
repulfion for one another, they are attradled by other kinds
of matter, with different degrees of force. But what¬
ever opinion may be formed of the nature of caloric, after
we have inveftigated its properties and effects, we fhall
probably find, that the phenomena which it exhibits will
be eafier underftood, and more fatisfadlorily accounted
for, on the fuppofition that it is a diftinft fubilance.
1. The rays of light and caloric accompany each
other as they proceed from the fun, or from burning
bodies. It is therefore fuppofed that they move with
the fame degree of velocity ; and if, this be the cafe,
the velocity of the rays of caloric mud be equal to
200,000 miles in a fecond. An experiment made by
Mr Pi£tet proves the great velocity of the rays of ca¬
loric. Two concave mirrors, the one of tin, and the
other of gilt plafter, 18 inches in diameter, w^ere pla¬
ced at the diffance of 69 feet from each other. A
thermometer was placed in the focus of the latter, and
a heated bullet of iron in the former. When the
bullet was placed in the focus, a thick fcreen, which
was a few inches from the face of the metallic mirror,
was removed. The thermometer inftantly rofe, fo that
the time which caloric requires to move through the
fpace of 69 feet, cannot be eftimated. And indeed,
if caloric, as is mod: probable, moves with the velocity
of light, the time that it paffes the diffance of 69 feet,
or even 69,000 feet, is by far too minute to be meafur-
ed by our inftruments •, io that no conclufion whatever
with regard to the meafurement of its velocity, can be
drawn from this experiment.
2. From the extreme velocity of caloric, and from
its being equal to that of light, it is concluded that its
particles arc equally minute. From the accumulation
of caloric in bodies, and particularly from one ftriking
effect which this accumulation produces, namely, ex-
panfion, it was natural to fuppofe that bodies having
received this addition, acquired an increafe of weight.
Experiments have therefore been made to afcertain
this effedff. Boerhaave weighed a mafs of iron of 51b.
weight, while it was red hot, and afterwards repeated
the fame experiment with other metals, but found no
variation, either in the hot or cold bodies, but what
he could account for from- the errors of the balance.
Mufchenbroek fuppofed that he&t is ponderous, or pro¬
duced by a ponderous fubftance J and Buffon thought
he had proved, by his own experiments, that a body
is heavier when it is hot than when it is cold ; but
when fimilar experiments were repeated, particularly
by Dr Roebuck and Mr Whitehurff, with very nice
and delicate balances, the bodies which were weighed
appeared heavier cold, than when they were hot. I his
feems to be owing to the rarefa&ion of the air fur¬
rounding that fcale in which the heated body is pla¬
ced •, the preffure of which is therefore lefs than that
•f the air over the other fcale. From more recent ex¬
periments, and particularly one made by Dr Fordyce,
it appears that bodies become heavier, but in a very
finall degree only, not by the increafe, but by the di¬
minution of temperature. When the whole quantity
ef 1700 grs. of water was frozen, it was found to be,
when carefully weighed, Ygths of a grain heavier than
it had been when fluid. At this time the thermome-
I S T R Y. 455
ter applied to the veffel which contained the frozen Cdonc. ^
water, flood at I0° $ but when it was allowed to remain
till the thermometer rofe to 3 2°, it weighed only -^ths
of a grain more than when fluid, and at the fame tem- 168
perature. But other experiments prove, that the addi-unfaccefs-
tion of caloric to bodies produces no fenfible change ontu^*
their weight. This feems to be placed beyond a doubt
by the accurate experiments of Lavoifier, which were
made with a view of afcert&ining whether the weight of
bodies is altered by heating or cooling them j but he
found no difference.
In the year 1787, Count Rumford repeated the ex¬
periment of Dr Fordyce with the greateft care j and
varying it in every poflible way to avoid error, the re-
fults led him to conclude, that there is no fenfible dif¬
ference in the weight of bodies, either by the addition
or abftradlion of caloric. I(j9
3. Caloric agrees with light in another of its pecu-Repulfion#
liar properties ; this is its repuljive power, or the ten¬
dency of its particles to feparate from each other. The
particles of caloric, therefore, can never be fuppefed to
cohere.
4. As the rays of light are refle&ed by polifhed fur-
faces, fo it is found that the rays of caloric have the
fame property. The Swedifh chemift Scheele difeo-
vered, that the angle of refie&ion of the rays of calo¬
rie is equal to the angle of incidence. This has been,
more fully eftablifhed by Dr Herfchel. Some veryin-
terefting experiments were made, by Profeffor Piftet of
Geneva, which proved the fame thing. Thefe expe¬
riments were condu£led in the following manner. Two
concave mirrors of tin, of nine inches focus, were pla¬
ced at the diftance of twelve feet two inches from each
other. In the focus of the one was placed the bulb
of a thermometer, and. in that of the other a ball of
iron two inches in diameter, which was juff heated fo
as not to be vilible in the dark. In the fpace of fix
minutes the thermometer rofe 22°. A fimilar effeft
was produced by fubftituting a lighted candle in place
of the ball of iron. Suppofing that both the light and
heat a6ted in the laft experiment, he interpofed be¬
tween the two mirrors a plate of glafs, with the view
of feparating the rays of light from thofe of caloric.
The rays of caloric were thus interrupted by the plate
of glafs, but the rays of light were not perceptibly di-
minilhed. In nine minutes the thermometer lunk 140 j
and in feven minutes after the glafs was removed, it
rofe about 1 2°. He therefore juffly concluded, that
the caloric reflefled by the mirror, was the caufe of the
rife of the thermometer. He made another experiment,
fubftituting boiling water in a glafs veffel in place of
the iron ball •, and when the apparatus was adjufted,
and a fereen of filk which had been placed between the
two mirrors removed, the thermometer rofe 30 j name¬
ly, from 470 to 50°.
The experiments were varied by removing the tin
mirrors to the diftance of 90 inches from each other.
The glafs veffel, with boiling water, was placed in
one focus, and a fennble thermometer in the other.
In the middle fpace between the mirrors, there was
fufpended a common glafs mirror, fo that either fide
could be turned towards the glafs veffel. When the
poliftied fide of this mirror was turned towards the
glafs veffel, the thermometer role only T^ths of a de¬
gree } but when the other fide, which was darkened,
was..
4Sf>
CHEMISTRY.
Caloric,
17I.
Rcfradlion.
I7a,
Tliree fets
of rays.
z73
coloured
and heat-
ing.
*74
Invifible
iiave the
greateft
heating
power.
was turned towards llie glafs VeiTel, the thermometer
rofe 3°. 5- And in another experiment performed in
the fame way, the thermometer rofe 30 when the po-
lifhed fide of the mirror was turned to the glafs veflel,
and 90 when the other fide was turned. Thefe expe¬
riments drew' clearly, that the rays of caloric are re¬
flected from polifhcd furfaces, as well as the rays of light.
5. Tranfparent bodies have the power of refrafting
the rays of caloric, as well as thofe of light. They
differ alfo in their refrangibility. So far as experiment
goes, the moft of the rays of caloric are lefs refrangi¬
ble than the red rays of light. The experiments of
Dr Herfchel thews, that the rays of caloric, from hot or
burning bodies, as hot iron, hot water, fires and can¬
dles, are refrangible, as well as the rays of caloric which
are emitted by the fun. Whether all tranfparent bo¬
dies have the power of tranfmitting thefe rays, or what
is the difference in the refractive power of thefe bodies,
is not yet known.
6. The light which proceeds from the fun feems to
be compofed of three diltinft fubftances. Scheele dif-
covered, that a glafs mirror held before the fire, re¬
flected the rays of light, but not the rays of caloric :
but when a metallic mirror was placed in the fame
fituation, both heat and light were refledted. The mir¬
ror of glafs became hot in a fhort time, but no change
of temperature took place on the metallic mirror. This
experiment fhews that the glafs mirror abforbed the
rays of caloric, and refledted thofe of light; while the
metallic mirror, fuffering no change of temperature, re-
fledled both. And if a plate of glafs be held before a
burning body, the rays of light are not fenfibly inter¬
rupted, but the rays of caloric are intercepted; for no
fenfible heat is obferved on the oppofite fide of the glafs ;
but when the glafs has reached a proper degree of tem¬
perature, the rays of caloric are tranfmitted with the
fame facility as thofe of light. And thus the rays of
light and caloric may be feparated.
But the curious experiments of Dr Herfchel have
clearly proved, that the invifible rays which are emit¬
ted by the fun, have the greateft heating power. In
thefe experiments, the different coloured rays were
throw-n on the bulb of a very delicate thermometer,
and their heating power was obferved. The heating Ca!c:
power of the violet, green, and red rays, was found '“■"■v
to be to each other as the following numbers :
Violet
Green
Red
16.
22.4
55*
The heating power of the molt refrangible rays was
leaft, and this power increafes as the refrangibility di-
minilhes. The red ray, therefore, has the greateft
heating power, and the violet which is the moft re¬
frangible, the leaft. The illuminating powrer, it has
been already obferved, is greateft in the middle of the
fpeftrum, and it diminilhes towards both extremities;
but the heating pow’er, which is leaft at the violet end,
increafes from that to the red extremity : and when
the thermometer was placed beyond the limit of the red
ray, it rofe ftill higher than in the red ray, which has
the greateft heating power in the fpedtrum. The heat¬
ing power of thefe invifible rays was greateft at the di-
ftance of -§■ inch beyond the red ray, but it was fenlible
at the diftance of 1-^- inch.
Dr Herfchel’s experiments have been varied, and ftill
farther confirmed by a fet of experiments by Sir H.
Ehglefield, the refults of which were the following :
Therm, in the blue ray rofe in 3' from 53° to 36®
in the green in 3' from 34° to 38°
in the yellow in 3' from 36® to 62°
in the full red in 2^' from 36° to 72°
in confines of the red in 24-' from 38° to 734’°
quiteoutof vifiblelightin 24' from 6i° to 79°
The thermometer ufed in thefe experiments had its
bulb blackened with Indian ink.
In the following experiments, three thermometers
were employed ; one had a naked bail, one was whiten¬
ed, and the other was blackened. They were expofed
to the fun’s rays till they became ftationary, when the
thermometer with the
Naked ball flood at 384-0
Whitened ball $8^°
Blackened ball 63°
In the full-red ray
In quite dark
In confines of the red
the blackened thermom. rofe in 3' from 38° to 6i*
in 3' from 53° to 38°
. in 3' from 39° to 64°
in 3' from 38° to 384-®
in 3' from 39° to 71°
in 3' from 374-°to 6o4°
whitened
blackened thermom.
whitened
black thermom.
white
In other experiments which were made afterwards, the refults were,
„ , . „ , C the black thermom. rofe
In the full-red ray 5 jwhite
In quite dark 4 inch out of the red, the 1 _ _
black thermom. rofe
i
in 3' from 66° to 82°
in 3' from 66° to 69V
in 3' from 70° to 84°
■f your.
Injl.
vol i.
p. so6.
In this laft experiment, whcr. the thermometer was
carried into the faint-red light, it.funk quickly ; and
rofe again as quickly, when carried into the dark focus;
but when carried into the dark on the other fide of the
red light, it funk very rapidly, and did not appear to
receive any heat at all f.
Thus it appears, that the ra^s of caloric and the
rays of light are different: for thefe experiments clear¬
ly {how, that there are rays which produce heat, but
give no light, and rays which give light, but produce
no heat. It was formerly mentioned, that there is an¬
other fet of rays which give neither light nor heat, but
whofe exiftence has been fully demonftrated by the re¬
markable effeft which they produce in reducing the
metallic falts and oxides. The light which is emitted
from the fun then confifts of three diftina fcts of rays,
which-
iloric.
I7S „
:ds of
jtic dif-
-nt in
ierent
res.
176
ffDric ex-
is all
|e$.
lin
4 rptions,
:7s
mfion
ed.
C H K M
\\’nlch have been fully recognized by their different de-
1 grees of refrangibUity and their different effefts. The
heating rays are in the fmalleff degree refrangible j
the rays which have the greateft effeft on the metallic
oxides are the moft refrangible, and the coloured rays
are in an intermediate degree. The invifible rays be¬
yond the red extremity of the fpe&rum, which are leaft
refra&ed, have the greateft heating power 5 the invifi¬
ble rays beyond the violet end, which are moft re-
frafted, have the greateft power in reducing the metal¬
lic falts or oxides, and the rays in the middle of the
fpe&rum have the greateft illuminating power.
Sect. II. Of the Effects of Calobic.
The effe&s of fo powerful an agent as heat muft be
very confiderable j and thefe effefts are found to be dif¬
ferent in different bodies, or as it is more or lefs accu¬
mulated in thefe bodies. One general effedl is, that
the accumulation of heat enlarges, and its abftraction
proportionally diminifhes, the bulk of all bodies. When
this accumulation is continued in fome bodies, they
change their condition from the ftate of folid to that of
liquid j and, when the accumulation is ftill greater, li¬
quid bodies are reduced to the form of vapour. Thefe
effefts, certainly curious and interefting of themfelves,
are of the utmoft importance in the phenomena of na¬
ture and in the proceffes of art 5 and the knowledge
of the laws which have been deduced from thefe re¬
markable changes, enables us to explain many na¬
tural appearances, and to improve many of the arts of
life.
1. Of Expansion.
1. One of the moft general effe&s of heat, it has
been obferved, is the expanfion of bodies; that is,
when caloric is accumulated in anybody, it is enlarged
in bulk 5 and, when that quantity of caloric is abftraft-
ed, there is a correfponding contraction. Experience
teaches us, that this effect of caloric is invariable and
uniform in all the fimpler kinds of matter. In fome
bodies, however, there are feeming exceptions to this
general rule. In thefe bodies, when the temperature
rifes a little above, or falls a little below a certain
point, they are fubjedt to irregular variations of their
bulk ; but thefe irregularities are limited to a few bo¬
dies, and to certain ftates of temperature of thefe bodies j
for when they are expofed to equal variations of heat,
above or below the temperature at which thefe irregu¬
larities are obferved, the general law of expanfion uni¬
formly holds. The expanfion of all bodies by heat,
therefore, and their correfponding contradlion by the
abftradtion of caloric or by cold, may be confidered
as one of the moft general fadts in chemical fcience.
2. There are many familiar inftances of the expan-
[ S T R Y. 457
lion of bodies by means of caloric, and this can be Caloric,
proved by very fimple experiments. We lhall men- '1' ^
tion an example of this effedf on bodies in the folid,
the liquid, and the gafeous ftate. I79
(1.) If a rod of metal, as of iron, of an inch in dia-In a
meter, and fix or eight inches long, and the famebodjr'
thieknefs through its whole length, be exadlly fitted
to pafs through a hole in a plate of the fame metal
and to be admitted lengthwife within the projecting
edges of a ruler while it is cold ; the fame rod, w hen
it is made red hoi, will be found to have enlarged in
bulk fo much, that it will not fall between the project¬
ing parts of the ruler, nor will it pafs through the
hole j but when it is cooled, or reduced to its former
temperature, it again contradts, and returns preeifely
to its former dimenfions. jgj,
(2.) As an example of a liquid, whofe bulk is en-In a liquid-
larged by the accumulation of caloric, fill the body of a
glafs veffel which has a long fiender neck with fpirit
of wine. On the application of heat the liquid in the
body of the veffel is expanded, and rifes in the neck ;
and when the heat is abstracted, and the liquid returns
to its former temperature, it is again contradted, and
returns, to its former bulk. This experiment is moft
conveniently performed by immerfing the body of the
veffel in hot water. Lgr
(3-) The expanfion of a body in the gafeous ftate by*11 an eIa^
the accumulation of caloric, is (hewn by the followingtic fluid'
experiment. Let a quantity of air be confined in a
bladder, but not in fuch quantity as that the bladder
ihall be fully diftended with it. If the bladder is ex¬
pofed to heat, the confined air expands, and the blad¬
der is fully diftended ; but when it is again cooled,
the air refumes its former bulk, and the bladder its
original flaccid ftate. jS
3. Thus it appears, that all bodies expand by heat, Uniform in
and contraft by cold, and the quantity of this expan-ft16 fame
fion is uniformly the fame in the fame bodies, whenbodies*
expofed to the fame temperature. But this quantity is
found to differ greatly in different kinds of matter, by
the fame increafe or diminution of their heat. In folid
bodies it is leaft, in liquids it is greater, but in elaftic
fluids greateft of all ; and in different kinds of folids,
liquids, and elaftic fluids, this difference is very confi-
derable. The ratio at which this expanfion takes place
in different bodies, can only be afeertained by experi¬
ment j and as the knowledge of this is a matter of
great confequence in many of the arts, experiments
have been made with this view by different philofo-
Phers (L).
The expanfion of gafeous bodies, we have faid, is But very
greateft, that of liquids lefs, and that of folids leaft of different In
all, by being expofed to the fame degree of heat, which fobds’li-
will appear from the following proportions. fluld?’ and
fluids.
r Atmofpheric air,
100 cubic inches of < Water,
(. Iron,
7 from 3 2° to 11 2° C ^
I increafed to "# 1
3 C.I
Vol. V. Part II.
37.5 cubic inches.
I04-5
100.1
M
4. This
(l) See experiments on this fubjeft by Mr Elliot, Phil. Tranf. vol. xxxix. and by Mr Smeaton, ibid. vol.
xlvui.
453
CHEMISTRY.
Caloric.
184
Effects of
expaniion
on brittle
nibltauctf.
iSS
In fitting
iron hoops
to carriage
wheels.
1S6
IMfferent
metals un¬
equally af-
feiled.
187
Ufe of this
in ce ftruc
tmg the
pendulum.
4. This expar.ilve effeft of heat will enable us to
account for the cracking or breaking of veffels which
are made of brittle fubftances, by its fudden applica¬
tion or abftraftion. This is particularly the caie with
thofe fubftances which have little flexibility, as call
iron, glafs, or earthen ware 5 and accidents of this
kind moft frequently happen in veftels made of thefe
materials. If, for inftance, heat be fuddenly applied
to a glafs veffel of conftderable thicknefs, its external
furfaee to which it is firft applied expands more than
the internal parts *, the confequence muft therefore be,
that they are feparated or drawn afunder, and the vef¬
fel is fplit or broken.
5. One of the beft illuftrations of tins expanfion by
heat and contraftion by cold on folid bodies, is in the
application of iron hoops to carriage wheels. The
hoop which has been intended for the wheel is made
of rather fmaller dimenfions than exactly to fit it. It
is then made red hot, and while it is thus expanded,
it is applied to the wheel. It is fuddenly cooled by
throwing cold water upon it, when it contrafts, and
returning to its former ditnenfions, is ftrongly fattened
on the wheel.
The unequal contraction at the fame degree of tem¬
perature, which is obferved among folids, liquids, and
aeriform fubftances, alfo takes place among folids them-
felves. Thus, different metallic fubftances, at the
fame temperature, are found to expand and contract
very unequally.
6. Advantage has been taken of this unequal con¬
traction of metallic fubftances, to remedy thofe defeCts
and imperfeCtions of delicate inftruments, which are
occafioned by the contraction and expanfion of the
fubftances employed in their conftruCtion, when expo-
fed to different temperatures. Thefe inconveniences
were moft felt in inftruments which were employed for
the meafurement of time, where great accuracy was
required. The fpring of a watch and the pendulum of
a clock being fubjeCt to the fame law of contraction
and expanfion by heat and cold, in thefe changes, ne-
ceffarily caufed variations, in proportion to the extent
of the effeCt. But as different metals -were obferved
to expand unequally by the fame temperature, this was
applied to the conftruCtion of thofe parts of the inftru-
ment on which the accuracy of its indications depends.
The equable meafurement of time, for inftance, by a
clock, depends on the length of the pendulum always
continuing the fame. If it is fubjeCt to variations
in length by expanfion or contraction, there will alfo
be variations in the rate of its motions ; for when the
pendulum is lengthened by heat, the clock goes flow¬
er ; and when it is fhortened by cold, it goes fafter.
It becomes therefore an objeCt of great importance,
that thefe inftruments fhould go at an equable rate in
all temperatures •, but this can only be effeCted by ha¬
ving the pendulum fo conftruCted, that it (hall neither
lengthen by heat, nor contraft by cold. This is
done by conftruCHng a pendulum in the following
jnanner.
“ From the point of expanfion A (fig. 1. Plate
CXLII.) a rod or thick wire, AB, of the lefs expan-
fible metal, muft hang down a certain length. At the
lower end it muft have a ftud, or crofs piece, BC,
ftrongly faftened, and projecting a little to one fide.
On the projecting part, C, of this crofs piece, muft be
Calon
ereCted a pillar, CD, of the more expanfive metal.
To the top of this pillar, another crofs and projecting
piece, DE, muft be ftrongly faftened j and, from this
laft, muft again hang down another rod or wire, EF,
of the firft metal, having the ball of the pendulum
at its extremity. And now, if the height of the pillar
CD be one-third of the length of the two rods taken
together, the pendulum can neither be lengthened by
heat nor fhortened by cold. For by the expanfion of
the pillar, the pendulum is fhortened, or the ball is
raifed nearer to the point of fufpenfien, becaufe the
upper end D of the pillar is more raifed by its expan¬
fion, than the lower end C is depreffed by the expan¬
fion of AB; and, on the other hand, by its contrac¬
tion, the pendulum is lengthened, or the ball is lower¬
ed : but, while this happens, the two rods, by their
expanfion or contraction, produce a contrary effect j
and the quantity of expanfion or contraction is the
fame in the rods that it is in the pillar, the greater
length in the rods compenfating for the greater ex-
panfibility of the pillar. The confequence therefore
muft be, that the length of the pendulum, that is, the
diftance between the point of fufpenfion and the ball,
cannot be varied by heat or cold. Accordingly, the
clocks made for the ufe of aftronomers, have pendu¬
lums conftruCted upon this principle, in which pillars
of the more expansible metals are employed to counter¬
act the expanfion of the other parts of the pendulum-
rod.” 18S
7. There are, however, feme remarkable mftancesxbe hu f
which are feeming exceptions to this general law ofwatervjt
expanfion. This is the cafe with thofe bodies which *■
pafs from the liquid to the folid ftate ; as for inftance,
water, w'hen it affumes the folid form. Clofe veflels
which are filled with water, are burft when it freezes.
In an experiment made by Mr Boyle, a brafs tube
three inches in diameter, which was clofed with a
moveable ftopper, was filled with water ; when the
water was frozen, it raifed a weight equal to 74 lb.
with which the ftopper was loaded. In an experiment
by the Florentine academicians, a hollow brafs globe,
the diameter of whofe cavity was an inch, was burft
by freezing the water with which it was filled. Muf-
chenbroeck has computed the force neceffary to pro¬
duce this effeft, by eftimating it equal to a preffure of l8i
27,720lbs. weight. But the moft remarkable expen-aBdafl
ments to prove the expanfive force of ice, were made with pi •
by Major Williams in Canada, in the years 1784 and&10US
1785.' The iron plugs with which iron bombftiells
filled with water were clofed up by driving them m
ftrongly with a hammer, were thrown out to a great
diftance by the force of the congelation of the watei ;
and when the plugs were fo firmly fecured as to refift
this force, the fhell itfelf was burft *. _ *Mn.
8. To the fame expanfive force in the congelation7W
of water, the burfting of water-pipes, the_ fplitting ofvo •
   0 x# i ' 1 • L ~ ipej
trees and of rocks, is to be afenbed, which not un* other <j
frequently happens when the water which has been
colle£ted in their cavities or fiffures, is frozen. J he
ftones of the pavement are alfo raifed and loofened by
the freezing of the water in the earth in which they
are imbedded, which is thus increafcd in bulk, and
exerts its expanfive force. > .
9. Attempts have been made to difeover the can e
of this aftonifhi*g effea* According to feme, it is
owing
C H E M I
.alone, owing to the extrication of the air which water holds in
combination in a denfe, nonelaftic Itate. When the
•counted water is f’reez5ng» Part of the air affumes the elaftic
form, and Separates from it j but when the furface of
the water is covered with ice, no more air can make
its efcape. It is then confined, and forms thofe numer¬
ous cavities which are obferved in ice. In confequence
of tliefe cavities, a mafs of ice muft be of greater bulk
than the water previous to congelation, and cannot
therefore be contained in the fame fpace : But another
caufe, which is perhaps the moft probable, has been af-
figned for this increafe of bulk, and confequent expan-
five force. Liquids which on cooling become folid, and
I9i affume a regular form, are always found to increafe in
hi, the hulk. Water, when it paffes from the liquid to the
w ar- folid ftate, has a ftrong tendency among its parts to ar-
[ngement range themfelves in a determinate manner. They af-
the par- fume ^ form Gf prifmatic cryftalS) which crofs each
other at angles of 6o° and 120°. In this way the in¬
creafe of bulk, and the expanfive force of water when
it is confolidated, are accounted for.
10. Some metallic fubftances, particularly call.iron,
are obferved to enlarge in bulk, when they pafs from
the fluid to the folid ftate, in the fame way as water.
To this increafe of bulk in caft-iron when it cools, are
owing the.lharpnefs and diftinftnefs of the lines in the
t93 ornamental figures on grates and furnaces which are
caftiron, made of this metal. The metal is introduced into the
mould while it is fluid, or in a ftate of fufion, and in-
creafing in bulk as it cools, the minute cavities of the
mould are more accurately filled. This increafe of
bulk, as in the cafe of water when it becomes folid, is
is alfo aferibed to a determinate^ arrangement of the
parts of the metal, or to cryftallization.
11. On the expanfive property of bodies depends the
conftruflion of the thermometer, which is employed for
194 meafurement of the relative temperatures of bodies,
nether- ’Ihe invention of this inftrument is generally aferibed
j :)meter to San&orio, an Italian phyfician, who lived about the
I railed, beginning of the 17th century, although it is laid by
feme, that thermometers were made by Drebel, a Dutch
phyfician, and that they were common in Holland, and
even in England, before Sanftorio was known in thefe
countries.
rftcon- thermometer of San£torio, the expanfive
uftion. power of air was employed to meafure the tempe¬
rature. His thermometer is conftrufted in the fol¬
lowing manner. A tube of glafs of 18 inches or
two feet in length, open at one end, is blown into
a ball at the other. When the ball is heated, the
air within is expanded, and while the air is thus ex¬
panded, if the open end of the tube be immerfed in a
veflel filled with any coloured fluid •, as the internal
air cools, and is diminiflied in bulk, the liquid will rife
m the tube by the preflure of the external air on the
furface of the liquid in the veflel. A feale of equal
degrees was then applied to the whole length of the
tube, and the thermometer was conftrudted. To af-
certain the heat of any body, as for inftance the hand,
it was applied to the ball, and if this temperature
S T R Y. 459
was greater than the medium in which the apparatus Caloric.
was placed, the internal air was rarefied, and eonfe-1 "v J
quently deprefled the furface of the coloured liquid in
the tube. The number of degrees of this depreflion
was obferved and compared in different experiments. ipS
As, for inftance, the difference of temperature of the Impenurc>
body at different periods, to afeertain which, it is faid,
it was empleyed by the inventor. But the inaccuracy
of this inftrument will be obvious 3 when we coniider
that it depended, not only on the preffure, but alfo on
the temperature of the atmofphere.
This defeft in the air thermometer was remedied byjmprI^l]>
Mr Boyle, and by the Florentine academicians, nearly
at the lame time ; and they thought of employing other
fluids. The firft that was ufed was fpirit of wine,
which contrafting and expanding more than water at
the fame temperature, and not being liable to be frozen
by cold, wasfoundto be much more convenient. Quick-
filver was fome time afterwards employed in the fame
way. The ball of the glafs, and part of the tube,
was filled with the fluid, when the open extremity of
the tube vas clofed. When heat was applied to the
ball, the fluid within expanded, and contracted by
cold, without being influenced by the preflure of the
atmofphere, as in SanCtorio’s thermometer. But ftill
this thermometer was very imperfeft, for want of de¬
terminate points in the fcale, by which different ther¬
mometers might be compared together. This w-as firft:
pointed out by Sir Ifaac Newton, and after various im¬
provements, it was brought to its prefent ftate of per¬
fection. I$g
The method of conftructing Fahrenheit’s thermome-Fahren-
ter, which is now in general ufe in this country, is thebe!t’s
fqljowing : A fmall ball is blow n on the end of a glafs rnometer‘
tube, of a Uniform width throughout. The ball and
part of the tube are then to be filled with q.uickfilvcr
which has been previoufly boiled to expel the air. The
open end of the tube is then to be hermetically feal-
ed (m). The next objeft is to conftruft the feale. It
is found by experiment, that melting fnowr or freezing
water is always at the fame temperature. If, therefore,
a thermometer be immerfed in the one or the other,
the quickfilver will always ftand at the fame point. It
has been obferved, too, that water boils under the fame
preffure of the atmolphere at the fame temperature.
A thermometer, therefore, immerfed in boiling water,
will uniformly ftand at the fame point. Here then are
two fixed points from which a fcale may be conftrucled,
by dividing the intermediate fpaee into equal parts, and
carrying the fame divifions as far above and below the
two fixed points as may be wanted. Thus, thermome¬
ters conftruCted is this way1 may be compared together j
for if they are accurately made, and placed in the fame
temperature, they w ill always point to the fame degree
on the fcale.
The fluid that is now generally employed is quick¬
filver, and it is found to anfwer heft, becaufe its ex-
panfions are moft equable. The freezing point of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer is marked 3 2°, and the
reafon of this is laid to have been, that this artift
3 M 2 thought
. (M) This is done by heating the end of the tube with the flame of a lamp, and by doling it while the glafs
W foftened.
4$®
Caloric.
199
Reaumur's.
100
Cellius.
C H E M
tliougKt that he had produced the greateft degree of
cold by a mixture of fnow and fait j and the point at
■which the thermometer then flood in this temperature,
v as marked zero. The boiling point in this thermo¬
meter is 212°, and the intermediate fpace between the
boiling and freezing points is therefore divided into
1 So0. This is the thermometer that is commonly ufed
in Britain.
There are three other thermometers employed in
different countries of Europe, which differ from each
other in the number of degrees between the freezing
and boiling points.
Reaumur’s thermometer was generally ufed in France
before the revolution, and is Hill employed in differ¬
ent countries on the continent. The freezing point
in this thermometer is marked zero, and the boiling
point 8o°. To convert the degrees of Reaumur’s ther¬
mometer to thofe of Fahrenheit, the following is the
formula. Reaum.—^-f-32=Fahr. that is multiply
the degrees of Reaumur by 9, divide by 4, and add 32.
This gives the correfponding degrees on Fahrenheit’s
fcale.
The thermometer of Celfius has the fpace between
the freezing and boiling points divided into 100°. The
boiling point is too0, and the freezing point zero.
This thermometer is ufed in Sweden. The thermometre
centigrade, now ufed in France, has the fcale divided
in the fame way. To convert the degrees of this ther-
I S T R Y.
mometer into thofe of Fahrenheit \ Cel. ■y 4- 32 = I
Fahr.
In Delifle’s thermometer, which is ufed in Ruffia, Delifle
the fpace between the boiling and freezing points is
divided into 150°; but the degrees are reckoned
downwards. The boiling point is marked zero, and
the freezing point 150°. To reduce the degrees of
this thermometer under the boiling point to thofe of
X 6
Fahrenheit, Del. 212 = Fahr. and above the
5
X6
boiling point, Del.-—-{- 212 rr Fahr.
Such then are the principles and mode of conftru£lion
of the thermometer j an inftrument which has been of
the utmoil importance in enabling us to difcover many
of the properties and effedts of caloric, as by it only
we can afcertain with accuracy the relative tempera¬
tures (n). sc
12. It has been an obje&of conliderable intercft andQ*?ant 'f
importance to afcertain the quantity and rate of expan- exPai1^
fion in bodies. Among folid bodies the quantity of
expanfion is very fmall, fo that a nice apparatus is ne-
ceffary to afcertain it. But it appears that the ratio
of this expanfion is equable, or nearly fo. The refults
of experiments made by Mr Smeaton and fome other
philofophers upon this fubjefl, will be feen in the fol¬
lowing table.
203
Of different
tseuh.
Temperature.
32'
212
White heat
Platina.
120,000
120,104
Antimony.
120,000
120,130
Steel.
120,000
120,147
123,428
Iron.
I 20,000
120,151
121,500
Caft Iron.
I 20,000
122,571
Bifmuth.
120,000
120,167
Copper.
120,000
120,204
Caft Brafs.
120,000
120,000
Brafs Wire.
I 20,000
120,232
Temperature
3 20
21 2
Tin.
Lead.
120,000
120,298
I 20,000
120,344
Zinc.
I 20,000
120,355
Hammer¬
ed Zinc.
Zinc 8.
Tin 1.
120,000 120,000
I2°>373 120,123
Lead 2.
Tin x.
I 20,000
120,301
Brafs 2.
Zinc 1.
120,000
120,247
Pewter.
I 20,000
120,274
Copper 3.
Tin 1.
I 20,000
I20,2l8
204
©f gtafs.
The rate of the expanlion of glafs, which is a mat¬
ter of conliderable importance, has been afcertained by
M. de Luc, and is exhibited in the following table :
Temperature.
205
Of liquids
3 2
50
70
100
120
150
j 67
190
212
100,000
100,006
100,014
100,023
100,033
100,044
100,056
100,069
100,083
13. The expanfion of liquid bodies is greater than
that of folids, but it is not equable w'ith equal addi¬
tions of temperature. It has been obferved, that thofe
liquids which are moll readily brought to the Hate of
vapour, or whofe boiling point is loweft, expand moll.
With the fame given temperature, the expanfion of
water is greater than that of mercury, and the expan¬
fion of alcohol is greater than that of water. The boil¬
ing point of water is lower than that of mercury, and
the boiling point of alcohol is lower than that of water 5
from which it would appear, that the expanlion of li¬
quids is nearly in the inverfe ratio of their boiling tem¬
peratures, and this expanlion feems to increafe with the
temperature ; that is, the nearer a liquid is to that point
of temperature at which it boils, the greater is the de¬
gree of ex panlion by the addition of caloric j and the
farther it is from the boiling temperature, the fmaller
is the increafe of bulk by the the addition of calorie.
The folloM'ing table exhibits the ratio of expanfion of
feveral liquids, as they have been afcertained by diffe¬
rent philofophers.
Table
(k) For meafuring iiigh degrees of temperature, the pyrometer of Wedgwood is employed, which will be ds-
fcribed under the earth alumina.
CHEMISTRY.
aJorie.
'T—'
Tabic of the Rate of Expanfion of different Liquids from 32° to 212°.
Temp. Mercury.
S2'
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
no
120
I30
I40
I5°
160
170
180
190
200
212
100000
100081
100183
100304
100406
100508
100610
100712
100813
100915
101017
101119
101220
101322
101424
101526
101628
101730
101835
Linfeed
Oil.
Sulphuric
Acid.
100000
102760
107250
99752
100000
100279
100558
100806
101054
I0I31;7
101540
101834
102097
102320
102614
102893
103116
io3339
io3J87
103911
Nitric
Acid.
995x4
100000
100486
100990
101530
102088
102620
103196
103776
104352
105232
Water.
IOC023
100091
IOOI97
IOO332
100694
IOO908
IOI404
102017
IO3617
IO4577
Oil of
Turpent.
100000
100460
100993
101471
101931
102446
102943
103421
I03954
204573
Alcohol.
100000
100539
101105
101688
102281
102890
103517
104162
j10® 14. It has been proved by experiment that all gafe-
)and e- ous bodies undergo the fame expanlion, with the fame
ibly. addition of heat. This has been afcertained by the in¬
genious experiments of Mr Dalton and M. Gay Luffac.
The increafe of bulk of fome elaftic fluids from 3 2° to
212°, as determined by the latter, will be feen in the
following table :
\lnn. de
m. vol.
p. i6f
^ 37*5°
37.52 difference-}- 0.2
37.48  
37.49  
— 0.02
— 0.01:
Atmofpheric air 100
parts, increafed
Hydrogen gas
Oxygen gas
Azotic gas
In other experiments he found, that the expanlion
of the vapour of water and of ether correfponded with
the expanfion of other gafes; and he remarks, that
this property of the equable dilatation of the vapour of
ether and water, and the gafes, with the fame degrees
of temperature, depends not on the peculiar nature
of the vapour and gafes, but folely on their elaltic
Hate.
Mr Dalton’s experiments £hew that the expanlion of
air is very nearly equable. It appears, however, that
the rate of expanlion diminilhed as the temperature in¬
creafed. The expanlion from 550 to 1324°, which in¬
cludes 774°, was 167 parts; but the expanfion from
1324° to 212°, the next 77I-0, was only 158 parts,
which was nine parts lefs than the firft. The fame
philofopher obferves, that the refults of feveral experi¬
ments which he made upon hydrogen gas, oxygen gas,
carbonic acid gas, and nitrous gas, correfpond with
thofe on atmofpherical air, not only in the total ex¬
panlion, but in the gradual diminution of it in afcen-
ding. Small differences were obferved, but they ne¬
ver exceeded lix or eight parts in the whole amount
325; and differences to this amount, he adds, will
take place in common air, when not. freed. from aque¬
ous vapour, which, he fays, was the lituation of his
faftitious gafes.
2. Of Fluidity.
I. We have now feen the effe&s of caloric in ex-change of '
panding bodies, when it is accumulated in them. Rate.
When a folid body, as a piece of iron, is expofed to a
high temperature, it is enlarged in bulk; and when
the additional quantity of caloric with which it had
combined is withdrawn, it returns to its former dimen-
fions; but when Hill greater additions are made to
molt bodies, it is not merely a change of bulk that
takes place, but a total change of their proper¬
ties.
All matters exifts, either in the ftate of folid, of li¬
quid, or in the ftate of vapour. Moll bodies, by the ad¬
dition or the abftradlion of calorie, are convertible from
one of thefe ftates into another. Let us take water
for an example. Ice is water in the folid ftate. When
a mafs of ice has received a proper quantity of caloric,
it affumes the liquid ftate; and, when this liquid has
received another portion of caloric, it is changed into
the ftate of vapour. But if the vapour is deprived of
a certain portion of caloric, it returns to the ftate of li¬
quid or that of water ; and when this water is deprived
of another portion of caloric, it becomes folid, or is con¬
verted into ice.
Thus it appears, that a folid body may be convert- -
ed into a liquid by means of caloric ; and that a liquid ’
may be converted into an elaftic fluid by the fame
means. This feems to be a general law, to which
there are but few exceptions. Some bodies may be
converted into all the three ftates, as water; others,
as fpirit of wine, exift only in the fluid ftate, and there
are fome folid bodies which are not convertible into
the ftate of liquid ; but thefe exceptions are fo few;
that it has been fuppofcd the fame eft eft would follow,
were
4-52
CHEMISTRY.
tempera¬
ture.
209
In feme in-
-ftantane-
oufly.
210
In others
gradually.
Caloric, were thefe bodies expofed to a proper degree of tempe-
' v„"" ’ rature.
BniHes he 2’ r^e temPerature at which thefe changes are ef-
come fluid fefted in invariably the fame in the fame body. Thus,
at the fame a mafs of ice is converted into the date of liquid or of
degree of water, when it is expofed to a temperature above 3 2°;
and water, when it is raifed to the temperature of
212°, aflumes the ftate of vapour or of iteam. But
although this temperature is conftant in the fame bo¬
dies, it varies greatly in different bodies. Thus, fpi-
rit of wine and ether are converted into vapour at a
very low temperature, while mercury and the fixed
oils, to undergo this change, require a temperature
far above that which is neceffary for the converfion of
water.
3. Some bodies are inftantaneoully converted from
the folid to the liquid ftate. Thus ice, when the tem¬
perature is raifed, paffes immediately from the folid to
the fluid ftate. Other bodies undergo a gradual change.
They firft become foft, as in the inftance of melting wax,
and pafs through the different degrees of foftnefs, till
at laft they become perfeftly fluid.
4. It may perhaps now feem furprifing, that phe¬
nomena which were fo familiar Ihould have exifted fo
long without the true explanation of the changes which
bodies undergo, in palling from the folid to the liquid
or vaporous ftate, or from the fluid to the folid ftate.
The want of inftruments to meafure accurately the re¬
lative degrees of temperature at which thefe changes
take place, might perhaps be one caufe of the unfuc-
cefsful inveftigations of philofophers on this fubjeft.
But even after the invention and improvement of the
thermometer, it was long before the fecret, and we
may add, Ample caufe of thefe wonderful effe&s, was
fully afeertained. It was referved for the fagacity of
Dr Black to give the true explanation. The era of
the difeovery of this law, of fuch univerfal application
to the phenomena of nature, may be regarded as one
of the moft important in the hiftory of chemical fcience.
Great dif- Dr Black w^as always diftinguilhed for caution and
covery of precif10n in all his views j and as the progreflive fteps
by which this celebrated philofopher was. led to afeer-
tain the true caufe of fluidity afford us a fine ex¬
ample of fnnple and elegant inveftigation, we lhall de¬
tail the experiments by which it was eftablilhed in his
own words.
5. After ftating that the caufe of fluidity which had
been formerly given was unfatisfaftory, and inconfift-
ent with the phenomena, he obferves that u thefe phe¬
nomena, when attentively confidered, ftiew that fluidity
is produced by heat, in a very different manner from
that which was commonly imagined ; a manner, how¬
ever which, when underftoed, enables us to explain
many particulars relating to heat or cold, which ap¬
peared1, in the former view of the fubjeft, quite perplex¬
ing and unaccountable.
“ Fuidity was univerfally confidered as produced by
fuppofed to a addition to the quantity of heat which a body
!TfmaK-0contains, fwhen it is once heated up.to its melting
flition of point 5 and the returning of fuch body to a folid ftate,
as depending on a very fmall diminution of the quan¬
tity of its heat, after it is cooled to the fame degree;
that a folid body, when it is changed to a fluid re¬
ceives no greater addition to the heat within it than
what is meafured by the elevation of temperature indi¬
Dr Black.
212
Tluidity.
Caloric.
cated after fufion by the thermometer 5 and that, when Caloi
the melted body is again made to congeal, by a dimi-
nution of its heat, it fuffers no greater lofs of heat than
what is indicated alfo by the Ample application to it of
the fame inftrument.
“ This was the univerfal opinion on this fubjefl, fo Inconfi,.;
far as 1 know, when I began to read my lectures in thewidifo
univerfity of Glafgow', in the year 1757. But I foon
found reafon to object to it, as inconiiftent with many
remarkable fa£ts, when attentively confidered; and I
endeavoured to fhewq that thefe fadls are convincing
proofs that fluidity is produced by heat in a very dif¬
ferent manner.
“ 1 (hall now deferibe tBe manner in which fluidity
appeared to me to be produced by heat, and we ftiall
then compare the former and my view of the fubjeft
with the phenomena. j,
“ The opinion I formed from attentive obfervatien Calori
of the fa6ls and phenomena, is as follows: When ice, akfork;
for example, or any other folid fubftance, is changingfo!lds ^
into a fluid by heat, 1 am of opinion that it receives
much greater quantity ofheat than what is perceptible
in it immediately after by the thermometer. A great
quantity of heat enters into it, on this occafion, without
making it apparently warmer, when tried by that in¬
ftrument. This heat, however, muft be thrown into it,
in order to give it the form of a fluid 5 and I affirm,
that this great addition of heat is the principal and moft
immediate cauie of the fluidity induced. sijj
“ And, on the other hand, when we deprive fuch a Fluids tj
body of its fluidity again, by a diminution of its heat,“imPS
a very great quantity ofheat comes out of it, while it
is afluming a folid form, the lofs of which heat is not
to be perceived by the common manner of ufing the
thermometer. The apparent heat of the body, as mea¬
fured by that inftrument, is not diminilhed, or not in
proportion to the lofs of heat which the body actually
gives out on this occafion; and it appears from a num¬
ber of fafts, that the ftate of folidity cannot be induced
without the abftraftion of this great quantity of heat.
And this confirms the opinion, that this quantity of
heat, abforbed, and as it were, concealed in the compo-
fition of fluids, is the neceffary and immediate caufe
of their fluidity.
“ To perceive the foundation of this opinion, and
the inconfiftency of the former with many obvious fads,
we muft confider, in the firft place, the appearances
obfervable in the melting of ice, and the freezing of
water. 216
“ If we attend to the manner in which ice and fnow Proved
melt, when expofed to the air of a warm room, or ’
when a thaw fucceeds to froft, we can eafily perceive,?^—
that however cold they might be at the firft, they arewateIi
foon heated up to their melting point, or begin foon
at the it furface to be changed into w ater. And if
the common opinion had been well founded, if the
complete change of them into water required only the
further addition of a very fmall quantity of heat, the
mafs, though of a confiderable fize, ought all to be
melted in a very few minutes or feconds more, the
heat eontinuing inceffantly to be communicated from
the air around. Were this really the cafe, the confe-
quences of it would be dreadful in many cafesfor,
even as things are at prefent, the melting of great
quantities of fnow and ice occafions violent torrents,
and
CHEMISTRY.
ai?
king of
a very
|v pro-
ialoric. and great inundations in the cold countries, or in the
rivers that come from them. But, were the ice and
fnow to melt as fuddenly as they muft neceffarily do,
were the former opinion of the a£tion of heat in melt¬
ing them well founded, the torrents and inundations
would be incomparably more irrefiftible and dreadful.
They would tear up and fweep away every thing, and
that fo fuddenly, that mankind fhould have great dif¬
ficulty to efcape from their ravages. This iudden li-
quefa&ion does not aftually happen j the maffes of ice
or fnow melt with a very How progrefs, and require a
long time, efpecially if they be of a large fize, fueh
as are the colled ions of ice, and wreaths of fnow,
formed in fome places during the winter. Thefe, after
they begin to melt, often require many weeks of warm
weather, before they are totally diffolved into water.
This remarkable llownefs with which ice is melted, en¬
ables us to preferve it eafily during the fummer, in the
ftru&ures called ice-houfes. It begins to melt in thefe,
as foon as it is put into them : but, as the building ex-
pofes only a fmall furface to the air, and has a very
thick covering of thatch, and the accefs of the exter¬
nal air to the infide of it is prevented as much as pof-
fible, the heat penetrates the ice-houfe with a flow
progrefs, and this, added to the llownefs with which
the ice itfelf is difpofed to melt, protra&s the total li-
quefa&ion of it fo long, that fome of it remains to
the end of fummer. In the fame manner does fnow
continue on many mountains during the whole fummer,
in a melting ftate, but melting fo {lowly, that the whole
of that feafon is not a fufficient time for its complete
liquefa&ion.
“ This remarkable flownefs with which ice and fnow
melt, ftruek me as quite inconfiftent with the common
opinion of the modification of heat, in the liquefaction
of bodies.
“ And this very phenomenon is partly the foundation
of the opinion I have propofed j for if we examine
\ what happens, we may perceive that a great quantity
of heat enters the melting ice, to form the water into
which it is changed, and that the length of time
necdfary for the colledlion of fo much heat from the
furrounding bodies, is the reafon of the flownefs with
which the ice is liquefied. If any perfon entertain
doubts of the entrance and abforption of heat in the
melting ice, he needs only to touch it; he will inflant-
ly feel that it rapidly draws heat from his warm hand.
He may alfo examine the bodies that furround it, or
are in contafl with it, all of which he will find de¬
prived by it of a great part of their heat ; or if he
fufpend it by a thread, in the air of a warm room, he
may perceive with his hand, or by a thermometer, a
ftream of cold air defcending conftantly from the ice;
for the air in contaft is deprived of a part of its heat,
and thereby condenfed and made heavier than the
wanner air of the reft of the room ; it therefore falls
downwards, and its place round the ice is immediately
fupplied by fome of the warmer air •, but this, in its
turn, is foon deprived of fome heat, and prepared to
defeend in like manner j and thus there is a conftant
flow of warm air from around, to the fides of the ice,
and a defeent of the fame in a cold ftate, from the
lower part of the mafs, during which operation the
*ce muft tiecefTarily receive a great quantity of heat.
“ H is, therefore, evident that the melting ice re-
463
1 218 _
ndation
he dif-
ceives heat very faft, but the mily effe<ft of this heat Caloric,
is to change it into water, which is not in the leaft v""1 f
fenfibly warmer than the ice was before. A thermo-xhemfo-
meter, applied to drops or fmall ftreams of water, im-meter does
mediately as it comes from the melting ice, will point not indi-
to the fame degree as when it is applied to the ice it-cate l'16,
felf, or, if there is any difference, it is too fmall to 2
deferve notice. A great quantity, therefore, of the
heat, or of the matter of heat, which enters into the /
melting ice, produces no other effe£t but to give it
fluidity, without augmenting its fenfible heat 5 it ap¬
pears to be abforbed and concealed within the water,
fo as not to be diicoverable by the application of a
thermometer.
“ In order to underftand this abforption of heat
into the melting ice, and concealment of it in the
water, more diftindtly, I made the following experi¬
ments. # 22e
“ The plan of the firft wras, to take a mafs of ice, Proved by'
and an equal quantity of water, in feparate veffels, ofexpen-
the fame fize and fhape, and as nearly as poflible of the men,;5.
fame heat, to fufpend them in the air of a warm
room, and, by obl’erving with a thermometer the ce¬
lerity with which tire water is heated, or receives heat,
to learn the celerity with which it enters the ice ; and
the time neceffary for melting the ice being alfo at¬
tended to, to form an eftimate, from thefe two data,
of the quantity of heat which enters the ice during its
liquefadtion. 22l
“ In order to prepare for this experiment, I chofe Firft expe-
two thin globular glaffes, four inches diameter, andriment.
very nearly of the lame weight : I poured into one of
them five ounces of pure water, and then let it in a
mixture of fnow and fait, that the water might be
frozen into a fmall mafs of ice. As foon as frozen, it
was carried into a large empty hall, in which the air
was not diflurbed or varied in its temperature during
the progrefs of the experiment j and in this room the
glafs was fupported, as it were, in mid air, by being
fet on a ring of ftrong wire, which had a tail iffuing
from the fide of it five inches long, and the end of
this tail was fixed in the moil projeftingpart of a read¬
ing defk or pulpit : And in this fituation the glafs
remained until the ice was completely melted.
“ When the ice was thus placed, I fet up the other
globular glafs precifely in the fame fituation, and at the
diftance of 18 inches to one fide, and into this I pour¬
ed five ounces of water, previoufly cooled, as near to
the coldnefs of melting ice as poffible, viz. to 33V
and fufpended in it a very delicate thermometer, the
bulb of which being in the centre of the water, and
the tube being fo placed, that without touching the
thermometer, I could fee the degree to which it point¬
ed. I then began to obferve the afeent of this ther¬
mometer, at proper intervals, in order to learn with
what celerity the water received heat, ftirring the
water gently with the end of a feather about a minute
before each obfervation. The heat of the air, examin¬
ed at a little diftance from the glaffes, was 470 of
Fahrenheit’s feale.
“ The thermometer affumed the temperature of the
water in lefs than half a minute, after which, the rife
of it was obferved every five or ten minutes, during
half an hour. At the end of that time, the water was
grown warmer than at firft, by 70 degrees; aud the-
temperature-
CHEMISTRY.
temperature of it liad rifeu to die 40th degree of Fah¬
renheit’s fcale.
“ The glafs with the ice was, when firfl taken out
of the freezing mixture, four or five degrees colder
than melting fnow, which I learned by applying the
bulb of the thermometer to the bottom of it; but
after fomc minutes, it had gained from the air thofe
four or five degrees, and was juft beginning to melt,
which point of time wras then noted, and the glafs
left undifturbed ten hours and a half. At the end of
this time, I found only a very fmall and fpongy mafs
of the ice remaining unmelted, in the centre of the
upper furface of the water, but this alfo was totally
melted in a few minutes more 5 and, introducing the
bulb of the thermometer into the water, near the fides
of the glafs, I found the water there was warmed to
the 40th degree of Fahrenheit. From this it appears,
that w'hen a confiderable part of the ice was melted,
and the quantity of water around it was increafing,
the heat was not tranfmitted through this water to
the remaining ice altogether fo fall as it was re¬
ceived by the water ; which is eafily underftood, if we
•confider that the diftance between the remaining ice
and the external furface of the veffel through which
the heat entered, was gradually increafing, and that
heat always requires time to pafs through bodies,
or to be communicated from one part of them to
another.
“ It appears, therefore from this experiment, that
it was neceffary that the glafs with the ice receive
heat from the air of the room during 21 half-hours,
in order to melt the ice into water, and to heat that
water to the 40th degree of Fahrenheit. During all
this time, it was receiving the heat, or matter of heat,
with the fame celerity (very nearly) with which the
wrater-glafs received it during the fingle half-hour in
the firit part of the experiment. For, as the water re¬
ceived it with a celerity which was diminifhing gra¬
dually during that half-hour, in confequence of the di¬
minution of difference between its degrees of heat
and that of air •, fo the glafs with the ice alfo received
heat with a diminilhing celerity, which correfponded
exactly with that of the water-glafs, only that the pro-
greffion of this diminution was much more flow, and
correfponded to the w'hole time which the water fur-
rounding the ice required to become warmed to the
40th degree of Fahrenheit. The whole quantity of heat,
therefore, received by the ice-glafs during the 21 half-
hours, was 21 times the quantity received by the wa¬
ter-glafs during the fingle half-hour. It was, there¬
fore, a quantity of heat, which, had jt been added
to liquid water, would have made it warmer by
40—33 X 21, or 7X21, or 147 degrees. No part of
this heat, however, appeared in the ice water, except
8 degrees ; the remaining 139 or 140 degrees had been
abforbed by the melting ice, and were concealed in the
water into which it was changed.
“ The communication of heat to the melting ice
was eafily perceived, during the whole time of its ex-
pofition, by feeling the ftream of cold air which de-
feended from the glafs.
“ This experiment was an analyfis of the manner in
which ice is melted by the heat of the air in ordinary
circumftances.
“ But another obvious method of melting ice occur¬
red to me, in which it would be ftill more eafy to per- Cab
ceive the abforption and concealment of heat, and this J
was the action of warm w'ater.
“ When hot and cold water are mixed together, seco^
the excefs of heat contained in the hot water is equally perinie?[
diftributed in an inftant through the whole mixture,
and raifes the temperature of it according to the great-
nefs of the excefs of temperature, and the proportion
which the hot water bore to the cold. If the quanti¬
ties of hot and cold water are equal, the tempera¬
ture is the middle degree between that of the hot
and that of the cold. No part of the heat difappears
on this occafion, fo far as we can perceive, but the in-
tenfity of it only is diminiihed, by its being diffufed
through a larger quantity of matter. It was, there¬
fore, obvious, that if a quantity of heat is abforbed,
and difappears in the melting of ice, this would eafily
be perceived when the ice is melted with warm wa¬
ter.
44 To make this experiment, I firft froze a quan¬
tity of water in the neck of a broken retort, in order
to have a mafs of ice of an oblong form.
44 At the fame time I heated a quantity of water,
nearly equal in weight to the ice, in a very thin glo¬
bular glafs, the mouth of which was fufficiently wide
to take in the piece of ice. The water was heated
by a fmall fpirit of wine lamp applied to the bottom
of the glafs j it was alfo ftirred with the end of a
feather, and a thermometer hung in it.
44 While the water wras heating, the mafs of ice was
taken out of the mould in which it had been formed,
and was expofed to the air of a temperate room, until
it was perceived to be beginning to melt over the whole
of its furface.
44 I then put a woollen glove on my left hand, and
taking hold of the ice, I wiped it quite dry with a li¬
nen tow el, laid it in the fcale of a balance on a piece of
flannel, and haftily counterpoifed it wdth fand in the
oppofite fcale, that I mi^ht examine the weight of it
afterwards ; and I immediately plunged it into the hot
water, and extinguifhed the lamp at the fame time.
The lamp being fmall, the heat of the water had
been increafing very flowly, and had almoft ceafed to
increafe ; and being examined immediately before I
put the ice into it, the temperature was found to be
juft 190 degrees. The ice was all melted in a few
feconds, and produced a mixture, the temperature of
which was 53 degrees.
44 The weight of the ice, when put into the hot
w'ater, was feven ounces three drams and a half. The
weight of the glafs, with the whole mixture in it, was
16 ounces, feven drams, and feven grains. 'I he iveight
of the glafs alone was nearly one ounce.
44 In confidering this experiment, we may overlook
quantities lefs than half a dram, or 30 grains, and reckon
the quantities of the different articles by the number
of half-drams in each.
Thus the weight of the ice was 119 half-drams.
  — Hot water 135
  Mixture 234
   Glafs alone 16
44 The melting of the ice was affefted, not only by
the heat of the hot water, but alfo by that of the
glafs. And, by other experiments, I learned that 16
parts of hot glafs have more power in heating cold
1 bodies,
Joric.
:i3.
( iric i*
a read.
*. ck't
£fl|voi. i
,tl! tat.
C H E M
bodies, than eight parts of equally hot water ; we may
therefore fubftitute, in place of the 16 half-drams of
warm glafs, eight half-drams of warm water, which,
added to the above quantity of warm water, make up
143 half-drams.
“ The heat of this warm water was 190 degrees, that
is I j8 hotter than the ice; and if this heat had abated
iq the mixture only in confequence of the quantity and
coldnefs of the ice, and if nothing had happened when
the ice was put in, but merely a communication of
this heat, and an equal diftribution of it through the
mixture, the temperature of the mixture ftiould have
been 158, viz. the excefs of heat in the warm water,
multiplied by 143, the quantity of the warm matter,
and divided by 262, the quantity of the whole, which
gives 86.
“ The mixture flmuld have been 86 degrees warmer
than melting ice j but it was found only 21 degrees
warmer. Therefore a quantity of heat has difappear-
ed, which, if it had remained in a fenlible date, would
have made the whole mixture and glafs warmer by 65
degrees than they were adlually found to be. But
this quantity of heat w'ould be fufficient for increafing,
by 143 degrees, the heat of a quantity of water, equal
in weight to the ice alone. It was, however, abforb-
ed by the ice, without in the lead increafing its fenfible
heat (0).
“ The refult of this experiment coincides fufficiently
with that of the former ; the difference is not greater
than what may be expefted in fimilar experiments,
and might arife from the accident of the central parts
of the mafs of ice being colder than the furface, by
one or two degrees.
“ I have, in the fame manner, put a lump of ice in¬
to an equal quantity of water, heated to the tempera¬
ture 176, and the refult was, that the fluid was no
hotter than water juft ready to freeze. Nay, if a lit¬
tle fea fait be added to the water, and it be heated on¬
ly to 166 or 170, we (hall produce a fluid fenfibly
colder than the ice was in the beginning, which has
appeared a curious and puzzling thing to thofe unac¬
quainted with the general fa<ft.
“ It is, therefore, proved that the phenomena which
attend the melting of ice in different circumftances,
are inconfiftent with the common opinion which was
eftabliflied upon this fubjeft, and that they fupport the
one which I have propof’ed
■ 6. Thefe experiments fhew clearly and incontrover-
tibly, that the converfion of ice into water is owing to
the abforption of a certain portion of caloric j and that
the quantity of caloric abforbed is equal to what would
have raifed the temperature of a body which remained
unchanged, as for inftance water, 140*. Thefe 140°
therefore, have difappeared, (for no increafe of tem¬
perature is indicated by the thermometer), have been
abforbed by the ice, and are neceffary to reduce it to
the liquid ftate. This portion of caloric which had
thus difappeared, Dr Black called latent heat, becaufe
m this ftate of combination its prefence was not indi-
Vol. V. Part II.
I S T R Y.
cated by the thermometer. By others this has been
called the caloric of fluidity.
7. In the progrefs of thefe inveftigations, experi-Ex^*£
ments were made on other fubftances, which clearly ments on
fhewed that their fluidity is owing to the fame caufe. other bo-
Thefe experiments were made on wax, tallow, fperma-dies Pro'"!
ceti, fulphur, alum, nitre, and fome of the metals. fatne
The late ingenious Dr Irvine, the pupil of Dr Black,t in^*
and who effentially aflifted him in many of his experi¬
ments, afeertained the quantity of calorie which was
neceffary for the fluidity of the following fubftances j
which, when compared with that of ice, will fhew
that the quantity of the caloric of fluidity increafes
with the temperature at which the body is converted
into the liquid ftate*
Spermaceti, ! 48° *Black'-
Bees wax, 17 ? Le£i-vo]- ’
Ti". Soo5* P-
8. Dr Black farther obferves on the operation ofSoftnefs
this caufe, that there is reafon to think, that not only and n:aI‘
the fluidity of bodies, but even the foftnefs of fuch
are rendered plaftic by heat, depends on a quantity of^hefatne
heat combined with them, in the form of latent heat 3 caufe.
and that the malleability and dufftility of metals de¬
pend upon the fame caufe. For, while they are ex¬
tended under the hammer, they become warm, and in
fome cafes very hot j but at the fame time they be¬
come rigid, and are no longer malleable. They have
loft their toughnefs and foftnefs. To reftore this, they
muft be annealed or made hot in the fire, and allowed
to cool. Thus, they recover their malleability, of
which they may be again deprived by a fecond ham¬
mering. .
9. The temperature at which folid bodies begin to be Tempera-
converted into the liquid ftate, is always conftant $ ture at
and till they are raifed to this temperature, no change bo-
takes place. Water in the folid ftate, or ice, always d‘eS ba“ ••
remains unchanged till it is placed m a temperature conftant.
above 32*. This point, which is called the melting
point, is conftant in the fame body, but is very difter-
ent in different bodies. The following table exhibits
the melting point of a number of folid bodies.
Lead,
Bifmuth,
Tin,
Sulphur,
Wax,
Spermaceti,
Pnofphorus,
Tallow,
Oil of anife,
Olive oil,
Icc,
Milk,
Vinegar,
Blood,
Oil of bergamot,
Wines,
3 N
594°
576
442
2x2
142
I33
100
92
50
36
32
3©
28
25
23
20
OH
(o) “ Thefe two experiments, and the reafoning which accompanies them, were read by me in the Philcfo-
phical Club, or Society of Profeffors and others iu the Univerfity of Glafgow, in the year 1762.”
2a8
Water
changed
into va¬
pour.
a 29
Boiling,
■what.
230
Boiling
point con-
ftant j
S31.
but varies
•with pref-
luie.
G H E M I
Oil of turpentine, 140
Sulphuric acid, 36
Mercury, 39
Liquid ammonia, 46
Ether, 46
Nitric acid. 66
3. Of Vapour.
1. If, after a mafs of ice is converted into water ®r
the liquid ftate, the application of heat be continued to
that water, it undergoes other changes, and exhibits very
different phenomena. If the temperature be raffed luf-
ficiently high, the water becomes agitated with an in-
teltine motion, and if it is fupplied with a fufficient quan¬
tity of caloric, the whole of the water is diflipated.
This agitation of the water, it is well known, is called,
in common language, boiling.
2. As folid bodies which are capable of being con¬
verted into the Jiquid ftate by an increafe of caloric,
have a certain determinate temperature, fo, many of
thofe bodies which are capable of affuming the form of
an elaftic fluid, undergo this change, only when they
are raifed to a certain temperature. Some liquids, in¬
deed, affume the form of vapour at all temperatures,
which is the cafe with water, with volatile oils, fpirits
of wine and ether. This change is called fpontaneous
evaporation ; but there are others which remain fixed
and unchanged till the temperature is raffed to that
point at which they boil. Boiling is nothing elfe but
the rapid converfion of the liquid into vapour. The
heat being applied to the bottom of the veffel which
contains the liquid, the particles at the bottom firft af¬
fume the elaftic form *, and as they rife through the li¬
quid, caufe it to be violently agitated. This boiling
point, under the fame preffure, is always the fame in
the fame liquid j and however ftrong the heat that may
be applied, or however long it may be continued, the
temperature of the liquid, in open veffels, never rffes
above this point. The boiling point of water, for in-
ftance, is 212°, and it never becomes hotter ; on the
contrary, if the fame heat be continued, the whole is
diflipated, and converted into vapour.
Table Jhewing the boiling point of feveral liquids*
Ether, 98°
Amijmma, 3 4°
Alcohol, 176
Water, 212
Muriat of lime, 230
Nitric acid, 248
Phofphorus, . 554
Oil of turpentine, 560
Sulphur, 570
Sulphuric acid, 590
Linfeed oil, 600
Mercury, 660
3. But this boiling point is found to vary confidera-
bly, and this variation depends qn the preffure on the
furface of the liquid. When the preffure is diminifli-
ed, liquids boil at a lower temperature •, but when this
preffure is increafed, they require a higher tempera¬
ture to produce boiling. Water boils at a low' tempe¬
rature on the top of a high mountain, or in the va¬
cuum an air PumP> "where the preffure is greatly di-
S T R Y.
miniflied ; but when it is confined in clofe veflels, as ia €il«
Papin’s digeffer, the temperature may be raffed to 300® '
qr 400° without boiling. n 5
4. The general law which was difeovered by Dr Law«
Black, of the converfion of folids into liquids, was alfotentlli •
applied by him to account for the change of liquids intoextot
elaftic fluids. This was proved by the following ex¬
periments.
“ Experiment 1.—I procured (fays Dr Black) feme
cylindrical tin-plate velfels, about four or five inches
diameter, and flat-bottomed. Putting a fmall quantity
of water into them, cf the temperature 50°, I fet them
upon a red-hot kitchen table, that is, a caft-iron plate,
having a furnace of burning fuel below it, taking care
that the fire ftiould be pretty regular. After four mi-
nutes, the water began fenfibly to boil, and in 20 mi¬
nutes more, it was all boiled off. This experiment was
made 4th October 1762.
“ Experiment 2.—Two flat-bottomed veffels, like the
former, were fet on the iron plate, with eight ounces
of w ater in each, of the temperature 50°. They both
began to boil at the end of three minutes and a half,
and in eighteen minutes more, all the water was boil¬
ed off.
“ Experiment 3.—The fame veffels were again fup¬
plied with 12 ounces of water in each, alfo of the tem¬
perature 50°. Both began to boil at the end of fix mi¬
nutes and a quarter, and the water was all boiled off from
the one in 28 minutes, and from the other in fomething
more than 29.
“ I reafoned from thef© experiments in the following
manner ; The veffels in the firft experiment received
162 degrees of heat in four minutes, or 404 degrees
each minute/ If we, therefore, fuppofe that the heat
enters equally faft during the whole ebullition, we muff
fuppofe that 8 to degrees of heat have been abCorbed
by the water, and are contained in its vapour. Since
this vapour is no hotter than boiling water, the heat is
contained in it in a latent ftate, if we eonfider it only
as the caufe of warmth. Its prefenee is fufficiently in¬
dicated, however, by the vaporous or expanftve form
which the water has now acquired.
“ In experiment fecond, the heat, abforbed, and ren- Quaid
dered latent, feems to be about 830. ofcalo
“ In the third experiment, the heat abforbed feems to,n vaP<
be fomewhat lefs, viz. about 750, time of rifing
to the boiling heat, in experiment third, has nearly the
fame proportion to that in experiment firft, that the
quantities of water have. The deficiency, therefore,
in the heat abforbed, has been probably only appa¬
rent, and arifing from irregularity in the fire. Upon
the whole, the conformity of their refults with my con-
iefture was fufficient to confirm me in my opinion of
its juftice. In the courfe of further experiments made
both by myfelf and by fome friends, and in which the
utmeft care was taken to procure a perfect uniformi¬
ty in the heat applied, the ablbrption w as found ex¬
tremely regular, and amounted at an average to about
810 degrees. _ 234 I
“ There are other cafes where this abforption appears other I
in a much more Angular manner. I put into a very Pr^c I
ftrong phial, about as much water as half filled |
and I corked it clofe. The phial was placed in » vapour [
fand-pot, which was gradually heated, until the fand
and phial were feveral degrees above the common ya- |
C H E M I S T R Y.
467
aloric. ;
mmi!
ilortc. porific point of water. I was Curious to know what would
be the effect of fuddenly removing the preffure of the air,
which is well known to prevent water from boiling. The
water boiled a very fhortwhile, but the ebullition gradu¬
ally decreafed, till it was almoft infenfible. Here the
formation of more vapour was oppofed by a very ftrong
preffure, proceeding from^the quantity of vapour al¬
ready accumulated, and confined in the upper part of
the phial, and from the increafed elafticity of this va¬
pour, by the increafe of its heat. When matters were
in this date, I drew out the cork. Now, according
to the common opinion of the formation of vapour by
heat, it was to be expected that the whole of the water
would fuddenly affume the vaporous form, becaufe it
was all heated above the vaporific point. But I was
beginning by this time to expert a different event, be¬
caufe I could not fee whence the heat was to be fup-
plied, which the water muff contain when in the form
of vapour. Accordingly, it happened as I- expe&ed j
a portion- only of the water was converted into vapour,
which rufhed out of the phial with a confklerable ex-
plofion, carrying along with it fome drops of water.
But, what was moft interefting to me in this experi¬
ment w-as, that the heat of what remained was redu¬
ced in ah inflant to the ordinary boiling point. Here,
therefore, it was evident, that all that exeefs of heat
which the water had contained above the boiling point,
was fpent in converting only a portion of it into va¬
pour. This is plainly ineonfiftent with the common
opinion, that nothing more is neceffary far water’s
exifting in a vaporous form under the preffure of the
atmofphere, than its being raifed to a certain tempera¬
ture. The experiment makes it more probable, that
if the- influx of heat could at that inftant have been
prevented, it would have remained in the form of wa¬
ter, although raifed, in a very fenfible degree, above
the boiling temperature.
“ I was anxious to learn whether the heat which dif-
appeared in this experiment was in an accurate pro¬
portion to the quantity of vapour produced, or the
quantity of water that had difappeared. But the
drops of w'ater that were hurried along by the explofion
without being converted into vapour, made it impofli-
ble for me to afeertain this with any tolerable accuracy,
although Trepeated the experiment feveral times. .
“ This experiment was afterwards made by my friend
43S .
e caloric
’orbed in Mr Watt, in a very fatisfa&ory manner. His ftudies
iportion for the improvement of his fteam-engine, gave him a
l*‘e. great intereft in every thing relating to the produ&ion
0 of fleam. He put three inches of water into a fmall
copper digeHer, and, ferewing on the lid, he left the
fafety-valve open. He then fet it on a clear fire of
coaks, and after it began to boil and produce fleam, he
allowed it to remain on the fire half an hour, with the
valve open. Then, taking it off the fire, he found
that an inch of water had boiled away. In the next
place, he reftored that inch of water, ferewed on the
lid, and fet it on the fire; and as foon as it began to
boil, he fhut the fafety-valve, and allowed it to remain
on the fire half an hour as before. The temperature
of the whole was many degrees above the boiling
point. He took it off the fire, and fet it upon afhes,
and opened the valve a very fmall matter. T.he fleam
rufhed out with great violence, making a fhrieking
noife for about two minutes. When this had ccafed,
he fhut the valve, and allowed all to 00id. When < Culonc, ^
he opened it, he found that an inch of water was con- ¥
fumed.
“ It is reafonable to conclude from this experiment,
that nearly as much heat was expended during the
blovdng of the fleam pipe, as had been formerly ex¬
pended in boiling off the inch of water, for, before
opening the valve, the temperature was many degrees
above the boiling point, and all this difappeared w'ith
the vapour. The fame inference may be drawn from
the time that the digeller continued upon the fire with
the valve fhut, becaufe we may conclude that the
heat was entering nearly at the fame rate during the
whole time. It is plain, however, that the experiment
is not of fuch a kind as to admit of nice calculation ,
but it is abundantly fufficient to drew that a prodigious
quantity of heat had efcaped along with the particles
of vapour produced from an inch of water. I he water
that remained could not be hotter than the boiling-
point, nor could the veffel be hotter, otherwife it would
have heated the water, and converted it into vapour.
The heat, therefore, did not efcape along with the va¬
pour, but in it, probably united to every particle, as
one of the ingredients of its vaporous conflitution. And
as ice, united with a certain quantity of heat, is water ; Lg£l_ vol_ ^
fo water, united with another quantity of heat, is fleamp. 1()l,
or vapour*.” 5^5
The following experiment made by the late Dr Ir-Confirmed
vine of Glafgow, at the defire of Dr Black, and re-by Dr Ir-
corded by the latter, is a ftill farther confirmation of’”nei
the general fa£l of the converfion of liquids into elaflic
fluids, by combining with caloric.
“ Five meafures (each containing 4 lb. 5 oz. and
6 dr. avoirdupois) of water, of the temperature 5 2°,
were poured into a fmall flill in the laboratory. The
fire had been kindled about 40 minutes before, and was
come to a clear and uniform ilate. The flill was fet in¬
to the furnace, and, in an hour and 20 minutes, the
firft drop came from the worm j and in three hours
and 45 minutes more, three meafures of water were
diftilled, and the experiment ended. The refrigera¬
tory contained 38 meafures of water, of which the
temperature, at the beginning of the experiment, was
5 2°. When one meafure had come over, the water
in the refrigeratory was at 76°. When two had come
over, it was at ioo°j and when three had come over,
it was at 1230.
“ In this experiment, the heat, which emerged from
three meafures of water, had raifed the temperature of
the water in the refrigeratory from 520 to 123°, or
710. Now 3 is to 38 as 71 to 899^ and the heat
would have raifed the three meafures 899-5- degrees in
its temperature, if this had been poffible without con¬
verting it into vapour. The heat of the vapour front
which this emerged, was 212°, or 1600 more than
that of the water. ’ Taking this from 899°, there re¬
mains 7390, the heat contained in the vapour in a latent
flate.
“ But this muff be fenfibly lefs than the truth. Dur¬
ing the experiment, the veflels were very warm—the
head of the Hill as hot as boiling water, and the’ Refri¬
geratory gradually riling from 5 2°, which was within ft
degree or two of the temperature of the air of the la¬
boratory, to 123°. A very confiderable portion of the
latent heat of the ftcam mull have been carried off by
3 N 2 the
* Lett- vol,
* P- J73-
*37
Caloric of
(Ream eiti-
mated by
Watt.
*33 .
By Lavoi-
fter.
*39
Elafticity
ot' all va¬
pour the
fame as
that of wa¬
ter with
the fame
jncreafeof
•empera-
tiue.
C H E M
the air in ccntaft with a coniiderable furfaee, fome of
which was exceedingly hot. A great deal muft alfo
have been carried off in the fteam which arofe very
fenfibly from the water in the refrigeratory, towards
the end of the experiment. Mr Irvine alfo obferved,
that, during the diitillation, the temperature of the water
which ran from the worm was about 11° hotter than the
water in the refrigeratory. The fteam, therefore, at
a medium, was not 1600 hotter than the water which
ran from the worm, but 1250, its mean temperature
being about 87°. This confideration alone will make
the latent heat of the fteam not lefs than 774 degrees,
without any allowance for wafte.
“ Some comparifon may alfo be made between the
heat expended in the production of the fteam, and
that which emerges during its condenfation. The time
which elapfed during the railing of the temperature of
the five meafures of water from 5 2° to 212°, that is
1609, was one hour and 20 minutes, or 80',—and
225' elapfed during the boiling off of three meafures.
Therefore, fince 80 is to 225 as 160 to 450, as much
heat was expended as would have raifed the five mea¬
fures 450° in temperature. This would have raifed
three meafures 750° above the boiling heat already
produced. This gives 750 for the latent heat of the
fte^m, befides what was unavoidably loft by communh
cation to the ambient air, and what was expended in
heating the veffels
In fome experiments made by Mr Watt, who alfo
aflifted Dr Black in conducing thefe invaluable ex¬
periments, it appears that the latent heat of fteam is
from 900° to 950°. This he difeovered by obferving
the quantity of caloric which was abforbed by the wa¬
ter in its converfion into fteam or vapour, and the
quantity given out, when that vapour returned to the
ftate of water.
The value of the latent heat of fteam, eftimated by the
experiments of M. Lavoifier, amounts to more than looo0.
5. Thus is this general law eftablilhed, that all li¬
quids are converted into elaftic fluids, by combining
with a certain portion of caloric. This portion of ca¬
loric is not indicated by the thermometer, and is there¬
fore faid to be latent heat, as we already mentioned 5
but when the elaftic fluid returns to the liquid ftate, it
again becomes fenfible, and precifely the fame quantity
is extricated which was abforbed.
6. It is an objeft of fome importance to afeertain the
elaftic force of vapour, and the ratio of the increafe of
this elafticity by increafe of temperature. The elafti¬
city of vapour which is formed by a liquid boiling ia
the open air, is equal to the preffure of the atmofphere $
and it has been afeertained by the experiments of Mr
Dalton and of M. Gay-Luflac, that the elafticity of
all elaftic fluids is the fame with that of the vapour of
water, with the fame increafe or diminution of tem¬
perature from the boiling point. If then, the boiling
point of any liquid be known, the elafticity of its va¬
pour may be difeovered, by comparing it with the elaf¬
ticity of the fteam of water, the fame number of de¬
grees above or below the boiling point. In the fol¬
lowing table, conftrudted by Mr Dalton from his ex¬
periments and calculations, the elafticity of the vapour
of water is given for every temperature from 40° to
325°. To find the elafticity of the vapour of ether at
1 s T R Y.
40° below its boiling point, which is 98°, take 40® from Caloij
98°, there remains 58, and the fame number from 212°
the boiling point of water, there remains 17 2°, oppo-
fite to which number in the table is 12-73, which is
the elafticity of the fteam of water at 1720, and alfo
the elafticity of the vapour of ether at 38°.
TABLE of the Force of Vapour from Water in every tem¬
perature, from that of Congelation of Mercury, or 40°
below Zero of Fahrenheit, to 3250 *.
* Mar
Mem. v
CHEMISTRY.
iilonc.
TABLE Continued.
Force ofV ap
Terop. in inches o:
Mercury-
Force ofVap.
f Temp. in inches of
Mercury.
Table Contimted.
Force ofVap.
letup. ininchesof
Mercury.
Force of Vap.
Femp. in inches of
Mercury.
299
300
301
3°2
3°3
3°4
3°5
306
3°7 '
-110.64
-iii.Sx
-112.98
-114.15
■i 15*3 2
-116.50
•i 17.68
.118.86
■ 120.03
ForceofVap.H ForceofVap.
remp. in inches oi H Temp. in inches of
Mercury. Mercnry.
308°
309
31°
5*1
3x2
313
314
315
3x6
-121.20
-122.37
"I23*53
-124.69
-125.85
-127.00
-128.15
-j 29.29
■I30,43
31?
3^8
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
■132.72
-133.86
-135.00
■136.14
■137.28
-138.42
■I39-56
•140.70
Sect. III. 0/ the Motion of Caloric.
1. It appears that the motion of caloric, when it is Velocity of-
not interrupted, is equal in velocity to that of light.caloric
When therefore it is emitted by one body, it moves on equal to
with this velocity till it is received by another. This has^1*^
been called the tranfmijjion or radiation of heat. This 2^r
radiation or feparation of heat from any body, arifes Radiated,
from the force with which it is connected with that
body being diminilhed $ that is, when a greater quan¬
tity of caloric is accumulated in that body than it can
contain. The experiments of Dr Herfchel (hew, that Refra^gj
heat is radiated, refrafled and reflected, in the fame 243
manner as light. The reflexion of caloric has a]foan<l refledt»
been proved by the experiments of Mr Pidtet formerlyec*'
mentioned. But caloric is communicated from one
body to another by diredt contadl of thefe bodies.
2. It is well known that a cold body brought into is commu-
contadl with a warm body, in a certain time becomes nicatcd by
hot j but this does not take place inftantaneoufly $ and00111^*
the time neceffary for one body to receive caloric from
another, or for the different parts of the fame body to
acquire the fame temperature, varies according to the
nature and ftate of thefe bodies. This is called the
conducing power of bodies.
3. But as different bodies have different degrees
of affinity for caloric, or contain different propor¬
tions of it, it muff be feparated or abforbed with
greater or lefs facility. The motion of caloric there-
fore, in thefe different circumftances, will be confi-pidiy in
derably varied in its celerity. This may be proved fome bo--
by diredt experiment. If one extremity of two fub-^*cs*
fiances of different properties, as, for inflance, a rod of
iron and another of wood, be put into the fire, and the
hand brought into contadl with the other extremity, the
rod of iron will foon be heated too much for the hand
to bear, while the rod of wood will not have its tem¬
perature greatly increafed. This ffiews, that there is
a fmaller quantity of caloric carried through the wood j
or, in other.words, the iron is a better condudtor than
the wood. _ # 5.
4. AIT folid bodies are cendudlors of caloric, but Good cor-
they poffefs this power in very different degrees.ductors.-
Thofe bodies which condudl caloric with facility are
called good condudtors, but thofe through which it
paffes.
470
Caloric.
CHEMISTRY.
Ml
Bad con-
d udors.
548
Their ufe.
M9
Metals the
belt con-
dadtori.
paflcs with diiBculty, or very flowly, are faid to be had
condu^lors. The motion of caloric from one body
to another, or through the fame body, is not altoge¬
ther in proportion to their denfities, as might be fup-
pofed Irom the inftance of the communication of calo¬
ric through wood and iron, jult mentioned. Calo¬
ric is conducted very flowly through a more porous
firbthmce, fuch as a mafs of cork, of wool, of feathers,
or furs. It is on account of the flownefs with which
heat is conducted in thefe fubllances, that fome of them
are employed in the colder feafons of the year, or in
cold countries, as materials for clothing. The heat
being flowly conduced through fuch fubftances, they
prevent the heat of the body from being diflipated, or
cut oft the communication between the warm body and
the cold air. And thus we fee a wife proviflon of na¬
ture, in furniflring all animals which are inhabitants of
the colder regions of the earth, with a. thick covering
of fur or feathers. According to the experiments of
Count Rumford, the conducing power of fur, feathers,
filk, and wool, diminilhes in proportion to the finenefs
of their texture.
Metallic fubftances are the beft conduftors of calo-
but among the metals it would appear that there
ric
is conftderable variety in their conducing power, and
this is not in proportion to their denlity, as appears
from the experiments of Dr Ingenhoufz on the follow¬
ing metals, which are fet down in the order of their
*Journ. de condufting power *.
■Pbyf.il$9'
Silver,
Gold,
Copper,
Tin,
Platina,
Iron,
Steel,
Lead.
Conducting ^ ^et experiments were made on the conducting
power of ° power of different woods, by Profeffor Mayer of Er-
woods. langen, of which the following are the refults, eorapar-
f Annal. de ed with the conducting power of water f.
vol.
xxx. p. 43. Water, 10.0
Ebony, 21.7
Crab apple, 27.4
Afh, 38.0
Beech, 32.1
Hornbean, 32.3
Plum tree, 32-5
Female oak, 32.6
Pear tree, 33.2
Birch, 34.1
Oak, 36.3
Pitch pine, 37.5
Alder, 38.4
Pine, 38.6
Fir, 38.9
Lime tree, 39.0
The experiments of Guyton {hew, that the conducing
\ Ibid. vol. power of charcoal is to that of fine fand nearly in the
ixvi.p. 227. proportion of 2 to 3 J.
5. Fluid bodies, as well as folids, are condu&ors of Cakr
caloric; but they are found to conduct it fo flowly, -v
that it was at firft fuppofcd they did not poffefs thisp,^1
power at all, that is, that the caloric was not conduct-
cd from particle to particle in fluids, firoilar to what
happens in folid bodies. This opinion feemed to be fup-
ported by the nature and conftitution of fluids, in which
the particles have free motion among each other, fo
that when one fet of particles acquire an additional
quantity of caloric, their fpecific gravity is neceffarily
diminiflied, and they naturally change place with thofe
other particles of the fluid which have been lefs heat¬
ed and are eonfequently heavier. Thefe different ap¬
pearances which were obferved in the heating of fluids
led Count Rumford, who made many ingenious expe¬
riments on this fubject, to conclude, that fluids are
heated, or conduct caloric, in a. different manner from
folids. In a fpirit of wine thermometer, which was
placed in a window to cool,--he obferved the fluid in
the tub© m rapid motion. There were two* currents
going in- different diredtion^, the one afeending, anti
the other defeending. The defending current oc¬
cupied the fides of the tube, and the afeending current
the middle. The currents were ©wing to the change
in the fpecific gravity of the particles, which being
heated became lighter, and refc to the top ; the heavier
particles at the fame time defeended. The particles
which afeended having reached the fides or top of the
tube, gave out their caloric, became fpecifically hea¬
vier, and again fell to the bottom. The motion of the
currents was confiderably increafed by the application
of a cold body to the fides-of the tube. The count al-
fo repeated the experiment with linfeed oil, and alfo
with water, in the latter of which he diffolved potafli,
to bring its fpeeific gravity to that of amber, fmall
pieces of which he introduced, to obferve the currents
more diftin&ly. Thefe experiments were followed with
the fame- refult. When the temperature was inereafed
or diminiftved, the currents were fet in motion, and only
ceafed when the temperature became equal to the fur-
rounding bodies.
In prosecuting this fubjecl, the count made other
experiments, to afeertain how far the heating or cool¬
ing of fluids is affected by a difference of fluidity. The
thermometer which he employed in thefe experiments,
has a copper bulb and a glafs tube, and it was filled
with linfeed oil. This was placed in the centre of a
brafs cylinder, and the fpace between the fides of the
cylinder- and the thermometer, was 0.25175. The
thermometer being fecured, the cylinder was filled with
2276 grs. of pure water, and held in melting fnow, till
the thermometer fell to 3 2°. It was then immerfed
in boiling water, and the thermometer rofe from 3 2°
to 200° in 597". The calorie wrhich raifed the ther¬
mometer muft have been communicated to it through
the water in the cylinder. The experiment was then
varied, by boiling 192 grs. of ftarchin the water in the
the cylinder. The thermometer now required ncp"
to rife from 3 2° to 200°. The fame experiment was
repeated by mixing 192 grs. eider down with the fame
quantity of water, and alfo with a quantity of ftewed
apples. The refult of thefe experiments will be feen # ^ ^
in the following tables
Effay 7-
Time
C H E M
picric. Time the Caloric il’tfj in paffing into the Thermometer.
Tempera¬
ture.
fherm. rofe
from 3 a0
to 200°, iu
Fherm. rofe
8o°, viz
from 8oc-
to 1600, in
Through
the Water
and Starch
Seconds.
n©9
34i
Through the
Water and
Eider down.
Seconds.
949
269
Through
ftewed
Apples.
Seconds.
IO964
335
Through
pure
Water.
Seconds.
597
172
Time the Caloric was in pajjing out of the Thermometer.
Tempera¬
ture.
Through
the Water
and Starch.
Therm, fell
from 2000
to 40°, in
Therm, fell
8o°, viz
from 1600
to 8o°, in
Through the
Water and
Eider down.
Seconds.
*548
468
Seconds.
1541
460
Through
ftewed
Apples.
Seconds.
1749^
520
Through
pure
Water.
Seconds.
IO32
277
253
I S T R Y.
perature, or brought into ceMact with each other,
they acquire in a certain time the fame tempera¬
ture. Thus, if one body be raifed to the tempera¬
ture of 2oo°, another to that of ioo°, and a third to All bodies
the temperature of 6o° ; and if thefe three bodies be acquire the
placed in the temperature of 8o°, they all indicate, in ^ame tem."
a fhort time, the fame temperature. The bodies which m
were at the temperature of 200° and JOO° are reduced mediuxn.
to 8o°, and the temperature of the body at 6q° rifes
to the fame. This is called the diftributmn, or the
equilibrium, of caloric. To whatever degree bodxei
are heated or cooled, they all acquire in time the
temperature of the furrounding medium, as it is indi¬
cated by the thermometer. It may therefore be re¬
ceived as a general law, that all bodies which commu¬
nicate freely with each other, and are fubjeSl to no ine¬
quality of external a Elion, acquire the fame tempera-
turei
1. Bodies are deprived df calorie, hot only by radia-
tion from their furfaces, but it is alfo conducted by Radiation
thofe bodies w ith which the heated body comes in con- not the foie
taft, and this depends greatly ort the nature of the fur- caufe
rounding cold body. The experiments of Profdlor coo^ng*
Piftet and Count Rumford, however, fhew, that radia¬
tion is not the only caufe. By thofe of the former it
appeared, that hot bodies fufpCnded in the vacuum of
an air pump, cooled more flowly than in the open air j
and by thofe of the latter, the cooling vtas ftill flower
in the Torricellian vacuum.
The fubftances which were added to the water in
thefe experiments, by diminiftimg its fluidity, had the
effect of retarding the internal motions or currents by
which the caloric is conduced through fluids. Thus,
when ftareh was mixed with water, it required nearly
double the time to raife the thermometer to the fame
degree, as with pure water. From thefe and from fome
other experiments, Count Rumford concluded, that
fluid bodies are heated in a different manner from folids y
that caloric is not commtmicated through fluids from
particle to particle, but that all the particles!- indivi¬
dually come in contaft with the heating body, and this
is fuppofed to be the caufe of the currents'which are
obferved during the heating of the fluids.
5. Fluids no doubt acquire great part of their tem¬
perature in this manner y but it has been clearly proVed
by the experiments of others, that they are alfo con-
duftors of caloric exactly the fame way as folid bodies-,
but in an inferior degree. This has been eftabliflied
m the moll fatisfa£tory manner by the experiments of
Dr Thomfon * and Mr Murray f, whichwere publifli-
wol. iv. eA in Nicholfon’s Journal y and alfo by another fet of
t 29. experiments by Mr Dalton, which were publifhed in
| ^ the Manchefter Memoirs J. By thefe experiments it
j - is demonftrated, that fluids conduft caloric from the
| ol. v. farface downwards y which could riot be the cafe, were
^ 73. it only communicated through them by the afeending
I currents of particles, in the way Count Rumford fup-
J n f0]jjs pofed: but they are worfe conductors of caloric than fo-
’ lids 5 that is, it paffes through them much more flowly.
.
Sect. IV. Of the Distribution of Caloric.
- :Uf
If a number of bodies be expofed to different
temperatures, and then be all placed in the fame tem-
2. The time requilite for the heating or cooling of
bodies depends much on their conducing power. Acoodcon*
fubftance which is a good conductor of caloric cools dueftors
much more rapidly than a bad conduftor. Mercury co°l
and water heated to the fame temperature cool in very raP^ly*
different times y the mercury cools more than twice as
fall as the water in the fame circumftances. The time
of the cooling of fluids has been confidered as nearly in
the inverfe ratio of their conducting power.
3. This equal diftribution of caloric was attempted ,
to be explained by Boerhaave, Mufchenbroeck, andDiftdbu-
others, by fuppofing that there is an equal quantity of tion of ca-
ealoric in every equal meafure of fpace, however that lori.c ex*
Ipace might be filled up with different bodies, and that Plained by
thefe bodies floated, as it were in this caloric. From gj.0" iaave?
this equal diftribution of caloric in fpace, they con¬
cluded that there was an equal quantity of caloric in
all bodies, becaufe, whatever was the denfity or differ¬
ent circumftances of bodies, they always indicated the
fame temperature to the thermometer. A cubic foot
of gold, and a cubic foot of air, according to this theory,
contained the fame quantity of caloric.
Profeffbr Piftet gave another explanation of this
phenomenon. He fuppofed that the accumulation of
caloric in- a body inefeafed the repulfive force between
ks particles, by the diminution of the diftance between
them. By the aflion of this repulfive force, the par¬
ticles are driven off in all direftions. This repulfion
continues to aft till it is oppofed by a new force, which
is the force of repulfion between the particles of calo¬
ric feparated from another body j and, till thefe two
forces acquire the fame intenfity, the particles of calo¬
ric continue to fep&rate from the hotter body. When
the two forces are balanced, the bodies are of the
lame temperature. Thus, if two bodies of different
temperatures
472
Caloric.
C H E M
253
His theory
unfatisfac-
tory.
259
Prevoft’s
theory
temperatures are brought into contact with each other,
" the repulfive force of the particles of caloric irl the hot¬
ter body is the greateit, and therefore the particles tend
to feparate from each other j but the repullion between
the particles of the colder body being lefs, they come
* E/Jai fur nearer each other. The caloric from the hotter body
h Fert, continues to feparate, and to enter the colder body, till
chap. 1. the two forces exactly balance each other, and then the
temperature is the fame *. But this theory, with all
its fimplicity and ingenuity, being unfatisfaftory in ac¬
counting for tire equilibrium of temperature, has been
given up, even by its author.
4. Another .theory has been propofed by M. Prevoft,
profeffor of philofophy at Geneva. u Accuftomed” fays
he, c‘ for a long time, to confider this fubjeft in a diffe¬
rent view from what had been formerly taken of it, I
endeavoured to draw the attention of naturaliils to this
inveftigation, in a memoir on the equilibrium of calo-
f J*urn. ric f, and in my refeurches on heat J. In thefe works,
APrd j believe it was firll propofed to fubifitute a moveable
4^Qeneva equilibrium in place of the immoveable equilibrium, the
1792* * exiftence of which had been generally admitted.
“ On this hypothefis, it is equally eafy and fatisfac-
tory to account for the reflection of cold, as for that of
heat. I confider it indeed a charafteriftic of its truth 5
for thefe two faCts being of the fame kind, the theory
that will account for the one, is applicable to the other.
Before I proceed to flat* in a few words the principle
of this theory, I may premife, that I had the fatisfaCiion
of feeing it adopted by M. PiClet and others, who are
well qualified to judge of it.
“ Caloric is a diferete, agitated fluid : each particle
of free caloric moves with immenfe velocity j one par¬
ticle moves in one direction, and another particle moves
jn another, fo that a heated body gives out calorific
rays in all directions ; and thefe particles are fo far
feparated from each other, that two or more currents
may crofs each other, as is the cafe with light, without
mutual dilturbance in their courfe. Conceiving this to
be the conflitution of caloric, if we fuppofe two conti¬
guous fpaces in which it abounds, there will be con¬
tinual changes between thefe fpaces. If in the two
^ fpaces caloric abounds equally, the exchanges will be
equal ; there will be an equilibrium. If one of the
fpaces contain more caloric than the other, the exchanges
will be unequal. The coolefl: will receive more par¬
ticles of caloric than it gives out, and after a fufficient
time, the continual repetition of thefe changes will re-
ftore the equilibrium §.
“ From thefe principles may be deduced all the
laws of the increafe and diminution of temperature.
Let us fuppofe a body placed in a medium hotter than
itfelf, and that this medium has a eonftant tempera¬
ture. We may confider the caloric of the medium as
compofed of two parts, the one equal to that of the
body, and the other equal to the difference of the two.
With regard to the firft, the exchanges are equal j be¬
tween the body and the medium there is an equili¬
brium. The excefs of the heat of the medium may
then only be confidered $ and relatively to this excels
the body is abfolutely cold. Let us fuppofe that in
one fecond the body receives ^ of this caloric 5 at the
end of the firft fecond the excefs will be no more than
: the of this new excefs will pafs into the body
5 mi.
■Tranf.
?8o2.
I S T R Y.
during the next fecond j and the excefs will be reduced Ca!o.-
to of ; and in purl’uing this, at the end of the *
third fecond, the excefs will be (to)3> an(i fo on j fo
that, conformably to the obfervedlaw, the times increafe
in arithmetical progreflion, and the differences decre«fe
in geometrical progreflion. In the fame way may be
eafily deduced the law of the cooling of a body placed
in a medium colder than itfelf. And thus the true
theory of heat, founded on fa&s totally different from
thofe by which Riehmann eftablithed this law, necef-
farily leads us to it *. * Phil
Trtnf.
Sect. V. Of the Quantity of Caloric in Bodies.
11
We have now treated, in the former fe&ions, of the
effefls of caloric, of its motion, and of its diffufion in
bodies j we are next to confider the quantity of caloric
which thefe bodies contain. This fubjeft has occupied
the attention and fpeculations of many philofophers. In
thefe fpeculations, two objects were kept in view, the
one to afeertain the whole quantity of caloric which a
body contains, and the other the quantity eff caloric
neceffary to raife different bodies to the fame tempera-
ure. This laft is ufually called fpecifc caloric.
1. Of Specific Caloric.
1. If one lb. of water at the temperature of 100° beexplainf
mixed with another lb. of water at the temperature of
50°, they will very foon acquire the fame temperature,
which will be the mean of the two temperatures. The
pound of water at ioo° will give out 250, and the
pound of water at 50° will receive 250, which brings
both to the temperature of 750.
2. But if we take one pound of water at ioo°, and
one pound of mercury at 50°, the temperature, after
mixing the water and the mercury, will not be 750,
the medium temperature in the former cafe. On the
contrary, when the mixture is made, the temperature
will be found to be 88°. The water, therefore, has
loft only 12°, and the mercury has gained 3 8°. If
this experiment be reverfed, and one pound of water
at 50° be mixed with a pound of mercury at ioo°, the
temperature of the mixture will be found to be only
62° j fo that in this cafe the mercury has given out
38°, and the water has received only 120. In this ex¬
periment, therefore, it appears clearly, that different
quantities of caloric are neceffary to increafe or dimi-
nifti the temperature of different bodies j for, the quan¬
tity of caloric which raifes water 12°, raifes mercury
no lefs than 38°. This quantity of caloric which bo¬
dies require to raife them to the fame temperature, is
called fpecific caloric.
3. “ It was formerly a common fuppofition,” fays
Dr Black, “ that the quantities of caloric required to
increafe the heat of different bodies by the fame num¬
ber of degrees, were dire&ly in proportion to the quan¬
tity of matter in each j and, therefore, when the bo¬
dies w'ere of equal fize, the quantities of caloric were
in proportion to their denfity. But very foon after I
began to think of this fubjeft, in the year 1760, I
perceived that this opinion was a miftake, and that the
qnantities of heat which different kinds of matter m^ft
receive, to reduce them to an equilibrium with one
another, or to raife their temperature by an equal num¬
ber
aloric.
i lark's
i. vol. i.
i?’
i6x
Black’s
j Uiod.
C H E M I
her of degrees, are not in proportion to the quantity of
matter in each, but in proportions widely different to
this, and for which no general principle or realbn can
yet be affigned This difference was firft pointed
■ out by Dr Black, which he dates in the above obfer-
vations, and he diftinguilhed it by the term capacity of
bodies for heat. Dr Black’s method, which is given
by Profeflbr Robifon, is the following.
“ Dr Black eftimated the capacities, by mixing the
two bodies in equal maffes, but of different tempera¬
tures j and then ftated their capacities as inverfely pro¬
portional to the changes of temperature of each by the
mixture. Thus, a pound of gold, of the temperature
150°, being fuddenly mixed with a pound of water, of
the temperature 50°, raifes it to 550 nearly : There¬
fore the capacity of gold is to that of an equal weight
of v^ater as 5 to 95, or as I to 19 j for the gold lofes
950, and the water gains 50.
“ It will be moft convenient to compare all bodies
with water, and to exprefs the capacity of water by
unity, or to call it 1. Let the quantity of the water be
W, and its temperature vo. Let the quantity of the
other body be B, and Its temperature b. Let the tem¬
perature of the mixture be m. The capacity of B is
■W
, or when the water has been the hotter of
W x ^—m
In other
1 tel. v. i.
06,
i6z
€raw-
263
cke’s.
B X^—
the two, the capacity of B is
B X tn—b
words, multiply the weight of the water by its change of
temperature. Do the fame for the other fubfance. Di¬
vide the firf} producl by the fecond. The quotient is the
capacity of the other fubfance ^ that of water being ac¬
counted 1 f (p).”
4. This iubjeft was dill farther profecuted by ether
philofophers, particularly by Dr Irvine of Glafgow',
Dr Crawford of London, and ProfeiTor Wilcke of
Stockholm.
The method which was employed by Dr Crawford
was fimilar to that of Dr Black. Two fubdances,
which were of different temperatures, were uniformly
mixed •, the change of temperature produced on each
was obferred, and this wras confidered as inverfely pro¬
portional to its fpecific caloric.
Mr Wilcke has afcertained the fpecific caloric of
many metals, by a fet of very ingenious experiments,
which were condufted in the following manner. rI he
metal which was the fubje£t of the experiment, W’as
firll accurately weighed. The quantity employed was
generally a pound. It was then fufpended by a thread,
Vol. V. Part II.
S T R Y.
plunged into a veffel of tin plate filled with boiling
water, and allowed to remain till it reached a certain
temperature indicated by the thermometer. A quan¬
tity of water at the temperature of 32°, exa£fly equal
in weight to the metal, was put into another veffel of
tin plate. The metal was then immerfed in this vef¬
fel, and fufpended in it fo as to be kept free from the
fides and bottom. The temperature, at the moment
when the metal and water were reduced to the fame,
was obferved. The fpecific caloric of the metal was
then deduced by calculation from the change of tem¬
perature. He firit calculated what the temperature
would have been, if a quantity of water of equal weight
with the metal, and of the fame temperature, had been
added to the ice-cold water. The following is the
procefs.
Let M be a quantity of water at the temperature C,
m another quantity at the temperature c, and let their
common temperature after mixture be x ; according to a
. MC4-//7C
rule demonftrated long ago by hiehman, .X—| .
In the prefent cafe the quantities of water are equal,
therefore M and m are each = I j C, the temperature
1 ^ MC-fwr
of the ice-cola water, m 32 : therefore -in'-: =
’ J M -f m
Now cis the temperature of the metal. There¬
fore if 32 be added to the temperature of the metal,
and the whole be divided by 2, the quotient will ex¬
prefs the temperature of the mixture, if an equal weight
of water with the metal, and of the fame temperature
with it, had been added to the ice-cold ivater inftead of
the metal.
He then calculated what the temperature of the mix¬
ture ivould have been, if, inftead of the metal, a quan¬
tity of water of the fame temperature with it, and
equal to the metal in bulk, had been added to the ice-
cold water. As the weights of the ice-cold water and
the metal are equal, their volumes are iaverfely as
their fpecific gravities. Therefore the volume of ice-
cold water is to a quantity of hot water equal in
volume to the metal, as the fpecific gravity of the me¬
tal to that of the water. Let M — volume of cold
water, m — volume of hot w-ater, g ~ fpecific gravity
of the metal, 1 = fpecific gravity of water ; then
M
w : M :: I : f j hence m =—= (M being made =1)
d
-. Subftituting this value of m in the formula,
473
Caloric*
g
30
MC
(p) 44 Thefe experiments require the moft fcrupulous attention to many circumftances which may affefl tne
refult. 1. The mixture muft be made in a very extended furface, that it may quickly attain the medium tem¬
perature. 2. The ftuff which is poured into the other (hould have the temperature of the room, that no change
may happen in the pouring it out of its containing veffel. 3. The effea of the veffel in which the mixture is
made muft be confidered. 4. Lefs chance of error will be incurred when the lubhances are of equal bulk.
5. The change of temperature of the mixture, during a few fucceflive moments, muft be obferved, in order to
obtain the real temperature at the beginning. 6. No fubftances fliould be mixed which produce any change of
temperature by their chemical adion, or which change their temperature, if mixed when of the fame tempera-
ture. 7. Each fubftance muft be compared in a variety of temperatures, left the ratio of the capacities ihould
be different in different temperatures. . . c ■ ■ r j-rr
“ When all thefe circumftances have been duly attended to, we obtain the meafure of the capacities of differ¬
ent fubftances for heat.” B/acDs Lefl. vol. i. p. 5°^*
474-
Oaloric.
M-J-w
x, in which M
C H E M I
I and C = 32, x will
be
32£“f*c
Therefore if the fpecific gravity of
Jr + I
the metal be multiplied by 32, and the temperature
of the metal be added, and the fum be divided by the
fpecific gravity of the metal -j-i* the quotient will ex-
prefs the temperature to which the ice-cold water
would be raifed by adding to it a volume of water
equal to that of the metal, and of the fame tempera¬
ture with it.
He then calculated how much water at the tempera¬
ture of the metal it would take to raife the ice-cold
water the fame number of degrees which the metal
had raifed it. Let the temperature to which the metal
had raifed the ice-cold water be =N, if in the formula
MC-f otc — - x be made = N, M = 1, C = 32, m
will be =
N—32
c—N
S T R Y.
the ice-cold water the'famc number of degrees that the Cal.
metal did.
Now
N—32
expreffes the fpecific caloric of the me-
Therefore if from the temperature
to which the ice-cold water wras raifed by the metal
32 be fubtrailed, and if from the temperature of the
metal be fubtracled th# temperature to which it raifed
the water, and the firft remainder be divided by the
laft, the quotient will exprefs the quantity of water of
the temperature of the metal which would have raifed
c—N
tal, that of water being = 1. For (negle&ing the
final! difference occafioned by the difference of tempera¬
ture) the weight and volume of the ice-cold water are
to tlie weight and volume of the hot water as 1 to
N——’3 2
——|b-, and the number of particles of water in each
are in the fame proportion. But the metal is equal in
weight to the ice-cold water, it muft therefore contain
as many particles of matter j therefore the quantity of
matter in the metal muft be to that in the hot water
N_2 2
as 1 to -——But they gave out the fame quantity
of caloric ; which, being divided equally among their
particles, gives to each particle a quantity of caloric
inverfely as the bulks of the metal and water j that is,
the fpecific caloric of the water is to that of the metal
N—32 , .
as 1 t0 TIN (r)-
It will now be proper to give a fpecimen or two of
his experiments, and the calculations founded on them,
as above defcribed.
Gold. Specific Gravity 19.040.
Num¬
ber of
experi¬
ments.
Tempe¬
rature of
the me¬
tal.
Temper,
to which
the metal
raifed the
water at
3^-
163.4°
I44*5
127.4
118.4
103.1
95
38.3c
37-4
36.5
36*05
35-6
3445
Temper, to which
it would have been
raifed by a quanti¬
ty of water equal
in weight and
heat to the metal.
Temper, to which
it would have been
raifed by water
equal in bulk and
temperature to the
metal.
97-7
88.25
79-7
75-2
65-75
63-5
Denominator of
the fraction
N—32
-N,
c—N
N—32
the numerator
being 1.
38.5550
37-58
36.68
36.15
3542
I 35*c6
*9-857
*9-833
20.500
20.333
18.750
19.000
Mean 19.712
Lead.
(r) All thefe formulas have been altered to make them correfpond with Fahrenheit’s thermometer. They
are a good deal fimpler when the experiments are made with Celfius’s thermometer, as Mr Wilcke did. In it
the freezing point is zero ; and confequently inftead of 32 in the formula, o is always fubftituted.
CHEMISTRY.
Lead. Specific Gravity ir. *56.
Num¬
ber of
experi¬
ments.
Tempe¬
rature of
the me¬
tal.
Temper,
to which
the me¬
tal raifed
the wa¬
ter at
3*°-
Temper, to which
the water would
have been raifed
by a quantity of
water equal in
weight and heat
to the metal.
Temper, to which
the water would
have been raifed
water equal in
)u k and tempera-
hure to the metal.
Denomieatorof
the fradlion.
N—3*
186.8
38.3
IC9.4
44.425
23-57 1
181.40
37-85
106.7
43-473
24-538
165.2
37-4
98.6
42.692
23.666
[63.4
37-4
97-7
42.548
23-333
136.4
36-5
I3I
36-°5
84.2
81.5
4°-344
39-947
22.200
24.7OO
126.5
36-°5
107.6
35-I5
94-1
34-7
79-25
69.8
63-°5
39-585
38.339
36.985
22.333
23.000
22.000
Mean 23.515
475
Calorie.
It is needlefs to add, that the daft column marks the
denbminator of the fpecific caloric of the metal; the
numerator being always 1, and the fpecific caloric of
water being 1. Thus the fpecific caloric of gold is
—l-—. In exa&ly the fame manner, and by taking
19.712
a mean of a number of experiments at different tempe¬
ratures, did Mr Wilcke afeertain the fpecific caloric of
number of other bodies. *
c 5. With the fame view, to afeertain the fpecific ca-
j' ^I4" loric of bodies, a Ample and ingenious apparatus was
contrived by Lavoifier and La Place. 1 his inllrument
is called a calorimeter, or meafurer of heat. Its prin-
,64 ciples and conftruftien are the following :
l bifier’s “ If, after having cooled, fays Lavoifier, any body
K 104 to the freezing point, it be expofed in an atmofphere
of 88.25", body will gradually become heated,
from the furface inwards, till at laft it acquire the
fame temperature with the furrounding air. But, if a
piece of ice be placed in the fame fituation, the cir-
euitiftances are quite different} it does not approach
in the fmalleft degree towards the temperature of the
circumambient air, but remains conilantly at 32 , or
the temperature of melting ice, till the laft portion of
ice be completely melted.
“ This phenomenon is readily explained 5 as, to melt
ice, or reduce it to water, it requires to be combined
with a certain portion of caloric, the whole caloric at¬
tracted from the furrounding bodies is arrefted or fix¬
ed at the furface or external layer of ice which it is
employed to diffolve, and combines with it to form
water -, the next quantity of caloric combines with the
lecond layer to diffolve it into water, and fo on fuc-
ceffively till the whole ice be diffolved, or converted
into water, by combination with caloric ; the' very laft
atom ftill remaining-at its former temperature, becaufe
the caloric could never penetrate fo far, while any
intermediate ice remained to melt, or to combine
with.
“ Upon thefe principles, if we conceive a hollow
fphere of ice at the temperature of 330 placed in an
atmofphere of 54.50, and containing a fubftance at any
degree of temperature above freezing j it follows,
That the heat of the external atmofphere cannot pene¬
trate into the internal hollow of the fphere of ice ;
and, That the heat of the body which is placed in
the hollow of the fphere cannot penetrate outwards be¬
yond it, but will be flopped at the internal furface, be¬
ing continually employed to melt fucceflive layers of
ice, until the temperature of the body be reduced to
3 2° by having all its fuperabundant caloric above that
temperature carried off to melt the ice. If the whole
water, formed within the fphere of ice during the re¬
duction of the temperature of the included body to
3 2°, be carefully collected, the weight of the water
w ill be exactly proportioned to the quantity of caloric
loft by the body, in parting from its original tempera¬
ture to that of melting ice j for it is evident that a
double quantity of caloric would have melted twice
the quantity of ice. Hence the quantity of ice melted
is a very exaCt meafure of the proportional quantity of
caloric employed to produce that efleCl, and confe
quently of the quantity loft by the only fubftance that
could poflibly have fupplied it.
“ I have made this fuppofition, of what would take
place in a hollow fphere of ice, for the purpofe of
more readily explaining the method ufed in thisfpecies
of experiment, which w-as firft conceived by M. de la
3 O 2 Place.
Place. It would be difficult to procure fuch fplieres of
ice, and inconvenient to make ufe of them when got ;
but, by means of the following apparatus, we have re¬
medied that defeft.
“ The calorimeter is reprefented in Plate CXLII.
fig. 2. The capacity or cavity is divided into three
parts, which, for better diftinftion, I (hall name the in¬
terior, middle, and external cavities. The interior ca¬
vity ff ff) into which the fubftances fubmitted to ex¬
periment are put, is compofed of a grating or cage of
iron wire, fupported by feveral iron bars \ its open¬
ing or mouth LM, is covered by the lid HG, fig. 3.
which is compofed of the fame materials. The mid¬
dle cavity b b b b, fig. 2. contains the ice which fur-
rounds the interior cavity, and which is intended to be
melted by the caloric of the fubdances employed in the
experiment. The ice is fupported by the grate m m
at the bottom of the cavity, under which is placed the
iieve n n.
“ In proportion as the ice contained in the middle
cavity is melted, by the caloric difengaged from the
body placed in the interior cavity, the water runs
through the grate and fieve, and falls through the coni¬
cal funnel c c </, fig. 2. and the tube x y, into a receiver.
This water may be retained or let out at pleafure, by
means of the flop-cock u. The external cavity a a aa,
fig. 2. is filled with ice, to prevent any effeft upon the
ice in the middle cavity from the heat of the furround¬
ing air, and the water produced from it is carried off
through the pipe ST, which fhuts by means of the flop-
cock r. The whole machine is covered by a lid made
of tin, and painted with oil colour, to prevent rufl.
“ When this machine is employed, the middle ca¬
vity b b b b, fig. 2. and the lid GH, fig. 3. of the in¬
terior cavity, the external cavity a a a a, fig. 2. and
the lid which covers the -vfhole, are all filled with pound¬
ed ice, well rammed, fo that no void fpaces remain,
and the ice of the middle cavity is allowed to drain.
The machine is then opened, and the fubflance fub¬
mitted to experiment being placed in the interior cavi¬
ty, it is inflantly clofed. After waiting till the includ¬
ed body is completely cooled to the freezing point,
and the whole melted ice has drained from the middle
cavity, the water colledled in the receiver is accurate¬
ly weighed. The weight of the water produced du¬
ring the experiment is an exa6l meafure of the caloric
difengaged during the cooling of the included body,
as this fubftance is evidently in a fimilar fituation with
the one formerly mentioned as included in a hollow
fphere of ice. The wdiole caloric difengaged from the
included body is flopped by the ice in the middle ca¬
vity, and that ice is preferved from being affefted by
any other heat by means of the ice contained in the
cover and in the external cavity. Experiments of this
kind generally lail from 15 to 20 hours, but they are
fometimes accelerated by covering up the fubftance in
the interior cavity with well drained ice, which haftens
its cooling.
“ It is abfolutely requifite that there be no com¬
munication between the external and middle cavities
of the calorimeter, otherwife the ice melted by the in¬
fluence of the furrounding air, in the external cavity,
would mix with the water produced from the ice of
the middle cavity, which would no longer be a meafure
of the caloric loll by the fubflance fubmitted to experi- Calqo: .
ment. '
“ When the temperature of the atmofphcre is only a
few degrees above the freezing point, its heat can hardly
reach the middle cavity, being arrefled by the ice of
the cover, and of the external cavity j but, if the tem¬
perature of the air be under the degree of freezing, it
might cool the ice contained in the middle cavity, by
caufing the ice in the external cavity to fall, in the firft
place, below 320. It is therefore effential that this
experiment be carried on in a temperature fomewhat
above freezing : Hence, in time of froft, the calorime¬
ter mull be kept in an apartment carefully heated. It
is likewife neceffary that the ice employed be not under k
32°, for which purpofe it mull be pounded, and fpreadC*m- 5
out thin for fome lime, in a place where the tempera¬
ture is higher.
6. Tables of the fpecific caloric of bodies have been
given by Dr Crawford, Mr Kirwan, Bergman, Gado-
lin, and Meyer. The following are the refults of their
invefligations.
TABLE of the specific Caloric of various Bodiesy that of
Water being ~ 1.0000.
Bodits.
I. Gases.
Hydrogen gas
Oxygen gas
Common air
Carbonic acid gas
Steam
Azotic gas
II. Liquids.
Water
Carbonate of ammonia
Arterial blood
Cows milk
Sulphuret of ammonia
Venous blood
Solution of brown fugar
Nitric acid
Sulphate of magnefia 11
Water - 8 J
Common fait 1 "I
Water -
Nitre 11
Water 8j
Muriate of ammonia
Water
Tartar I 7
Water 237.3 3
Solution of potafh
Sulphate of iron I
Water - 2.5
Sulphate of foda 1
Water - 2.9
Oil of olives
Ammonia
Specific
Gravity.
'}
O.OOOO94
O.OO34
0.00122
O.OO183
0.00120
1.0000
1.0224
O.818
I.346
0-9I53
O.997
Specific
Caloric.
21.4OOO
4.749O
I.790O
I-°4J9
1.5500
0.7036
1.0000
1.851
1.030
0.9999
0.9940
0.8928
0.8600
0.844
0.844
0.832
0.8167
0.779
0.765
o.759
0-734
0.728
0.710
0.7080
Tjblf.
CHEMISTRY.
Tajble continued.
Bodies.
n
Muriatic acid
Sulphuric acid 4
Water
Alum I 1
Water 4.45 3
Nitric acid 9y")
Lime I j
Nitre I 7
Water 3 j
Alcohol
Sulphuric acid
Nitrous acid
Linfeed oil
Spermaceti oil
Oil of turpentine
Vinegar
Lime 91
Water 163
Mercury
Diftilled vinegar
III. Solids.
Ice
Ox-hide with the hair
Lungs of a ftieep
Lean of ox-beef
Pine
Fir
Lime
Pitch-pine
Apple tree
Alder
Oak
Alh
Crab-apple
Rice
Horfe beans
Dull of the pine tree -
Peafe
Beech
Hornbeam - ,
Birch
Wheat
Elm
Female oak
Plum tree
Ebony
Barley
Oats
Pitcoal
Charcoal
Chalk
Ruft of iron
White oxide of antimony
wafhed
Oxide of copper nea.ly
freed from air
Quicklime
Specific
Gravity.
1.122
°.837I
I.84O
*•355
0.9403
0.9910
13.568
0.408
0.447
0.408
o-495
0.639
0.484
o-531
0.631
0.603
0.692
0.690
0.608
0.646
0.668
0.687
1.054
Specific
Caloric.
0.6800
O.663I
O.649
O.6181
O.646
0.6021
O. cg68
O.576
O.528
O.5OOO
O.472
O.387O
0.3346
O.3ICO
O.IO3O
O.9OOO
0.787
O.769
O.74OO
O.65
0.60
0.62
O.58
0.57
0-53
O.5I
O.5I
O.5O
O.5O5O
O.502O
O.5OOO
O.4920
O.49
O.48
O.48
O.477O
O.47
O.45
O.44
o-43
0.4210
0.4160
0.2777
0.2631
0.2564
0.2500
0.2270
0.2272
c.2199
TABLE Continued.
Ml
Caloric.
 , 1
Bodies.
Stoneware
Agate
Cryftal
Cinders
Swedilh glafs
Athes of cinders
Sulphur
Flint glafs
Ruil of iron nearly freed
from air
White oxide of antimony
ditto
Allies of the elm
Oxide of zinc nearly free
from air
Iron
Brafs
Copper
Sheet iron
Oxide of lead and tin -
Gun-metal
White oxide of tin nearly
free from air
Zinc
Alhes of charcoal
Silver
Yellow oxide of lead near¬
ly freed from air
Tin
Antimony
Gold
Lead
Bifmuth
Specific
Gravity.
2.648
3.189?
2.386
I.99
3-3293
7.876
8.358
8.784
7*I54
10.001
7.380
6.107
19.040
11.456
9.861
Specific
Caloric.
O.195
O.195
O.1929
0.1923
O.187
O.1885
o.j83
°-I74
0.1666
0.1666
0.1402
0.1369
0.1264
0.1141
0.1121
0.1099
0.102
0.1100
0.0990
0.0981-
0.0909
0.082
0.0680
0.0661
0.0637
0.050
0.0424
0.043
266:
2. Of the Absolute Quantity of Caloric.
I. Such then are the different methods which have
been propofed, to afcertain the relative quantities of ca¬
loric which are neceffary to reduce bodies to the fame
temperature. Attempts have alfo been made to dif-
cover the temperature of abfolute privation, and thus
to afcertain the whole quantity of caloric which a body
contains. . 20O
The firfl attempt made with this view, was by the Dr Irvine’-
late Dr Irvine of Glafgow. The theorem which he method
invented to afcertain the real zero, or the abfolute.
quantity of caloric which a body contains, is founded
on the uniformity of the fpecific caloric of bodies at
all temperatures. And taking it for granted that the
fpecific caloric of bodies is always the fame whatever 267
be the temperature, .the whole quantity, or the abfolute
quantity, will be proportional to the fpecific caloric. mity of fpe>
Having difeovered the ratio between the abfolute ca-cific cab-
lories of bodies, and the difference between two abfo- ric.
lute calorics, the wEole quantity in any body might be
found by calculation. But either the data on which
the theorem proceeds are wrong, or the experiments
which have been made with the view of applying it to
the
478 € H E M I
Calorir. the eflimation of the abfolute quantity of caloric have
ll1 been very inaccurately conduced, the refults varying
Refultsverylb mucli from each other. According to Dr Irvine’s
different, own experiments and calculation, the real zero with
regard to ice would be 1228° below o° ; but accord¬
ing to Dr Crawford’s it is 1500°. Mr Kirwan makes
it 1318° below o° in a comparifon of the fpecific calo¬
ric of water and ice. Lavoilier and La Place fix it at
3426° below o°, from the refult of experiments on a
mixture of water and quicklime. But in other experi¬
ments by the fame philofophers, there is a great varia¬
tion in the refult. Four parts of fulphuric acid, and
three parts of water, mixed together, give a refult for
the real zero equal to 7260° below' o° j and four parts
of fulphuric acid, and five of water, give it only equal
to 2598° below o°. Profeffor Robifon, fpeaking of
the fpecific and abfolute quantities of heat in bodies
being fuppofed to be proportional, obferves that “ this
opinion is juft, only on the fuppofition that the mea-
fures obtained by experiments and calculation are con-
ftantly the fame, whatever the temperatures may be
in which the experiments are made. Dr Irvine’s in¬
genious method of difcovering the temperature of ab¬
folute privation, evidently prefuppofes this conftancy
of fpecific heat', or, if they are not conftant, it fup-
pofes that wte know the whole law of variation. Now,
both of thefe affumptions are highly improbable. In
none of the progreflions of natural operations that we
are acquainted with do we find this conftancy. It is
much more analogous to other phenomena, to fuppofe
that, in the temperatures near to that of abfolutc pri¬
vation, the quantities of heat neceflary for producing
equal elevation gradually diminilh, and this, perhaps,
w ithout end, like the diftance of the hyperbola from its
affymptote. It is equally probable that the law of di¬
minution may be different in different fubftances. This
will caufe the meafures of fpecific heats to change their
proportions continually j and therefore the fpecific ca¬
pacities obferved in temperatures, all of which are far
removed from that of the entire abfence of heat, give
us no means of obtaining the proportions of the accu¬
mulated .fum of all the heats which have been received
into the fubftances. It follows from this, that even al¬
though it fliould be granted to Dr Irvine, that the
heat which emerges, in mixing vitriolic acid and wa¬
ter, or in the freezing of water, is the difference be¬
tween the abfolute heat of the mixture, or the ice, and
the abfolute heats of the fubftances before mixture, or
of the w'ater before freezing, ftill we cannot afeertain
thofe abfolute heats, or the temperature of no heat.
Accordingly it appears, that it has been only in a
very few cafes that Dr Irvine found a tolerable coin-
‘ cidence of his determination of this extreme cold ; and
the determination by means of mixtures differed enor-
moufty from thofe obtained by means of congelation;
and ftill more from thofe obtained by means of the con-
Left. vol. i- denfation of vapour
p. 508. 2. Mr Dalton has propofed another hypothefis for
a6? determining the real zero, or the abfolute quantity of
Mr Dalton’s cajorjc jn j}OClies> pje obferves that the remarkable
method. ^ ^ qUantity of txpanfion of elaftic fluids being
the fame in the fame eircumftances, lliews, that it de¬
pends folely upon heat: “ w'hereas the expanfion in fo-
lid and liquid bodies feems to depend upon an adjuft-
ment of the two oppofite forces of heat and chemical
S T R Y.
affinity, the one a eonftant force in the fame tempera- Caior j 1
ture, the other a variable one, according to the nature '•’"‘Vlf '
of the body •, hence the unequal expanfion of fuch bo¬
dies. It feems therefore that general laws refpedting
the abfolute quantity and the nature of heat, are more
likely to be derived from elaftic fluids than from other
fubftances.
In order to explain the manner in which elaftic
fluids expand by heat, let us affume an hypothefis that
the repulfive force of each particle is exactly propor¬
tional to the w'hole quantity of heat combined with it,
or in other words to its temperature reckoned from the
point of total privation : then fince the diameter of
each particle’s fphere of influence is as the cube
root of the fpace occupied by the mafs, we fhall have
3  1
jy/ioco : ^1325 (10 : II, nearly) :: the abfolute
quantity of heat in air of 550 : the abfolute quantity
in air of 21 2°. This gives the point of total privation
of heat, or abfolute cold, at 15470 below' the point at
which water freezes. Dr Crawford deduces the faid
point, by a method wholly different, to be 15320. So
near a coincidence is certainly more than fortuitous.
The only objection I fee to this hypothefis is, that
it neceffarily requires the augmentation of elaftic fluids
for a given quantity of heat to be greater in the higher
temperatures than in the lower, becaufe the cubes of
a feries of numbers in arithmetical progreflion differ
more the larger the numbers or roots : but it has juft
been (hewn that in fa<5t an augmentation of a contrary
kind is obferved. This refers us to the confideratioa
whether the mercurial thermometer is an accurate
meafure of the increments of heat: if it be, the hypo¬
thefis fails j but if equal increments of heat cauie a
greater expanfion in mercury in the higher than in
the lower temperatures, and that in a /mail degree,
the fad! noticed above, inftead of being an objection,
will corroborate the hypothtfis. Dr Crawford deter¬
mines the expanfions of mercury to be very nearly in
proportion to the increments of haat: M. de Luc
makes them to be lefs for a given quantity of heat in
the lower than in the higher part of the fcale j and in
a ratio that agrees with this hypothefis. Now as every
other liquid we are acquainted with is found to expand
more in the higher than in the lower temperatures,
analogy is in favour of the conclufions of Dc Luc, that ^{ani'0' j
mercury does the fame.” j
The different methods which have been propofed
by philofophers to determine the real zero, or the ab¬
folute quantity of caloric in bodies, and the want of
coincidence between the refults of the experiments and
calculations founded on thefe methods, ftiew us, at
leaft, that the fubjeft is attended with great difficulty
and uncertainty. Perhaps the prefent ftate of our
knowledge does not fumiih us with the means of re¬
moving the difficulty. Some fortunate difeovery is
ftill needed to guide our fteps in the folution of this
problem.
3. Having thus confidered the relative and abfo-^j^
lute quantities of caloric in bodies, and the methods
which have been propofed for afeertaining thefe quan¬
tities, it may be neceffary to ftate in what fenfe, or
with what limitations, the term cold is to be employed.
When we leave a room at the temperature of 6o°, and
go into the air in a frofty day at the temperature of
CHEMISTRY.
aloruc. 3 2°, v/e fay that it is cold $ or when the hand is held
faionc.
in water at the temperature of i oo° for a few minutes,
and then fuddenly plunged into water at the tempera¬
ture of 40°, the latter is faid to be cold. This, how¬
ever, is merely an expreflion of the fenfation excited in
the body, which depends folely on the abftra&ion of its
heat. This may be proved by the following experi¬
ment. If three quantities of water are taken, the firft
at the temperature of 3 2°, the fecond at the tempera¬
ture of 30°, and the third at the temperatnre of xoo°.
Imnjerfe the right hand into the water at the tempera¬
ture of loo°, and the left into the water at the tempe¬
rature of 3 2°. Let them remain for a minute, and
then fuddenly plunge both hands into the water at the
intermediate temperature of 50°$ the right hand will
feel cold, and the left hand warm } and thus different
fenfations are produced by the fame body at the fame
time and at the fame temperature. But this depends
entirely on the previous date of the hands, and on the
abforptron or abftraftion of caloric *, and this feeming
paradox is eafily explained by what has been faid on
the equal diftribution of caloric. The right hand
which was placed in the water at the temperature of
ioo° abforbed caloric, becaufe the temperature of the
water is above that of the body. This excites the fen¬
fation of heat} but when the fame hand is placed in
the water at the temperature of 50° it is deprived of
caloric, becaufe the furrounding medium is far below
its temperature ; and thus the fenfation of cold is pro¬
duced. But from the left hand, placed in the water at
3 2° caloric is abftra&ed, which gives the fenfation of
cold, and the fame hand placed in the water at 50° re¬
ceives caloric, and this entering the body, excites the
fenfation of heat.
Thus, then, the term cold is merely expreflive of the
relative temperature of two bodies. In common lan¬
guage the word cold is fufficiently intelligible 5 but in
the prefent view of the dodtrine of caloric, it can have
no other precife meaning, than to exprefs the ab fence
of a quantity of heat.
Obferving the remarkable effedts which w ere pro¬
duced on fluids by the abftradtion of caloric, it is not
at all furprifing that the phenomena which were not
obferved with great accuracy, fhould be aferibed rather
71 to the addition of fome new body, than to the abllrac-
ivinfic tion of one wrhich was formerly in combination. Hence
Paiges, originated the hypothefls which fuppofed the exiftence
of the frigorific particles of Le Mairan and Mufchen-
broek, which prevailed till the eflfedts of caloric were
developed by the difeoveries of modern chemiftry. They
were led to this hypothefis of the entrance of extraneous
matter into water when it is converted from the fluid
into the folid ftate, from obferving the increafe of bulk
which takes place. Thefe frigorific particles, to which
all the effedts of cold were afcribed, it was imagined,
had fome refemblance to nitre. This opinion probably
arofe from the circumftance of a great degree of cold,
or diminution of temperature, being produced by dif-
folving nitre in water. The frigorific particles were
fuppofed to be conftantly floating in the air, and by
mixing with liquid bodies, as water, converted them
into folids, by aftingthe part of wedges, which prevent¬
ed the free motion of the particles among each other.
The experiments Profellbr Pidlet, m which cold
, ... 479
feems to be refledled, ftill give fome fupport to this Caloric,
opinion. Two concave mirrors of tin were placed at s-—-v——^
the diftance of io£ feet from each other j a glafs vef-r . ,2?2
fel full of fnow was placed in the focus of the one, and *0 be rc^
an air thermometer in that of the other. The thermo- fledted.
meter funk feveral degrees, but when the fnow was re¬
moved, it rofe again j and when a greater degree of
cold was produced on the fnow, by pouring an acid upon
it which difiblved it rapidly, the thermometer fell feve¬
ral degrees lower. At firft fight it appears, that cold
has been given out by the fnow, and this cold reflected
by the mirrors occafioned the fall of the thermometer.
The explanation of this fa6l is not without difficulty.
As the rays of caloric are emitted by all furrounding
bodies, the temperature of the thermometer is probably
kept up by fome of thefe rays. Suppofe when the ther- AccoJntei
mometer is placed in the focus of one of the mirrors, far.
that it (lands at the fame temperature that it would do
when brought into contadl with any other of the fur-
rounding bodies; and that this temperature is partly
owing to the rays of caloric which are pafling off from
thofe bodies : if then there is any interruption of thefe
rays, the temperature of that body, as the thermometer,
muft be diminifhed. This is probably what takes place
when the temperature of the thermometer in the focus
of one of the mirrors falls, by placing a cold body in the
focus of the other. To make this a little plainer, fup-
pofe the temperature of the thermometer is kept up by
100 rays of caloric ; when a cold body is placed in a
proper fituation, as in the focus of the oppofite mirror j
if any number of thefe rays be abforbed by the cold bo¬
dy, it .muft confequently fall in temperature.
But although the explanation be not altogether fa-
tisfa&ory, it affords no proof of the exiftence of frigo¬
rific particles. Were we even to admit this hypothe¬
fis, it would not probably affift us much in the expla¬
nation.
4. Great degrees of cold are produced, by mixing To produce
together thofe fubftances which diffolve rapidly. The great cold,
reafon of this will appear by recolledling what has been
faid of the abforption of caloric when a folid body is
converted into a fluid. Mixtures to produce artificial
cold, are generally made of the neutral falls diffolved
in w ater j of diluted acids and fome of the neutral falts j
and of fnow or pounded ice w-ith fome of thefe falts.
A great number of experiments were made upon this
fubjeft by Mr Walker * $ alfo by Profeffor Lowitz of *
Peterfburgh f j by Fourcroy and Vauquelin J •, and Trarif.
by Guyton $. The following table exhibits the refults 270*-
of thefe experiments. x 801, p. 120.-
* f Ann. de
TABLE of Freezing Mixtures. Chim vol.
Mixtures.
Parts
{Muriate of ammonia 5
Nitre . . 3
Water - - 16
Thermometer finks.
From 50° to ioc
{"Muriate of ammonia 5
J Nitre - - 5
2’ j Sulphate of foda 8
Water - - 16
From 50° to 40
MXVI. p. 297.-
1 Ibid. vol.
xxix. p. 281..
J Ibid. 290.
Tablb
480
Caloric.
CHEMISTRY,
TABLE of Freezing Mixtures continued.
TABLE of Freezing Mixtures continued.
Calori,
i—V'
Mixtures.
Thermometer finks.
Farts.
C Nitrate of ammonia I
3- \ Water - - I
From 50* to 4®
{Nitrate of ammonia 1
Carbonate of foda I
Water _ - 1
From 50° to 7C
C Sulphate of foda 3
5* Diluted nitric acid 2
From 500 to 3C
f"Sulphate of foda 6
, J Muriate of ammonia 4
k* i Nitre - - 2
(^Diluted nitric acid 4
From 50° to 10°
f" Sulphate of foda 6
7. < Nitrate of ammonia 5
(.Diluted nitric acid 4
From 50* to 140
o C Phofphate of foda 9
* £ Diluted nitric acid 4
From 50° to 12°
f Phofphate of foda 9
9. < Nitrate of ammonia 6
(.Diluted nitric acid 4
From 50* to 2ic
y Sulphate of foda 8
10‘ \ Muriatic acid - 5
From 50° to o°
T Sulphate of foda 5
11' [ Diluted fulphuric acid 4
From 50* to 3C
[2 $ Snow
' (_ Common fait
From 5 2° to oc
C Snow or pounded ice 2
T3' ^ Common fait - I
From 0° to —5C
f*Snow or pounded ice I
J Common fait - 5
14’ ) Muriate of ammonia
L and nitre - 5
From —>5° to —18°
{Snow or pounded ice 12
Common fait - 5
Nitrate of ammonia 5
From -—18° to —23
^ T Snow and diluted ni-
1 * trie acid.
From o° to —-46°
f Potalh
1^' "^Snow
4 From 3 2° to—51*
f Snow - - 2
18. 4 Diluted fulphuric acid 1
(.Diluted nitric acid 1
From —io° to —-56°
27C
When any of thefe fubftances are to be employed as Howtos
freezing mixtures, the falts Ihould be ufed frelh cry-the freea.
ftallized, and reduced to fine powder 5 and it will per-in5mi!i-
haps be found moll convenient to obferve the proper-ture5,
tions which are fet down in the table, Suppofe it is
wanted to produce a degree of artificial cold equal to
 jo°, which is the temperature produced from 3 2°
by the 20th freezing mixture. The fubftances em¬
ployed, namely, the muriate of lime and the fnow,
muft be previoufly cooled down to the temperature of
32°, or any degree below it. This may be done by
placing them feparately in the 1 xth freezing mixture,
the fulphate of foda and diluted fulphuric acid, which
reduces the temperature from 50° to 30 ; or in the
12th freezing mixture of fnow and common fait, which
reduces the temperature from 3 2° to O.. The mate¬
rials thus cooled down, are then to be mixed together
as quickly as poflible, when, if the experiment luc-
ceed, the temperature will fall from 3 2° to —50°, as ^
in the 20th freezing mixture. The veffels which are^Jf^
employed for thefe procefles Ihould be very thin, and
made of the beft condudtors of heat. Veffels of tin
plate anfwer the purpofe, and when acids are to be
ufed, they may be lined with wax, which will fecure
them fufficiently againft their a&ion. They ihould be
of no larger dimenfions than juft to contain the ma¬
terials.
Sect. VI. Of the Sources of Caloric.
We are now to confider the means by which caloric
may be evolved, or rendered fenfible. This is a fub-
je<ft of great importance, both as a curious inveftiga-
tion, and as a ufeful and neceffary application in the-
miftry and the arts of life. According to the differ¬
ent fources from which caloric is derived, or the means
which are employed for its evolution, thefe may be
reckoned five in number j namely, percuftion, fic¬
tion, mixture, the fun, combuftion : and we ihall
confider them in the order in which they have been
named.
Firft
;!onc.
77 4
'1 . ana
78
3 pro-
li:^
)V jg to
:o ]£n^*
lie
79
in fs;
# ti/of.
ik
p. 1.
f. .neb.
A . vol.
^ SIS*
!o
ijrd
k 5.
Firfl Source of Caloric,
Percujfion.
The produ£lion of heat by ftriking together flint
and fteel, is a well known fa<S. The fame thing alfo
takes place when many other hard bodies are Itruck
again!! each ether. Fires are frequently kindled by
making a piece of iron red-hot by percuflion, which
is effe&ed by ftriking it fmartly with a hammer. In
moft of the cafes in which caloric is evolved by per¬
cuflion, this evolution is aferibed to the condenfation
of the particles of the body ftruck. This has been
obferved to take place, both in elaftic fluids and li¬
quid*. •
1. The fudden condenfation of air alone, has been
found to produce a change of feveral degrees in the
thermometer. In fome experiments by Dr Darwin,
the condenfed air from an air-gun, thrown on the bulb
of a thermometer, uniformly funk it about 2°. This
ftiews that the condenfed air had given out fome of its
caloric j for during the operation of condenling it, the
apparatus became fenfibly hot *.
Mr Dalton’s experiments on the condenfation and
rarefa&ion of air, (hew that an increafe of temperature
of 50° is produced, by admitting air into an exhauft-
ed receiver j and when the equilibrium is reftored to
condenfed air, 50° of cold is produced. The fudden-
nefs of the fall' and rife of the thermometer is very re¬
markable in thefe cafes ; and from this circumftance,
Mr Dalton conjectures, that the real change of tem¬
perature of the air or medium, was much greater than
the thermometer indicated j but that the inequality ex-
ifted only for a few fecondsf. From thefe experiments,
therefore, it appears that caloric is evolved during
. the condenfation, and abforbed during the rarefa&ion
of air.
A conflderable rife in temperature takes place, wheu
different gafes unite together, and are condenfed. Muria¬
tic acid gas and ammoniacal gas, when combined toge¬
ther, form a folid fait; and during this combination a
great quantity of caloric is evolved.
2. To the fame caufe is aferibed the caloric which
is evolved by the percuflion of hard bodies. This is
particularly the cafe with metallic fubftances. They
acquire a conflderable increafe of denflty by hammer¬
ing ; and during this procefs caloric is evolved. A
piece of iron, it has been obferved, becomes red-hot
when it is fmartly ft ruck with a hammer on an anvil j
and it acquires a confiderable increafe of denflty. Be¬
fore hammering, the fpecific gravity of iron is 7.788 j
after it is hammered it increafes to 7.840. In fome
other metals the increafe of denflty is ftill more re¬
markable. Before hammering, platina is only 19-5 5
and after hammering, its fpecific gravity is increafed
ta 2^.0. As a proof that the heat is evolved by con¬
denfation, iron, which has been once heated by ham¬
mering, cannot be fubjedled to the fame procefs till it
has been again expofed to heat. It has become fo
Vol. V. Part II.
CHEMISTRY.
brittle that it flies to pieces under the ftrokes of the
481
Caloric.
itll. XV XXXV-kJ VV* v/
hammer. 2gl
3. It is perhaps more difficult to account for the ca-pj^^q t!J
loric and light which are emitted by incombuftible account for
fubftances } as, for inftance, in the cafe of two quartz incombutti-
ftones ftruck againft each other, which has been already
alluded to in treating of light. The particles of thefe wjien
bodies which were ftruck off by percuffion, are found, on fttuck.
examination, to be in a (late of fuflonand it would ap¬
pear that this is a cafe in which light and caloric are
emitted without oxygen having any (hare in the adtion,
as is fuppofed to happen in all cafes of combuftion.
In fome obfervatians on the appearances produced
by the collifion of fteel with hard bodies, made by Mr ^
Davy, he mentions that Mr Hawkfbee (hewed *, that
no fparks could be produced in vacuo; a faint light voi xxxiv.
was only perceived. Mr Davy thinks that the vivid p.2165.
fparks obtained from fteel in the atmofphere, are owing
to the combination of the fmall abraded and heated
metallic particles with oxygen ; but it has been doubt¬
ed, he obferves, whether the faint luminous appear¬
ance, when the experiment is made in vacuo, be. owing
to the light produced by the fradlure and abraflon of
the particles of the flint, or only partly to this caufe,
and partly to the ignition of the minute filaments fe-
parated from the fteel. When a fine and thin flint,
which is eafily broken, is ufed for the collifion in va¬
cuo, the light is more vivid, than when a thick one is
employed. From this he'concludes that the particles
of fteel are rendered luminous in confequence of com¬
buftion. This opinion was proved by the following
experiment.
A thin piece of iron pyrites (fulphuret of iron) was
inferted in a gun-lock in place of the flint. By colli¬
fion in the atmofphere it gave vivid fparks, chiefly
white, but fometimes mixed with a few red fparks.
The fame experiment was repeated when the apparatus
was introduced into the exhauited receiver of an air-
pump 5 but no light whatever appeared. 282
Mr Davy further obferves, that bodies which be- SuppoTed t«
come luminous by being ftruck or rubbed together z«be ekdric.
vacuo, under water, or in gafes that do not contain
oxygen ; fuch bodies, for inftance, as fluate and carbo¬
nate of lime, filiceous (tones, glafs, fugar, and many of
the compound falls, are both ele&rics per fe and phof-
phorefeent fubftances j fo that the flafties they produce
are probably occafioned, partly by ele&ricity and
partly by phofphorefcence. In fome cafes, however,
by the collifion of very hard, ilony bodies, which are
bad conductors of heat, there may be an aCtual igni¬
tion ©f the particles. This feems to be countenanced
by various faCts. Mr T. Wedgwood found, that a
piece of window-glafs, when brought into contaCt with
a revolving wheel of grit, became red-hot at its point
of friCtion, and gave oft' luminous particles, which were
capable of inflaming gunpowder and hydrogen gas f j f Um,
and we are informed, Mr Davy adds, by a late voy-179;,, p.45.
ager (s)., that the natives of Oonalaftika light their
fires by ftriking together two pieces of quartz over dry
3 P grafs»
(s) Sauer’s account of this faft is the following : “ I obferved m all the huts a l.aiket con am.ng two large
pieces of quartz, a large piece of native fulphur, and fome dry grafs or mofs. 11m ferves them m kmdlmg
fires; for which purpofe they rub the native fulphur on the flones over the dry grab, Arewed lightly with a
4? 2
CHEMISTRY.
Caloric.
grai;., their furfaces being prevloufly rubbed with ful-
** yourn.
Roy. Infl.
ph
■vol. i.
p. 264.
Second Source of Caloric,
Fri&ion.
*83 _
Combuiti-
ble Iwdies
inflamed.
zS4
Heat by
fridtiou not
owing to
diminifhed
fpecific ca¬
loric,
285
proved by
Count
Rumford.
1. A great quantity of caloric is alfo given out by
fridtion. The intenfity of the heat produced by fric¬
tion depends on many circumltances, and varies chiefly
in the ratio of the time employed and the nature and
furface of the bodies which ♦.re rubbed together.
When the bodies rubbed are combuftible, as two
pieces of dry wood, they may be inflamed •, but when
they poffefs combuflibility in a low degree, or are al¬
together incombuftible, the temperature may be railed
fo high as to communicate a degree of heat fufficient
to let fire to corabuilible bodies. Greater difficulty
kill attends the explanation of the phenomena of the
evolution of caloric by fridtion than by the percuffion
©f hard, incombuiiible bodies. In this cafe there can
be no increafe of denlity by the friction in many in-
ftances, for caloric is evolved by rubbing together two
pieces of wood, or rubbing the hand on a piece of
foft cloth where increafe of denlity can fcarcely be fup-
pofed. Nor can the increafe of temperature by fric¬
tion be accounted for by the diminution of the fpecific
caloric of the bodies which are rubbed together j for
Count Rumford, who made feme interefting experi¬
ments on this fubjedt, could not difeover any change
in this refpedt, and fuppofing that this change had
taken place, it Avould not be Efficiently great to ac¬
count for all the heat produced. In one of thefe ex¬
periments he took a brafs fix-pounder, call fdlid, and
rough as it came from the foundery *, fixed it horizon¬
tally on the machine fixed for boring, and caufed its
extremity to be cut off-, and by turning round the
metal in that part, a folid cylinder was formed 7^ in¬
ches in diameter, and inches long. This when
finiffied remained joined to the reft of the metal by a
fmall cylindrical neck 23- inches in diameter, and 2-j™-
inches long. This ffiort cylinder was bored with a
horizontal borer ufed in boring cannon. Its bore
which was 3-^- inches in diameter, inftead of being
continued through its whole length 9^- inches, was
only 7XV inches in length. A folid bottom of
inchcs in length was thus left, A blunt fteel borer
was preffed againft the bottom of the bore of the
cylinder with a force equal to 10,000 lb. avoirdupois ;
and the cylinder was turned round by horfes at the
rate of about 32 times in a minute. To prevent the
diffipation of the heat, the cylinder was covered up
with thick flannel. At the beginning of the experi¬
ment the temperature of the air and of the cylinder
was 6o°. At the end of 30', when it had made 960
revolutions, a mercurial thermometer was introduced
into the hole made to receive it in the fide of the cy¬
linder, and the mercury rofe to 1300. When the
borer was removed, and the metallic duft or feales
taken out of the bottom of the cylinder, it was found
to amount to 837 grs. As the weight of this duft Calo;:
amounts to no more than -g-J-gth part of that of the cy-
Under, it muft have given off 948° to raife the tem¬
perature of the cylinder i°, and confequently it muft
have given out 66,360° of heat in the courle of the ex¬
periment. _ ^
2. But to determine whether the air of the atmo-Norte
fphere had any part or not in the generation of thisa*r.
heat, by one decifive experiment, he contrived the fol¬
lowing, in which it was impoflible for it to produce
any effeft whatever. The apparatus was inclofed in a
wooden box, which was made water-tight, and be¬
ing filled with water, completely excluded the exter¬
nal air. The quantity of water employed was 18.77 lh.
avoirdupois or 2-J wine gallons, and the temperature
at the commencement of the experiment was 6o°,
The machine was put in motion, and moved at the
fame rate as in the former experiment. At the end
of an hour the temperature was 107°in half an hour
more, it rofe to 178°, and at the end of two hours and
30' from the beginning of the experiment the water
actually boiled. By Count Rumford’s calculation the
caloric generated by friftion in this experiment, and
accumulated in two hours and 30', would have heated
ice-cold water l8o°, or caufed it to boil. From the
refults of his computation it appears, that the quantity
of caloric thus generated equably, was greater than that
produced equably in the combuftion of nine wax-candles,
each ^ of an inch in diameter, burning w ith clear bright
flames for the fame length of time.
Refledting on thefe experiments, Count Rumford Count
recurs to the queftion, What is heat ? Is there any Rumfe
287
fuch thing as an igneous fluid ? And after Hating that^'S
the quantity of caloric thus generated could neither beisra0ti0;
furniffied by the particles of the metal, detached from
the folid maffes, nor by the air, nor by the water, be-
caufe it muft have received its heat from the appara¬
tus, he concludes, that caloric is not a material fub-
ftance, but only a peculiar kind of motion produced
among the particles of matter f. | pj//,
3. The experiments of Profeffor Pidlet alfo prove, TVwi/
that the caloric generated by fridlion is not owing to
the combination of oxygen with any of the bodies.
He contrived an apparatus which could be introduced
into the receiver of an air-pump. By means of
apparatus, a piece of adamantine fpar was rubbed ne^te^
againft a fteel cup in the open air. A thermometer fri^ion n
which wras fixed in the infide of the cup, did not rife owing to
when the apparatus was fet in motion, although abund-c.om^
ance of fparks were produced. When the apparatus
was placed in an exhauded receiver, and the expen-
ment repeated, a phofphoric light, but no fparks, ap¬
peared, nor wras the thermometer any way affe£led j
but when a fmaller brafs cup was employed, and a
piece of brafs rubbed againft it in the open air, the
thermometer was not affefted till the motion ceafed,
and then it rofe 0.3°. The caloric, it would appear,
was carried off as it W'as generated, by the motion of
the air. When the fame experiment was repeated
few feathers in the top where the fulphur falls 5 then they ftrike the two ftones one againft the other j the fine
particles of fulphur immediately blaze like a flaffi of lightning, and communicating with the ftraw fet the whole
in a flame. Sauer's account of BiUings's Expedition to the northern parts of RuJJia, p. 159.
'one*
rt Feu,
?: ibly
r.^to
cl !;n«ty.
in vacuo, the tliermometer rofe 1.2°, and it began to rife
as foon as the friftion commenced. When a piece of
wood was made to rub on a wooden cup, the thermo¬
meter rofe 2.1°, and in vacuo 2.40 f.
Thefe experiments, therefore, are fufficiently con-
clufive to prove that the caloric evolved by fridtion is
not derived from the atmofphere *, but ftill the queftion
recurs, What is its origin ! No fatisfadlory anfwer can
be given to this queftion, if it cannot be rofolved, as
fome have fuppofed, by having recourfe to the agency
of eledlricity; and, coniidering the fimilarity of the
effedl of caloric and electricity in heating and cool¬
ing bodies, in producing the expanfion and fufion
of metallic fubftances, in effedting the adtual combu-
ftion of inflammable matters, and that in other re-
fpedts the one can be fubftituted for the other, it is not
at all improbable that eledtrie matter, which is gene¬
rated in great abundance by fridtion, may be the chief
agent in the evolution of caloric by the fridtion of bo¬
dies on each other.
4. In fome obfervations on fpontaneous inflamma¬
tions by Bartholdi, he mentions the experiments
which were repeated by D. Palcani, for obtaining fire
by the fridtion of two pieces of wood, in which he
gave to one of the rubbing pieces the form of a tablet,
and to the other that of a fpindle or cylinder ; and as
the refults of fome of thefe experiments are of import¬
ance to (hew what attention ought to be paid to the
choice of wood, in the conftrudtion of machines and
inftrurftents where there is confiderable fridlion, we (hall
ftate the following.
CHEMISTRY.
woods employed of the fame kind f?re rubbed in the di-
redtion of the fibres, or when the fibres crofs each other.
In the firft cafe the fridtion and heat generated are
much more confiderable than in the fecond f»
Cylinders.
Boxwood,
do.
do.
do.
do.
Laurel,
do.
•Ivy,
do.
Olive,
Mulberry,
Afli,
do.
Peartree,
Cherry,
Plumtree,
Oak,
Tablet.
Box,
Poplar,
Oak,
Mulberry
Laurel,
Poplar, *
Ivy,
Box,
Walnut,
Olive,
Laurel,.
Oak,
Fir,
Oak,
Elm,
Appletree,
Fir,
Duration.
5'
5
5
EffeA.
Senfible heat,
do.
do.
f Confiderable heat
and fmoke.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f Confiderable heat,
< fmoke, and black-
nefs.
Senfible heat,
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
When the experiment was changed, and a cylinder
of one of the kinds of wood was rubbed between two
tablets of the other •, as, for example, a cylinder of pop¬
lar between two tablets of mulberry wood, the in-
creafe of the rubbed furfaces which were in contact:
with the air, produced a temperature much more con¬
fiderable •, and almoft the whole of the kinds of wood
enumerated above, took fire.
The effeft of friflion alfo varies according as the
f Annal- de
Chim* vol.
Third Source of Caloric, pl^z.
Mixture.
291
r. It is one of the charadteriftics of chemical aftion change of
to produce a change of temperature. This happens intempera-
confequence of the increafe or diminution of bulk ofture ^
the bodies which have been the fubjedt of combination, ' *
or a total change of their ftate and properties. Thus
it has been eftablifhed as a general law in chemical
fcience, that all bodies which pafs from the folid to the
fluid ftate, abfarb a quantity of caloric ■, and all bodies
which pafs from the fluid to the folid ftate, give out
caloric. This law, therefore, will enable us to account
for thofe changes which take place by the mixture of
different bodies. In the eourfe of the detail of che¬
mical fcience on which we are about to enter, we {hall
have frequent opportunities of pointing out the effedts
of this law. At prefent we ftiall only mention a few
inftances in which caloric is evolved by mixture, or
chemical adlion. 2p2
2. When two fubftances in the ftate of gas enter Gafeous b*'
into union, and form a folid or liquid body, caloric is ^ies form-
evolved. _ _
<7. Ammoniacal gas and muriatic acid gas, when they
are mixed together, inftantly combine, and form a folid
fait, at the fame time giving out a quantity of caloric.
/\ When oxygen gas and nitrous gas are mixed to>-
gether, they combine and form a liquid, and at the
moment of union, give out caloric.
3. When two liquids are mixed together, and if the
denfity of the mixture be greater than the mean of
the two liquids, caloric is evolved during the combi¬
nation.
а. When alcohol or fpirits of wine and water ate
mixed together, the denfity is greater than the mean
of the two liquids j caloric, therefore, is given out dur¬
ing the mixture.
б. A much greater degree of heat is produced by mix¬
ing together fulphuric acid and water. If four parts of
fulphuric acid be combined with one part of water, the
denfity of the mixture is much greater than the me¬
dium denfity of the two liquids, and accordingly the
quantity of caloric evolved is fufficient to boil water.
4. A great quantity of caloric is alfo given out when
a fluid body combines with a folid. We have an in-
ftance of this in the flacking of lime.
a. When water is thrown upon quicklime, it inftantly
difappears; for part of it combines with the lime, and
becomes folid; and thus palling from the liquid to the
folid ftate, it gives out caloric.
b. If a quantity of fulphuric acid be poured upon
quicklime, the caloric evolved is fufficient to raife part
of the fulphuric aoid into vapour.
5. Were we to reverie thefe experiments, and ftate Cold pro*
inftances of caloric being abforbed during the mixturetluced by
of bodies, we Ihould obferve the operation of the fame water be‘*
law, in the cafe of folid bodies becoming fluid, pro- furidudy
ducing a great degree of cold. But it appears that fluid,
the produdtion of cold by the folution of lalts in wa¬
ter is owing to the w'ater which is in a previous ftate
3 p 2 " of
484 CHEMISTRY.
Caloric, of combination with one of the falts, and thus water
paffing from the folid to the liquid date, muft abforb
caloric, and therefore produce cold. The falts which
are mod proper for this purpofe, contain a great pro¬
portion of water in the compodtion 5 for if the fame
falts are deprived of water by expofing them to heat,
the fame effedf by no means follows. On the contrary,
when they are dilfolved in water in this date, heat is
produced, becaufe they combine with a portion of the
water for which they have a drong adinity, and this
water paffing from the liquid to the folid date, gives
294 out its caloric.
Heat evol- 5 confiderable quantity of caloric is alfo gene-
jnentatiori" ra^'e^ *n othcr mixtures, in which the fermentation and
^c. ’ putrefaftion of animal and vegetable fubdances takes
place. During thefe procedes the fubdances which
are held in folution enter into new combinations, and
their chemical properties are totally changed. While
this change is going on, there is a gradual and con-
dant evolution of caloric.
It is an artificial heat of this kind, which is gene¬
rated by animal and vegetable matters, and on ac¬
count of its uniformity and condancy is employed for
promoting vegetation •, as when horfe dung and tan¬
ner’s bark are ufed in making hot beds j or for the
hatching of eggs, a pra&ice which has been long in ufe
in Egypt.
Fourth Source of Caloric,
TAe Sun.
1. But the great fource of light and heat in the pla¬
netary fyflem is the fun. When treating of light we
mentioned a fpeculation of philofophers about the great
and condant wade of light, which the fun, although a bo¬
dy of immenfe magnitude, mud fudain. But fince the
295 nature and conditution of the fun were difcovered by Dr
The fun an Herfchel, thefe fpeculations fall to the ground. Accord-
opake body. jng to t}jefe difcoveries, the fun is not, as was formerly
fuppofed, an immenfe globe of fire, in which the ma¬
terials compofing it were continually wading by com-
budion ; but a folid opaque body, fimilar to the other
planets, and furrounded by a very denfe atmofphere,
in which are obferved two kinds of clouds. The lower
region of clouds is fimilar to thofe in the atmofphere
of the earth. The uppermoft region of clouds is lu¬
minous, and from this proceed the light and heat
which were fuppofed to come from the body of the
fun. This luminous region, it appears from Dr Her-
fchel’s obfervations, in confequence of changes which
feem to be condantly going on in it, exhibits different
degrees of fplendour, diminidiing greatly the quantity
of light and heat which are emitted at other times.
To thefe variations he ai'cribes the difference of tempe¬
rature in different feafons, and the confequent abun-
295 dance or deficiency of crops.
Bark co 2. It is a familiar obfervation, that dark-coloured
lours ab- clothes, as black for jnffance, are much warmer than
forb heat, thofe which are of a lighter colour. The obfervation
and the practice founded upon it are correft, although
the realon is only obvious to the philofopher. The
rays of light, and alfo probably thofe of caloric, are
reflected in greater proportion by white bodies, than by CalJ:
thofe which are of a deeper colour. The fun’s rays lT'1
enter the opaque body, and combine with it, and thus
increafe the temperature. Thefe rays are permitted
to pafs through tranfparent bodies, which are very lit¬
tle affefted by them j but combining with opaque bo¬
dies they heat them, and the deeper the colour of the
body, the greater is the increafe of temperature. 4 1
3. But this has not been left to the uncertainty of Hooke i]
common obfervation. Experiments were made by Dr FranklJ
Franklin, and before him by Dr Hooke, toafcertain thisexperi>
curious point. Pieces of cloth of different colours w'ere Wents‘ 1
placed upon fnow, and expofed to the light of the fun.
The colours were white, red, blue, black j and it was
found that the darkeft coloured pieces acquired moft
heat, becaufe they funk deepeft in the fnow, and this
was in proportion to the darknefs of the colours. ^ ||
Mr Davy made a fimilar experiment, to determine M» Da4«
the correfpondence between the increafe of repulfive
motion in bodies from the a6tion of light and dark,
colours.
“ Six fimilar pieces of copper, (t) of equal weight,
fize, and denfity, were thus coloured, one white, one
yellow, one red, one green, one blue, and one black.
A portion of a mixture of oil and wax, which became
fluid at about 76°, was placed on the centre of each
on the inferior fide. They were then attached to r
board painted white, and fo placed with regard to the
fun, that their upper furfaces w ere equally expofed to the
light. Their inferior furfaces, to w hich the cerate w as
attached, were equally deprived of light and heat, that
is, they wrere fo expofed, that there could be no mif-
take with regard to the repulfive motion generated in
them by the adtion of light. The changes of tempe¬
rature in them, from the aflion of light, took place in
the following order. The cerate on the black plate
began to melt perceptibly before the reft, the blue next
in order, then the green and the red, and laftly the
yellow. The w hite was fcarcely at all affefted; the
black was in a complete ftate of fufion *. It appears, * Mo
therefore, from thefe experiments that caloric enters^'*
bodies in different proportions j and in the greatefttl0ns’?' 4
proportion in the darkeft coloured bodies. ^
It appears too, that thofe bodies which abforb moft Bodies <
light, acquire the greateft degree of temperature when which a ||
expofed to the fun’s rays. This has been demon- ““
ftrated by the experiments of Wedgw-ood, Cavallo, c^mc....
and Pitftet. meft.
The former took two pieces of phofphorefeent marble,
one of which was blackened, and placed them on a
hot iron. No light appeared from the blackened mar¬
ble, but the other exhibited its ufual phofphorefeence.
Upon a fecond expofure, the piece w'hich was not
blackened gave a faint light j the blackened one, as
before, gave none at all. When the black was wiped
off, and both pieces were again placed upon the heater,
no light appeared either from the one or the other.
This experiment {hows, that the phofphorefeent pro¬
perty was nearly deftroyed ‘without any vifible light
having appeared. But both pieces of marble before
being heated, muft have contained the fame quantity
(t) Each an inch fquare, and two lines thick.
of light and heat, and therefore the light from the
blackened piece muft have been abforbed by the black
colour *.
In Cavallo’s experiments (u), the bulb of a ther¬
mometer was painted black, and expofed along with
other thermometers to the fun’s rays. The difference
of temperature between the blackened thermometer
and the other fometimes amounted to lo°j that is,
the blackened thermometer indicated a temperature
10° higher than the other 5 but this difference was
not conilantj for it varied according to the brightnefs
of the fun, and the denfity and temperature of the
atmofphere. Confiderable variations were alfo obferv-
ed, from the difference of colours which were employ¬
ed, and from the difference of polifh of the furface of
the plate.
The fame thing was obferved when the thermome¬
ters were expofed to ftrong day light. The thermo¬
meter whofe bulb was blackened indicated the higheft
L j.g0( temperature f.
1587. ' In an experiment by Profeffor Pi&et, two thermo¬
meters, one of which had its bulb blackened, when
they were kept in a dark place, indicated the fame
temperature. Thefe experiments prove the clofe con¬
nexion between light and caloric j for the greater the
proportion of light abforbed by any body, the higher
is the temperature of that body. And when the light
l/aifur is totally excluded, as in the laft mentioned experi-
fev> ment of PiXet, the temperature is the fame
4. But it has been fhown that there is a very great
difference in the heating powder of the different rays
of light. It appears, from the experiments of Dr
Herfehel, that this heating power increafes from the
middle of the fpeXrum to the red ray, and is greateft
beyond it, where the rays are invifible. Hence it is
inferred that the rays of light and caloric nearly ac¬
company each other, and that the latter are in dif¬
ferent proportions in the different coloured rays.
They are eafily feparated from each other, as, when
the fun’s rays are tranfmitted through a tranfparent
body, the rays of light pafs on feemingly undiminifhed,
but the rays of caloric are intercepted. When the
fun’s rays are direXed to an opaque body, the rays of
light are redeXed, and the rays of caloric are abforbed
and retained. This is the cafe v'ith the light of the
moon, which, however much it be concentrated, gives
no indication of being accompanied by heat.
It has alfo been (hewn that the different rays of
light produce different chemical effeXs on metallic
falts and oxides. Thefe effeXs increafe on the oppo-
fite direXion of the fpeXrum, from the heating power
of the rays. From the middle of the fpeXrum towards
the violet end, they become more powerful} and pro¬
duce the greateft effeX beyond the vifible rays.
5. From thefe difeoveries it appears, that the folar
rays are of thi'ee kinds. 1. Rays which produce heat.
2. Rays which produce colour 5 and, 3. Rays which
deprive metallic fubftances of their oxygen. I he firft
C H E M I S T R Y.
fet of rays is in greateft abundance, or are moft power
ful towards the red end of the fpeXrum, and are leaft
refraXed. The fecond fet, or thofe which illuminate
objeXs, are moft powerful in the middle of the fpec-
trum 5 and the third fet produce the greateft effeX to¬
wards the violet end, where the rays are moft refrac¬
ted. _ 302
6. The folar rays pafs through tranfparent bodies rranipa-
without increafing their temperature. The atmolphere,
for inftance, receives no increafe of temperature by ^
tranfmitting the fun’s rays till thefe rays are refleXed rays>
from other bodies, or are communicated to it by bo¬
dies which have abforbed them. This is alfo pro¬
ved by the fun’s rays being tranfmitted through con¬
vex lenfes, producing a high degree of temperature^
when they are concentrated, but giving no increafe of
temperature to the glafs itfelf. By this method, the
heat which proceeds from the fun can be greatly in-
creafed. Indeed, the intenfityof temperature produced
in this way is equal to that of thehotteft furnace. This
is done either by refleXing the fun’s rays from a con¬
cave polilhed mirror, or by concentrating or colleXing
them, by the refraXing power of convex lenfes, and di-
reXing the rays thus concentrated on the combuftible
body. See BURNING Giafs.
Fifth Source of Caloric,
Combujlion,
ap. iv.
300
| fferent
ating
vver «f
| £ rays.
303
It was impoflible for men whofe attention was di- Effe&s of
reXed to the phenomena of nature, long to let pafs un-eombuftioa
obferved the Angular appearances w'hich are exhibited ftllking*
in the combuftion or burning of bodies. Indeed the
changes produced on bodies by this procefs, the afto-
niftiing effeXs which follow, and the importance of
the procefs itfelf, could not fail to excite great inte-
reft and attention. _ 304
As combuftion is one of the principal fources of important,
heat, it has long occupied the attention of men in ge¬
neral, both as to the means of its improvement, and
application in the arts of life, and in the difeovery of
a theory or explanation which will account for the
phenomena. But the want of fuccefs in this branch but30f
of philofophical inveftigation, even at the prefent day, cuit expla-
fhews that the fubjeX is attended with great difti-nation,
culty. 3°6
When a piece of iron is expofed to a high tempera- Difference
ture, it becomes red hot, and when it is removed from m-
the heating body, it continues for fome time to give "^pera_
out light and heat. But when it is fuffered to cool, it ture and
returns to the fame ftate in which it was before it was burning,
heated, having undergone no perceptible change.
When a piece of wood is burnt, it alfo gives out light
and heat, but during this procefs it is totally changed.
Great part is diflipated, and nothing remains but a
fmall quantity of alhes.
When a piece of fulphur is expofed to a temperature
between 300° and 400°, it takes fire and burns j gives
out
301
| ilar rays
I ■ three
I itids.
(u) The hint of thefe experiments, he fay s, was taken from the account of an experiment m a volume of the
Philofophical TrahfaXions, made with a thermometer whofe bulb was painted black,
the fun. The experiment alluded to was made Dr Walfon, bifliop 0, Landaff. Philofophual 1
*763> P- 4°*
Caloric.
307
Bodies to¬
tally chan
ged by
combuf-
tion.
30S
485 C H E M
out Keat and light, and during this procefs the fulphur
has acquired new properties, or has entered into new
combinations.
When a metallic fubllance, zinc, for inftance, is
expofed to a certain temperature, it alfo undergoes a
very great change, during which heat and light are
alfo given out. The zinc is changed to a light floc-
culent fubftance, but moft other metals are reduced
to the form of powder (x).
Now, none of thefe changes can be effe&ed without
the prefence of atmofpherical air, or rather without
the prefence of oxygen gas, which is one of its confti-
tuent parts, and that part of it which is neceffary for
Oxygen gas the procefs of combuftion. In all cafes where combuf-
neceffary in tion takes place, oxygen gas difappears or changes
this proceis. j(.s . light and heat are emitted, and the combuf-
tible body has changed its properties. Such are the
phenomena of combuftion, fo far as obfervation and
experiment have gone} but ftill the difficulty remains,
to difeover what ffiare is to be aieribed to the difterent
agents which are neceffarily concerned in this procefs,
in the changes which are effefted. It is now uni-
verfally agreed, that oxygen gas, or its bafe, is fixed
in the combuftible body during the procefs of com¬
buftion, and that the caloric which is neceffary to re¬
tain the oxygen in the ftate of an elaftic fluid being
emitted during the change, is the fource of the heat
which is given out by burning bodies. But what is
the fource of the light ? Is it emitted by the oxygen
gas along with the caloric in its change from the fluid
to the folid ftate ? Or has it been a conftituent part of
the combuftible body which is feparated during com¬
buftion ? Of this different opinions have been enter¬
tained by philofophcrs, and the queftion in a great
meafure ftill remains undecided. Let us now confider
the different theories which have been propofed to ac¬
count for thefe phenomena.
1. In the early dawn of chemiftry, when the Mat¬
tered facts were firft colleftcd, and it began to affume
a feientifie form, attempts to explain this procefs were
foon made. Beecher was the firft who gave any con-
fiftent form to a theory of combuftion. Before his
time, fulphur was confidered as the univerfal inflam¬
mable principle j but he reje&ed this opinion, confi-
dering fulphur as an inflammable fubftance, containing
the principle of inflammability, but not that principle
itfelf. This theory was improved and extended by
Stahl, who gave this principle the name of phlogi-
Jlon (y), from which the theory is called the phlo-
giftic, and from his own name the Stahhan theory.
This principle rvas fuppofed to exift in all inflammable
bodies, and to be the fame in them all. I he diverft-
ty which is obferved among them, in external appear¬
ance and other properties, is owing to the other prin¬
ciples or elements of which they are compofed, and
with which the common principle of inflammability,
«r phlogifton, is combined. Inflammation or combuf¬
tion, with the feveral phenomena that attend it, is
fuppofed to depend on a gradual feparation and diffipa-
I S T R Y.
3°9
Source of
the lisflit
wot afeer-
tained.
310
Theories.
3”
Stahlian.
tion of this principle j and this being once feparated, Calor;
what remains of the body is no longer combuftible, w~v-
but is fimilar to other kinds of matter. This principle
is reprefented as a dry fuiiftance, of an earthy nature,
compofed of particles which more than all others are
difpofed to be affe&ed with a very fwift whirling mo¬
tion. When the particles of a body are agitated with
this motion, the body becomes hot, is ignited, or un¬
dergoes combuftion according to its violence. The
heat and the light which are emitted during combuf¬
tion, depend upon a peculiar motion of the particles of
matter; phlogifton, which is fuppofed to be contained
in all combuftible fubftances, being moft difpofed to
affume this motion *.
Attack,
2. But before this time a different theory was pro-'^,Vo'
pofed by Dr Hooke, who publiftied an account of
in 1665, in a work entitled Micrographia; and, in Hooke
the year 1676, in another work called Lampas. Ac¬
cording to this theory, the air of the atmofphere is the
univerfal folvent of all combuftibles. This folution
takes place when the temperature of the combuftible
body is fufficicntly raifed, and during the violence of
its aftion the heat is emitted. This diffolution of in¬
flammable bodies is a fubftance inherent in the air,
which is like, if not the very fame with, that which is
fixed in faltpetre. During this diffolution of bodies,
part unites with the air and efcapes; and part, after
being mixed with it, forms a coagulum or precipita¬
tion, fome of which being light, is carried away, while
another part which is heavier remains behind.
Some time after, an account of the fame theory was an<3
publiffied by Dr Mayow, with fome additional expe-ow’s.
riments, in a work entitled De Sal-nitro et Spiritu Ni-
tro-aereo. The nitro-aerial particles, or the fpiritus
nitro-aereus of Mayow, was the fame as the univerfal
folvent of Hooke. According to Mayow, this fpiritus
nitro-aereus confifts of minute particles, from the mo¬
tion of which it is produced, and when the motion is
more rapid, not only heat but light alfo is extricated.
The following abftraift of the theory of Dr Hooke,
with Profeffor Robifon’s obfervations, will not, we hope,
be unacceptable to our readers.
“ This theory, fo oppofite, as Dr Black obferves, Abftraft «
to the theory of Stahl, is not fo recent as is generally Hooke's
imagined. It was feen in all its extent and import-the017<
ance by Dr Robert Hooke, one of the greateft ge-
niufes, and moft ardent inquirers into the operations of
nature, who figured during the latter half of the 17th
century, a period full of great difeoveries.
“ Dr Hooke propofed this theory in confiderable
detail in his Micrographia, publiflied in 1665 } and in
his Lampas, publiflied in 1676} and he makes it an
important dodlrine in his treatife on Comets, and in
many paflages of his Cutlerian Ledlures. He promi-
fes to take it into ferious conlideration, and to publiih
a full exhibition of it. The allufions made to it in his
ledtures, make it evident that he had continued to make
fome defultory additions to his firft conceptions. His
Lampas contains a moft accurate explanation of flame,
which
(x) To thefe fubftances was formerly given the name of calx or calces, but in the prefent chemical nomen¬
clature they are denominated oxides.
(y) This principle was alfo called terra fecund a, or terra infammabiiis.
C H E M
iilerlc. Which cannot be furpaiTed by any performance of th«
'*v—prefent day.
“ In the Micrographia he Hates the theory in the
following words :
“ i • The air in which we live, and breathe, and
move, and which encompaffes and cherilhes all bodies,
is the univerfal folvent of all fulphurous (fynonymous,
at that time, with inflammable) bodies.
“ 2. This aft ion it performs, not till the body be
fufficiently heated, as we obferve in other folutions.
“ 3. This aElion of dijjbtution produces the great heat
which we callfire.
“ 4. It afts with fuch violence as to agitate the par¬
ticles of the diaphanous body air, and to produce that
elaftic pulfe called light.
“ 5. This aftion, or diflfolution of inflammable bo¬
dies, is performed by a fuhjlance inherent in, and mix¬
ed with the air, that is like, if not the very fame with,
that which is fixed in faltpetre.
“ 6. In this diflblution of bodies by the air, a part
of the body uniting with the air,. is diflblved or turn¬
ed into air, and efcapes and flies about.
“ 7- -A-8 one Part is thus turned into air, fo another
is mixed with it, but forms a coagulum, or precipita¬
tion, fome of which is fo light as to be carried away
with the air, while other grofler and heavier matters
remain behind, &c. &c. This latter article is fre¬
quently employed in other parts of his writings, and
is fometimes called a groffer compound, mixed with
matters terrene, and originally infoluble in air, and
incombuftible.
“ Can any thing more be -wanting to prove that this
is the fame with the modern theory of combuftion ?
Nothing but to fliew that this coagulum contained the
air which had formed it, by (hewing an increafe of
its weight, or by feparating it again. But the eager
mind of Hooke, attracted by every appearance of no¬
velty, was fatisfied with the general notion of a great
fubjeft, and immediately1'quitted it in chafe of fome
other interefling objeft. Had he not been thus led off
by a new purfuit, this wonderful man would not only
have anticipated, but completed many of the great
difeoveries of the laid century. It was a bold concep¬
tion, and only a vigorous mind could entertain it for
a moment, that the vaft heat of combuftion was con¬
tained in a few grains of air. Yet this was his opi¬
nion, as appears by the explanation which he gives, in
various meetings of the Royal Society, and in his lec¬
tures on comets, of the deflagration of combuftible bo¬
dies with faltpetre, and of fiery motion.
“ In the treatife called Lampas, he obferves that
this his treatife, publifhed eleven years before, had
Deen very favourably received, and that he had not
ieen any valid objeftion offered to it. It was in this
interval that Dr Mayow at Oxford publifhed his
book de De Sal-Nitro et Spiritu Nitro-aereo, in which
he holds prccifely the fame doftrine 5 but his exhibi¬
tion of it is obfeure, complicated, and wavering, mix¬
ed with much mechanical nonfenfe, of wedges, and
darts, and motions, &c. according to the fafhion of
the times. Hooke’s conception of the fubjeht, on the
contrary, is ckar, iimple, and fleady. The only ad¬
dition made by Mayow are fome^obfervations on the
increafe of weight obferved in the preparation of
diaphoretic antimony, &c. Hooke, explaining at a
I S T R Y. 487
meeting of the Royal Society, fome tricks of the plum- Caloric,
bers workmen, who called the litharge which formed
on the furface of the melted lead drofs, and took it with
them as their perquiflte, fays exprefsly that they can
make drofs of the whole, and that it is more than the
lead by all the air which was its menflruum. But
Mayow wrote on the fubjeft exprefsly, and it appears
in the title of his book. He is remembered, while
Hooke is forgotten, beeaufe no one would think of
looking into the Micrographia for chemical informa¬
tion. The theory comes in by chance, to explain the
indcflruftibility of charcoal in clofe veffels by heat.
Mayow alfo made many very ingenious experiments,
on the air which had contributed to inflammation, and
has anticipated both the manipulations and the difeo¬
veries of modern pneumatic chemiftry.” .
3. But in the progrefs of chemical fcience, the ex-phlouiiton
iftence of the imaginary principle of phlogifton began fuppofed to >
to be called in queflion. It had been obferved, and be
was proved by experiment, that fubftances became in¬
flammable Rierely by being expofed to the light of the
fun, and in this wray having acquired the principle of
inflammability, it was fuppofed to be the fame as light.
This opinion of phlogilton being light fixed in bodies,
which was the firft improvement or modification of the
theory of Stahl, was adopted by Macquer and other
chemifts. ^
4. In the progrefs of difeovery, this theory was Hill Farther
fiirther modified. The introduftion of pneumatic che-modified*
mifiry, and the accuracy and precifion which it gave
to the experiments, and refearches of chemifts, enabled
them to afeertain, with greater certainty, the changes
which take place on bodies after being fubjedted to
combuHion, as well as on the air in which they are 3X7
burnt. Some of thefe changes were obferved by Dr ran^eSi «
rneftley, whole indefatigable labours contributed ef-the air by
feudally t» the extenfion of chemical fcience. HePrieftley
found, by experiment that the air in which combuHi-
bles had been burnt, was afterwards unfit for the fup-
port of flame, and equally fo for the breathing of ani¬
mals. He aferibed this change which the air had fuf-
fered to its. combination with the phlogifion which had
feparated from the burning body during the procefs of 318-
combuflion. He confidered air as neccffary to com-l"nPPole^
buflion, becaufe having a flfong affinity for phlogifton,
it attrafted it during the procefs, and combined with
it •, and by this combination the air was contaminated
and rendered unfit for farther combuftion, or for ani¬
mal refpiration. But ftill the difficulty remained to
account for the heat and light which are extricated
during this procefs.
According to Dr Crawford, the caloric and light Caloric and ;
which appear during combuftion, exift in the air in.bgHcxift
which the body is burnt j and during the procefs them t^ie air'
phlogifton combines with the air, from which at the
fame time the light and caloric are feparated. ^20
5. Soon after Mr Kirwan propofed another opinion, Phlogifton
which was pretty generally adopted by chemical phi-lhe fame
lofophers. According to this opinion, hydrogen and ^It!l liydro"
phlogifton are the fame 3 that it exilts as a conftituent£Cn'
part in all combuftibles, feparating from them during
combuftion, and combining with the oxygen of the air. ^ r
6. In the year 1777, Scheele publilhed a work,Schede’s
which was entitled Chemical Experiments on Air andhypothetia.
Fire, Heat, according to him,, confifts of a certain
quantity
4S$
C H E M I
Caloric.
322
Difcovery
of Lavoifier,
. . 323
Kis theory.
324
Accounts
only for
fome of the
phenomena.
quantity of oxj'gcn united with plilogifton. Radiant
heat, which moves in ftraight lines, is compofed of
oxygen combined with a greater proportion of phlo-
gitton ; and light, of oxygen combined with a ftill
greater quantity.
7. But the labours and difcoveries of the French
chemifts gave a new turn to chemical fcience. The
unfortunate Lavoifier, who had devoted his time and
his fortune to chemical purfuits, had long direfted his
attention to the phenomena of combuftion, and after
an extenfive ferics of experiments, diftinguifhed for
their accuracy and precifion, he eitablilhed the general
law, that oxygen combines svith the burning body in
all cafes of combuftion} and thus, he svas enabled fatis-
faftorily to account for the phenomena of combuftion
Avithout phlogifton, the exiftence of which had never
been proved.
8. The principles of this theory are the follosving.
No combuftion can take place without the prefence of
oxygen, for it is the combination of the combuftible
body Avith oxygen. The oxygen of the atmofphere,
Avhich is in the ftate of an elaftic fluid, exifts in combi¬
nation with caloric and light j and during the combuf¬
tion, that is, the combination of the oxygen Avith the
combuftible body, the caloric and light are feparated.
9. This theory accounts for the phenomena of com¬
buftion in the more limited acceptation of this term,
Avhich is merely the combination of -oxygen Avith a
combuftible body, Avithout any extrication of caloric
and light. Thus, oxygen combines with fome metal¬
lic fubftances and other bodies, without any percepti¬
ble emiflion of light or heat. This is called oxidation,
and the produft of this combination is denominated an
oxide. In all cafes of combuftion oxygen combines
Avith the combuftible body. Indeed this is fo effential-
ly neccfl'ary, that no combuftion can take place with¬
out it ; but in the more extenfiA'e fignification of the
term combuftion, it is underftood, not merely to mean
the combination of oxygen with the combuftible body,
but alfo to be accompanied Avith the extrication of heat
and light. According to the theory of Lavoifier, the
caloric and light Avhich appear during combuftion, are
given out by the oxygen gas. It is the feparation of
that quantity of caloric which is neceflary to retain the
bafe of this gas, or oxygen, in the form of an elaftic
fluid. When, therefore, the temperature of a body is
fufliciently raifed, the affinity between oxygen and this
body becomes greater than that which exifts between
the oxygen, and the caloric and light. The oxygen
therefore combines with the combuftible body, and the
caloric and light are feparated.
This theory is applicable to the explanation of the
phenomena of cembuftidn, in the more limited mean¬
ing of that term; and it is partially applicable to
explain the phenomena in its more extenfive mean¬
ing. But when it is confidered, that the procefs
of combuftion goes on between two folids, one of
Avhich contains oxygen in its combination, as, for in-
ftance, fulphur and nitre, difficulties arife in account¬
ing for the heat and light, when the oxygen which
combines Avith the combuftible body, is in the folid
ftate.
To remoA’e thefe difficulties, and to explain the ap¬
pearances, the theory of Lavoifier has been greatly
modified, or nevv theories prepofed.
Theon ^
S T R Y.
10. With this view a theory has been propofed by Cab
Brugnatelli. This theory fuppofes that oxygen exifts
in combination Avith bodies, in tAvo ftates. In the one.^
it is entirely deprived of its caloric and light, and in£rUgn;
the other, it retains great part of the caloric and light,
even in its combined, concrete ftate. It is fimply call¬
ed oxygen in the firft cafe, Avhen it is deprived of its
caloric and light ; in the latter it is denominated therm-
oxygen, when the caloric and light are combined
Avith it in the concrete ftate. Thcrmoxygen, then, is
a compound of oxygen and caloric in the concrete
ftate. This caloric is different from that which holds
the thermoxygen in the ftate of gas, and it is in the
fame relation to thermoxygen gas, as water is to cry-
ftallized falls. This thermoxygen only enters into
the compofition of acids, when it is deprived of its con¬
crete caloric. But it combines Avith the metals in the
ftate of thermoxygen ; that is, united with the con¬
crete part of caloric. Metallic fubftances, therefore,
are denominated thermoxides.
In its union with metals, thermoxygen is either pre-
vioufly formed, or is in its nafeent ftate, during the
combination. In the latter cafe, the caloric which is
difengaged by the chemical aftion, or that Avhich is
applied to affift the combination, furniffies the necef-
fary portion for the formation of the thermoxide ; that
is, the combination of oxygen containing caloric in its
concrete ftate, with a metal. Ihus it is, that fome
metals require the application of heat for their folution
in concentrated acids.
The bafe of pure air is in the ftate of thermoxygen,
in its combination Avith water. The metals, therefore
Avhich have a ftronger affinity for it than for hydrogen,
the other component part of water, readily combine
Avith it, Avithout the aid of external heat, in acids di¬
luted Avith this fluid. Gafeous thermoxygen alAvays
gives out caloric, Avhen it paffes from the elaftic to the
concrete ftate ; but as thermoxygen requires little ca¬
loric for its expanfion, little is feparated when it is
condenfed. We (hall only add the author’s explana¬
tion of the difference between atmofpherical air and
thofe fubftances Avhich have the fame conftituent parts
in different proportion. The difference between at¬
mofpherical air and nitrous gas, he fuppofes, is aferibed
to the proportion of the conftituent principles, and
confequently, according to this hypothefis, the atmo¬
fpherical air might be converted into nitrous gas, by
augmenting the proportion of oxygen gas,, or by
diminifliing that of the azotic gas. But the difference
betAveen thefe tAvo gafes, according to the. theory ef
Brugnatelli, confifts in this, that in atmofpherical air the
azotic gas is combined wuth thermoxygen gas ; but m*-^'
nitrous gas, the azotic gas is combined with Ample
oxygen*. < # . S*6’
11. This theory, notwithftanding its ingenuity, is Theory
regarded by fome merely as a plaufible hypothefis, whiehN
Avhich is little fupported by fafts. We {hall therefore w |
leave it to the confideration of our readers, and pr°-i,e give;
ceed to ftate the principles of another, which, is pro-out ty'
pofed to be fubftituted in place of the LaA’oifierian the-combu
ory, in explaining the phenomena of combuftion. In
this theory, it is fuppofed that the oxygen gas which is
abforbed during combuftion, furnilhes the caloric,
Aihile the combuftible body gives out the light which
previoufly exifted in it as a component part. In proa.
, G H E M
ijoric. of this theory it is ilatecl, that fome bodies give out,
» "V during combuftion, a greater quantity of light than
ill fur ot^ers» even w^ere quantity of oxygen abforbed is
5] d by fco^our ^i8 light varies according to
t -om- the nature of the combuftible •, and that vegetables
b icble. •which grow in the dark contain no combuflible mat¬
ter, being deprived of the light which is effentially ne-
ceffary for its formation. This theory, which Gren
calls the theory of fire and combufiioti, is diltin&ly de¬
tailed by him in the following words :
“ I take here the word fire in the ufual fenfe of com¬
mon language, and underftand by it that light which
is combined with free caloric. Combufiion is the ex¬
trication of fire with and by the decompofition of oxy¬
gen gas. Take the example of phofphorus. On its
combuflion two new produfts, the phofphoric acid and
* fire, arife from phofphorus and oxygen gas.
Llhcory In order that the theory of combuition be admif-
r ft ex- fible, it mull explain every circumiiance by which this
I n a,l phenomenon is accompanied, and be in contradiftion
* fB0* with none of them. It, befides, mull not be incon-
fiftent with any other fixed invariable law of nature.
“ According to the antiphlogifiic fystem, a combuili-
ble body is fuch as is pofieiTed of the power of attrac¬
ting, in a certain temperature, the oxygen of vital air
more ftrongly than it is attrafted by the caloric. Be¬
fides, in that fyftem, oxygen gas does not merely con-
fift of oxygeVi and caloric, but it likewife contains light,
in a fixed ftate, as a conftituent part.
“ If, therefore, phofphorus, at the temperature re-
quifite to its inflammation, be brought into oxygen
gas, it robs the latter of its oxygen, and makes with
it phofphoric acid 5 whilft the caloric and the bafis,
or matter of light, previoufly latent in the gas, are re-
ilored to liberty \ and, combining together, produce
the fire which flies off\ Thus the oxygen gas is de-
jhp compofed.
jw body “ A new body, the phofphoric acid, is now gene-
|; rated rate(j. becaufe in many cafes an acid is produced
jjlj u'by the eombnftion of inflammable matters, this cir-
cumftance has induced modern chemifts to denote
the bafis of vital air by the words acidifying princi¬
ple, or oxygen ; not on the ground that it is fuppofed
to be four of itfelf, but becaufe it forms an acid
only when combined with an acidfialle bafis, as in
1 our experiment with phofphorus; And it is on this
account that, in this fyftem, combuftion has likewife
received the name of oxygenation. But in the cafe
(very often occurring) where, the combuftible matter
imbibes oxygen, yet without becoming thereby an
acid, the produft is called oxide (alfo denominated
half-acid'), and the procefs is termed oxydation.
11 Since the combuftible fubftance takes up the pon¬
derable bafis of oxygen gas, and fince, according to
this fyftem, both the caloric and light are imponde-
30 rable, it is thereby accounted for, why the refidue of
fj1 ires an burnt matters, the phofphoric acid, for inftance, ac-
quires an increafe of weight equal to that portion ot
I '1, vital air which was decompofed.—If the inflammable
fubftance be faturated with oxygen, it is rendered in-
Vol. V. Part II.
I S T R Y. 489
capable of decompofing more oxygen gas, and the com- Caloric,
bullion is ended. " * "•*
“ When the combuftion is performed in atmofpheric
air, it i^ then the azotic, either mingled or mixed with
the oxygen gas, that prevents thefe phenomena from
going on wflth the fame vivacity as in pure oxygen
gas j and likewife, as the azotic gas is not afledied or
adled on by the inflammable body, it is left as the refi¬
due of the atmofpheric air.
“Hence, by that fyftem, the combuftion of phof-Cornhuftion
phorus in oxygen gas is effedted by a fimple affinity, a cafe of
and the principle of fire is notin the combuftible body,^P1.6 a®~
but in the oxygen gas. nity in the
“ However, from what I have Hated of the conipo-<? ll fi? ''
fition of light, I cannot help thinking, that in combuf- Exp Limed
tion a double affinity takes place} and to explain this by ^ble
theory I ffiall feledt the example of phofphorus. That
fubftance confifts of the bafis of light, called by me
phlogiflon, and making a conftituent part of all com¬
buftible bodies united to a peculiar body, the phofpho-
ric-radical.—Oxygen gas is a compound of oxygen and
caloric.
“ Now, when phofphorus is heated in this gas, and
by this means the force of attradlion between the »
phlogifton and the phofphoric-radical is fufficiently
weakened, fo that the attractive power between the
radical of phofphorus and the oxygen may prevail,
then the adl of combuftion enfues. The phofphorio
bafis attradls the oxygen, while the phlogilion of the
phofphorus is attracted by the caloric of the oxygen
gas. Thus, by virtue of this double affinity, two new
compounds, the phofphoric acid and fire, arife from
the two former combinations, phofphorus and oxygen
gas.
“ When the radical of phofphorus, and in general
of any combuftible body, has abforbed fo much oxy¬
gen, that it is faturated with it, the combuftion is ar¬
rived at its higheft degree ; and in the fame manner it
is ended, at the moment when all the quantity of oxy¬
gen gas, capable of being decompofed, is exhaufted.
By this it is explained, why, in a given volume of oxy¬
gen gas, only a certain quantity of phofphorus, and in
general of every other combuftible matter, can be con-
fumed by fire.
“ The increafe of w-eight in the refidue of the burnt
fubftance is, in this phlogiftic, or rather ecleElic fystem,
likew ife explained by the accefs of oxygen } and the
calorie and bafis of light are likewife fuppofed to be both
imponderable. The remaining azotic gas, not being
aifted upon by the combuftible matter, is merely the
refidue of the atmofpheric air.
“ Thofe that wiffi to be impartial, muft allow thatjj \ ^ n
the light, in the antiphlogifh'c fystem, a£ls a part quite 0ut with-01
fuperfluous •, that it may be thoroughly fet afide with- out oxygen,
out impairing the fyftem ; that by this fyftem thofe
phenomena cannot be explained, where light iffues from
combuftible bodies without any accefs of vital air,
(fome inftances of which will hereafter be given (z) j
that the influence of light upon the growth and thriv¬
ing of plants, upon the changes of their mixture dur-
3 Q. ing
(z) As in the cafe of the combination of fulphur and iron or copper.
490
Caloric
* Grtn's
Chemijtty,
335
Ignition.
C H E M I
ing vegetation, and upon tKe alteration in the mixture
of many other bodies, is by far too great, to allow
oxygen gas to be confidered as its only refervoir. Fi¬
nally, it muft be granted (an important point) that
the antiphlogiftic fyftem does in no way explain the
incidents preliminary to the procefs of combuftion }
and that it affords no argument to (how why a certain
degree of heat is neceffary, in order that the combufti-
ble body be inflamed
voLi' i c II* Such then are the general fa£ls with regard to
vo *3;‘combuftion, and fuch are the theories which have been
334 propofed, to account for the phenomena exhibited in
Three mo- this procefs. Three ftates or modifications have been
difications. diftinguiihed in the aft of combuftion, namely, igni¬
tion, inflammation, and detonation.
a. Ignition, properly fpeaking, is rather a prelimi¬
nary ftep, than a part of the procefs of combuftion it-
felf. A metallic fubftance, for inftance, may become
red hot when expofed to a certain temperature j but
when it is cooled, it returns without change to its for¬
mer ftate. In this cafe caloric and light are given out,
but the body undergoes no farther change. There is
no abforption of oxygen, vrhich is one of the ordinary
phenomena of combuftion. But, with an increafe of
temperature, this alfo is effefted, and the whole phe¬
nomena of combuftion are exhibited ; namely, the union
of oxygen with the combuftible body, and the emiflion
of light and heat.
b. The fccond ftate or modification of combuftion is
called inflammation. This depends on the nature of
the combuftible body, owing partly to its ftrong affi¬
nity for oxygen, and partly to the flight affinity which
exifts between the particles of the combuftible body.
We have examples of this in the burning of fulphur
or phofphorus, or a candle in the open air, or in oxygen
S T R Y.
336
Inflamma'
tion.
gas.
333 .
Combufti-
ble fub-
itances con-
are reduced to the ftafee of oxide-j or calx, as it was
formerly called. After the combuftible fubftance has
been fubjefted to the procefs of combuftion, it is to¬
tally changed in its properties, and it can no longer
exhibit the phenomena of combuftion.
Oxygt
34C'
er oxids
Such then are the general properties and effefts of
light and heat, two of the moft powerful agents, and
of the moft extenfive influence, in all the changes and
combinations which take place among bodies, by che¬
mical aftion. In many properties they refemble each
other, but are totally different from all other kinds of
matter. Thefe bodies, poffeffed of a repulfive power
among the particles of each other, are attrafted by
other bodies, and combine with them j and thefe
combinations produce the moft aftonifhing effefts, giv¬
ing new forms to matter, and inducing innumerable
changes, which may be confidered as conftituting the
principle and effence of fome of the moft fublime ope¬
rations of nature, and many of the moft important pro-
ceffes of art.
Connefted with light and heat in many of their ob¬
vious properties, and alfo in many of the changes
which they produce upon bodies, are eleftricity and
galvanifm j and with eleftricity at leaft, if not alfa
with galvanifm, the magnetic power poffcffes fome
common properties j and efpecially if lome of thefe
are to be confidered, as fome have fuppofed, only as
modifications of the fame fubftances wrhich we have
treated of, the difeuflion of thefe fubjefts would be
properly introduced here ; but, according to the na¬
ture and arrangement of this work, each will be fully
detailed under its proper head. See Electricity,
Galvanism, and Magnetism.
^Detonation. Detonation is another modification of combuftion.
It is a rapid and inftantaneous inflammation, accompa¬
nied with explofion. This arifes from the hidden for¬
mation of a vacuum, by the change of elaftic fluids
into the liquid ftate, or by the fudden evolution of ela¬
ftic fluids from the folid flate. Of the firfl: we have
an inftance in the compofition of water by the inflam¬
mation of oxygen and hydrogen gafes, which is at¬
tended with a violent explofion, great condenfation,
and the extrication of light and heat. Of the evolu¬
tion of elaflie fluids from folid bodies, we have a good
inftance in common gunpowder, from which an im-
menfe volume of elaftic vapour is inftantaneoufly extri¬
cated, which, by its expanfive force being fuddenly
exerted, produces the explofion, and the irrefiftible ef¬
fefts of this powerful agent.
1 2. All inflammable fubftances, Dr Black obferves,
are changed, during combuftion, into one or more
' TertecTinto* principles* From the combuftion of fome fubftances,
acids as fulphur and phofphorus, an acid is obtained. From
339 the combuftion of others, as hydrogen with oxygen,
er water, -water is the produft ; and in the cafe of metals, they
Chap. IV. Of OXYGEN, and OXYGEN GAS.
343
1. OXYGEN gas, or its bafe, oxygen, is one of theOfgrcai
moft important agents in the chemical phenomena ofimp°rti
nature, or in the proceffes of art. There is indeed
fcarcely a Angle procefs iu which this fubftance has
not fome (hare. Its nature and properties, therefore,
ought to be early known.
Oxygen gas is one of the difeoveries of modern che- a difro
miftry. It was difeovered by Dr Prieftley in the year of model
1774, and from him it received the name of dephlogiflcfiemiftr
ticated air. It was afterwards denominated high/y re-
fpirable air. From Scheele, who difeovered it in
1775, it received the name of empyreal air. It was
called vital air by Condorcet 5 and Lavoiiier gave it
the name of oxygen gas, by which it has fince been
generally diftinguiflied. 343
2. Oxygen gas is moft eafily obtained by the follow- profile!
ing procefs : a. Take a quantity of the fubftance cal-foroltai
led manganefe i introduce it into the iron bottle Aj^S*'1
fig. 3. to the neck of which apply the bent tube B,
which is made to fit it exaftly, and lute them together at
the joining CD (a). The bottle, thus prepared, is to be
expofed
(a) The lute which anfwers this purpofe fufficiently well, is compofed of pipe clay and linfeed oil wed beat¬
en together, and reduced to the confiftence of glaziers putty. This is neatly applied to the joining, and if al¬
lowed to remain for eight or ten hours before it is expofed to the heat, it will afterwards bear the higheft tem¬
perature.
:Tg«.
344 ,
J ure of
t procefe
rained.
34S
itriies.
C H E M I
expofedto tlic heat of a furnace, or to that of an open
fire. As foon as the beat is applied, the atmofpheric
air within the bottle is driven off j and, as the bottle
becomes red hot, the quantity of air which paffes over,
is greatly increafed. Let the end of the tube connedt-
ed with the bottle be introduced under the flielf in the
pneumatic trough, and the bubbles of air will pafs
through the water, and may be received in jars filled
with water, and inverted over the opening in the jhelf.
b. Oxygen gas may alfo be obtained by treating
what is called in chemiftry the red oxide of mercury,
in a fimilar manner.
c. This gas may be alfo readily procured by intro¬
ducing into a glafs retort, a quantity of the fame fub-
ftance (inanganefe) reduced to powder, adding an equal
weight of fulphuric acid, and applying a moderate
heat.
d. Or it may be obtained from the fubftance called
nitre or faltpetre, expofed to a red heat, in an earthen
or coated glafs retort.
3. In all thefe methods of obtainingthis gas, itisun-
neceffary to mention, that it muft be received in the
pneumatic apparatus, in the fame wray as has been di-
vefted for procuring it from the manganefe, expofed to
heat in the iron veifel } and in whatever way it is ob¬
tained, the chemical change which takes place in thefe
proceffes, is thus explained. Oxygen gas conufts of
two ingredients, the one, which is called its bafe, and
the other caloric, or the matter of heat. In the roan-
ganefe, this bafe is fuppofed to be combined with the
metallic fubftance j and when this fubltance is expofed
to a fufficient temperature, the oxygen, having a great¬
er attra&ion for caloric than for the metal, combines
with it, and paffes off in the date of gas. The fame
change takes place, when the procefs for obtaining the
gas, by means of the red oxide of mercury, is employ¬
ed. When the fulphuric acid, which is in the ftate of
liquid, is added to the manganefe, it combines with it,
and becomes folid. But no liquid fubftance can be¬
come folid, without being deprived of the caloric necef-
fary to retain it in the ftate of fluidity. The caloric
which retained the fulphuric acid in the liquid ftate,
combines with the oxygen of the manganefe, affumes the
fluid or gafeous form, and makes its efcape. This is
an example of double affinity. The fulphuric acid
unites with the manganefe, and forms a folid j while
the caloric combines wTith the bafe of oxygen, and ap¬
pears in the form of oxygen gas.
4. Oxygen gas, thus obtained, poffeffes many of the
properties of common air. It is colourlefs, invifible,
elaftic, and may be indefinitely expanded or compreffed.
Oxygen gas poffeffes neither tafte nor fmell 3 its fpe-
cific gravity, according to Mr Kirwan, is to that of
water as 0.00135 to 1.0000. Being therefore 740
times lighter than its bulk of water, its weight to at-
mofpherical air is in the proportion of 1103 to 1000 ;
or 100 cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh 34 grs.
while the fame meafure of atmofpherical air weighs on-
ly 31 grs. the temperature being 6o0, and the baro¬
meter being at 30 inches. According to Mr Davy’s
experiments, 100 cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh
35.05 grs.
Water does not fenfibly abforb oxygen gas. But
by means of ftrong preffure, it may be. made to combine
with, and to retain in folution, half its bulk of the gas.
s t r y.
491
The water thus impregnated, is not fenfibly different Oxygen,
from common water in tafte or fmell, but it is {aid to ~>r—^
have proved an ufeful remedy in fome difeafes. 346
Combuftible fubftances burn with greater brilliancy Combuftion
and rapidity in oxygen gas than in common air. pn. more brii-
deed it is owing to a certain quantity of the former, ant
that the procefs of combuftion goes on in the latter ^gen^
and when the oxygen gas is exhaufted, the procefs is
interrupted. If a jar or phial is filled with this gas,
and a lighted candle introduced into it, it burns with
greater fplendour, and produces a greater degree of
heat, than in a fimilar veffel filled with common air.
If the candle be blowrn out, and while the fnuff is red
hot, it is introduced into a veffel filled with oxygen
gas, it re-kindles with a flight explofion, and burns
with the fame fplendour. A candle in a veffel filled
with oxygen gas burns much longer than in the fame
quantity of atmofpherical air.
Oxygen gas is elfentially neceffary for refpiration. No Anima/s
breathing animal can live in any air which does hot live a long,
contain fome proportion of oxygen gas. And the ex- ?r t‘rae in
periments of Dr Prieftley and others prove, that ani-lt'
nials live a much longer time in oxygen gas than in an
equal bulk of atmofpherical air. The experiments of
Count Morozzo fully eftablilh this fail. Into a veffel
filled with common air, and inverted over water, he in¬
troduced a number of fparrows, and obferved the
effects. The following are the refults of his experi¬
ments :
H. M.
The firft fparrow lived - 3 0
The fecond - - 0 3
The third - - 0 1
The experiments were repeated by filling the fame
veffel with oxygen gas, and he obtained the following
refults :
H. M.
The firft fparrow lived - 5 23
The fecond - - 2 10
The third - - I 30
The fourth - - 1 10
The fifth - - o 30
The fixth - - 0 47
The feventh - - o 27
The eighth - - o 30
The ninth - - o 22
The tenth - - o 21
Two fparrows were then put in together j the one
lived for an hour, but the other died in about 20
minutes.
5. Oxygen combines with a great number of bodies,» •343
and forms compounds with them. It is always pre- com]jine5
fented to us in a ftate of combination. In examining witk bo¬
lts properties, it is always as a compound 3 and thefe dies,
properties are only cognizable to our fenfes in that
ftate.
When oxygen combines with metallic fubftances,
they acquire new properties, and this combination in
chemical language is denominated an oxide. Com¬
bined with many other fubftances, the nature of the
fubftance is alfo changed, and the compound exhibits
new properties. One of the moft remarkable of thefe
is the tafte of the compound fubftance, which is often
four or acid 3 and becaufe this circumftance was ob¬
ferved to be one of the moft frequent and moft re-
3 O 2 ^parkablq
CHEMISTRY.
Azotic Ga?. markable which attend its combinations, the name of
1 ” v oxygen, or acidifying, was invented by Lavoilier. Oxy-
Origm&f gen gas i9 a^° neceffary for the germination of the feeds
the name, of plants : but as the procefs of vegetation advances, it
is given out in great abundance by the leaves during
the day. By this means the great wafte of oxygen gas
in the proceffes of combuftion and refpiration is fully re¬
paired, and the balance between its confumption and
fupply is preferved.
6. The following is the order of its affinity for the
fubftances with which it enters into combination.
Oxygen.
Charcoal,
Titanium,
Manganefe,
Zinc,
Iron,
Tin,
Uranium,
Molybdena,
Tungften,
Cobalt,
Antimony,
Hydrogen,
Phofphorus,
Sulphur,
Azote,
Nickel,
Arfenic,
Chromium,
Bifmuth,
Lead,
Copper,
Tellurium,
Platina,
Mercury,
Silver,
Oxide of arfenic,
Nitrous gas,
Gold,
Muriatic acid,
White oxide of manganefe,
White oxide of lead.
Chap. V. Of AZOTIC GAS.
Bifcovery. j. Azotic gas wras examined by Mr Scheele, the ce¬
lebrated Swediffi chemivt, in 1776 j and his experi¬
ments proved, that it is a fluid poffeffed of peculiar pio-
perties. It feems, however, to have been known to Dr
Rutherford of Edinburgh, as early as the year 1772,
as appears from his thefls publilhed in that year, in
which he fpeaks of the effeds of combuftion and refpi-
351 ration on the atmofphere.
Methods 0f 'phej-g aEe various methods by which this gas may
procuring 0btained. a. The procefs recommended by Ber-
thollet is the following : Take a quantity of mufcular
flefh, or the fibrous part of the blood, which has been
well walhed. Cut the fleffi into fmall bits ; introduce
it into a retort, or a matrafs to which a ground tube
has been adapted. Pour over it diluted nitric acid,
expofe it to a heat of about ioo°, and place the beak of
the retort or the eod of the tube in the pneumatic
apparatus, that the gas which, comes over may be re¬
ceived in proper veffels. The gas thus obtained, is Azoti^
exotic gas. b. If fulphuret of potalh be expofed to the
air of the atmofphere, inclofed in a bell-glafs, over wa¬
ter 5 or, if fulphuret of iron be formed into a pafte with
water, and treated in the fame way, and allowed to re¬
main for feme days, the quantity of air within the glafs is
greatly diminilhed, in confequence of part having been
abiorbed j and wfliat remains is azotic gas. c. When the
air of the atmofphere is inclofed in the fame way, and ex¬
pofed to the a ft ion of phofphorus, it alfo fuffers dimi¬
nution, part being abforbed. Azotic gas only remains. ^51
3. Azotic gas, like common air, is inviflble and ela-Proper:
flic, and may be indefinitely condenfed and dilated. Its
fpecific gravity is lefs than that of atmofpheric air. It
is eftimated by Mr Kirwan at 0.00120, which is in
the proportion of 985 to lOOO : but according to
Lavoifier’s experiments, it is to atmofpheric air as
942.6 to 1000, wffiich makes its fpecific gravity only
0.00115.
This gas is unfit for combuftion. If into a jar or
phial, filled with azotic gas, a lighted candle be intro¬
duced, it is immediately extinguiffied.
This gas is alfo extremely noxious to animals, and
is therefore totally unfit for refpiration.
4. No attempts which have yet been made, have fuc-Is
ceeded in decompofing azote, or the bafe of azotic fubftancif:.
gas. It muft therefore be admitted among the num¬
ber of fimple fubftances. It has never beerf obtained
in a feparate ftate. It is therefore when it is com¬
bined with caloric, that is, in a gafeous ftate, that we
are acquainted with its properties •, and from its being
unfit for refpiration, it derived its name. Some che- 1
mills have indeed confidered it as a compound fub-
ftance. Dr Prieftley fuppofed that it confifted of
phlogifton and oxygen gas. On this account he cal¬
led it phlogijlicated air. According to the Stahlian
theory, the procefs of cembuftion is the feparation of (
phlogifton from the burning body. Oxygen gas, hav¬
ing a ftrong affinity for phlogifton, combines with it
during the combuftion, and is even fuppofed to contri¬
bute to the feparation of the phlogifton, by its affinity
for it. And when this air is faturated with phlogifton,
the procefs of combuftion is at an end. The air that
remains after this procefs is azotic gas. This theory,.
when firft announced by Dr Prieftley, was pretty ge¬
nerally received; but future experiments foon de-
monftrated, that the quantity of air in which a com-
buftible body was burnt, diminilhed both in bulk and
in weight j and therefore proved that the air, inftead
of receiving any addition, was on the contrary deprived
of fomething.
Achard, about the year 1784, concluded, from fome
experiments which he had made, that azotic gas con-
lifts of water and fire. This theory has been lupport-
ed by Weftrumb, and more lately by Wiegleb. Ac¬
cording to the experiments on which thefe chemifts'
reft the truth of their theory, azotic gas is always the
refult when fteam is made to pafs through red-hot
earthen, or eve a metallic tubes j but a feries of very
accurate experiments, inftituted by the aflbeiated Dutch
chemifts, clearly proved that no azotic gas was pro¬
duced, when the inftruments employed were impene¬
trable by air *. Dr Prieftley had long before Ihown, *
that in fimilar experiments, w hen he employed earthen-
ware retorts, containing moift clay, and expofed them™'1^
to
CHEMISTRY.
as. to a temperature above boiling heat j inftead of va-
“J pour iiTuing from the beak of the retort, a quantity of
air, which was nearly equal in weight to the quantity
of water introduced, puffed over. The concluiion
which he drew from thefe experiments, was, that the
water was converted into air 5 for he found that it
poffeffed nearly the fame properties as common air.
But he proved afterwards by more accurate experi¬
ments, that water had made its way through the pores
of the veffels, and that its place was fupplied by the ex¬
ternal air which was forced in by the preffure of the
atmofphere. For it was clearly afcertained by the ex¬
periments of the Dutch chemifts, that no gas was ob¬
tained, while perfectly found glafs or metallic tubes
were employed.
Another theory has been propofed, of the compofi-
t Lr/.^tion of azotic gas, by Girtanner *. He fuppofes that
pivo1’ azotic gas conlilts of hydrogen and oxygen gas, having
“ a fmalier proportion of oxygen gas than what enters
U voi. into the eompofition of water f. But the experiments
m P-23-of other chemifts, as thole of Berthollet and Bouillon
p.4 Lagrange, have afforded no fuch refults (b).
uu' 5. There is no perceptible action between light and
j azotic gas. Combined with caloric, we *iave already
ri|:alo- feen it may be indefinitely expanded, but without un¬
it dergoing any change in its properties^
Azotic gas, Jtrom its being found in fuch abundance
in the air of the atmofphere, no doubt a£ts fome impor¬
tant part in the economy of nature. It is given out,
or feems to be given out, in great quantity, during
the decompofition of animal and vegetable matters j
but during thefe procefi'es, it is the oxygen of the
atmofpherical air which is abforbed, and thus the refi-
duary air is azotic gas. The bafe of azotic gas is un¬
known, and ehemifts are ftill unacquainted with its af-
( finities.
Itfiloxy- Azotic gas combines with oxygen in different pro-
'er cilt' portions, and forms compounds very different in their
ujPro* nature and properties. In one proportion it conftitutes
the air of the atmofphere •, in another, what is called ni¬
trous oxide, and in a third, nitrous gas. Thefe we lhall
examine in their order in the following feftions.
Sect. I. Of Atmospheric Air.
»rc I. The air of the atmofphere is compofed of azotic and
] oxygen gafes. This is an invifible elaftic fluid, which
may be indefinitely compreffed and dilated. The fpe-
cific gravity of atmofpheric air is 0,0012,.or about 816
times lighter than water. This is to be underftood
wl^en the temperature is between 50° and 6o°, and
when the barometer is at 30 inches. The preffure of
the air of the atmofphere is nearly equal to ijlh, on
every fquare inch.
2. Till the difeoveries of modern chemiftry, atmo¬
fpheric air was confidercd one of the four firnple ele¬
mentary fubftances, of which all bodies are compofed.
But the experiments and refearches of Prieftley and of
Seheele fully demonftrated the exiftenee of two fepa-
rate fubftanees, totally diftindf from each other in their
natures and properties. Oxygen gas, one of the com¬
ponent parts of atmofpheric air, was, according to Dr
Prieftley, completely freed from phlogifton 3 and hence
493
he calls it dephlofticated air, which was in an eminent Azotic Gas.
degree, fit for refpiration and combuftion 3 but azotic **
gas, the other component part, was fuppofed to be fatu-
rated with phlogifton, and therefore unfit, as it was
found to be, for thefe purpofes. To the latter, the azo¬
tic gas, Scheele gave the name of foul air.
3. According to the experiments of Lavoifier, the Proportions
proportions of the two gafes which exift in atmofpheric of “zotic
air, are 73 parts of azotic gas, and 27 of oxygen gas. ai^0X3rs€n
But according to later experiments the proportions are£i '
found to be 78 of azotic gas, and 22 of oxygen gas
by bulk 3 or by weight, 74 of azotic and 26 of csy-
ge?SaSi . 359
The proportions of thefe two gafes in atmofpheric always con.
air are uniform and conftant. They have been found ftant-
to be nearly the fame in all parts of the world, and in
all feafons- of the year, where experiments have been
made. ,
4. A queftion has arifen among philofophers concern- Conftitution
ing the conftitution of the atmofphere, whether its com-of the atmo-
ponent parts are to be confidered merely as a media-fPhVe*
nical mixture, or as a chemical combination. To the
latter opinion the greater number of chemifts are in¬
clined, from the conftancy of the proportions of the com- r
ponent parts of the atmofphere, theie partjs always be- SuPPot'ed to
ing found in the fame proportion at all heights, and be a ,che*
never ieparatmg according to their fpecific gravities 3 bination,
from its poffeffmg diftind properties 5 and from its con¬
tinuing the fame, whatever proceffes are carried on in it,
or whatever proportions cf oxygen may be abforbed
during thefe procaffes; 362
A contrary opinion has been adopted by Mr Dal-ora mccha-
ton, which he has endeavoured to ertablilh by fbmemcal nux'
very acute mathematical reafoning. According to thisUUC‘
ingenious hypothefis, the elaftic fluids which exift in the
atmofphere have no mutual adion whatever. The
particles of one fluid are only attraded and repelled by
each other, but are not aded upon by the particles of
another fluid. The particles of the different fluids,
with regard to each other, are fubjeded to the laws of
inelaftic bodies * . * Munchef.
Mem. vol.
Sect. II. Of Nitrous Oxide Gas. v-p-53S-
# • • 363
I. This gas is moft readily obtained by decompofing procefs for
nitrate of ammonia, a fait compofed of nitric acid and obtaining
ammonia, the properties of which will be afterwards d115 gas-
particularly detailed. The cryftals of this fait are put
into a retort, and expofed to a temperature between
340° and 500°. It very foon melts after the heat is
applied, and a great quantity of gas is emitted, at firft
in the form of white fumos, but afterwards tranfparent
and colourlefs. This may be received in jars over wa¬
ter in the ufual ■way. This is the nitrous oxide gas,
the gafeous oxide of azote, or, as it has been called by
fome, from the pleafurable fenfations it excites on be¬
ing refpired, the gas of paradife. The firft part of the
gas which comes over is not quite fo pure as when it
is given cut flowly, and when it is tranfparent. When
therefore it is refpired, care ftiould be taken to fepa-
rate w'hat comes off firft, from the reft. This gas, as
is obvious from the procefs, is obtained by the (jecom-
pofition of the nitrate of ammonia 3 but the change
which
(b) The component parts of water are oxygen and hydrogen, as we fhall find afterwards.
494
Azotic Gas.
364
Difcovery.
* Refear-
ches, 1S00.
365
Properties.
CHEMISTRY.
366
Effe6ts in
reCpiring it
whit;h takes place will be better underftbod, when we
come to treat of the fait itfelf, being previoufly ac¬
quainted with its eonftitueitt parts,
2. This gas was called by Dr Prieftley dephlogitli-
cated nitrous gas j and it was difeovered by him in the
year 1776. Its component parts were afeertained by the
aflaciated Dutch chemifts ; but its nature and proper¬
ties were more fully and precifely inveiligated by Mr
Davy *.
3. In its phyfical properties, 'this gas refembles com¬
mon air. It is elaitic, tranfparent, and colourlefs. The
fpecific gravity, as it has been eftimated by Mr Davy,
is 0.00197. One hundred cubic inches of it weigh
50.20 grs. The component parts of nitrous oxide gas
are 63 of azote, and 37 of oxygen gas.
Some cQmbnftibl.es burn in this gas nearly as well as
in oxygen gas, but with this difterence, that they muft
be in a ftate of ignition.
Pyrophorus, which fpontaneoufly inflames fo low as
the temperature of 40° in atmofpheric air, will not
burn in nitrous oxide gas, till it is railed to a tempera¬
ture above 212°. A burning taper introduced into
pure nitrous oxide gas, burns at firft with a brilliant
white light, and fparkles as in oxygen gas j but as the
combuftion goes on, the flame gradually lengthens, and
is furrounded with a pale blue light. Phofphorus burns
in it with a brilliancy not much inferior to its combuf¬
tion in oxygen gas.
4. It was at firft fuppofed that this gas is unfit for re-
fpiration, but the experiments of Mr Davy have Ihewn
the contrary •, and the Angular effefts which it produ¬
ces on the animal frame have excited much intereft.
From thefe experiments, and from many others which
have been fince repeated, it appears that it may be re-
fpired for fome minutes without injury.. In fome cafes
it produces no effeft whatever ; but, in general, the
fenfations it excites are fimilar to thefe of intoxication j
but they are rarely followed by its unpleafant effects.
Mr Davy deferibes his own feelings when he refpired
ibis gas, in the following words.
<i pjuyjng prevroufty clofed my noftrirs andexhaufted
my lungs, I breathed four quarts of nitrous oxide from
and into a filk bag. The firft feelings were giddinefs,
fenfe of fullnefs of the head, and indiftind fenfation;
but in lefs than half a minute, the refpiration being con¬
tinued, they diminilhed gradually, and wrere fucceeded
by a fenfation analogous to gentle preffure on all the
mufcles, attended by a highly pleafurable thrilling, par¬
ticularly in the cheft and the extremities. The objects
around me became dazzling, and my hearing more acute.
Towards the laft infpirations, the thrilling increafed,
the fenfe of mufcular power became greater, and at laft
an irrefiftible propenlity to aftion was indulged in ; I
recoiled but indiitindly what followed 5 I know that
my motions were various and violent.
“ Thefe effeds very foon ceafed after refpiration.
In ten minutes I had recovered my natural ftate of
mind. The thrilling in the extremities continued
longer than the other fenfations.
“ This experiment was made in the morning ; no
languor or exhauftion was confequent, my feelings
throughout the day were as ufual, ‘and I paired the Azotic q
night in undifturbed repofe '■■■—v-*
But although it may be refpired for a fliort time with * baf.
impunity, not more than 3 or 4 minutes, yet animals RefearA
that are confined in it foon become rcftlefs and uneafy,^'^’
and at laft expire. From this therefore it appears that
it is unfit for the fupport of animal life, and perhaps
could not at all be refpired, if the lungs were previ¬
oufly exhaufted of atmofpherie air. ,
5. The tafte of nitrous oxide gas, when in a ftate of Ta(U- yj
purity, is diftindly fweet to the tongue and palate 5 and foek
it has an agreeable odour. Mr Davy obferves, that he
often thought it produced a feeling fomewhat analogous,
as he expreffes it, to tafte, in its application to the lungs; | ^
for in one or two experiments he perceived a diftind p. ^6«'.
fenfe of warmth in the cheft f. ,
6. Water abforbs nitrous oxide gas in coniiderable is aj^lor,(
proportion. When the water is agitated, 0.54 parts by wstei.
of its bulk, or 0.27 of its weight, combine with it.
The water becomes fweetilh, and the whole of the gas
may be expelled from it unchanged, by boiling.
7. No change takes place upon this gas by the adion
of light, but when it is expofed to a high temperature,
as when the iiledric fpark is fent through it, or when it
is made to pafs through a red-hot porcelain tube, it is
decompofed, and converted into common air and nitric
acid.
,i
Sect. III. Of Nitrous Gas.
3*9
1. If a quantity of pure copper filings be put into aHowpro.
matrafs or retort, and diluted nitric acid be poured over tured.
them, a violent effervefcence takes place, and a great
quantity of gas is evolved. This is nitrous gas. It
may be obtained alfo, by fubftituting for the copper
other metals, as iron, filver, and mercury.
This gas is mentioned by Dr Hales, but it is to the
labours of Dr Prieftley that we are indebted for the
knowledge of its nature and properties. ^
2. This gas is an elaftic, colourlefs fluid, which has Propertief
no fenfible tafte, and does not redden the tinfture of
turnfole. (c).
According to Mr Kirwan, the fpecific gravity of
nitrous gas is 0.001458, but by Mr Davy’s eftimation
it is 0.001343. The weight of 100 cubic inches of
it is 34.26 grs. and it is compofed of 55.95 oxygen,
and 44.05 azote This gas is totally unfit for refpi- j
ration. Animals that breathe it are inftantly fuffocat-p. 565.
ed.
Some combuftibles burn in this gas. Phofphorus,
when introduced into it in a ftate of a&ive inflamma¬
tion, burns with almoft as much vividnefs as in oxygen
gas ||. Homberg’s pyrophorus, a fubftance which takes jj
fire when expofed to the air, when introduced into thisp. 135.
gas, inftantly becomes red, and burns very vividly. In
this experiment, and in the former with the phofphorus,
thefe fubftances combine with the oxygen of the nitrous
gas, while heat and light are emitted and azotic gas is
left behind. _
3. Nitrous gas, when expofed to the adlion of heat, by A&iond
being made to pafs through a red-hot porcelain tube, heat.
undergoes
(c) This is a teft for acid fubftances, which will be mentioned particularly afterwards,
C H E M I S T R Y.
] Irogen
41
undergoes no change *. It is abforbed by water.
When the water is freed from air, it abforbs about
of its bulk of nitrous gas, at the common temperature,
and when it is boiled or frozen, the gas feparates un¬
changed. The water thus impregnated with nitrous
gas, has no peculiar tafle, nor does it alter the colour
of vegetable blues.
4. When a quantity of atmofpherical air is introduced
into ajar containing nitrous gas, a red colour appears
from the mixture ot the two gafes j they are diminifh-
ed in bulk, and heat is evolved. The produft is ni¬
trous acid. If oxygen gas be employed in place of at-
mofpheric air, the whole of the two gafes will be con¬
verted into a liquid. The diminution of bulk is awing
to the condenfation of the elaftic fluids, and the evo¬
lution of caloric mufl: be afcribed to the change of
ftate, from that of elaftic fluid to that of liquid.
Azotic gas alfo enters into combination with oxy¬
gen in a different proportion from what has been ftated
above, forming nitrous and nitric acids $ but thefe will
come more properly to be treated of among the clafs
of acids.
The following table exhibits at one view the differ¬
ent proportions of oxygen and azotic gafes in the com^
pounds formed by thefe two fubftancer.
100 cubic inches.
Atmofpheric air
Nitrous oxide
Nitrous gas
Nitric acid
Weight in
grains.
31.1°
50.20
34.26
76.OO
In 100 grains.
Proportions of
 .-a 
Azote.
73.OO
63-30
44-05
29.50
Oxygen.
27.OO
36.7°
55-95
70.50
hi of
Ptt ring.
Chap. VI. Of HYDROGEN GAS.
1. Tins gas has been long known under the name of
the jire-damp of the miners. Its combuftible property
is defcribed in the works of Boyle and Hales, of Boer-
haave, and of Stahl *, but it was not till the year 1766
that its properties were particularly afcertained, and
the difference between it and atmoipheric air pointed
out by Mr Cavendilh. Its properties and combina¬
tions were more fully inveftigated by Prieftley and
Scheele, Senebier and Volta, under the name of in¬
flammable gas or air. It is now diftinguilhed by the
name of hydrogen gas, and its bafe by that of hydrogen.
Like the two former, oxygen and azote, it is never
obtained in an uncombined ftate. Its properties can
only be examined in a ftate of gas.
2. Hydrogen gas rnay be obtained in a ftate of toler¬
able purity by the following procefs. Take one part of
clean iron filings, and introduce them into a tubulated
retort, and add two parts of fulphuric acid previoufly
diluted with four times its bulk of water. A violent
effervefcence immediately takes place, and great abun¬
dance of air bubbles make their efcape. Put in the
ftopperof the retort, and place the beak, of it under the
ftielf in the pneumatic trough, and let the gas which
comes over be received in proper veflels. The gas
which is, thus obtained, is hydrogen gas, which is dif*
tinguiflied by the following properties.
495
3. In its phylical properties it refembles common air. Hydrogen
It is invifible and elaftic, and may be indefinitely com-
preffed and expanded. .
Its fpecific gravity has been varioufly eftimated,Properties,
owing, perhaps, to its different degrees of purity,
According to Lavoifier, it is 0.000094, which is nearly
12 times lighter than atmofpherical air j but, accord¬
ing to Mr Kirwan, it is 0.00010.
Hydrogen gas is unfit for fupporting combuftion.
If a lighted candle be fuddenly plunged in a vefiel
filled with hydrogen gas, it is immediately extinguiftied j
or if an inverted jar filled with hydrogen gas be fud¬
denly brought over a lighted candle, it is extinguilhed
in the fame wvay. The latter experiment is the moft
effeftual, on account of the fmall fpecific gravity of
the hydrogen gas, which is prevented from efcaping
by riling upwards Avhen the jar^g inverted.
It is alfo unfit for refpiration.
When fmall animals are enelofcd in a veffel filled '
with this gas, they are foon thrown into, convulfions, .
and expire. Scheele, however, who firft made the ,
attempt, breathed it feveral times without much in¬
jury. Fontana made the fame experiment, and he fup-
pofes that this was owing to the common air in the lungs
before refpiration of the hydrogen gas 5 for when he
made a full expiration, before he began to breathe the
hydrogen gas, he could only infpire it three times,
and thefe three produced great languor and oppreflion
about the breaft. This is confirmed by Mr Davy of
the royal inftitution, who, in fome experiments on him-
felf found, that, after having exhaufted the lungs as
much as poflible, he could not refpire this gas for half
a minute. It produced uneafy feelings in the chcft,
momentary lofs of mufcular power, and fometimes a
tranlient giddinefs *. From thefe experiments, there- * Davy's
fore, it may be concluded, that hydrogen gas is total- Refearc^e‘t
ly incapable of fupporting animal life. - ^ 4CI"
4. But although hydrogen gas be unfit for the fupport^ c^buf.
of combuftion, or for refpiration^ yet it is itfelf a highly tible.
cambuftible fubftance. If a jar be filled with hydro¬
gen gas, and a burning taper be applied, the gas will
take fire, and bum with a flame Avhich is more or lefs
coloured according to the purity of the gas. When
the gas is in the pureft ftate that can be obtained, it
is of a white colour; but when it holds charcoal in
folution, it is of a reddifh colour, . 377
5. Hydrogen gas, if other gafes be entirely excluded, ^omljines
undergoes no change when it is kept in contact witfi^^j^ater
water, nor is any part of it abforbed by the water : preifure.
But when artificial preffure is employed, water is faid
to abforb a third part of its bulk of the gas. No per-a remedy
eeptible change is obferved in the tafte of the water in diieafe.
thus impregnated with hydrogen gas ; it is recoin-\PhU.Mag,
mended by Mr Paul as beneficial in nervous diforders,voi- xv. p.
and in inflammatory feversf. 93-
Hydrogen gas, on account of its being fo much Emjoyed
lighter than atmofpherical air, has been employed for the in balloons,
purpoie of filling air balloons. When perfectly pure,
it is 12 or 13 times lighter than the fame bulk of at¬
mofpherical air ; but, in the ufual Avay of obtaining
it, the fpecific gravity of hydrogen gas is feven or
eight times lefs than that of common air. See AERO¬
STATION. 3So
6. If hydrogen gas and atmofpherical air be mixed to-Expiodev
gether, they remain unaltered j but if one part of oxy-
gpv
CHEMISTRY.
496
Hydrogen gen gas, and two parts of hydrogen gas, be introduced
, (',as' into a phial, and a burning taper be applied to its mouth,
8l the mixed gafes will explode with a loud noife, and the
With at- bulk will be greatly diminilhed. The whole of the
mofpheric oxygen of the atmofpheric air difappears, and the azotic
a^r* gas only remains. If one part of oxygen gas and 2^-
And'wkh Part-S hydrogen gas be mixed together in a phial, and
oxygen gas. exploded in the fame way, they both difappear. I his
may be proved by mixing the two gafes in a jar over
water or mercury, and exploding them by means of the
ele&ric fpark. The gafes difappear ^ a vacuum is con-
fequently formed in the jar, and the water or the mer¬
cury, by the preffure of the air, is forced up. If the
experiment has been made over mercury, and if thein-
fide of the jar wras previoufly free from moilture, drops
of water will appear, which have been formed by the
combination of the two gafes. Water, therefore, is
compofed of oxygen and hydrogen gas. This is a cafe
of true combuftion. Oxygen combines with the com-
buftible body j light and caloric are evolved, and the
\efult of this action and combination is one of the pro¬
ducts of combuftion, namely water. The difeovery of
ihe compofttion of water, undoubtedly one of the molt
important in modern chemiftry, will be the fubje£l of
the following feci ion.
Sect. I. Of Water.
1 Stance I. Water a£ts fo important a part in many chemical
indwnuf-' actions and combinations, that its nature and properties
try. ftiould be early known. Before the difeoveries of mo¬
dern chemiftry, it w'as conlidered as a fimple fubftance,
and one of the four elements which enter into the con-
ftitution of all bodies in nature.
The fortunate difeovery of the compofition of water,
is undoubtedly one of the molt important which has
been made in chemical fcience. We have already
mentioned, that the produA of oxygen and hydrogen
gafes, when exploded together, is water (d) : but in a
fubjeft of fo much importance, it will be neceffary to
enter more into detail ; and this w^e (hall do, ift, by
Hating the experiments on the bafts of which the proofs
of its compofttion reft ; and 2dly, by giving a Ihort
hiftorical view' of the progrefs of the difeovery.
2. Various experiments have been made to afeertain
this faft 5 but thofe which w'ere made by Lavoifier be¬
ing on a larger fcale, and performed with fueh pre¬
cautions as to infure accuracy and precilion, the fol¬
lowing account of them will be the more fatisfac-
lory.
1. Proof of the Compofition of Water.
3S4 Exper. a. Take a porcelain or glafs tube from 8 to
Proof of the i2 lines diameter> and place it acrofs the furnace
tbnofwa- E.FCD, with a gentle inclination from E to F (e).
The higher extremity of the tube is then luted to the Hydrojj
glafs retort A, containing a known quantity of diftill- Gas |
ed water. To the hnver extremity F is luted the j
wwm SS, the lower end of which is fixed in the neckcxLn
of the bottle H, which bottle has the bent tube KKFig. 3. \\
fixed to a fecond opening. This bent tube is intended
to carry off any elaftic fluids which may efcape into
the bottle H. Afire is then, lighted in the furnace
EFCD, fufficient to keep the tube EF red hot, but
not to melt it. The water in the retort A is kept
boiling by a fire in the furnace VVXX. The water
is gradually changed into fleam by the heat of the two
furnaces. It paffes through the tube EF into the worm
SS, where it is condenfed, and then drops into the
bottle H. When the w'hole water is evaporated, and
all the communicating veffels are emptied into the bot¬
tle H, it is found to contain exaftly the fame quantity
which was put into the retort. This experiment there¬
fore is a fimple diftiilation.
Exper. b. Every thing being difpofed as in the laft
experiment, let 27 grains of pure charcoal, broken in¬
to fmall parts, and which has been expofed to a red
heat in a clofe veffel, be introduced into the tube EF.
The experiment is then performed in the fame manner
as the former. The water is evaporated, and a por¬
tion of it is again condenfed in the worm SS, and then
falls into the bottle H j but at the fame time a confi-
derable quantity of an elaftic fluid efcapes through the
tube KK, which is received in veffels. When the wa¬
ter is entirely evaporated, and the tube examined, the
28 grains of charcoal have wholly difappeared.
When the w'ater in the bottle H is examined, it
is found to have loft 85.7 grains of its weight j and
when the elaftic fluid which paffed off by the tube
KK is weighed, it is found to weigh 113.7 grains,
which is exaftly the weight which the water has loft,
added to the 28 grains of charcoal which had difap¬
peared. The elaftic fluid, on examination, is difeo-
vered to be of two kinds 5 namely, 144 cubical inches
of carbonic acid gas weighing 100 grains, and 380 cu¬
bical inches of a very light gas weighing only 13.7
grains. Now loo grains of carbonic acid gas confift
of 72 grains of oxygen, combined with 28 grains of
carbone. It is therefore evident, that the 28 grains of
charcoal mull have acquired 72 grains of oxygen
from the water. It is alfo evident, that 85.7 grains
of water are compofed of 72 grains of oxygen, com¬
bined with 13.7 grains of a gas capable of being
burned.
Exper. c. Every thing being put in the fame^or-
der as in the two former experiments, w'ith this differ¬
ence, that inftead of the 28 grains of charcoal, 274
grains of foft iron, in thin plates rolled up fpirally, are
introduced into the tube EF. The tube is kept red
hot while the water is evaporating from the retort.
After
ter by ana-
lyfis.
(d) Sir Ifaac Newton having difeovered in the courfe of his optical inveftigations, that combuftible bodies pof-
fefs the greatefl refra&ive power in proportion to their denfity, and obferving the great refradling power of wa^eIS
come&ured with aftoniftiing fagacity that it muft contain a combuftible fubftance. In the fame w'ay he was e
to a fimilar coniefture with regard to the diamond ; both which have been verified. _ . ,
(e) The tube EF, if of glafs, fttould be fuch as can bear a ftrong heat without melting. It mould alio e
coated over wftth a lute compofed of clay and powdered ftone-ware j and to prevent it from bending dunng t o
experiment, it muft be fbpported about the middle by an iron bar.
C H E M I S T R Y.
: [rogeti After the water has beeri dilfilled, it is found to have
j ;as. loft ioo grains. The gas or elattic fluid weighs 15
"y V—grains, and the iron has gained 85 grains additional
weight, which put together make up 100 grains, the
weight which the water has loft. The iron has all
the qualities which it would have received by be¬
ing burned in oxygen gas. It is a true oxide (or
calx) of iron. We have the fame refult as in the
laft experiment, and have therefore another proof
for concluding, that 100 grains of water confift of 85
grains of oxygen, and 15 of the bafe of inflammable
gas.
We have now exhibited two fufficient proofs, that
water is compofed of oxygen and hydrogen ; but as the
compofttion of water is fo interefting and important a
;S5 fubjeft, M. Lavoifierwas not fatisfied with thefe proofs
P:|«l by alone. He juftly concluded, that if water be a com-
( '£l'3' pound of two fubftances, it ought to follow, that by
reuniting thefe two fubftances, water would be produced.
He accordingly proved the truth of this conclufion by
the following experiment.
Exf>cr. d. He took a large eryftal balloon A, fig. 4.
containing about 30 pints, and having a large mouth j
round which was cemented the plate of copper BC,
pierced with four holes, through which four tubes pafs.
The firft tube H h is intended to exhauft the balloon
of its air, by adapting it to an air pump. The fecond
tube gg communicates with a refervoir of oxygen gas
placed at MM. The third tube D £ is connected
with a refervoir of hydrogenous gas at NN. The
fourth tube contains a metallic wire GL, having a
knob at its lower extremity L, from which an eledtric
fpark is paffed to §, in order to fet fire to the hydrogen
gas. The metallic wire is moveable in the tube, that
the knob L may be either turned towards or away
from it, as there is occafion. We muft alfo add, that
the three tubes H </D 5 are furnilhed with ftop-
eocks.
It is neceffary that the oxygen gas, before being
put into the refervoir, fhould be completely purified
from carbonic acid. This may be done by keeping
it for a long time in contatt with a folution of cauftic
potafh. The hydrogen gas ought to be purified in the
lame manner. The quantity employed ought to be
double the bulk of the oxygen gas. It is belt procured
from water by means of iron, as was deferibed in Ex¬
periment Third.
Great care muft alfo be taken to deprive the oxygen
and hydrogen gas of every particle of water. For
this purpofe they are made to pafs in their way to the
balloon A, though falls which have a ftrong attradlion
for water ; as the acetite of potalh (a compound of
vinegar and vegetable alkali), or the muriate or nitrate
of lime (the muriatic or nitric acid combined w ith lime).
Thefe falls are difpofed in the tubes MM and NN of
one inch diameter, and are reduced only to a coarfe
powder,' that they may not unite into lumps, and in¬
terrupt the palfage of the gafes.
Every thing being thus prepared for the experiments,
the balloon is exhaufted of its air by the tube H //, and
is filled with oxygen gas. The hydrogen gas is alfo
prefled in through the tube by a weight of one
or two inches of rvater. As foon as the hydrogen gas
enters the balloon, it is fet fire to by an eledflric Ipark.
1 he combuftion can be kept up as long as wc pleafe,
Vol. V. Part II,
497
by fupplying the balloon with trefli quantities of thefe Hydrogen
two gafes. As the combuftion advances, a quantity, ^as~ .
of water is collected on the iides of the balloon, and v
trickles down in drops to the bottom of it. By know¬
ing the weight of the gafes confirmed, and the weight
of the water produced, we ftrall find that they are pre-
cifely equal. M. Lavoifier and M. Meufnier found
that it required 85 parts by weight of oxygen gas, and
15 parts of hydrogen gas, to produce 100 parts of wa¬
ter.
Thus we have complete proofs, both analytical and
fynthetical, that water is not a fimple elementary fub-
ftance, as it has been long fuppofed, but is compound¬
ed of two elements, oxygen and hydrogen.
But although the knowledge of the component parts
of water was finally confirmed by Lavoifier and his
friends, we ftrall find that feienee is indebted for its ori¬
gin and progrefs, chiefly, if not entirely, to the Eng-
liflr philofophers.
2. Hiflory of the Difcovery of the Compojition of Water*
386
x. So early as the year 1776, an experiment was madeCombuftion
by Macquer, to afeertain what would be the product °Giydro-
of the combuftion of hydrogen gas. He accordingly Sen
fet fire to a bottle full of it, and held a faucer over thewater‘
flame, but no foot appeared upon it as he expelled,
for it remained quite clean ; and was bedewed with drops
which were found to be pure water. Various conjec¬
tures were now formed about the nature of the product ^
of the combuftion of oxygen and hydrogen gafes. ByGonjac-
fome it rvas fuppofed the carbonic acid gas j by otherstul'es*
it was conjeftured it would be the fulphurous or iul-
phuric acid. The latter was the opinion of M. La¬
voifier. Such were the experiments and opinions of
the French chemifts, previous to the year 1781. 3sg
2. About the beginning of that year, Mr Warltire, a Experiment
lecturer in natural philofophy, had long entertained Warl-
an opinion that the combuftion of hydrogen gas w ith pir.e
atmofpheric air might determine the queftion, whether
heat be a heavy body. Apprehenfive of danger in
making the experiment, he had for fome time declin¬
ed it 5 but w'as at laft encouraged by Dr Prieftley, and
accordingly prepared an apparatus for the purpofe.
This w'as a copper veflel properly fitted, and filled
with atmofpherical air . and hydrogen gas, which was
exploded by making the eledlric fpark pafs through it.
A lofs of weight of tw'o grs. was obferved after the
combuftion. A fimilar experiment was repeated in
clofe glafs veflfels, which, though clean and dry before
the combuftion, became immediately w'et with moif-
ture, and lined wflth a footy matter. This footy mat¬
ter, Dr Prieftley afterwards fuppofed, proceeded from
the mercury which had been employed in filling the
veffek _ _ 3s<,
3. During the fame year, Mr Cavendiih repeated the By CavefN
experiments of Mr Warltire and Dr Prieftley. He*^1,
performed them feveral times with atmofpheric air
and hydrogen gas, in a veflel which held 24,000 grs.
of water, and he never could perceive a lofs of w eight
more than 3- gr. and often none at all. In all thele
experiments, not the leaft footy matter appeared in the
infide of the glafs. To examine the nature of the dewr
which appeared in the infide of the glafs, he burnt
500,000 grain meafures of hydrogen gas w ith about 2,1-
times that quantity of common air j and in this com-
3 R bullion
49 S
CHEMISTRY.
Hydrogen bullion be obtained 135 grs. of water, which had nei-
, G?'s' , ther tafte nor fmell
no feniible
ter.
and when it was evaporated, left
fediment. It feeraed to be pure wa-
390
3YIr Walt’s
views;
In another experiment, he exploded in a glafs globe,
i9,5°o grain mealures of oxygen gas, and 37,000 of
hydrogen gas, by means of the eledtric fpark. The
refult of the experiment was 30 grains of water, which
contained a fmall quantity of nitric acid. The expe¬
riments of Mr Cavendilh were made in the year 1781,
and they are undoubtedly conclulive with regard to
the compolition of water.
4. It would appear, that Mr Watt entertained the
fame ideas on this fubjeft. When he was informed
by Dr PriefUey of the refult of thefe experiments, he
obferves •, “ Let us confider what obvioufly happens
in the deflagration of hydrogen and oxygen gafes.
Thefe two kinds of air unite with violence, they be¬
come red hot, and when cooling totally difappear.
When the veffel is cooled, a quantity of water is found
in it equal to the weight of the air employed. The
water is then the only remaining produdl of the pro¬
* pi Hof.
Tran/.
V' 3.S >
experi¬
ments.
cefs y and water, light, and heat, are all the produdls.
unlefs there be feme other matter fet free, which efcapes
our fenfes. Are we not then authorized to conclude, that
water is compofed of oxygen and hydrogen gafes, de¬
prived of part of their latent or elementary heat j
that oxygen gas is compofed of water, deprived of its
hydrogen, and united to elementary heat and light j
and that the latter are contained in it in a latent ftate,
fo as not to be fenflble to the thermometer or to the
And if light be only a. modification of heat, or
eye
39*
Lavoi Tier’s
39*
jpourcroy’s,
See.
which was read at the academy of fciences in the year Carba:
1790 *.
Anna
7. Water exifts in three different ftates ; in the folid^^
ftate or ffate of ice ; in the liquid, and in the itate ofvlll p .
vapour or ileam. Its principal properties have already 3^ I
been detailed, in treating of the effects of caloric. It Water it
affumes the folid form when it is cooled down to thet*ireeM
temperature of 320. In this ftate it increafes in bulk, 39. j
by which it exerts a prodigious expanfive force, whichIce’
is owing to the new' arrangement of its particles, which
affume a cryftalline form, the cryltals croffing each
other at angles of 6o° or 1 20°. The fpecific gravity of
ice is lefs than that of water. ^
When ice is expofed to a temperature above 320, it Water J
abforbs caloric, which then becomes latent, and is con- liquid,
verted into the liquid ftate, or that of water. At the
temperature of 42-^°, water has reached its maximum
of denfity. According to tire experiments of Lefevre
Gineau f, a French cubic foot of diftilled water, taken 1 .T6*' -.
at its maximum of denftty, is equal to 701b. 223 grs.^^1*
39<
a circumftance attending it, or a component part of
the hydrogen gas, then oxygen gas is compofed of
water deprived of its hydrogen, and united to elemen¬
tary heat
Thus it appears that Mr Watt had a juft view of the
compofition of water, and of the nature of the procefs. by
which its component parts pafs to a liquid ftate from
that of an elaftic fluid.
5. Towards the end of the fame year, M. Lavoifier
had made fome experiments, the refult of which fur-
prifed him ; for the product of the combuftion of the
oxygen and hydrogen gafes, inftead of being fulphuric
or fulphurous acid, as he expe&ed it, was pure water.
This led him to procure an apparatus, with which the
experiment might be performed on a large fcale, and
with more accuracy and precifion. Accordingly the
experiments which we have already detailed were per¬
formed on the 24th of June 1783, in prefence of feveral
academicians, and alfo of Sir Charles Blagden, Avho
was at that time in Paris. A fimilar experiment was.
afterwards performed by M. Monge, with the feme
refult ; and it was repeated again by Lavoifier and
Meufnier, on a fcale fo large as to put the matter be¬
yond a doubt. The conclufion, therefore, from the
whole was (as has been ftated in detailing the experi¬
ments themfelves), that water is compofed of oxygen
and hydrogen •, and this fadt, we believe, lince Dr
Prieftley’s death, is univerfally admitted.
6. If farther proofs were neceflary to eftablilh the fadl,
w?e might refer the reader to an elaborate memoir on
the combuftion of hydrogen gas in clofe veflels by the
celebrated chemifts Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and Seguin,
French, =529,452.9492 troy grains. AnEnglifti cubic
foot at the feme temperature weighs 437,102.4946
grains troy. By Profcffbr Robifon’s experiments it is
afeertained, that a cubic foot of water at the tempera¬
ture of 550 weighs 998.74 avoirdupois ounces, of
43.7.5 grains troy each, or about ounce lefs than
1000 avoirdupois ounces.
When water is expofed to the temperature of 212°>Vapour,
it boils, and if this temperature be continued, the
whole is converted into an elaftic inviftble fluid, called
vapour or fleam. This, as has been already (hewn,
is owing to the abforption of a quantity of caloric,
which is neceffary to retain it in the fluid form. In
this ftate it is about 1800 times its bulk when in the
ftate . of water. This Ihews what an expanfive force it
muft exert when it is confined, and hence its applica¬
tion in the fleam engine, of which it is the moving
power.
Sect. II. Of Ammonia.
Hydrogen alfo enters into combination with azote,
and forms a compound of great importance. When
hydrogen and azotic gafes are mixed together, no change
takes place, nor has any procefs been yet difeovered by
which thefe two gafes can be direftly combined ; but
when thefe are in their nafeent ftate, as it is called, or
in the moment of evolution from the bodies with which
they were formerly in combination, they unite together
and form ammonia, or the volatile alkali. It is de-
monftrated alfo by dire£l experiment, that this fubftance
is compofed of thefe tw o gafes •, but for the properties
of it, we muft refer to the chapter on alkalies, where
they will be fully detailed.
Chap. VII. Of CARBONE.
397
1. It may appear at firft fight furprifing, that the Tfe lil3-
diamond, one of the hardeft and moft indeftru&ible
fubftances in nature, ftiould be arranged among com-
buftible bodies. This, however, was conje&ured by
Newton, when he confidered its great refrading power,,
referring it to the general law, that combuftible bodies
have this power in greateft perfeftion. The fagacious
conjecture
ibone.
! '.39®
I red by
e ijiment.
399.
\ md in
t torrid
400
3 m.
401
l uerties.
3 :!ucd of
;:om-
1 !:i0nk
conjecture of this great philofopher has been fully ve¬
rified. The firft experiment to afeertain the combufti-
bility of the diamond, was made in the year 1694, in the
prefence of Cofmo III. grand duke of Tufcany, by the
Florentine academicians. In this experiment, the dia¬
mond, expofed to the heat of a buming-glafs, firft be¬
came dull and tarniftied, loft of its weight, and was at
laft entirely diflipated, without the fmalleft refidue.
Some years afterwards, a feries of experiments was made
before Francis I. emperor of Germany, in which dia*
monds were confumed in the heat of a furnace. In the
year 1771, Macquer firft obferved the diamond fwell
up and burn with a very fenfible flame. Rouelle the
younger, Cadet, Mitouart, and Darcet, repeated the
fame experiments, all which tended to eftablifh the vo¬
latility and combuftibility of the diamond.
But it is to the celebrated Lavoilier that we are in¬
debted for afeertaining the nature and product of this
combuftion.
2. But for the fake of comparifon, we fhall mention
fome of the general properties of the diamond. This
precious ftone is found in the warmer regions of the
earth, and chiefly in the Eaft Indies and the Brazils.
It is found cryftallized in regular oftahedrons, which
is its primitive form } that of the molecules is the re¬
gular tetrahedron. The moft common form is the fix-
fided prifm, terminating in a fix-fided pyramid. What
are called fpheroidal diamonds, have 48 curvilineal, tri¬
angular faces, which form of cryftal is owing, accord¬
ing to Hauy, to a regular decrement, which may be de¬
termined by calculation. The lapidaries are well ac¬
quainted with the dire&ion of the laminae of the dia¬
mond, becaufe in that direftion it is found to be moft
eafily polifhed. The hardeft diamonds are found to
have their fibres twifted, which by the lapidaries are
called natural diamonds.
3. The diamond is the hardeft body known. It can
only be polilhed with the powder of itfelf, which >s
procured by rubbing one diamond againft another.
The fpecific gravity of the diamond is 3.5. One of its
moft remarkable properties is its brilliancy. When ex¬
pofed to the light of the fun for fome time, and after¬
wards carried into a dark place, it appears luminous, fo
that it has the property of abforbing light. It becomes
very fenfibly electric by fri£lion, and is therefore a non-
condudlor of electricity.
4. As it wafe now afeertained, that the diamond ex¬
pofed to a ftrong heat was fufceptible of combuftion, and
might be entirely diflipated, Lavoifier directed his at¬
tention in the year 1772 to difcoVer the product which
was thus obtained; and he found by experiment, that
the quantity of the diamond, expofed to the heat of a
burning-glafs in oxygen gas, confumed, was in exaCl
proportion to the quantity of air which was abibrbed.
The air was converted Into carbonic acid gas (f).
The quantity of the carbonic acid obtained being found
proportional to the quantity of diamond confumed, it
was concluded that diantond was nothing elfe but pure
carbone. This furnifhed a ftrikmg analogy between
the diamond and charcoal, from the combuftion of
Which a ftmilar produCl is obtained. An experiment
C H E M I S T R Y. 499
made by Guyton in the year 178^ an(^ a ilmilar one Carbone,
rpnp^tt'd in 1*70*7 hv 1VTr Tennant nrnvpfl that the dia- *
repeated in 1797 by Mr Tennant, proved that the dia¬
mond is combuftible, and that it burns like charcoal when
thrown into melted nitre. The conclufion from which
was, that the diamond and charcoal are compofed of the
fame fubftance. 4°.3
5. We fhall find, in inveftigating the properties 0f A mnpie
charcoal in the following feftion, that the one is a u )Kailc^
Ample, the other a compound fubftance, which will
enable us to explain the remarkable difference between
many of the properties of the diamond and charcoal. 404
Charcoal burns in the heat of an ordinary fire, but the Compare.!
diamond requires for its combuftion a temperature n°tc(',u
lefs than 5000° j nor is the difference between thefe ,;s a ,com/'
two bodies in fpecific gravity, hardnefs, and colour, lefs '.round,
ftriking. Lavoilier had afeertained that 100 parts of
carbonic acid contained
28 charcoal,
72 oxygen.
100
In the experiments made by Guyton on the dia¬
mond, it appeared that carbonic acid gas is compofed
of
17.88 diamond,
82.12 oxygen.
I00.001
* Ann. iff
If then 100 parts of carbonic acid gas ate compofed Ctn'm. tat%
of the fame proportions of conftituent parts, and thefe XK1, l3,
proportions are obtained both by the combuftion of the
diamond and charcoal, it muft neceffarily follow that
the charcoal, which requires a fmaller proportion of
oxygen to make up the 100 parts of carbonic acid gas,
muft contain the difference of the quantity of oxygen
between the quantity with which it combines, and the
quantity neceffary to faturate the diamond. Thus, dia¬
mond requires 81.12 of oxygen, and charcoal requires
only 72, the difference between which is ic.12, which
muft have been previoufly combihed with the charcoal
before combuftion. The 28 parts of charcoal, then,
are compofed of
17.88 diamond,
10.1 2 oxygen.
28.00
Hence it follows, that too parts of charcoal confift of
63.86 diamond,
36.14 oxygen.
100.00
From this account, therefore, of the nature and pro-
perties of the diamond, it muft be eohfidered as a
Ample fubftance, and that fubftance which has received
the name of carbone in the new chemical nomenclature ;
very different in its properties from charcoal,, which is
a compound fubftance, and has received the name of
3 R 2 oxide
(f) Carbonic acid gas, as will appear afterwards, is compofed of carbone and oxygen,
5°o CHE M I S T R Y.
, Carbone. oxide of earbone ar diamond (g). But we fhall con-
t™’ v_ “ fider the properties of the compound more particularly
in the following left ion.
405
Charcoal
very abun¬
dant.
406
Method of
preparing
and puri¬
fying.
4°‘7.
Properties.
Sect. I. Of the Combinations of Carbone with
Oxtgen.
Carbone enters into combination with oxygen, I. In
the ftate of charcoal or oxide of carbone; 2. In the
form of gas, which has been denominated the gafeous
oxide of carbone, or carbonic oxide ; and, 3. In another
proportion, conftituting carbonic acid, which alfo exifts
in the gafeous date. The nature and properties of the
two firll we are now to examine: the laft will be treat¬
ed of under the clafs of acids.
I. Of Charcoal.
1. Charcoal exifts in great abundance in animal and
vegetable matters, and it is obtained by the partial de-
compofition of thefe fubftances. It may be procured
by burning wood in clofe veflels; and the matter that
remains after this combuftion, is a black, ftiining,
brittle fubftance, which is well known under the name
of charred wood, or charcoal. To obtain charcoal
pure, it muft be repeatedly wafhed with pure water,
and be afterwards expofed for fome time to a ftrong
heat in clofe veffels. Thus prepared, if it be entirely
deprived of moifture and excluded from air, it may
be expofed to the ftrongeft heat without any change.
2. Charcoal is a good condu&or of ele&ricity.
When it is new made, it is found to have the property
of removing the difagreeable odour with which animal
matters beginning to putrify, clothes and other fub¬
ftances, are tainted. On account of this property, per¬
haps, and alfo on account of its mechanical effefts, it
is greatly recommended as an excellent teeth powder.
Charcoal feems to be quite indeftruflible. This is the
beft method of preferving wood from decay, which is
expofed to the effefts of air and moifture. Stakes
charred on the outfide, have remained in the ground
for fome thoufand years, and are ftill in perfe£l pre-
fervation. This feems to have been a common prac¬
tice among the ancients.
3. Charcoal has neither tafte nor fmell. It is info-
luble in water, but it abforbs moifture in confider-
able proportion. When it is well dried, charcoal at¬
tracts the air very greedily. A piece of charcoal well
dried, placed under a jar over mercury, abforbs the
air, and the mercury afcends rapidly but if a little
■water be introduced into the jar, the charcoal abforbs
the moifture, gives out the air, and the mercury de-
fcends. In fome experiments made w ith this view, it
appeared that charcoal abforbed four times its bulk of
air •, and when the charcoal was plunged into water,
a fifth part of this air was difengaged, wrhich being
examined, a quantity of oxygen had difappeared. In
another experiment, the charcoal was introduced into
a veuel filled with oxygen gas, when it abforbed eight
times its bulk of the gas, and being plunged into wa¬
ter, gave out a tom th part. Thefc experiments were CarH
made by Delametherie *. i——yj
The experiments of Senebier feem to prove, that itt^Tp*
was only the oxygen gas of the atmofpheric air thatXXy
was abforbed by charcoal} but it has been fince de-
monftrated, that this only takes place when the char¬
coal is hot. The atmofpheric air is abforbed un¬
changed when the charcoal is cold.
4. When the temperature of pure charcoal is raifed
to rednefs, and if it be then introduced into a jar of
oxygen gas, it burns rapidly, giving out brilliant fparks,
but with little flame. The charcoal difappears, and the
oxygen gas is totally changed. By its combination with
the charcoal during the combuftion, it is converted into
a peculiar gas, which has received the name of carbonic
acid gas, the component parts of which were difcover-
ed by M. Lavoifier, to be
28 charcoal,
72 oxygen.
100
The properties of this acid will be fully defcribed in
its place among the clafs of acids.
5. It is generally agreed among chemifts, that char¬
coal confifts of oxygen and carbone j but a controverfy
at prefent exifts, whether hydrogen does not, in all ^0g
cafes, enter into its compofition ? Charcoal prepared Compoi
in the common way, always contains a portion of hy-fion*
drogen. It is therefore to be confidered as a triple
compound, confifting of carbone, oxygen, and hydro¬
gen. But according to the experiments of Deformes
and Clement, charcoal expofed for fome time in a
clofe veffel to a very ftrong heat, is entirely deprived
of its hydrogen f. This, however, does not correfpond { Anna
with the experiments of Mr Cruicklhank, in which the Mim. vi
gafes obtained from charcoal in all ftates of preparationXXX1X'
were always found to contain hydrogen. ^ ^
6. There is no dire£! aftion between carbone and
azotic gas 3 but by the adlion of a third fubftance.
Compounds of azote, hydrogen and carbone, which are
combined alfo with a greater or leffer proportion of
oxygen, frequently exift among vegetable and animal
matters.
II. Of the Gafeous Oxide of Carbone.
1. A peculiar inflammable gas, which has been con-Hiftory,
fidered of the fame nature with the carbonated hydro¬
gen gas to be defcribed in the next fe£tion, was an¬
nounced by Dr Prieftley, from the manner of its pro-
dudlion and properties, as a confirmation of the truth
of the phlogiftic theory. His experiments were foon
repeated by many other chemifts, and particularly by
Mr Cruickftiank of Woolwich, who publilhed a very
fatisfa&ory account of the nature, compofition and pro¬
perties of this gas. He gave it the name of the ga¬
feous oxide of carbone. He confidered it as confifting
of carbone united with oxygen 3 the oxygen and car¬
bone exifting in it being nearly in the proportion of
two
(g) In the prefent nomenclature of chemiftry, the word oxide is ufed to denote the combination of oxygen
■with a bafe, the jprodudl of which combination exhibits no acid properties, as in the prefent cafe, the combina¬
tion of oxygen with carbone or diamond.
C H E M I S T R Y. 501
shone, two to one. Dr Prieftley obtained it from the gray
ti'-y——' oxide, or forge feales of iron and charcoal. Mr
Cruickfliank alfo obtained it by a limilar procefs. He
jjj nods of employed the oxides of zinc and copper j the black
*,airing, oxide of manganefe and litharge. The gas which is
obtained from thefe fubftances, is a mixture of carbo¬
nic acid and the gafeous oxide of carbone. Mr Cruick-
fhank found, that the oxides -which molt readily part
with their oxygen, afford the greateft proportion of
carbonic acid •, but the oxides which retain their oxy¬
gen more ftrongly, give the greateft proportion of the
gafeous oxide of carbone. At the beginning of the
procefs, carbonic acid comes over in greateft abun¬
dance ; it then diminifhes, and afterwards nothing but
the gafeous oxide is extricated.
It is alfo obtained by expofing to a ftrong heat one
part of pure charcoal and three parts of fcarbonate of
lime, ftrontites, or barytes, in an iron retort. The
carbonic acid which is in combination with the earths,
is partly difengaged unchanged, and partly decompof-
ed by the charcoal, and converted by the adtion of the
charcoal into the gafeous oxide of carbone. The gas
which is obtained in this procefs is compofed of one
< part of carbonic acid and five parts of gafeous oxide*,
tk tom. fame gafes are aif0 obtained, by employing iron
filings with the earthy carbonates, and the quantity is
" ’ confiderably increafed when pure iron is ufed. Mr
Cruickfhank and the French chemifts alfo obtained it,
by making carbonic acid gas pafs through red-hot
charcoal, in an iron or porcelain tube. The carbonic
acid is decompofed, and the gafeous oxide is formed.
The carbonic acid which is mixed with the gafeous
oxide obtained in all thefe proceffes, may be feparated
by walhing the gas with lime water, and the gafeous
oxide remains in a ftate of purity,
tilerties. 2" gas is invifible atad elaftic like common air.
Its fpecific gravity is 0.0011673 100 cubic inches
weigh 30 grains.
It is unfit for refpiration. Small animals introdu¬
ced into it are inftantaneoufly fuffocated 3 and in fome
perfons who attempted to breathe it, it produced faint-
nefs and giddinefs. Deformes and Clement think that
it is probably owing to this gas difengaged from burn¬
ing charcoal, that fudden death is induced in clofe
apartments. It is not altered by pafling it through a
red-hot tube, nor does it undergo any change by being
expofed to light 3 and it is neither inflamed nor dimi-
nilhed by pafling the eledtric fpark through it. I his
gas in contadt with common air, when fet fire to, burns
with a blue flame. When it is made to traverfe a red-
hot tube full of air, it produces flight detonations. 1 he
refidue of thefe combuftions is carbonic acid and azote.
3. With oxygen gas, if in confiderable proportion, the
combuftion is very rapid 3 a red flame is produced, and
the whole of the gas is confumed. The refidue in this
f 'id. combuftion is carbonic acid f.
P According to Mr Cruickfhank, the gafeous oxide of
carbone is a compound of carbone and oxygen. 1 hirty
grains of it obtained from charcoal and metallic oxides,
required 13 grains of oxygen to faturate it, and the
quantity of carbonic acid produced was 35,5* Thirty
grains obtained from iron filings and earthy carbonate,
required 13.6 grains of oxygen, which gave 43*2 grains
of carbonic acid.
4. But according to the experiments <md conclufions
of Berthollet, the gafeous oxides of carbone contain a Carbone,
certain portion of hydrogen in their compofition. This v
quantity, he thinks, amounts to about ,04=:-2^-. He
diftinguifhes two fpecies of inflammable gas, which
contain carbone 3 the one confifts entirely of hydrogen
and carbone, which he prepofes to denominate carbo¬
nated hydrogen gas, which will be treated of in the next
fedlion. The other fpecies of inflammable gas is alfo
formed of hydrogen and carbone, but contains a certain
portion of oxygen. To this he propofes to give the
name of oxycarbonated hydrogen gas. But the refults
of the experiments of Cruickfhank and others do not
correfpond with the experiments and conclufions of Ber¬
thollet, in admitting any proportion of hydrogen as a
component part of his oxycarbonated hydrogen gas, or
of the gafeous oxide of carbone. But for an account of
his obfervations and reafonings on this fubjett, fee
Memoires de I'lnjlitut Nationale, tom. iv. p. 269, 319.
and 325.
Sect. II. Of Carbonated Htdrogen Gas.
412
1. If a quantity of wet charcoal be introduced into Method of
a retort, and expoied to a red heat, a great quantity of procuring,
gas paffes over, which may be collected in jars in the
pneumatic apparatus, in the ufual way. It may be al¬
fo obtained by making the vapour of water pafs through
red-hot charcoal in a porcelain or iron tube placed
acrofs a furnace. The water is decompofed 3 the hydro¬
gen, one of its component parts, combines with the car¬
bone of the charcoal. The gas obtained by thefe pro¬
ceffes has been called /ight inflammable air. A fimilar
gas may be procured from ether, fpirits of wine, or
camphor, by making the vapour of thefe fubftances
pafs through red-hot porcelain tubes. This gas, from
its greater fpecific gravity, has been called heavy in-
flammable air. The proportions of the fubftances which
enter into the compofition of this gas vary confiderably,
according to the procefs employed, or the materials
from which it is obtained. It is the fame gas which is
given out in great abundance during hot weather, from
ftagnant waters. ^
2. This gas is like common air, invifible and elaftic. Properties.
When a candle is applied to it, it burns with a blue,
lambent flame. If it be mixed with atmofpheric air,
the combuftion is more rapid and brilliant, and ftill
more fo when it is mixed with oxygen gas, but with¬
out any detonation. The product of this combuftion
is carbonic acid and water. The oxygen combines
partly with the carbone, and forms carbonic acid 3 and
partly with the hydrogen, and forms water.
3. It is totally unfit for refpiration. Animals intro¬
duced into it are inftantly fuffocated. It is alfo unfit
for fupporting combuftion.
One of the moft remarkable properties of this gas
is, when it is mixed in a tube with common air or oxy¬
gen gas, about yds its bulk of the latter, and fired by
the eledtric fpark, there is a confiderable increafe of
volume.
The component parts of carbonated hydrogen gascompofU
obtained from different ■ fubftances, as they have been tion
afcertained by Mr Cruickftiank, are the following.
When it is procured from ether, camphor, or ftagnated
water, it contains the greateft proportion of carbone.
The fpecific gravity is 0.000804, and it is to common air
nearly.
,u:
CHEMISTRY.
^carbonc, nearly as two to three. One part by weight of hydro-
r l',— gen gas holds in folution j J parts of carbone j
IOO parts contain 52.35 carbone,
9.60 hydrogen,
38.05 water inltead of vapour.
100.00
When it is obtained from ether, the fpecihc gravity
is 0.000787;
. 4*5
Hiftory.
The lighted is obtained from diftilling wet charcoal, CarbJ
or paiSng the vapour of water through red-hot char- —v
coal. It contains one part by weight of hydrogen gas,
holding three parts of carbone in folution. Thel’peci-
fic gravity is 0.000554. It is to common air nearly as
one to two ;
100 parts contain
100 parts contain
45 carbone,
15 hydrogen,
40 water.
28
9
^3
carbone,
hydrogen,
water f.
100
f Nid'i
vol.
100
Mr Cruicklliank has difeovered a very eafy method
of diltinguilhing the gafeous oxide of carbone from the
carbonated hydrogen gas. A mixture of the latter
and oxymuriatic acid gas may be exploded by palling
eleldric fparks through it. But a mixture of oxymu¬
riatic acid gas and the gafeous oxide of carbone fuffers
no change by the adlion of electricity.
The following table, drawn up by Mr Cruicklhank,
exhibits the refults of his experiments on thefe two
gafes.
sd 7'JBLE,Jhewing the Analysis., fa'c. of the different Species of Carbonated Hydrogen Gas, or Hydrocarbonates
and of the Gafeous Oxides of Carbone.
When it is obtained from fpirit of wine, the fpecific
gravity is 0.00063 :
100 parts contain 44.1 carbone,
11.8 hydrogen,
44.1 water.
100.0
Gafes, and the different
Ssbftancesfrom which
the Gafes fcre obtain
ed. See.
Pure carbonated hy¬
drogen gas from
camphor, &c.
 from ether
 from alcohol
  wet char¬
coal
Gafeous oxide from
charcoal and me¬
tallic oxides
 from
iron filings, and
carbonate of lime,
or barytes
Weight of
too Cubic
Inches, or
Grains.
Grains.
21
20
16
I4-5
3°
30
Proportion of Oxy¬
gen neceflhry to
faturate 100
Meafures of the
Gas.
Meaf.
176
170
Il8
66
44
40
Quan. of
Grains.
59>8
58
40
22,4
*5
Proiiudts when combined with Oxygen.
  A  
Carbonic Acid.
In Vol. In Quan.
Meaf. Grains.
Il6
I08
75
40
76
92
54?5
5°s5
36
19
35»5
43>2
Water
produ¬
ced.
Grains.
18
18
*3
about
8
none
Water held
in Solution
by the Gas.
Grains.
8 or 9
9
7
proby none
Hence the Gafes confift of
 -A 
Oxyg.
none
none
hone
about
15
21 +
Garbon,
II
9
7
nearly
15
8.6
Hydro.
2 +
3
J>9
x>3
1 +
Water.
8 or 9
8
uncer¬
tain
Chap. VIII. Of PHOSPHORUS.
I. This lingular fubftance was accidentally difeovered
in 1677 by an alchemili of Hamburg, named Brandt,
when he was engaged in fearching for the philofo-
pher’s ftone. Kunkel, another chemift, who had feen
the new product, affociated himfelf with one of his
friends named Krafft, to purchafe the fecret of its pre¬
paration ; but the latter deceiving his friend, made the
purchafe for himfelf, and refufed to communicate it.
Kunkel, who at this time knew nothing farther of its pre¬
paration, than that it was obtained by certain procef-
fes from urine, undertook the talk, and fucceeded. It
is on this account that this fubllance long went under
the name of Kunkel’s phofphorus. Mr Boyle is alfo
confidered as one of the difedverers of phofphorus. He
communicated the fecret of the procefs for preparing it.
to the Royal Society of London in 1680. It isalfertedj
indeed, by Krafft, that he difeovered the fecret to Mf
Boyle, having in the year 1678 carried a fmall piece of
it to London, to Ihew it to the royal family •, but there
is little probability, that a man of fuch integrity as Mr
Boyle, would claim the difeovery of the procefs as his
own, and communicate it to the Royal Society, if this
had not been the cafe.
Mr Boyle communicated the procefs to Godfrey
Hankwitz, an apothecary of London, who for many
years
I ifpho-
;i6
E U in
lx
* Venu de
i' H. tom.
ii.i 282.
rll
Pibfs for
0i fning
G H E M I
years {upplied Europe with phorphorus; and hence it
went under the name of Englijh pkofphorus. Many
chemifts now attempted to produce phofphorus, and
different proceffes had been publifhed for the purpofe j
but it would appear that they rarely fucceeded.
In the year 1737, a ftranger having fold to the
French government a procets for making phofphorus,
the Academy of Sciences charged Dufay, Geoftroy,
Duhamel, and Hellot, to fuperintend it. The latter
publiihed an account of the experiment, which fuc¬
ceeded. Rouelle the elder exhibited phofphorus which
he had prepared, in the courfe which he opened at
Paris feme years after. In tlie year 1743, Margraaf
made a great improvement in the proccfs, but Hill it
continued to be obtained with difficulty, and in very
ftnall quantity. It was not till 30 years after that
conliderable improvement was made in the procefs for
procuring phofphorus.
In the year 1774, the Swediffi chemifts, Gahn and
Scheele, made the important difeovery, that phofpho¬
rus is contained in the bones of animals, and they im¬
proved the proceffes for procuring it.
2. The mod; convenient procefs for obtaining phof¬
phorus feems to be that recommended by Fourcroy and
Vauquelin*. Take a quantity of burnt bones, and re¬
duce them to powder. Put 100 parts of this powder
into a porcelain or itone-ware bafon, and dilute it with
four times its weight of water. Forty parts of fulphu-
ric acid are then to be added in fmall portions, taking
care to ftir the mixture after the addition of every por¬
tion. A violent effervefcence takes place, and a great
quantity of air is difengaged. Let the mixture remain
for 24 hours, fUrring it occafionally, to expofe every
part of the powder to the adtion of the acid. The
burnt bones confift of the phofphoric acid and lime '7
but the fulphuric acid has a greater affinity for the
lime than the phofphoric acid. The adtion of the ful¬
phuric acid uniting with the lime, and the feparation
of the phofphoric acid, occafion the effervefcence.
The fulphuric acid and the lime combine together, be¬
ing infoluble, and fall to the bottom.
Pour the whole mixture on a cloth filter, fo that the
liquid part which is to be received in a porcelain vef-
fel may pafs through. A white powder, which is the
infoluble fulphate of lime, remains on the filter. Af¬
ter this has been repeatedly wafhed with water, it may
be thrown away, but the water is to be added to that
part of the liquid which paffed through the filter.
Take a folution of fugar of lead in water, and pour
it gradually into the liquid in the porcelain bafon. A
■white powder falls to the bottom, and the fugar of
lead muft be added fo long as any precipitation takes
place. The whole is again to be poured upon a filter,
and the white powder which remains is to be well
■wafhed and dried. The dried powder is then to be
mixed with one-fixth of its weight of charcoal powder.
Put this mixture into an earthen-ware retort, and
place it in a fand bath with the beak plunged into a
veffel of water. Apply heat, and let it be gradually
inereafed, till the retort becomes red hot. As the
Phofphc-
S T R Y.
heat increafes, air-bubbles ruffi in abundance through
the beak of the retort, fome of which are inflamed
when they come in contact with the air at the furface v
of the water. A fubftancc at laft drops out firnilar to
melted wax, which congeals under the water. This is
phofphorus. # . .418
In this Hate the phofphorus is not quite pure. It isanci pun„
generally mixed with fome charcoal powder, and a tying it.
portion of half burnt pliofphorua, which give it a brown
colour. To have it quite pure,, melt in it warm wa¬
ter, and drain it feveral times through a piece of ffia-
moy leather under the furface of the water (h). To
mould it into flicks, take a glafs funnel with a long
tube, which muft be flopped with a cork. Fill it with
water, and put the phofphorus into it. Immerfe the
funnel in boiling water, and when the phofphorus is
melted, and flows into the tube of the funnel, then
plunge it into cold water, and when the phofphorus
has become folid, remove the cork, and pufti the phof-
phorus from the mould with a piece of wood. Thus
prepared, it malt be preferved in clofe veffels contain¬
ing pure water. 419
3. When phofphorus is perfedlly pure, it is femitranf- Propertief
parent, and has the confidence of wax. It is fo foft
that it may be cut with a knife. Its fpecific gravity
is from 1.770 to 2.033. ^ ^as an an<f diiagree-
able tafte, and a peculiao: fmelL fomewhat refembling
garlic. When a ftiolcof phofphorus is broken, it ex¬
hibits fome appearance of cryllallization. The cry-
ftals are needle-draped, or long oftahedrons j. but to
obtain them in their molt perfett Hate, the furface of
the phofphorus, juft when it becomes folid, ffiould be
pierced, that the internal liquid phofphorus may flow
out, and leave a cavity for their formation.
4. When phofphorus is expofed to the light, it be- A&ionof
comes of a reddiffi colour, which appears to be an in-light,
cipient combuftion. It is therefore neceffary to pre- ^2l.
fcrve it in a dark place. At the temperature of 990 of heat,,
it becomes liquid, and if air be entirely e^luded, it
evaporates at 219°, and boils at 5540. At the tem¬
perature of 430 or 440, it gives out a white fmoke,
and is luminous in the dark. This is a flow combuf¬
tion of the phofphorus, which becomes more rapid as
the temperature is raifed. When phofphorus is heated
to the temperature of 148°, it takes fire, burns with a
bright flame, and gives out a great quantity of white
fmoke.
Phofphorus enters into combination with oxygen,
azote, hydrogen, and carbone.
Sect. L Of the Combinations of Phosphorus with
OXTGEN.
Phofphoms enters into combinations with oxygen in
different proportions.
I. Oxide of Phofphorus.
When phofphorus is expofed to the light, or is kept in
water that is not freed from air, it foon becomes of a
white colour, having loft its tranfparency, and after¬
wards
(h) The leather fliould only be employed once, for the phofphorus which is ftramed through it.afterward
■will be coloured.
P4 C H E M I S T R Y.
Phofpho- wards changes to a brown. This Is the firft combination
ms‘ of oxygen with it, and being in the fmalleft proportion,
v and giving no acid properties to the compound, it has
been denominated an oxide of phofphorus. This thews
that it is neceflary to keep it excluded from air and
light. But phofphorus thus changed on the furface
may be freed from that part which is oxidated by a
very limple procefs. Difl'olve the phofphorus in warm
water, the whole melts except the oxidated part, which
remains at the furface, becaufe it is not foluble at the
fame temperature.
brilliant when the phofphorated azotic gas is let up in Plo1'/,'
to the jar of oxygen gas. nisi
42a
To liepa-
rate the
oxide.
Sf.ct. III. Of Phosphoiuzed arid Phosphorated
Htdrogen Gas.
456
II. Acids.
423 . , .
Produdlion. I» When phofphorus is burned in common air con¬
fined in a veffel, the combuftion is pretty rapid, and
continues till the whole of the oxygen be confumed^
A great quantity of white fumes are produced, and
when thefe fumes are mixed with water which abforbs
them, it is found to have acid properties. This is the
phofphoroui acid,, in which the oxygen is in fmaller
proportion than in the following, but greater than in
the oxide.
2. But when a fmall bit of phofphorus is introduced
into a jar filled with oxygen gas at the temperature of
6o°, it diffolves flowly, but does not appear luminous
till the temperature be raifed to 8o°, which (hews that
phofphorus requires a higher temperature to burn in
oxygen gas than in common air. And if the phofpho¬
rus be introduced into the oxygen gas, ivliich is per¬
fectly pure at a lower temperature, it undergoes no
change, gives out no fmoke, and is not luminous in
the dark. But when it is immerfed in a Hate of igni¬
tion into oxygen gas, it exhibits the moll brilliant
combuftion that can be conceived. The light which
is emitted is almoft as fplendid as that of the fun,
Splendid and is too powerful for the eye. During this com-
combuf- bullion, the oxygen gas difappears, it lofes its gafeous
tion. form, and.becomes folid in combination with the phof¬
phorus. It is during this change from the fluid to the
folid ftafe that the caloric is emitted ; and the light,
according to Gren’s theory of eombuftion, is given
out by the phofphorus. The produCI is a concrete
1’ubftance which adheres to the lides of the jar. This
is the phofphoric acid, in which there is a greater pro¬
portion of oxygen in combination with the phofphorus.
Thefe acids will be treated of in the chapter on acids.
Sect. II. Of Phosphorated Azotic Gas.
423
Pholphorus
combines
with azo¬
tic gas
without
emitting
light.
i;
1. At firft fight it feems difficult to explain the reafon
that phofphorus requires a higher temperature for its
combuftion in oxygen gas than in common’ air. But
the caufe of this lingular phenomenon appears by exa¬
mining the effefts of azotic gas on phofphorus. The
phofpnorus, which is readily converted into vapour at
a low temperature, combines with the azotic gas with¬
out combuftion, and therefore without giving out any
light. The azotic gas is thus faturated with the phof¬
phorus, and its bulk is increafed about -^■5. The
combination is denominated phofphorated azotic gar.
2. When oxygen gas is introduced into a jar filled
with this gas, it becomes luminous, becaufe there is a
combuftion of the phofphorus which is held in folution
by the azotic gas. The combuftion is more rapid and
1. When a piece of phofphorus is put into a jar fil-phofph
led with hydrogen gas, it does not appear luminous indiffoke
the dark. But, after having remained for feveralhydregq
hours, part of the phofphorus is diflblveck When this^dS‘
gas, to which Fourcrey and Vanquelin have given the
name of phofphorized hydrogen gas, is introduced into
a jar of oxygen gas, each bubble, as it paffes up and
comes in eonta£l with the gas, produces a very brilli¬
ant bluilh flame, which fills the whole veffel. This
effeft does not take place in atmofpheric air. This
gas holds in folution only a fmall proportion of phof¬
phorus j but it is owing to the combuftion of this por¬
tion that the flame appears in the oxygen gas. ihis^
gas has a lefs fetid odour than that which is next to be c^’1^
deferibed. It has, however, a flight fmell of gar-xx; j
lie *. ‘ 2
2. Phofphorated hydrogen gas was difeovered byHiftory.
M. Gengembre in 1783, by boiling a folution of pot-
afh on phofphorus j and by Mr Kirwan in the follow¬
ing year. Its nature and properties have been more
completely inveftigated by M. Raymond, in two pa¬
pers in the A/nnales de Chimie for 1791 and 1800. It
may be obtained by introducing a bit of phofphorus
-into ajar of hydrogen gas Handing over mercury, and
melting the phofphorus by means of a burning glafs.
The phofphorus is thus converted inta the ftate of va¬
pour, when the hydrogen gas diffolves a much greater
proportion. But a more fimple procefs has been re¬
commended by Raymond. ^5
Take two ounces of quicklime, flaked in the air, Proceffes |||
about 60 grs. of phofphorus, and half an ounce of wa- fcr obtau |
ter ; reduce the whole to a pafte, and put it immedi- lnS ^ !
ately into a fmall glafs or ftone-ware retort, the body
of which may be filled with the materials. Immerfe
the beak of the retort under water in the pneumatic
trough, and apply a moderate heat. As foon as the
retort is heated, the gas begins to come over ; and
when the bubbles come to the furface of the water in
contact with the air, they explode with flame and
fmoke. When the gas paffes off flowly the bubbles
are larger •, and when they reach the furface they ex¬
hibit an elegant appearance, forming, after explofion,
a beautiful coronet of white fmoke, which riles with
an undulatory motion to the ceiling, when the air is
ftill. When this gas is brought into contact with oxy¬
gen gas, the combuftion is more rapid and more bril-
liant. |
The products of the combuftion of this gas are phof- prJ^i, ^
phoric acid and water. The phofphorus which is held by com- [I
in folution by the hydrogen, combines with the oxy-buftion* „
gen, and forms phofphoric acid *, while the hydrogen
unites with another portion of oxygen and forms
water*. . 43o
This gas has a very fetid odour, which lias feme re- pr0penie!
femblance to the fmell of putrid filh. When pure wa¬
ter is agitated in contatt with this gas, it abforbs about
one-fourth of its bulk at the temperature of 50°. The
colour of the folution is not quite fo deep as that of
roll.
C H E M
>hur. roll fulphur. The fraell is ftrong and difagreeable,
and the tafte extremely bitter. It does not appear lu¬
minous in the dark. But when it is expofed nearly to
the temperature of boiling, the whole of the phofpho-
rated hydrogen gas is driven off unchanged, and the
water remains behind perfeftly pure. When the folu-
tion is expofed to the air, the oxide of phofphorus is
if L. de depofited, and the hydrogen gas efcapes *.
civo1*
'*'p‘ Sect. IV. Phosphubet of Carbone.
Phofphorus enters into combination with charcoal,
„0 and forms what Prouft, who difcovered it, denomi-
H | pro- nates phofphuret of carbone. It is produced during the
Ini- diftillation of phofphorus, and remains behind on the
leather, when it is drained through it to purify it from
this fubftance. It is of a red colour, and does not
melt like pure phofphorus. Id* it be diililled with a
gentle heat, there is feparated a fmall portion of phof¬
phorus which it contains in excefs. But the true com-
I 3I pound of phofphuret of carbone is not decempofed
A Ian of without a very ftrong heat. When the veffels have
»e-' cooled, there is found a light, flocculent powder, of a
lively orange red, which M. Prouft confiders as the
phofphuret of carbone. If it be expofed to a red heat
in the retort in which it is formed, the whole of the
phofphorus is driven off, and the charcoal remains be¬
hind. When this phofphuret is expofed to the open
air on a heated metallic plate, it burns rapidly j but
the charcoal which abforbs the phofphoric acid, as it
is formed, efcapes the combuftion. It lofes, in a ftiort
time, the property of burning, by being expofed to
the air, and then it may be preferved without any rilk
iMp.44. °f its catching fire fpontaneoufly f.
Chap. IX. Of SULPHUR.
i 3
forties.
^ pie i? Sulphur is a fimple undecompounded combufti-
uq nee. ble fubftance, which is univerfally diffufed in nature j
but moft commonly in a ftate of combination with mi¬
neral, vegetable, or animal matters. It is found in
fome mineral waters, but in greateft abundance in vol-
, eanic countries, where it is a valuable article of com¬
merce.
2. Sulphur, as it is extracted from minerals and pu¬
rified by art, is a hard brittle fubftance of a yellow
colour, which can be eafily reduced to powder. It is
always opaque, has a lamellated fracture, and be¬
comes eledtric by fridiion. The fpecific gravity, after
it is melted, does not exceed 1.9907. It has no fmell,
and very little perceptible tafte. When it is rubbed
fome time, it is volatilized, and diffufes a peculiar and
{lightly fetid odour, by which it is eafily diftinguifhed.
It leaves on the fkin which has been in contadt with it,
a very ftrong fmell, which remains for fome hours. It
is infoluble in water.
3. Light has no fenfible effedt on fulphur. But if a
roll of fulphur be held in the hand for a little, it be¬
gins to crackle, and at laft it breaks to pieces. When
a temperature equal to that of boiling water is applied
to fulphur, it melts, becomes liquid and tranfparent, and
changes to a brown red colour j but, on cooling, if the
fufion is not too long continued, it refumes the yellow
“tyitlizes. colour. If it be permitted to cool flowly, it cryftalli-
Vol. V. Part II.
pfjitl of
lea.
5
I S T R Y. 505
zes into prifmatic needles. The cryftals are better Sulphur,
formed by pouring out part of the liquid fulphur as ‘ v 1,1
foon as the furface has become folid. ^6
4. If the heat be continued it becomes thick and Becomes
vifeid , and if it be then poured into cold water, it re-vifeid.
tains its foftnefs, fo that it is employed for taking im-
preflions of foals and medals. In this ftate they are
c.'aSXcA fulphurs. When fulphur is expofod to heat injs futgim.
clofe veffels, it is volatilized or fublimed in the formed,
of a very fine powder, known under the name of
FLOWERS OF SULPHUR.
Sulphur enters into combination with oxygen, azote,
hydrogen, earbone, and phofphorus.
The combination of fulphur with azotic gas has been with azo¬
little examined. Part of the fulphur is diffolved, whentic gas.
it is heated in a veffel filled with the gas. This fulphu-
rated azotic gas, as it is called, has a fetid odour.
When the temperature is diminilhed, part of the ful¬
phur is depofited. It has been lately difcovered in the
mineral w aters of Aix-la-Chapelle.—We (hall confider
the other combinations of fulphur in the following foc-
tions.
Sect. I. Sulphur combined with Oxygen.
1. When fulphur is kept fome time in fufion in an Oxiclc.?
open veffel, it affumes a red colour, and becomes vifeid.
After it is cooled, it retains its red colour, which is ow¬
ing to the combination of oxygen in fmall proportion
with the fulphur. In this ftate it has been denomi¬
nated the oxide of fulphur. According to the experi¬
ments of Dr Thomfon, the oxide of fulphur, formed
by melting the fubftance in a deep veffel, is of a dark
violet colour, fibrous fradlure, and tough confiftence 3
the fpecific gravity is 2.325. It contained 2yg- per
cent, of oxygen. Another oxide, containing 6.2 per * S)ft- of
cent, of oxygen, was formed by paffmg a current ofhfm-
oxymuriatic acid gas through flowers of fulphur *. 1'" :i'
2. When fulphur is burnt in the open air, it emits Burnt in
a pale blue flame, with a great quantity of white common
fmoke. When thefe fumes are mixed with water, itair-
is found to poffefs acid properties. This is a combina¬
tion of fulphur with a greater proportion of oxygen
than exifts in the oxide, and is called fulphurous acid.
3. But when fulphur is burnt in oxygen gas, a very In oxygen
rapid combuftion takes place with a reddifli whitegas'
flame, and it combines with a greater proportion of
oxygen. When the fumes which are copioufly emit¬
ted during this combuftion are colledfted and mixed
Avith water, it exhibits the properties of an acid, which
is the fulphuric acid. Thus it appears, that fulphur
♦combines Avith oxygen in four different proportions.
In tAvo of thefe, in which the proportions are fmalleft,
the compounds are denominated oxides j but in the
tAvo others, in which the proportion of oxygen is in-
creafed, the compounds are acids, the properties oi
Avhich Avill be afterAi ards inveftigated.
Sect. II. Sulphurated Hydrogen Gas.
442
I. This gas may be procured by various proceffes. It Method of
may be obtained by making hydrogen gas pafs through procuring,
melted fulphur. In this Avay the hydrogen gas enters
into combination Avith fulphur. The fame gas may
alfo be obtained by melting together in a crucible
3 S equal
443.
Properties.
506 C H E M I
Sulphur. ' equal parts o£ iron filings and iulphur, by which means
v "’"'a black brittle mafs is formed, which is to be reduced
to powder, and introduced into a glafs veiTel Cfig. 6.)
with two mouths, the one of which has a Hopper A
and the other a bent tube B, accurately ground to
fit the mouths C, D. When the mixture of iron
filings and fulphur has been introduced into the phial,
the bent tube is to be fitted into the mouth, with the
other end under the furface of the water in the trough
E. The apparatus being thus prepared, pour in mu¬
riatic acid through the other opening, and immediate¬
ly clofe it with the ground Hopper. The fulphurated
hydrogen gas is copioufly difengaged, and fills the
glafs jar F, which is previoufly placed on the flielf to re¬
ceive it. This gas was formerly known by the name
of hepatic gar.
2. The odour is extrefnely foetid, refembling that from
the wafhings of a gun, or from rotten eggs, which is ow¬
ing to the extrication of the fame gas. The fpecific
gravity of this gas is 0.00135.
It is unfit for refpiration, and a taper immerfed in it
is extinguifhed, fo that it is alfo unfit for fupporting
combuHion. When it is inflamed in contact with at-
mofpheric air or oxygen gas, it burns with a reddifh
blue flame, and depofits a quantity of fulphur. Sulphur
alfo is depofited by fimple expofure to the air. From
this it appears, therefore, that the affinity of hydrogen
for oxygen is Hronger than for fulphur. During the
combuHion, the hydrogen unites with the oxygen, and
the fulpbur is depofited. It is from this depofition that
the fulphur found about mineral fprings, the waters of
which contain this gas, is derived.
3^ According to the experiments of Thenard, 100
parts by weight of fulphurated hydrogen gas contain
70.857 fulphur,
29.143 hydrogen.
444
Compoli-
tion.
100.000"
* Ann. de
xx'ii p.01" 4> Sulphurated hydrogen gas has the property of
icy. diilolving phofphorus. Fourcroy and Vauquelin intro¬
duced pieces of phofphorus into a jar filled with this
gas over mercury. After the phofphorus had been ex-
pofed to the gas for twelve hours, the atmofpheric air
was admitted, and there infiantly appeared a bluiih, vo-
Biffolves luminous flame. The bubbles of the gas diffufed in
pfiofphortts. the air, prefented by day light a white vapour, which
feemed to adhere like vifcid matter to the furface of the
mercury •, but in the dark, exhibited a very brilliant
light. The mercury in the trough in which the expe¬
riment was made, continued for fome minutes to give
out fparks of light by agitation. The bands plunged
into this gas, continued luminous for fome minutes, and
a fpongc introduced into it retained the fame property
| iZ.;V4 voL,£°r fome time in the airf.
5si. p. *07. 5. Sulphurated hydrogen gas is very readily abforb-
ed by water, and in this Hate it poffeffes fome of the
properties of an acid. It changes vegetable blues to a
red colour.
Sect. III. Carburet of Sulphur.
446
Vvi.h car- Sulphur and carbone combine together at a high
rune in cfif- temperature, and probably in different proportions $
44(
f-.rent pro¬
portions.
one of thefe combinations is liquid, at the ordinary
S T R Y.
temperature and preffure of the atmofphere. This is SulpJ
the carburet of fulphur. The following method of
preparing it is given by Clement and Deformes, who
have particularly invefligated the aft ion of fulphur and
charcoal.
2. Put a quantity of charcoal in {mall pieces, or in Prep;
powder previouffy dried, into a porcelain tube, which
is to pafs through a furnace that it may be expofed to
a red heat. The gas from the charcoal is to be allow¬
ed to efcape, before the other part of the apparatus is
adjufled. To that extremity of the porcelain tube
which contains the charcoal, fit a long glafs tube, fuf-
ficiently wide to contain a number of imall pieces of
fulphur, which may be puffied fucceffively into the
porcelain tube with an iron rod paffing through a cock
which clofes tire end of the tube. To the other extre¬
mity there is to be fitted another glafs tube, bent at the
end, that it may be immerfed in a vefiel of water in the
pneumatic trough. Heat is then to be applied till the
porcelain tube and the charcoal become red-hot, when
the pieces of fulphur are to be puflred flowly forward*
into the tube, and when it afts on the charcoal a yel¬
low liquid of an oily appearance pafi.es through the
tube. The beat being continued, it evaporates, and il
condenfed in the water of the veffel in which the tube
terminates, traverfing it in globules, which colleft toge¬
ther at the bottom. ^
The fuccefs of this experiment is fomewhat doubt-Prccr
ful. When fulphur is expofed fuddenly to a Hrong
heat, in place of being fublimed, it appears in fome mea-
fure fixed, and becomes foft by fulion. Sometimes it
pafles too rapidly through the charcoal to unite with it;
the pieces of fulphur, therefore, Humid be flowly intro¬
duced, and the tube, in paffing through the furnace,
ffiould be inclined from that extremity at which the ful¬
phur is introduced. 44
3. When the carburet of fulphur is pure, it is tranf-Proper
parent and colourlefs, but frequently has a greenifti-
yellow tinge. It has a difagreeable pungent odour.
The tafle is at firfl cooling, but afterwards becomes ex¬
tremely pungent. It is heavier than water, does not
mix w ith it,‘ and therefore remains at the bottom of the
veffel. The fpecific gravity of this liquor is various.
In one trial it was found to be 1.3. 45:
4. The carburet of fulphur evaporates at the ordi-Evapoi
nary temperature of the atmofphere, and increafes its
volume nearly as much as ether. When a quantity of
this liquor in a veffel of water is placed under the re¬
ceiver of an air pump, and the air exhaufled, it rifes
through the water in bubbles, and affumes the gafeous
form j and when the preffure of the air is reflored,
the gas is inffantly condenfed, and returns to the liquid
Hate. _ _ 451
5. The carburet of fulphur bums with great facility, Combui
and during the combuHion it emits a Hrong odour of^6,
fulphurous acid, depofites a little fulphur, which after¬
wards burns, and there remains fome black charcoal m
its ufual combuftible Hate. The air which holds carbu¬
ret of fulphur in folution, burns quietly; but when it is
mixed with oxygen gas, and brought in contaft with a
burning body, it explodes with prodigious violence, and
not without confiderable danger.
6. This fubftance unites with phofphorus, which it
very readily diffolves, but the folution is not more in¬
flammable than the phofphorus itfelf. It combines
alfo.
C H E M I
ids. alfo with a finall quantity of fulphur, but without any
' other change in its properties than becoming a little
deeper coloured. It feems to have no aftion ©n char-
*lto. de
C, vol.
!?• I34>
i j4S»
p:-ara»
453
C [bined
Sect. IV. Sulphuret of Phosphorus.
1. Sulphur and phofphorus combine together in all
proportions. If one part of phofphorus with eight
times its weight of fulphur, be put into a matrafs, with
32 parts of diftilled water j on the application of a
gentle heat, the phofphorus melts and diflblves the ful¬
phur. The new compound affumes a yellow colour, and
remains fluid, till it is cooled down to the temperature
of 770, when it becomes folid. This fubftance is the
fulphuret of phofphorus. In other cafes, when the pro¬
portion of phofphorus exceeds that of the fulphur, it is
called a phofphuret of fulphur.
2. The compounds of fulphur and phofphorus have
been particularly inveftigated by Pelletier, and he has
p ,1
ft,tie.
f\urcroy
t.mjs.
CM- tom.
i, i 201.
remain fluid at 950
59
I more found that the compound is always more fufible than
either of the uncombined conftituents. The following
table exhibits the refults of his experiments f.
8 Phofphorus"
I Sulphur
4 Phofphorus
I Sulphur
I Phofphorus 1
•§ Sulphur 5
I Phofphorus 1
1 Sulphur j
1 Phofphorus’
2 Sulphur
1 Phofphorus
• 3 Sulphur
All thefe compounds, therefore, it mull appear, are
more fufible than the phofphorus itfelf, and much more
fo than the fulphur.
Ir54. 3. In making thefe combinations, great caution
Rorocefs ^10u^ °hferved ; for if the heat be applied fuddenly,
| ‘even when the fubftances are under water, a violent ex-
plofion fometimes takes place, from the fudden forma¬
tion and extrication of the fulphurated and phofphorated
hydrogen gafes.
50
41
72
99
Chap. X. Of ACIDS.
I. We have feen, in defcribing the different fub¬
ftances which have been treated of in the five pre¬
ceding chapters, that they all, excepting one, com¬
bine with oxygen in different proportions. Hydrogen
combines with oxygen only in one proportion, and this
compound is water. The firft portion of oxygen ■which
S T R Y, 507
combines with the other lour fubftances, namely azote, Acid -,
carbone, phofphorus, and fulphur, forms with them com-
pounds which, poffeffing no acid properties, have receiv¬
ed the name of oxides (1). 456
2. But when thefe fubltances combine with a great- Acids,
er proportion of oxygen, they exhibit very different
properties ; and poffeffed of thefe properties, they are
ranked among the clafs of acids. The fubftances
which poffefs the following properties are referred to
this clafs.
a. They redden vegetable blue colours (k). Diftindtive
b. They poffefs a peculiar tafte, which is well known characters,
by the terms acid or four.
c. They combine with water in all proportions.
d. They enter into chemical combination with alka¬
lies, with earths, and metallic oxides, and form with
them compounds which have been denominated falls. «
3. The acids are a very important clafs of bodies, importance
and not merely on account of their peculiar properties, of acids,
and the fingular and ufeful compounds which they
form with other fubftances, but alfo as they are the in-
ftruments of analyfis in the hands of the chemift for
difeovering the properties and combinations of the ob-
je£is of his fcience.. Without their aid he can fcarce-
ly move a fingle ftep in his inveftigations. It was
therefore neceffary to introduce the account of the
acids in this place, that we might be early acquainted
with the means of profecuting our refearches. 459
4. Acids which have the fame bafe, combine with hToniencla.
oxygen in different proportions. Thus, for inftance,Uire*
fulphur combines with oxygen in two proportions.
The IOO parts of one compound contain 32 of oxy¬
gen, and the ICO parts of the other contain 38 parts.
The charafteriftic properties of thefe compounds are
totally different. It is therefore neceffary that they
fhould be diftinguiftied by feme appropriate name, and
this accordingly has been attended to in the conftruc-
tion of the prefent chemical nomenclature. The name
of the acid is derived from the bafe, and this name has
a different termination according to the proportion of
the oxygen combined with its bafe. With the fmali-
eft proportion the name terminates in the fyllable ous ;
with the greater proportion, it terminates in the fylla¬
ble ic. Thus, in the cafe of the acid formed with ful¬
phur, that compound in which there is the fmaller pro¬
portion of oxygen is denominated the fulphurous acid ;
the other, which has the greater proportion of oxygen
is the fulphuric acid. In the fame way when phofphorus
combines with oxygen in the fmalleft proportion which
gives it acid properties, it is called thephofphorous acid;
in the greater proportion, the phofphoric acid. And
thus by the fimple change of the termination, the name
is descriptive of the peculiar ftate of the proportions in
the compound.
3 S 2 Sect.
(i) Perhaps the combination of oxygen and azote, as they exift in atmofpheric air, fliould be excepted. It is
to the combination of oxygen in greater proportion with azote than exifts in atmofpheric air, that the name of
oxide is given. But philofophers are not agreed whether atmofpheric air is to be confidered as a chemical com¬
bination, or a mechanical mixture.
(k) Hence vegetable blue infufions, or paper ftained with them, are employed as tefts to dilcover acids.
Thefe are fometimes called fe-agents. A great variety of fubftances are employed for this purpofe, fuch as the
infufion and tin6Iure of litmus and of turnlole, the fyrup of violets, the infufion of the flowers of mallow or red
cabbage.
CHEMISTRY.
Sect. I. Of Sulphuric Acid.
460
N amcs.
461
Hiftory.
462
1. The name of fulphuric acid is given to the com¬
bination of fulphur and of oxygen, with the greateft
proportion of the latter. It was formerly called vitri¬
olic acid, becaufe it w as obtained by diilillation from
vitriol, w'hich is a compound of fulphuric acid and an
oxide of iron. When it is ftrongly concentrated, it has
a fluggifh appearance ; hence it wras called 01/of vitriol.
It has alfo been denominated oleum fulphuris per cam-
panam, becaufe it w as obtained by burning fulphur un¬
der a glafs bell.
2. The ancients were unacquainted with this acid.
Pliny fpeaks of vitriols, which were ufed for different
purpofes, in fome of which it was probably decompo-
fed. Sulphur was burnt in facrifices, but in neither
cafe was the producl attended to. Bafil Valentine is
the firlt who mentions this acid, about the end of the
15th century. Agricola and Paracelfus have alfo
fpoken of it, but Dornseus is the firit who defcribed it
diflin611y, in the year 1570.
3. If a quantity of flowers of fulphur be expofed to
a degree of heat fuflieient to inflame it, and if, v'hen it
is in a ftate of ignition, it be introduced into a jar filled
with oxygen gas, it burns with great fplendor, and e-
Formation mits a great quantity of white fumes. Thefe fumes
by experi- be condenfed, by pouring a fmall quantity of water
incnt' into the jar, and when this is examined, it is found to
poffefs acid properties. This is the fulphuric acid. It
is procured, as appears by this experiment, by burning
- fulphur in oxygen gas.
And in the 4- The procefs for obtaining fulphuric acid in the
large way. large way is the following. A mixture of fulphur and
nitre is burnt in leaden chambers. The ufe of the ni¬
tre is to fupply a quantity of oxygen for the combuf-
tion of the fulphur. There is a little vrater in the bot¬
tom of the veffels, which ferves to condenfe the va¬
pours given out during the combuftion. The acid
W'hich is obtained in this way is very weak, for it is
diluted with the water in which it was condenfed,
which w'ater may be feparated by diftillation. Even
after this it is ufually contaminated with a little lead
4g4 from the veffels, fome potalh, and fometimes nitric and
Purification fulphurous acids. To obtain it perfeftly pure, the ful¬
phuric acid of commerce muff be diftilled. This pro¬
cefs is conduced by putting a quantity of the acid in¬
to a retort, and expofing it to a degree of heat fuffi-
cient to make it boil. The beak of the retort is put
into a receiver, in which the acid, as it comes over, is
condenfed.
5. The acid, thus purified, is a tranfparent colour-
lefs liquid, of an oily confiftence. It has no fmell, but
a ftrong acid tafte. It deftroys all animal and vege¬
table fubftances. It reddens all vegetable blues. It
always contains wrater. When this is driven oft by a
moderate heat, the acid is faid to be concentrated.
When as much concentrated as poflible, the fpecific
gravity is 2, or double that of w ater j but it can rarely
be obtained of greater denfity than 1.84.
6. Sulphuric acid fuffers no change from being
expofed to the light. It boils at the temperature of
^46q, or, according to Bergman, 540°. When this
acid is deprived of its caloric, it is fufceptible of con¬
45S
Properties.
466
Action of
heat.
461
gelation, and even of cryftallizatien, in fiat, fix-fided Aciq!
prifms, terminating in a fix-fided pyramid. It cryftal-
lizes molt readily, when it is neither too much con¬
centrated, nor diluted with wrater. Of the fpecific gra¬
vity of 1.65 it cryftallizes at the temperature of a few
degrees below the freezing point of w ater. Of the
fpecific gravity of 1.84 it refills the greateft degree of
cold. Chaptal obferved it cryllallize at the tempera¬
ture of 48°, and Mr Keir found that it froze at 43° of
the fpecific gravity of 1.78.
7. Sulphuric acid has a ftrong attradlion for water. Attra^
In fome experiments that have been made, fulphuric water
acid, when expofed to the atmofphere, attradled above
fix times its weight of w ater. When four parts of con¬
centrated fulphuric acid, and one part of ice at the tem¬
perature of 3 2°, are mixed together, the moment they
come in contaft the ice melts, and the temperature
rifes to 212°. A greater quantity of caloric is given
out when the two bodies are mixed together in the li¬
quid ftate. If four parts of the acid and one of water
are fuddenly mixed together, the temperature of the
mixture rifes to about 300°. This extrication of calo¬
ric, it is obvious, arifes from the hidden condenfation of
the two liquids, the medium bulk of which is confider-
bly lefs than the two taken together.
8. So great is the attraction of this acid for water,
that the ftrongeft that can be prepared can fcarcely be determin
fuppofed to be entirely free from it. It has therefore ing the
greatly occupied the attention of chemical philofophers(luant’t)''
to determine the proportions of real acid and water,
in fulphuric acid of any given fpecific gravity. This
fubjeft has been inveftigated by Wenzel, Wiegleb,
and Bergman, and more lately and fuccefsfully by Mr 459
Kirwan. His method was the following. Eighty-fix Mr *ir'
grains of potalh, diffolved in water, were faturated with"3”8,
fulphuric acid of a known fpecific gravity. The folution
being turbid, water was added till the fpecific gravity
wras 1.03 at temperature 6o°. The whole weight was
now equal to 3694 grains. Forty-five grs. of fulphate
of potalh diffolved in 1017 grs. of diftilled water, had
the fame fpecific gravity at the temperature 6o°.
Hence the proportion of fait in each folution was
equal. But in the laft, the quantity of fait W'as
then the quantity of fait in the former was ::=
163.45 grains. Of this quantity only 86 were alkali j
the remainder, therefore, viz. 77.45 grains, were acid,
or acid and water. The quantity of acid employed in
the faturation amounted to 79 grs. ftandard j but the
quantity of acid taken up was only 77.45 grs. there¬
fore x.55 were rejefted, and confequently were mere
water, therefore the acid taken up is ftronger than
ftandard ; and fince 79 parts ftandard lofe 1.55 by
cpmbining with pure potalh, 100 parts ftandard ihould
Ipfe 1.96 *, or 98.04 parts of acid of the ftrength of
what is found in fulphate of potalh, contains as much
real acid as 100 parts ftandard. Hence 100 parts of
this ftrong acid are nearly equivalent to 102 of ftand¬
ard. Therefore, 100 parts of potalh take up nearly
92 of ftandard fulphuric acid, or 82 of the ftrongeft,
and afford 182 of fulphate of potalh. Mr Kirwan
thinks there is no reafon to ffuppofe that the fulphate oi
potalh
CHEMISTRY.
pritaih contains any water of eryilallization. One hun¬
dred grs. expofed to a red heat for half an hour fell in¬
to powder, and loft only a Angle grain *.
It having been fuggefted by Guyton-Morveau, Mr
Kirwan obferves, that the denfities of mixtures of ful-
phuric acid and water being greater than what is found
by calculation, Ihould be afcribed to the condenfation
of the aqueous part, rather than to that of the acid j
this led him to confider of a different method from
what he had formerly-employed in determining the
quantity of real acid in fulphuric acid of different den¬
fities. Sulphuric acid of the fpecific gravity of 2.000
which is the ftrongeft that can be produced by art,
was taken as the ftandard of the ftrength of all other W
acids. He could not procure the acid of this ftrength
at the temperature of 6o°. But from many experi¬
ments made with acids of inferior denfity, as 1.8846,
1.8689, 1.8042, 1.7500, he concludes, that the conden¬
fation of equal weights of this ftandard acid and water
amounts to -JTth of the whole. Then by applying Mr
Pouget’s formula (l) for inveftigating the increafed
denfities of inferior proportions of acid and water, the
fucceflive incremfoits of denfity will be found as in the-
following table.
Parts.
509
Acids.
(l) The formula here alluded to was invented by M. Pouget in the inveftigation of the fpecific gravity of al¬
cohol mixed with water in different proportions j and he has given a detailed account of his method in a letter
addreffed to Mr Kirwan, which is inferted in the Tranfadtions of the Royal Irilh Academy, vol. iii. p. 157.
Having purified alcohol by repeated diftillations, the fpecific gravity at the temperature 65.75 * was found
to be 0.8199. This he took for his ftandard. And confidering the fpecific gravity as the means of dif-
covering the increafe of denfity, or the diminution of volume, he thought the quantities in the mixture would
be beft determined, not by the difference of weight, but of volume. He therefore took ten mixtures, the
firft containing nine meafures of alcohol and one of water, the fecond eight tneafures of alcohol and two
of water, and fo on to the laft, which contained only one meafure of alcohol and nine of water. But as the
real meafures are always uncertain, he weighed them to afeertain the fpecific gravity. Thus 10,000 grains
of water and 8199 of alcohol formed a mixture of equal parts in bulk. Knowing the real fpecific gravi¬
ties of mixtures of alcohol and water, taking a mean of a great number of obfervations made at the fame
temperature, and comparing them with the fpecific gravities found direflly by calculation, he thus deduces
the increafe of denfity or the diminution of volume produced in the whole mafs by the mutual penetra¬
tion of the fluids. For calling A the real fpecific gravity, and B the fpecific gravity found by calcula¬
tion, » the number of meafures which compofe the whole mafs, «—x that to which it is reduced by mutual
penetration, it is evident, fince this increafe of denfity does not diminilh the weight of the whole mafs, that
   g A b
n B—n—x x A. Then xzz—-— X making —-r—, which expreffes the diminutions of bulk, or the
quantity of fluid abforbed during the mixture.
The following table contains the refult of Pouget’s experiments, or the diminutions of volume which is fuppofed
to be z: l of each of the mixtures, calculated according to the formula.
From this table it appears that the numbers which exprefs the diminution of bulk follow a regfllar pre-
greffion. The greateft correfpond to the mixtures of equal parts, and they decreafe towards each end of the
progrefllon. They muft therefore be regulated by fome general law. M. Pouget thinks that the alcohol
may
Acids.
C H E M I
Paif» Increments
Water. Standard. ef Denfity.
95 5°252
90 ,0479
85 ,0679
80 ,0856
75 >o699
70 ,1x19
65 ,1213
60 >I279
55 *
50
14 By adding, fays Mr Kirwan, thefe increments to
the fpecific gravities found by calculation, and taking
3
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
S T R Y.
arithmetical mediums for the intermediate quantities of Acic;
ftandard, I made out the firft 50 numbers of the fol- ‘“■“v'
lowing table; the remainder was formed by a&ual ob-
fervation in the following manner, premifing that the
fpecific gravities were always taken between 59,3° and
6o°, or at moft 60,5° of Fahrenheit.
“ 1 ft, I found by tire preceding part of the table
that 100 parts of fulphuric acid, whofe fpecific gravity
was 1.8472, contained 88.5 parts ftandard j cenfequent-
ly 400 grs. of this acid contain 354.
“ 2dly, I then took fix portions of this acid, each
containing 400 grs. and added to them as much w ater
as made them contain refpeftively 48.46. 44.42.40. and
38. grains ftandard. To find the proportion of water
that
may be conceived as being diffolved in the water which has abforbed or retained part of it in its pores.
The quantity abforbed ought to be in the ratio of that of the folvent and the body diffolved, and each meafure
of water will retain quantities of alcohol proportional to the number of meafures of this fluid in the mixture.
Thus, for example, in a mixture formed of nine meafures of alcohol and one of water, this meafure of water
will abforb a quantity of alcohol = 9 : and in another mixture of eight meafures of alcohol with two of water,
each meafure of wrater will contain a quantity of alcohol = 8. Confequently the diminutions of bulk of each
mixture are iti a ratio compounded of the number of meafures of alcohol and of water which form it 5 and in
the table above, as 1X9, 2 X 8, 3 X 7, 4 X 6, 5 X5, &c. And in general taking for a conflant quantity the
diminution of bulk w ith equal meafures, and calling it c; calling the whole number of meafures n ; the number
of meafures of alcohol in any mixture, x, and the increafe of denfity or diminution of volume z, we (hall have
c:«::-X“:w—# X # : and Brr — X***—'• 0r making nm, 4 ca;—-4C.V*. The increafe of denfity,
2 2 "2
calculated according to the formula, correfponds pretty nearly with experiments j for in all mixtures in which the
alcohol is in greater quantity than water, but not in thofe cafes in which the water is in greateft proportion,
the real increafe of denfity is much lefs than by calculation, and the differences become more confiderable as
the quantity of water is increafed. M. Pouget thinks, that when the quantity of water is greater than that of
alcohol, the law of abforption is difturbed ; and he conjeftures that it is owing to the attra&ion of the particles
of the water among themfelves, which confequently oppofe their Union with any other fubftance. But when
the alcohol forms at leaft the half of the w'hole mafs, the diminutions of bulk are as the products of the numbers
■which exprefs the proportions of alcohol and water forming the mixture: they may be reprefented by the formula
25 4cnx 4CX ' -gy 14^ formula may be determined the ftrength of fpirits of wine of commerce, or the
«*
number of parts of water and ftandard alcohol of which they are compofed.
The number of meafures of the whole mafs or the bulk - =1
The number of meafures of alcohol in any mixture - - = a?
The diminution of bulk of equal parts by experiment - - =: e
The diminution of bulk of a mixture containing a! meafures of alcohol by hypothefis = 4 c.v—4^2
The fpecific gravity of water - - - = a
Specific gravity of alcohol - - - = ^
Specific gravity of the unknown mixture - - = y 
Since the increafe of denfity does not change the weight of the ttiafs, we fhall have 1—* X a + ^ v
= 1—/\cx-\- ^cx'y^y. # . r • j k
By this equation may be found the value of x or the proportion of alcohol, having previoufly afcertamed the
fpecific gravity of the mixture, and to determine this fpecific gravity, or the value *f y by knowing the proi
portions of alcohol. Hence,
x=o.$-
%cy
-ax-\-bx
/a—y+ta—b
* 4<-y \8ry
~s)"
y 1—4.cx-\-qcx*
And making tfzzJ,£=0.8199, c=0.0288
O.1801 . / 1—7/
it.-—O.t 1-^— —
0.2304^ 0.1132^
I 0.l801 A?
“ I 0.1132# 4-O.II52*
/ 0.l80I \
f ( o*5 )
^ V0.23047 '
CHEMISTRY.
that ihould be added to each portion of acid, in order
that it fliould contain the given proportion of ftandard^
£ ufed the following analogy : Let the quantity of wa¬
ter to be added to 400 parts of the acid that the mix¬
ture may contain 48 per cent, rtandard be x.
Then 400-i-x. 354 : : 100. 48, then ipaoo-J-qSa?
=35400.
Q < A J 16200
And 48^=35400—19200=16200. And x— 5—
48
=337,5- . it . . r
“ In this manner I found the quantities of water to
be added to each of the other portions. The mix¬
tures being made, they were fet by for three days,
ilirring them with a glafs rod (that remained in them)
each day, and the 5th day they were tried ; after which
the half of each was taken out and as much w^ater ad¬
ded to them, and then fet by for three days, by which
means the fpecific gravities correfponding to 24. 23.
22. 21. 20. and 19. per cent, ftandard were found, af¬
ter which fix more portions of 400 grs. each of the
-concentrated acid, whofe fpecific gravity was 1,8393,
were taken, the proper proportion of w'ater added to
each, and after three days reft and repeated agitation,
their denfities in temperature 6o° were examined as
above, by wdiich means the fpecific gravities correfpond-
ing to 36. 34. 32. 30. 28. and 26. per cent, ftandard
were obtained, and half thefe portions mixed with half
water exhibited, after three days reft and agitation, the
denfities correfponding to 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. and 13. per
cent, ftandard in the above temperature. The balance
I ufed turned with TV of a grain when charged with
two ounces, and the folid employed was a fmall glafs
ball containing mercury which loft 27,88 grs. of its
weight when weighed in water in temperature 56°,
fufpended commonly by a horfe hair, but when dipped
in ftrong nitrous and marine acids it is fufpended by a
fine gold wire, and then loft 27,78 grs. of its weight
in water.
“ I alfo examined and rectified, in feme inftances,
many parts of the firft 50 numbers of the table in the
fame manner, but in general I found them juft.
Table of the Quantity of the Standard Sulphuric Acid
2,coo in Sulphuric Acid of inferior Denftty.
Standard
100 Parts. Temp. 6oc
2,000
L9859
L9579
I»9439
I,9299
1,9168
1,9041
1,8914
1,8787
1,8660
1,8542
1,8424
1,8306
1,8188
1,8070
100
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
too Parts. Standard
I,7959
1,7849
L7738
1,7629
I,75I9
i,74i6
I,7312
1,7208
1,7104
1,7000
1,6899
1,6800
1,6701
1,6602
1,6503
1.6407
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
100 Parts. Standard,
1,6312
1,6217
I,6l22
1,6027
1,5932
1,584°
1,5748
1,5656
L5564
L5473
i,5385
1,5292
1,5202
1,5112
1,5022
i,4933
68
67
66
65
64
63
62
61
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
TABLE Continued.
Standard
too Parts. I'emp. 6cc
1,4844
i,4755
1,4666
1,4427
1,4189
1,4099
1,4010
1,3875
i,374i
1,3663
1,3586
i,3473
i,336c>
i,3254
I,3I49
1,3102
1,3°56
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
too Parts. Standard.
L2951
1,2847
1,2757
1,2668
1,2589
1,2510
1,2415
1,2320
1,2210
1,2101
1,2009
1,1918
1,1836
1,1746
1,1678
I,l6X4
1,153!
35
34
33
S2
3i
3°
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
100 Parts. Standard,
1,1398
1,1309
1,1208
1,1129
1,1011
L0955
l8
17
16
*5
14
13
1,0896
1,0833
1,0780
1,0725
1,0666
1,0610
1,0555
1,0492
1,0450
1,0396
I»°343
12
11
.10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
The laft: eleven numbers were only found by analo¬
gy, obferving the feries of decrements in the four pre¬
ceding denfities, and therefore are to be confidered
barely as approximations.
“ To reduce vitriolic acids of given denfities, at any
degree of temperature between 490 and 70°, to that
which they (hould have at temperature 6o°, in order that
their proportion of ftandard may be thereby inveftigat-
ed, I made the following experiments:
Degrees of
Temperature
7°
65
60
55
5°
49
Sp. Gr. of
A.
1,8292
1,8317
1,8360
1,8382
1,8403
1,8403
Sp. Gr. of
B.
1,6969
1,6983
1,7005
1,7037
1,7062
Sp. Gr. of
C.
1,3845
1,3866
1,3888
1,3898
1,3926
“ Hence we fee that vitriolic acid, whofe denfity at
any degree between 490 and 6oG refembles or ap¬
proaches the correfponding denfity in the column A,
gains or lofes 0,00126 of its fpecific gravity by every
two degrees between 6o° and 70° of Fahrenheit, and
o,coo86 by every two degrees between 490 and 6o°.
“ Secondly, That any vitriolic acid, whofe denfity
at any degree between 50° and 70° refembles or ap¬
proaches to the correfponding denfity in the column B,
gains or lofes 0,00158 for every two degrees between
6o° and 70°; and 0,0017 by every tw'o degrees be¬
tween 50° and 6o°. Whence it appears that the
ftronger acid is lefs altered by variation of temperature
than the weaker, which formerly appeared to me an
irregularity, but now feems to proceed from the in¬
ert afe of the accrued denlity, when larger propor¬
tions of water are mixed with the ftronger acid.
“ 3dly, Sulphuric acid, whofe denfity at any degree
between 50° and 70° refembles the correfponding at
the fame degree in the column C, gains o*--lofes 0.00086
f0V:
r5T2
Acids.
* Irith
Tranf vol.
iv. p. 7.
470
Gompoii-
tion.
471
Aftion
v/ith hy¬
drogen.
47*
Charcoal.
CHEMISTRY.
Tor every two degrees between 6o° and 70° inclu-
fively, and 0.00076 between 50° and 6o°. Between
450 and 50° I could perceive no difference *.
9. Attempts have been made to determine the pro¬
portion of oxygen and fulphur, which enter into the
compofition of fulphuric acid. According to the ex¬
periments of Lavoifier, in which he meafured the quan¬
tity of oxygen abforbed, by a given weight of fulphur
during combuftion, the proportions are,
Affi4?7 !
, 473
Phoiphorus,
474
Sulphur.
475
Sulphates.
475
Ufes.
71 fulphur,
29 oxygen.
100
But other methods have been adopted, which promife
more accurate refults. Thefe are, by decompofing
other fubftances which contain oxygen, by means of
fulphur. According to the experiments of Mr Che-
nevix, conduced in this way, the fulphuric acid con-
fifts of
61.5 fulphur,
38.5 oxygen.
100.0
10. Sulphuric acid does not combine with oxygen,
nor has it any aflion wuth azotic gas.
1 r. It appears that hydrogen has a greater affinity
for oxygen, than the fulphur has, and therefore the ful¬
phuric acid is decompofed by means of hydrogen gas.
In the cold there is no aftion between hydrogen gas
and fulphuric acid 5 but if they are made to pafs
through a red-hot porcelain tube, the acid is decom¬
pofed j water is formed and fulphur is precipitated.
When hydrogen gas is employed in a greater propor¬
tion than the half of the acid, the fuperabundant gas
diflblves the fulphur, and is difengaged in the form of
fulphurated hydrogen gas.
12. Charcoal has no aftion on fulphuric'acid in the
cold but at the boiling temperature, it decompofes it,
/and converts it into fulphurous acid. If a piece of
red-hot charcoal be immerfed in a quantity of concen¬
trated fulphuric acid, part of the acid is fuddenly dif-
engaged under the form of thick white fumes, accom¬
panied with fulphurous acid gas. The fulphuric acid
is decompofed ; part of its oxygen is attracted by the
charcoal, forming carbonic acid, and thus it is reduced
to the loweft proportion of oxygen, in the Hate of ful¬
phurous acid.
13. A limilar effect is produced by phofphorus.
Phofphorus, with the afftltance of heat, partially de¬
compofes the fulphuric acid, by abftrafting part of its
oxygen. Phofphoric acid is formed, and fulphurous
acid driven off.
14. In the cold, fulphur has no aftion on fulphuric
acid •, but, when they are boiled together, the fulphur
is partly diffolved in the acid, and converts it into ful¬
phurous acid. The fulphur which has been added com¬
bines with the oxygen, which is neceffary for the con-
ititution of fulphuric acid, and thus the whole is con¬
verted into fulphurous acid.
1 5. Sulphuric acid combines with alkalies, the earths,
and the metals, forming falts j which in the prefent
language of chemiftry, are denominated fulphates.
16. This acid is employed in great quantity in many
arts and manufaftures. It is employed alfo in me- Acid,
dicine and pharmacy j the preparation of it, there- '"““v*'
fore, has long been an object of confiderable impor¬
tance.
17. The affinities of fulphuric acid are the follow-
ing;
Barytes,
Strontites,
* Potaffi,
Soda,
Lime,
Magnefia,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Yttria,
Alumina,
Zirconia,
Oxide of Zinc,
Iron,
Manganefe,
Cobalt,
Nickel,
Lead,
Tin,
Copper,
Bifmuth,
Antimony,
Arfenic,
Mercury,
Silver,
Gold,
Platina.
Sect. II. Of Sulphurous Acid.
478
1. According to the explanation of the nomencla-Names, 1
ture of the acids, the term fulphurous ffiows that this
acid is in its diminiffied ftate of combination with oxy¬
gen. It was formerly called fpirit of fulphur^ and vo- 479
lati/e fulphurous acid. Although the ancients mull Hiftory.
have been acquainted with fome of its properties, as it
is formed during the flow combuftion of fulphur, yet
Stahl is the firft chemift who examined it with atten¬
tion. He fuppofed that it was the fulphuric acid com¬
bined with his imaginary principle of phlogifton. Hence
he called it phlogiflicated fulphuric acid. It was not
till the year 1774 that its nature and compofition were
difeovered by the labours of Prieftley and Lavoifier.
Berthollet afterwards invefligated the formation, de-
compofition, combinations, and ufes of this acid. Four- ^ ^ ^
croy and Vauquelin * alfo have examined many oichim_\0f
its properties, efpecially the faline compounds which xxiv.p. nj
it forms, fo that now its properties are well known. ^g0
2. The fulphurous acid exifts in nature in great Abundant
abundance, and particularly in the neighbourhood of in nature,
volcanoes. It is difengaged from fome lavas in a ftate of
fufion, and from the foil wffiich is impregnated with ful- 4Sl
phur, when a fufficient degree of heat is applied. It waspja-tnal t0
by the vapours of fulphurous acid that Pliny the natur-
alift was ftiffocated in the eruption of Mount Vefuvi-
us, which deftroyed Herculaneum, in the 79th year be¬
fore the Chriftian aera. 4S2
3. When fulphur is burnt in the open air, the fumes ponnation.
that are generated by this flow combuftion, are fulphu¬
rous acid. It was in this way that this acid was for¬
merly
G H E M
is. meriy obtained. The method of procuring it, which is
now followed, is to decompofe the fulphuric acid by
means of any fubftance which deprives it of part of its
oxygen. If one part of mercury and two parts of
concentrated fulphuric acid be expofed to heat in a
glafs retort, the mixture effervefees, and a gas is dif-
engaged, which may be collefted in jars over mercury.
In this procefs the mercury attracts part of the oxygen
of the fulphuric acid, and leaves behind that portion
which contlitutes the fulphurous acid,
i dilate 4. Sulphurous acid thus obtained is in the date of
•jL gas, and it is an elaftic, invifible, and colour Ids fluid,
{4 like common air. It is rather more than double the
rc ities. weight of atmofpheric air. Its fpecific gravity is
0.00246; 100 cubic inches weigh nearly 63 grains.
It has a (harp pungent fmell; it is unfit for refpiration,
and for fupporting combuftion. It reddens vegetable
blues, and then dellroys the greater number of them.
It is on account of this property that the fumes of ful-
phur are employed to remove the itains of fruit from
linen, and that the fulphurous acid is often ufed in
bleaching.
A 1 5. Sulphurous acid gas refra&s the light firongly,
itia- without undergoing any change. When it is ftrongly
A heated, as in a red-hot porcelain tube, it remains un¬
altered, according to the experiments of Fourcroy.
But Dr Prieftley and Berthollet found that it depofi-
ted fulphur after long expofure to heat. At the tem¬
perature of —310 it becomes liquid. This property,
which diftinguithes it from other gafes, and which was
difeovered by Monge and Clouet, Fourcroy thinks is
owing to the water it holds in folution.
Lift , 6. When fulphurous acid is in the form of gas, it
■n does not readily combine with oxygen. In its fluid
form it unites more freely, and is converted into ful¬
phuric acid. In making a mixture of fulphurous acid
gas and oxygen pafs through a red-hot tube, they com¬
bine together, and are converted into fulphuric acid.
There feems to be no aftion between fulphurous acid
and azotic gas.
itltv- 7. Hydrogen gas has no a61 ion on fulphurous acid
a*' gas in the cold ; but when a mixture of thefe gafes is
made to pafs through a red-hot tube, fulphurous acid is
decompofed ; the hydrogen combines with the oxygen
and forms water, and fulphur is depofited. If the hy¬
drogen gas be in greater proportion than the oxygen
contained in the fulphurous acid, it diflblves part of
the fulphur, and pafles off in the form of fulphurated
hydrogen gas.
ithliiar. 8. Its action with charcoal is fomewhat fimilar. In
il. the cold there is no effedl; but expofed together to a
red heat, carbonic acid is formed, by the union of car-
. bone and oxygen, and fulphur is depofited.
ith of- 9- There is no aftion whatever between phofphorus
m 1 and fulphurous acid gas ; but phofphorated hydrogen
H 1 gas is decompofed by this acid. When the twro gafes
1 come in eontatt, a white thick vapour is produced ;
fulphur combined with phofphorus in the folid ftate is
depofited, and water is formed.
Ipkn- 10. Sulphur has no aftion on this acid ; but fulphu-
M >- rated hydrogen gas, at the inftant it comes in contaft
1S with fulphurous acid gas, is condcnfed ; folid fulphur
is depofited, and water is formed, with the extrication
of caloric by the condenfation of the two gafes.
Vol. V. Part II.
I S T It Y.
11. Water has a ftrong attradlion for fulphurous acid
gas. A bit of ice brought in contafl with it, is im¬
mediately melted without any perceptible change ofvvitifwa-
temperature. When water is faturated with this gas, ter.
it is known by the name of fulphurous acid, or liquid
fulphurous acid. The fpecific gravity is 1.040. At
the temperature of 430 water combines with y of its
weight of fulphurous acid gasf ; but as the temperature f Fourcroy,
increafes, it abforbs it in fmaller proportion. \fConnaifs.
freezes at a temperature a few degrees below 3 20, and
it pafifes into the folid ftate without parting with anyU' ^
of its acid. Liquid fulphurous acid has the fmell,
tafte, and other properties of the gas, and particularly
that of deftroying vegetable colours. When expofed
to the atmofphere, it gradually abforbs oxygen, and
pafles into the ftate of fulphuric acid. This change
goes on more rapidly when it is diluted with water,
and agitated in contact with the air.
12. Sulphuric acid feparates the fulphurous acid v/itlfful-
in the gafeous form from its combinations, and even phuric acid
from water. Concentrated fulphuric acid abforbs this
gas, which imparts to it a yellowifh brown colour,
and renders it pungent and fuming. The two acids
ftrongly attraft each other, fo that when they are ex¬
pofed to the adtion of heat, the firft vapour which rifes
cryftallizes in long, white, needle-fhaped prifms. This
L a compound of the two acids. It fmokes in the air;
diflblves with effervefcence in it, and when thrown in¬
to water produces a hiding noife, like a red-hot iron. 493
It has the ftrong fmell of fulphurous acid. This fub- 9Iac-ial ^
ftance was formerly called glacialfuiphuric acid *. v/fcd. ig
13. Sulphurous acid is very much employed in thep. 78.
arts, and fometimes in medicine. In the ftate of gas 494
it is ufed for the bleaching of ftlk and wool, by extradl- ^i'es*
ing the colouring matter. It removes alfo the ftains
arifing from vegetable juices, and fpots of iron from
linen.
14. According to Fourcroy, 100 parts of this acid Coiupofi-
are compofed of tion.
85 fulphur,
15 oxygen.
100
But according to the analyfis of Dr Thomfon,
68 fulphur,
32 oxygen.
100
15. The compound falls formed by this acid are de¬
nominated fulphites. c
16. The following are the affinities of this acid. Affinities.
Barytes,
Lime,
Potaffi,
Soda,
Strontites,
Magnefia,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia.
3 T Sect.
S'l 4-
\cius.
497
N ames.
498
Hillory.
499
Abundant
in nature.
500-
Method of
procuring
it.
501
€)f punfy-
ing it.
502
"Properties.
5°3
Difcovery
of its corn-
pofiticn.
G H E M I
Sect. III. Of Nitbic Acid.
1. This acid was formerly known by the name of aqua
fortis, and fpirit of nitre. Raymond Lully, who lived
in the 13th century, feems to have been acquainted
•with it j and Bafil Valentine, who lived in the 15th,
deferibes the procefs for preparing it. He calls it water
of nitre. But till the difeoveries of modern chemiftry,
little was known oi the nature, properties, and compoii-
tion of this acid. It is to the experiments and refear-
ches of Cavendilh and Prieftley, of Lavoifier and Ber-
thollet, that we are indebted for the knowledge we pof-
fefs of this acid.
2. Nitric acid exifts in great abundance in nature.
It is formed by the union of its conftituent parts which
are evolved during the putrefactive procefs of animal
and vegetable matters 5 but it is never found, except
in combination with fome bafe, from which it muft be
extracted by art. The component parts of nitric acid,
are azote and oxygen. The name in this cafe is not
derived from the bafe, which is azote, but from nitre,
from which it is generally obtained. This acid cannot
be formed merely by bringing in contact the two gafes
which are its conftituent parts; but if they are mixed
together in certain proportions, and electric fparks fent
through the mixture, the gafes difappear, and are con¬
verted into a liquid. This is nitric acid. By a fimilar
experiment Mr Cavendifli difeovered the compofition of
the acid.
3. This acid may be obtained by putting three parts
of nitre or faltpetre with one of fulphuric acid into a
glafs retort, and diftilling with a ftrong heat. The
gas which comes over is condenfed in a glafs receiver,
to which the retort is to be luted. The gas which is
condenfed is nitric acid. Nitre is compofed of nitric
acid and potafh : but potafh has a ftronger affinity for
fulphuric acid than for nitric acid $ it therefore com¬
bines with the fulphuric acid in the retort, and the ni¬
tric acid is difengaged, and paffes over in the gafeous
form.'
4. The acid thus obtained is impure, and is conta¬
minated with muriatic, and fometimes with fulphurous
acid. It is purified by diftillation with a gentle heat.
At firft too it is of a yellow colour, which is owing to
the fumes of nitrous gas with which it is combined.
Thefe fumes are driven off by heat, after which the
acid remains pure, and is tranfparent and colour-
lefs.
5. Thus prepared, it has a ftrong acid tafte j a dif-
agreeable pungent odour, and gives a yellow colour to
the Ikin. The fpecific gravity ©f ftrong nitric acid is
1.583, or, according to Mr Kirwan, at temperature
6o°, 1.554.
6. Nitric acid and one of its compounds, nitre, have
long been the fubjedl of the experiments and refearch-
es of chemical philofophers. In inveftigating the na¬
ture of nitre, Mayow found that it poffeffed a common
property with atmofpheric air ; namely, the property
of giving a red colour to the blood. And, from ob-
ferving that air was deprived of this property by the
procefs of combuftion and refpiration, he drew the An¬
gular conclufion, that nitre contained that part of the
air which is neceffary for refpiration and combuftion.
S T R Y.
7. When nitric acid diffolves metallic fubftances, a Ac, J
great quantity of a peculiar gas makes its efcape, and '—■"vi
the metal acquires confiderable weight during this pro¬
cefs. According to the phlogiftic theory, it was fup-
pofed that the metal was deprived of its phlogifton, and
that this phlogifton had combined with the nitrous gas
which had efcaped. This was Dr Prieftley’s explana¬
tion. But it was differently explained by Lavoifier.
He took 1104 grs. of murcury, and added to it 945 grs.
of nitric acid. Nitrous gas was emitted during the fo-
lution, and when he expofed the mercury which had
been converted into an oxide, to a red heat, oxygen gas
was given out, and the mercury appeared in the metal¬
lic ftate. He therefore concluded, that the nitric acid
in this cafe was decompofed, and that it confifted of oxy¬
gen which combined with the metal, and of nitrous gas
which was driven off. The proportions, he fuppofed,
were, 64 parts of nitrous gas by w eight, and 36 of oxy¬
gen gas. He found, however, that tire quantity of oxy¬
gen obtained in this procefs, was fometimes greater than
what was neceffary to faturate the nitrous gas j and he
was at a lofs to account for this quantity. His own ex¬
periments, as well as fome of Dr Prieftley’s, proved,
that azote is a component part of nitre.
Mr Cavendilh, who difeovered the compofition of
water, in his experiments and refearches on that fub-
je£t, found, that nitric acid w as produced during the
explofion of oxygen and hydrogen gafes j and that he
could increafe this quantity by adding azotic gas to the
mixture before combuftion. From this he concluded,
that the formation of the acid depended on the azotic
gas. He proved this by paffing eledlrical fparks
through common air in a glafs tube. The air dimi-
niftied in bulk, and nitric acid was formed. Repeat¬
ing a fimilar experiment wuth oxygen and azotic gafes
in certain proportions, he found that the whole could
be converted into nitric acid *. Mr Cavendiffi re-*pm
peated the fame experiments, with a view to remove Traw/
Ibme objeftions which had been made to his conclu-1?8!-
fions. They were followed by the fame refult, fo that
the faft of the compofition of nitric acid was fully efta-
blilhed f.
To perform ties experiment, take a glafs tube ofp-^i-
about one-fixth of an inch in diameter. Clofe one end
with a cork, through which let a metallic conduftor
with a ball at each extremity be paffed. Fill the tube
with mercury j immerfe the open end into the mercu¬
rial trough ; introduce a mixture of .13 parts of azotic
gas, and .87 of oxygen gas, occupying three inches of
the tube, and a folution of potafli filling one-half inch
more. Let electrical explofions be fent through the
tube till the air ceafes to be diminiflied in bulk. If
the experiment fucceed, the potaffi will be found con¬
verted into nitre, which ffiews that the nitric acid,
which is a component part of nitre, has been formed
during the procefs. jot
8. Nitric acid, having a ftrong affinity for water, isAbforb:
never found entirely deprived of this liquid. Whenwater‘
expofed to the air, it attrafts moifture from it, and
heat is given out when it is mixed with water. Mr
Kirwan has endeavoured to afeertain the relative
ftrength of nitric acid of different denfities, or fpecific
gravities j and the method which he adopted is theingthe
following. He faturated 36 grs. of carbonate of fodaquanti"
with
f
ds.
vol.
H-
100 Parts.
Sp Gravity
CHEMISTRY.
with 147 grs- nitric acid, of fpecific gravity 12754,
which contained 45.7 per cent, of ftandard acid, of fpe¬
cific gravity 1.5543. The carbonic acid which efcap-
ed amounted to 14 grs. j and by adding 939 grs. of
water, the fpecific gravity of the folution, at the tem¬
perature of 58.5°, was 1.0401. By a fimilar teft with
that employed in afcertaining the ftrength of fulphuric
acid, namely, by comparing this folution with one of
nitrate of foda of the fame denfity, he found the quan¬
tity of fait amounted to 1.-^. parts. There was an
J 001 1
excefs of acid of about 2 grs. The whole weight was
•1439 grains. The quantity of fait, therefore, was
'^"9^1 = £rs‘ quantity of pure alkali
was .50—14 =: 36.05 grs. The quantity of ftand¬
ard acid was 66.7; the fum of both = 102.75. Of
this quantity only 85.142 entered into combination
with the fait, the remaining 17.608 were mere water,
given out by the ftandard acid. If then 66.7 parts
ftandard acid lofe 17.608 parts water combining with
the alkali, 100 parts fhould lofe 26.38. And, as Mr
Kirw an has made it probable, that nitrate of foda con¬
tains very little water in its compofition j 100 parts of
ftandard nitric acid is compofed of 73.62 of pure acid,
and 26.38 of water *.
The following table drawn up by Mr Kirwan fhews
the quantity of pure acid in nitric acid of different fpe¬
cific gravities.
100 Parts.
Sp. Gravity.
•5543
'5295
>5183
.5070
•4957
.4844
•4731
.4719
•47°7
•4695
.4683
.4671
.4640
.4611
.4582
•4553
•4524
•4471
.4422
•4373
•4324
•4275
.4222
Real
Acid.
73-54
69.86
69.12
68.39
67.65
66.92
66.18
65-45
64.71
63.98 +
63.24
62.51
61.77
61.03
60.30
59-56
58.83
58.09
57-36
56.62
55-89
55-15 •'
54.12+
100 Parts.
Sp. Gravity.
Mi?1
1.4120
1.4069
1.4018
I-3975
I-3925
I-3875
1-3825
I-3775
1.3721
1.367!
1.3621
I-357I
1-3521
1.3468
I-34r7
1-3364
I-33I5
1.3264
1.3212
1.3160
1.3108
i-3°56
Real
Acid.
53-68
52.94
c 2.21
5I-47
50.74
50.00
49.27
48.53
47.80
47.06
46.33
45-59
44.86+
44.12
43-38
42.65
41.91
41.18
40.44
39-71
38-97
38-34
37-5°
I-3004
1.2911
1.2812
i-2795
1.2779
1.2687
1.2586
1.2500
1.2464
1.2419
I-2374
1.2291
1.2209
1.2180
1.2152
1.2033
Real
Acid.
36.77
36.03
35-30 +
34-56
33-82
33-09
32.35
31.62
30.88
30.15
29.41
29.68
27.94
27.21 +
26.47
25.74+
100 Parts.
Sp. Gravity
1.2015
I"I963
1.1911
1.1845
1.1779
1.1704
i.i639
1.1581
1.1524
1.1421
I-I3I9
1.1284
1.1241
1.1165
1.mi
2.1040
Real
Acid.
25.OO
24.26
23.53
22.79
22.06
21.32
20.59
19.85
19.12
18.48
17.65 +
16.91
16.17
I5-44
14.70
13.27
From experiments made by Mr Davy, he has de¬
duced the real quantities of nitric acid in folutions of
different fpecific gravities, and by his eftimation the
proportions will appear in the follow ing table *.
TABLE of the quantities of True Nitric Acid in folutions
of different Specific Gravities.
* Davy's
Refearchesi
P-41-
too Parts Nitric
Acid, of fpecific
gravity
1,5040
M475
1,4285
1,3906
^3551
!,3i86
i,3042
1,2831
1,2090
True Acid (m).
9M5
80,39
7i,65
62,96
56,88
52,03
49,04
46,03
45,07
Water.
8,45
19,61
28,35
37,04
43,12
47,97
50.96
53.97
54,73
506
9. When colourlefs nitric acid is expofed to the Action of
light, it undergoes a partial decompolition. Somellght-
oxygen gas is feparated, the acid affumes an orange
yellow colour, and part of it paffes into the ftate of
nitrous acid.
10. It boils at the temperature of 248°, and is en¬
tirely diflipated without alteration, if the heat be con¬
tinued. When it is made to pafs through a red-hot
porcelain tube, it is decompofed, and converted into
its conftituent parts, oxygen and azotic gafes f. When f Fourcrty
’ 3 T 2 nitric
0 Chim. tom*
       ii. p. Si*
(m) The quantities of oxygen and nitrogen in any folution, may be thus found. Let A^_ the true acid, X the
oxygen, and Y the nitrogen,
23 8 A   A
Then X
- and Y zz
239 239
I
v*.
SOS
Hydrogen,
CHEMISTRY.
nitric acid (n) ii cooled down to tire temperature of
—55°, it begins to cryftallize in a few minutes, affumes
a deep-red colour, and congeals into a thick mafs re-
fembling butter, by agitating the veffel which contains
* Annal.deit *'
Chim. vol. x i. There is no a£Hon between nitric acid and oxy-
xxix. p 282. gen or azotic gafes 5 but, when concentrated nitric acid
5C7 is expofed to the air, the vapour which it exhales com-
Ofoxygen, }3jnes with the moiflure of the atmofphere, forms white
fumes, and is condenfed into a liquid.
12. Hydrogen gas has no aftion on nitric acid at the
ordinary temperature of the atmofphere 5 but if they
are made to pafs through a red-hot porcelain tube,
there is a violent combuftion with detonation. Water
is formed by the combination of the hydrogen with the
oxygen of the acid ; and azotic gas, its other conftitu-
ent part, is evolved.
13. Nitric acid is alfo decompofed by charcoal at a
high temperature. Carbone combines with the oxygen,
and forms carbonic acid, while the azotic gas is fet at
liberty.
14. It is alfo decompofed in the fame way by phof-
phorus and fulphur. When the acid is poured upon
thefe combuftibles at a high temperature, inflammation
takes place, and they are converted into phofphoric
and fulphuric acids.
15. When nitric and fulphuric acids are mixed to¬
gether, heat is evolved. The fulphuric acid attra&s
the water which exifted in the nitric acid, and this
509
Charcoal.
510
Phofphorus
and ful¬
phur.
5”
Of fulphu¬
ric acid.
Barytes,
Potalh,
Soda,
Strontites,
Lime,
Magnefia,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia,
Oxide @f Zinc
Iron,
Manganefe,
Cobalt,
Nickel,
Lead,
Tin,
Copper,
Bifmuth,
Antimony,
Arfenic,
Mercury,
Silver,
Gold,
Platina.
At; 1
'"■“vJ
SI*
Of fulphu-
rous acid.
513
Compsli-
tion.
5*4
Combina¬
tion,
515
Affinities.
water being more condenfed in combination with ful¬
phuric acid, the caloric with which it was combined
along with the nitric acid, is given out. Thus, the ni¬
tric acid becomes more concentrated by the addition of
the fulphuric acid.
When nitric and fulphurous acids are mixed toge¬
ther, a very different aftion takes place. The nitric
acid feparates it from water and its other combina¬
tions •, parts with its oxygen, and thus converts it into
fulphuric acid, and paffes itfelf into the ftate of nitrous
gas.
16. According to Lavoifler, the proportions of the
component parts of nitric acid are, one part azote and
four parts oxygen. This was the refult of his experi¬
ments on the decompofition of nitre by charcoal. Ac¬
cording to Mr Cavendifti, the proportions of the aeote
and oxygen combined by eleftricity are one part azote
and 2 346 of oxygen. The refult of Mr Davy’s expe¬
riments Ihews that 100 parts of pure nitric acid are
compofed of
29.5 azote,
70.5 oxygen,
100.0
17. The combinations which are formed with the ni¬
tric acid, and the alkalies, earths, and oxides of metals,
are denominated nitrates,
18. The order of the affinities of nitric acid is the
following.
19. This is one of the mofl: important of the acids, Ufes
confidered as an inftrument of analyfis in the hands of
the chemift. It is employed in many arts. It is alfo
ufed in medicine, in difeafes of the fldn j and it has
lately been exhibited as a cure in venereal affe&ions.
In this cafe, perhaps, it may be regarded as a ufeful
auxiliary to the ordinary remedies.
5*
Sect. IV. Of Nitrous Acid.
1. According to the prefent nomenclature, nitrous
acid fhould bear the fame relation to nitric acid that procurii
fulphurous acid bears to fulphuric; that is, the con-
ftituent parts of nitric acid fhould be in different
proportion from thofe of nitrous acid 3 but this does
not appear to be the cafe. What is ufually denomi¬
nated nitrous acid, may be formed by combining ni¬
trous gas with nitric acid : Or if the lower ftratum
in a veffel of nitric acid be flowly decompofed by a
metallic fubftance, the oxygen of the acid combines
with the metal 3 nitrous gas is evolved, which com¬
bines with the fuperior ftrata of the nitric acid, and
converts it into nitrous acid -f-. It has then affumed a j Tourer.
yellow colour, and its fpecific gravity is diminifhed. oW*
The fame effe£t takes place when nitric acid is ex- c.h‘m-ME
pofed to light. It is deprived of part of its oxygen,u'p'^'
and nitrous gas is evolved, which mixes with the acid,
changes it to a yellow colour, and converts it into ni¬
trous acid. _ _ 51S
2. Thus it appears that nitrous acid is nitric acidCompoii-
combined with nitrous gas. The acid of commerce, tion.
or what is commonly called aqua fortis, is nitrous
acid. _ > s1.?
■2. Nitric acid combines in different proportions with Combine!
d nitrous
proportiot
withnitro1
gas.
(n) The acid employed in the experiment contained nitrous gas.
p-
CHEMISTRY.
nitrous gas, which gives rife to many varieties of nitrous
acid ; and, according to the quantity of nitrous gas ab-
forbed, the acid exhibits very different colours. The
following table, drawn up by Mr Davy, ihews in one
view the proportions of nitric acid and nitrous gas, in
different coloured nitrous acids.
TABLE containing approximations to the quantities of
Nitric Acid, Nitrous Gas, and Water in Nitrous Acids,
of different colours and fpecific gravities.
ico Parts.
Sol. nitric acid
Yellow nitrous %
Bright yellow
Dark orange
Light olive J
Dark olive ^
Bright green J
Blue green *
of
Specific
gray.
I,5°2
1,500
1,480
M79
1,478
1,476
M75
Nitric
Acid.
Water.
8,45
8.3
8,10
7,6
7,55
7,5
7,44
7.4
N itrous
Gas,
1,2
2,96
5,56
6,45
7,1
7,76
8,00
51°
A ton of
li t and
bit
C< oufti-
fali
4. Light has no aftion on nitrous acid : but when
heat is applied, the nitrous gas is driven off, and the
nitric acid remains behind. In the date of vapour,
nitrous acid remains unchanged by the aftion of heat.
5. Neither oxygen gas, azotic gas, nor atmofpheric
air, produce any change on nitrous acid.
6. On combuflible bodies the aftion of nitrous acid
is nearly fimilar to that of the nitric acid •, but many
fubftances are more rapidly inflamed by nitrous acid.
This feems not only to depend on the date of the divi-
fion or rarefaction of the nitrous gas combined with the
nitric acid, but alfo on the nitrous gas itfelf being
more eafily decompofed, and giving up its oxygen, which
is lefs drongly attracted by the azote, on account of
the great proportion of caloric united with it in the
gafeous date. It decompofes phofphurated and fulphu-
rated hydrogen gas, and precipitates the phofphorus
and the fulphur.
7. Sulphuric acid combines with the vapour of ni¬
trous acid, which communicates the property of difpofing
the fulphuric acid to crydallize. Nitrous acid converts
fulphurous into fulphuric acid, and, at the fame time,
parts with its nitrous gas.
8. Nitrous acid enters into combination with the al¬
kalies and earths. The compounds are didinguifhed
by the name of nitrites. Thefe compounds are not
made by direCI combination, and therefore the affinities
of this acid are little known.
Sect. V. Of Muriatic Acid.
, H
-opfition I. The component parts of this acid are unknown.
ln« wn. Nq attempt which has hitherto been made to difeover
22
Suj.iuric
aci.
1*3
E01; ounds,
its condituent parts, has yet fucceeded. But, as it re-
fembles the other acids, the compofition of which has
been difeovered, in many of its properties and combi¬
nations, it is ufually arranged among this clafs of bo-
dies. The name of muriatic acid is derived from the Names?
Latin word muna, which fignifies fea-falt, or common
fait, from which the acid is ufually extracted. It was
formerly denominated fpirit offait, acid of fait, and ma¬
rine acid. ^
2. Muriatic acid may be obtained by putting 100 Method of
parts of dry common fait, and 35 parts of fulphuric procuring,
acid into a retort or matrafs with a bent tube. The
beak of the retort at the end of the tube mud commu¬
nicate with a receiver in wffiich there is water, that the
muriatic acid may be condenfed as it pafles into the
receiver. In this way liquid muriatic acid may be ob¬
tained.
3. But if the gas which comes over is received in ain th^ftate
jar inverted in the mercurial apparatus, its properties of gas.
may be examined in the date of gas. When it fird
paifes over, it is in the form of white fmoke.
4. Muriatic acid gas poffeffes the phyfical properties Properties,
of common air. It is an invifible eladic fluid. It has
a drong acid tade, and a very pungent fmell. The
fpecific gravity, according to Kirwan, is 0.C02315.
5. It is unfit for fefpiration, and equally f» for fup-
porting combudion.
6. This gas has a drong attra£lion for water. If a A(q;on9of
little water be introduced into a jar filled with thiswaten
gas, danding over mercury, the whole of the gas will be
abforbed, and the mercury will indantaneoufly rife to
the top. Or if a jar filled with muriatic acid gas be
inverted into a veflel of water, coloured with vegetable
blue, the water fuddenly ruflies into the jar, wffiich it
completely fills, and the blue colour is changed to red,
exhibiting the ufual effedts of acids on vegetable co¬
lours.
7. Light has no a&ion whatever on this gas, nor does Lighted •
it undergo any change when it is made to pafs through heat.
a red-hot porcelain tube. In the date of gas, it has
no a&ion upon oxygen gas. When this gas comes in
contact with atmofpheric air, thick white fumes are
produced, with the extrication of caloric. This is a:
combination of the gas with the w ater in the atmofphere,
by wffiich they are mutually condenfed.
8. There is no a£Hon between muriatic acid gas
and azote, hydrogen, charcoal, phofphorus, or ful¬
phur.
9. The quantity of w^ater which muriatic acid ab-f;om^;?nTes
forbs is very confiderable. Ten grs. of water com-with water
bine w ith ten grs. of the gas. The liquid acid thusin great
formed occupies the fpace of 13.3 grs. and hence itsproportion.,
fpecific gravity is 1.500 and the fpecific gravity of
the pured muriatic acid in its condenfed date is
3.300 (o).
The fpecific gravity of the dronged muriatic acid
that can eafily be procured and preferved, is 1.196.
One^
* “ The blue green acid is not homogeneal in its coxnpofition : it is compofed of the blue green fpherules and
the bright green acid. The blue green fpherules are of greater fpecific gravity than the dark green acid, pro¬
bably becaufe they contain, little or no water.
J “ The compofition of the acids thus marked, is given from calculations.”
(o) “ Let D — the denfity of a mixture j m the weight of the denier ingredient j d its denfity j / the weight
of
;i8
Acids,
C H E M I S T E Y.
One hundred parts of this, Mr Kinvan calculates, will
’ contain about 49 of acid, whofe fpecific gravity is
which he calls the ftandard acid. By mixing this
acid with different proportions of water, he obtained
the refults from which he conftrufted the following
table.
Table of the quantity of Real Acid in 100 parts of
Muriatic Acid of different Specific Gravities, at the
Temper atw 6o°.
100 parts
Sp. Gravity
I.196
1.191
I.187
I.183
1.179
'■'IS
1.171
1.167
1.163
I‘I59
*•155
1.151
I-I47
1.1414
i-i396
i^358
1.1320
Real
Acid.
25.28
24.76
24.25
23-73
23.22
22.70
22.18
21.67
21.15
20.64
20.1 2
19.60
19.09
18.57
18.06
17-54
I 7.02
too parts
Sp. G»avity
1.1282
1.1244
1.1206
1.1168
1.1 120
I.IO78
I.IO36
I.O984
I.O942
I.O9IO
I.0868
I.0826
I.O784
I.0742
I.0630
1-0345
I.O169
Real
Acid
16.51
15-99
15.48
14.96
14.44
13-93
I3-4I
72.90
12.38
11.86
u-35
10.83
10.32
9.80
8.25
5.16
2.58
S32.
properties.
535
Adtion of
light and
heat.
534
Of fulphu-
ric acid.
535
Of nitric
acid.
10. Liquid muriatic acid, in its ordinary date, is of
a pale yellow colour ; but when it is pure, it is tranf-
parent and colourlefs.
11. Light has no a&ion whatever on muriatic acid.
When heat is applied, it readily affumes the gafeous
form. Neither oxygen nor azotic gafes are abforbed by
muriatic acid, nor has this acid any aftion on hydro¬
gen, charcoal, phofphorus, or fulphur.
I 2. Sulphuric acid feparates the muriatic acid from
its compounds, and even from its combination with wa¬
ter ; but the muriatic acid drives off the fulphurous
acid from this liquid.
13. One of the mod remarkable charaiders of mu¬
riatic acid, is its combination with nitric acid. When
thefe two acids are mixed together, they aft upon
each other, are drongly heated, and produce effer-
vefcence, with a change of colour to an orange red.
A mixed acid is thus formed, which poffeffes proper¬
ties which exided neither in the one acid nor the other
when in a date of feparation. It was formerly called
aqua regia, from its-property of diiTolving gold, which Acid?,
was didinguidied by the name of king of the metals. It v—“V'v
is now denominated nitre-muriatic acid. This acid is
not to be conddered as a dmple mixture of the l • o acids. r^atjc ^
A double attraction takes place in their mutual aCtion j
the muriatic acid attrafts part of the oxygen of the
nitric acid, and the nitric combines with the nitrous
gas. The muriatic acid thus combined with a portion
of oxygen, is difengaged with edervefcence in yellow
fumes: the undecompofed nitric acid feizes the nitrous
gas which is formed, and when it is faturated with it,
the aCHon ceafes. Hence arifes the colour of the mixed
acid. The peculiar effe& of the nitro-muriatic acid on
metallic fubltances, will be deferibed in treating of the
metals. 1
14. In analylmg a mineral water, Mr Lambe con-sUpp0fe( J
eluded, from fome appearances which prefented them-formation I
felves during his experiments, that the muriatic acid°l. rauii“5j
was formed or generated j for when iron was aftedacld*
upon by fulphurated hydrogen gas, oxymuriate of iron
was formed. He digefted iron filings, previoufly pu¬
rified, in a folution of fulphurated hydrogen gas, in
dittilled water. A bottle was filled with the folution,
and corked. The iron was prefently afted upon \
air was extricated, probably hydrogen gas, which
drove the cork out of the bottle. The liquor, gra¬
dually loft its odour, and at the end of fome days it had
a fmell refembling that of ftagnant rain water. As
the bubble ceafed to be produced, it recovered its tranf-
parency : A fmall quantity of this folution, evaporated
to drynefs, left behind a bitter, deliquefeent fait. Sul¬
phuric acid dropt on this fait, and paper moiftened
with ammonia, held over the glafs, produced vapours,
fo that fome volatile acid was feparated. Eight ounce
meafures of the fame liquor were evaporated, and a
little fulphuric acid was dropt on the refiduum. A
ftrong effervefcence was excited, and acid fumes arofe,
which, from their fmell, were readily known to be mu¬
riatic acid. Paper moiftened with water rendered the
vapours vifible in the form of a gray fmoke, which is
the diftinguilhing charafteriftic of muriatic acid. The
fame appearances were exhibited with the fame refult,
when manganefe and mercury were diffolved in fnlphu-
rated hydrogen gas *. * Math
The fame experiments have been repeated j but no Mem. vo
traces of muriatic acid, in any of the compounds thatx'p'I94'
were formed, could be found. In an experiment by
Berthollet, indeed, iron filings walhed with water which
gave no marks of containing muriatic acid, when they
were expofed fome days to the air, and again waflied,
exhibited fome traces of it j fo that the acid itfelf,
or its elements, muft have come from the air or the
iron.
15. The
m 4- m'
of an equal bulk of water ; and d', and /, the fame elements of the rarer : Then D — - ^ —. In the above
cafe, 20, and /-p/^13.3. ThenD = ^- = 1.5. Now to find the fpecific gravity of the con-
, . . , . , m-X- m!—/' D 5 , , m 
denfed muriatic acid gas, we have from the above equation /=—^ = ~ = 3.3 ; and _ -7 —
EL — 3.03. Kirwan. Irijh Tranfa&ions, vol. iv. p. 5.
3-3 ~
Ijiirieity.
539
\ s m de-
f ving
t ious va-
j.s.
( ^pounds,
i mtties.
fiery.
^ f hotl of
p: uring.
C H E M
15. Tbe bulk of muriatic acid gas is greatly dimi-
niibed by the aftion of eledricity, and hydrogen gas is
given out; but this a£lion is limited. Mr Henry has
fhewn that it is not owing to the decompofition of the
acid, as might at firft fight be fuppofed, but to the de¬
compofition of water which it holds in folution ; fo that
the aftion continues as long as there is any moifture in
the gas. The oxygen of the water combines with the
acid, and forms oxymuriatic acid} while the hydrogen
of the water is evolved.
16. Muriatic acid gas has been fuccefsfully employ¬
ed in deftroying noxious, putrid exhalations. It was
applied in this way in the year 1773 by Morveau, in
purifying the cathedral of Dijon from thefe exhala¬
tions, on account of which it had been altogether de-
ferted. He put fix pounds of common fait into a glafs
veifel, placed in the middle of the church, poured two
pounds of fulphuric acid on the fait, placed the veffel
on fome live coals, and immediately (hut the doors.
It was allowed to remain 12 hours j after which the
doors were opened; and a current of air being allowed
to pafs through it, it was found that the noxious vapours
were entirely deftroyed.
17. The compounds which are formed by muriatic
acid, with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, are
diftinguilhed by the name of muriates.
18. The following is the order of the affinities of
this acid.
Barytes,
Potafh,
Strontites,
Lime,
Ammonia,
Magnefia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Metallic oxides.
Sect. VI. Of Oxymuriatic Acid.
1. Oxymuriatic acid was difeovered by Scheele in
the year 1774, and he gave it the name of dephlogi-
Jlicated marine acid. On account of its Angular pro¬
perties, and the important ufes to which it was foon
applied, it has been much examined by chemical philo-
fophers.
2. This acid is obtained by the following procefs :
Take three parts of common fait, and one part of the
black oxide of manganefe reduced to powder. Intro¬
duce them into a tubulated retort; place the retort in
a fand bath, and immerfe its beak under the furface of
the water in the pneumatic trough. Pour upon it two
parts of fulphuric acid a little diluted with v'ater. An
effervefcence tak.es place, and a yellow coloured gas is
evolved, which may be received in jars, or prelerved in
large veflfels with ground Hoppers.
The nature of this procefs is fufficiently obvious.
Common fait is compofed of muriatic acid and fo-
da j the affinity of fulphuric acid for foda is flronger
than that of muriatic acid; it therefore combines
with the foda, and the muriatic acid is difengaged in
the ftate of gas. The black oxide ef manganefe is
compofed of oxygen and the metallic fubflanee. The
fulphuric acid combines with the manganefe, and fets
the oxygen at liberty in the Hate of gas. But there is
519
Acids.
I S T R Y.
alfo an affinity between the muriatic acid and oxygen,
fo that in the moment of evolution they unite, and paf*
off in the Hate of oxymuriatic acid gas. .44
3. This gas is of a yellowifh green colour,bas a ftrong Properties,
penetrating odour, and excites violent coughing, when a
mixture of it with atmofpherie air is refpired ; but the
pure gas is totally unfit for refpiration. This gas fupports
combufiion. It diminifhes and reddens the flame of a
taper 5 a great deal of fmoke is evolved, and the taper
confumes very rapidly. 545
4. Neither light nor heat have any adlion on the gas. Unchanged
When paired through red-hot porcelain tubes, it re-llsllt ancJ
mains unchanged. “ea^‘ ^
5. ^ has no aftion whatever on oxygen or azotic Adion of
gafies. hydrogen
6. In the cold no effect is produced from a mixture £as’
of this gas with hydrogen gas j but when they are
palfed through a red-hot tube, there is a violent deto-
nati°n* . . 547
7. In the cold there is no adtion between charcoal Of char-
and this gas. When a mixture of equal bulks of thiscoah
gas and carbonated hydrogen gas is fet fire to, there is
only a combuftion of the hydrogen gas, with a depoli-
tion of charcoal. If two meafures of oxymuriatic acid
gas, and one meafure of carbonated hydrogen gas are
mixed together in a clofe phial, and allowed to remain
for 24 hours, they decompofe each other. Water, mu-
riatic acid, carbonic acid, and gafeous oxide of carbone,
are the produdls. When water is admitted, the whole
will be nearly abforbed.
8. A bit of dried phofphorus introduced into this gas, Of phofpho-
is inftantly inflamed, and converted into phofphoricrus*
acid. It alfo fets fire to phofphorated hydrogen gas,
which has loft the property of fpontaneous inflamma¬
tion in the air.
9. Melted fulphur, plunged into this gas, is imme- Of fulphur.
diately inflamed, and converted into fulphuric acid.
Sulphurated hydrogen gas is decompofed, but without
inflammation, and fulphur is depofited. 550
10. There is no abtion between this gas and ful- Sulphurous
phuric acid 5 but, when fulphurous acid gas is mixedaci(1>
with it, a thick white vapour is formed, which is the
fulphurous acid converted into fulphuric acid, by de¬
priving the oxymuriatic acid gas of its oxygen. It
has no effeft on nitric acid 5 but nitrous gas brought
into contadl with it, is reddened, and converted into ni¬
trous acid.
11. What is commonly known by the name of oxy- In the U-
muriatic acid, is water faturated with this gas. It hasquid
a pale green colour, and exhales the fame odour as the
gas. According to Berthollet, r. cubic inch of water
abforbs 1^5- grs. French of the gas. The quantity ab¬
forbed by the water is in proportion to the temperature
and the preffure. When veffels containing water, and
receiving this gas, are furrounded with ice, while the
water is faturated, the gas cryftallizes at the furface,
and even at the bottom of the liquid, in the form of
fix-fided places, of a greenilh white colour j but the
flighteft heat diffolves them, and they rife through the
liquor in the form of gas.
Water faturated with this gas at the temperature of
430 has the fpecific gravity of 1.003. 553
12. This acid does not redden vegetable blues, like Deftroys
the other acids. It has the lingular property of de-vegetab^c
ftreying vegetable colours, on account of which it has co:°urs'
been
20
Acids.
C II E M r S T R Y.
been much employed in the art of bleaching. The
effect which takes place in this procefs, is the combi¬
nation of the colouring matter with the oxygen of the
acid 5 for the acid which has been employed is de¬
prived of its oxygen, and converted into muriatic acid.
But for the full account of this procefs, fee Bleach-
553
Adtion of
ING.
-light.
554
Compofi-
tion.
89 muriatic acid,
11 oxygen.
65 oxygen,
35 muriatic acid.
100
tiou.
13. When this acid is expofed to the light, it is de-
compofed’, it gives out its oxygen gas, becomes colour-
lefs, and paffes into the date of muriatic acid. But,
when heat is applied, the acid is difengaged in the
date of gas, without any perceptible feparation of its
oxygen. Expofed to the air, the acid is gradually fe-
parated, exhaling, at the fame time, its pungent, dif-
agreeable odour.
14. The condituent parts of oxymuriatic acid, ac¬
cording to Berthollet, are
But its properties will be more fully detailed in confi-
dering its combination with potalh, when we come to
treat of that fubdance.
3. The order of the affinities of hyper-oxymuriatic
acid, is the following, as they have been afeertained by
Mr Chenevix *.
Affir.il
Potafh,
Soda,
Barytes,
Strontites,
Lime,
Ammonia,
Magnelia,
Alumina.
* Phi.
Tranj.
1S02.
P- 126.
Sect. VIII. Of Fluoric Acid.
100
But, according to the^experiments of Mr Ghenevix,
it is compofed of
84 muriatic acid,
16 oxygen.
100
Sect. VII. Of Htper-oxtmuriatic Jcid.
Nature. I. Oxygen combines in a different proportion with
muriatic acid, and forms another acid, poffeffed of pro¬
perties which are quite didindl from the properties of
the lad deferibed. This acid has never been obtained
in a feparate date, but the peculiarity of its nature
has been fufficiently demondrated in its combinations
with other fubdances. As it contains a greater propor¬
tion of oxygen than the oxymuriatic acid, it has been
555 denominated hijper-oxymuriatic acid.
How ob- 2. It may be procured in combination with potadr
tamed. t]-je following procefs. If a quantity of potaffi,
with fix times its weight of water, be put into one of
the bottles of Woulfe’s apparatus, and a dream of oxy¬
muriatic acid gas be paffed through it till the potalh
is faturated, crydals in the form of fine white feales fall
to the bottom. Thefe are crydals of hyper-oxymuriate
of potalh, compofed of potalh and of hyper-oxymuri-
atic acid. The liquid in which thefe falts have been
formed being evaporated to drynefs, yields another fait
Theory of which is compofed of muriatic acid and potafli. This
the procefs. was the difeovery of Berthollet} and the theory which
he propafed to account for the produfts that appeared
in this procefs was the following. He fuppofed. that
the oxymuriatic acid was decompofed: part of it be¬
ing deprived of its oxygen, combined in the date of
muriatic acid with part of the potalh, forming the fait
which was obtained by evaporation, namely, the muri¬
ate of potalh •, and part united with an additional por¬
tion of oxygen combined with another portion of the
potalh, and formed the fait which was depofited in the
liquid. This theory has been confirmed by the expe¬
riments of Mr Chenevix. According to thefe experi¬
ments the hyper-oxy muriatic acid is compofed of
1. The component parts of this acid are unknown. Hiftory,,
It was difeovered by Scheele in 177J, and by him and
Priedley its peculiar properties, which have been con¬
firmed by the experiments of other chemids, were fird
detected. Margraaff, three years before, had afeertained
that the fluor fpar, from which this acid is obtained,
differed in its properties from other fpars. When he
didilled equal parts of fulphuric acid and duor fpar,
he obtained a whitd fublimate, and found that the glafs
retort which he employed in the procefs was greatly
corroded, and pierced with holes. Scheele afterwards
proved by his experiments, that the fluor fpar is com¬
pofed of lime and the peculiar acid to which the name
fluoric has been given.
2. To procure fluoric acid, put one ounce of fluor Me,h0d
fpar (fluate of lime) reduced to powder into a retort of obtain^
tin or lead 5 pour over it three ounces of concentrated11
fulphuric acid, and adapt to the retort a tube and re¬
ceiver of the fame metal. When the acid comes in
contact with the fpar, a gas is driven off, which is the
fluoric acid. Towards the end of the procefs, if a gentle
heat be applied, a greater quantity of the acid may
be obtained. If water has been previoufiy introduced
into the receiver, the gas is abforbed by it, and the
acid may then be exhibited in the liquid Hate.
3. Fluoric acid appears under two forms, that of gas
and that of liquid. 562
Fluoric acid gas has the common properties ofPropertie:
air. It is invifible and elaltic. Its fpecific gravitytilis
has not been accurately determined, but it is heavier
than atmofpheric air. Expofed to the air it combinesin-
llantly with the moifture of the atmofphere, and ap¬
pears in the form of vapour or white fumes. Like
muriatic acid, it has a penetrating pungent fmell. It
reddens vegetable blues, and corrodes the Ikin. It is
totally unfit for refpiration. Animals who breathe it
are inftantly deftroyed. It is alfo unfit for the fupport
of combuiuon. But before the flame of a candle in¬
troduced into this gas is extinguilhed, it affumes
greenilh colour. The moll remarkable property of
this gas is that of corroding glafs, in confequence of
its ftrong affinity for the filex, one of the component
tills.
C H E M
parts of glafs. _ This is the reafon that it mull be pre¬
pared in metallic vefiels. And even with this precau¬
tion, it is feldom entirely free from this earth, which it
probably derives from the fluor fpar, from which it is
obtained.
4, Light and caloric have no effeft on it. Its pro¬
perties undergo no alteration, even when it has palled
through a red-hot porcelain tube.
In contact with oxygenous gas or atmofpheric air,
no changes take place on fluoric acid gas j nor has it
any a&ion on azote, hydrogen, carbone, phofphorus, or
fulphur. The other acids, it has be6n obferved, are
decompofed by one or other of thefe combuftibles; and
in this way their conftituent parts have been detefted.
We are not, however, to conclude from thence, that the
fluoric acid is a Ample fubltance. On the contrary, it
would be more analogous to other fafts, to draw the
conclulion, that it is a compound, limilar to the other
acids, whofe bafes have been difcovered, and that the
bafe, whatever that may be, has fo llrong an attraction
for oxygen as to be unfufceptible of decompolition by
the aftion of any fubltances yet known.
5. When this gas comes in contact with water it is
water-rapidly jibforbed, ancj conflderable proportion. In
this Hate it is calledfluoric acid. The fpecific gravity of
this acid is greater than that of water. By heat the gas
is almolt entirely expelled from the water; and when
^ it is cooled down to the temperature 230 it freezes.
0pounds. 6. The compounds with the alkalies, earths, and me-
tallic oxides, are called fluates.
Afeities. 7. The order of its affinities is the following ;
Lime,
Barytes,
Strontites,
Magnelia,
Potalh,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia,
Silica.
;<>3
Cibines
166
ivcry.
Prmra-
tiofl '
58
Arties.
Sect. IX. 0/Boracic Acid.
1. The component parts of boracic acid are unknown.
It was firll difcovered by Homberg in 1702, who gave
it the name of narcotic or fedativefalt. The fubltance
called borax of the ffiops is a compound of this acid and
foda.
2. The procefs for obtaining this acid is the follow¬
ing : Diffolve a quantity of this fubftance in hot water,
and filter the folution. Gradually pour on it fulphuric
acid, till the liquor acquires a flight degree of acidity.
The fulphuric acid combines with the foda ; and the bo¬
racic acid, as the folution cools, is precipitated in fmall,
finning white fcales. To purify the acid thus obtained,
it is to be wafhed with cold waterj which removes the
more foluble falts with which it is mixed.
3. Boracic acid is in the form of lilvery white hex¬
agonal fcales, which have a greafy feel, and fome re-
femblance to fpermaceti. It has a fouriffi talle, which af¬
terwards gives the fenfation of coolnefs. It has no fmell.
It changes vegetable blues to red. In the fcaly form, the
fpecific gravity is 1.479 i but when it is fufed, it is 1.803.
Vol. V. Part II.
I S T R Y. 521
4. When expofed to heat, it froths up, which is Acids,
owing to the reparation of the water of cryflallization, ■’y—
and aflumes the form of a vifcid palte. In this Hate it is Adhwf of
known by the name of calcined borax. When it is ex- heat,
pofed to a red heat, it is converted into a hard, tranfpa-
rent glafs, which, without attraiTing moillure from the
air, becomes opaque when expofed to it, but it remains * ^urcroy
unchanged 5 for when it is re-diffolved in warm water, tot^,
it refumes its former properties, by cooling and cryltal- p. 25.
lization *.
5. Boracic acid has very little attraction for water ; Of water,
boiling water only diffblves about a 50th part of its
weight, and cold water much lets. When the folution
in water is evaporated in clofe veflels, part of the acid
rifes in the ftate of vapour along with the water, and
cryftallizes in the receiver \ but when the whole of the
water is diffipated, the procefs flops j fo that it is only
by means of it that the acid is volatilized ; otherwife
it is perfectly fixed. The folution in water has little
tafte, but it reddens the tinCture of tUrnfole.
6. Neither oxygen, azotic, nor hydrogen gafes, pro¬
duce any efteCl upon it 5 and with charcoal, phbfphorus,
and fulphur, it alfo remains unchanged. When burnt
with phofphorus, indeed, there is left behind an earthy,
yellow matter. s7i
7. At a red heat it drives off fome of the acids from On acids,
their combinations, even thofe acids which have the
ftronger affinity for the fame fubftances in the cold.
Boracic acid has fome peculiar aClion with the fulphuric,
the nitric, and oxymuriatic acids j for when it is heated
with thefe acids, it deprives them of a portion of their
oxygen j but the changes which take place by this ac¬
tion have not been diftinftly afcertained f.
8. Fabroni of Florence confiders this acid as a modi¬
fication of the muriatic, and he fuppofes that it may be
entirely formed with this acid. The boracic acid, he
further fuppofes, is probably produced by this modifica¬
tion of the muriatic acid in the water of the lakes of Tuf-
cany ; but the fadls on which this opinion is founded, fj£/<f.p.i 28.
have not been publiihed |.
9. The boracic acid is employed in chemiftry, notUfes.
direftly as an inftrumcnt of analyfis, becaufe its affinities
and aftion have little energy compared w ith other acids,
but to difcover its peculiar combinations and compounds.
It is alfo employed in the arts, as in foldering, to affift
the fufion of metallic fubftances. It is of great impor¬
tance to the mineralogift, in promoting the fufion of
fubftances under the blow-pipe.
10. The compounds which boracic acid forms w ith Compounds*
the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, are diftinguiffied
by the name of borates, ^74
11. The affinities of boracic acid are the following : Affinities.
Lime,
Barytes, _
Strontites,
Magnefia,
Potafh,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia,
Water,
Alcohol,
3 U Sect*
522
Acids
„ 575.
t ormatior-
. 57^
Hiftory.
« 577
Prepara¬
tion.
578
Properties.
$19
Attracts
moiftiue.
eSo
Aitiou of
charcoal.
C H E M
Sect. X. Of Phosphoric Acid.
1. When phofphorus undergoes combuftion in oxy¬
gen gas, a great quantity of white fumes are produced,
which are depofited in white flakes. Thefe are phof-
phoric acid j fo that it is a compound of phofphorus
and oxygen.
2. The phofphoric acid was firft ftiown to be diftinft
from all other acids, in the year 1743, by Margraaff.
He found that it exifted in the falts which were taken
from human urine, and that phofphorus could only be
obtained from this acid j as well as that it could be
converted into phofphoric acid. I his acid was found to
exift in fome vegetable fubflances, although it was for¬
merly fuppofed to be peculiar to animal matters. It
was "difcovered by Scheele and Gahn in bones, in the
year 1772. Bergman, Prouft, and Tenant, dete&ed
it in feveral foffils j and Lavoifier proved, by a feries of
accurate and ingenious experiments, that it was com-
pofed of phofphorus and oxygen.
3. Phofphoric acid may be obtained, not only by the
method juft mentioned, but alfo by tranfmitting a cur¬
rent of oxygen gas through phofphoius melted under
water. The acid, as it is formed, combines with the
water, from which it may be obtained in a ftate of
purity by evaporation. It may be procured alfo by
dropping fmall bits of phofphorus into nitric acid mo¬
derately heated. An effervefcence takes place, and ni¬
trous gas is evolved. Phofphorus combines with the
oxygen, and forms phofphoric acid. The precaution of
adding but a little phofphorus at a time, and of apply¬
ing a moderate heat to the acid, ftrould be carefully
obferved. The liquid is then evaporated, and the
phofphoric acid remains behind in the folid ftate. The
water that may be combined with it is driven off, by
cxpoling it to a red heat.
4. In this ftate phofphoric acid is a tranfparent, co-
lourlefs, folid fubftance, refembling glafs, known under
the name of phofphoric glnfs.
The fpecific gravity of this acid varies, according
to the different ftates in which it exifts. In the li¬
quid ftate it is 1.417 *, in the dry ftate it is 2.697 ; in
the ftate of glafs 2.8516. It changes the colour of
vegetable blues to red j has no fmell, but a very acid
tafte.
5. When it is expofed to the air, it attrafts moif-
ture, and is converted into a thick vifeid fluid, like oil.
It is verv foluble in water. When in the form of dry
flakes, it diffolves in a fmall quantity of this liquid,
producing a hilling noife like that of a red-hot iron
plunged into water, with the extrication of a great
quantity of heat. In the ftate of glafs it diffolves
more flowly, but the concentrated liquid phofphoric
acid unites with water with very little difengagement
of caloric.
6. Phofphoric acid being fully faturated with oxy¬
gen, has no aftion whatever on oxygen gas 5 nor is
there any action between hydrogen or azotic gafes,
or fulphur, with the phofphoric acid. Charcoal has
no effect on phofphoric acid in the cold ; but when
they are expofed together to a red heat, the phofpho¬
ric acid is decompofed \ the oxygen combines with
the carbone of the charcoal, forming carbonic acid,
1 s T R Y.
and the phofphorus is fet at liberty. This is the pro- Aciji
cefs already deferibed in treating of phofphorus, which '“““yj)
is generally employed for obtaining that fubftance.
7. Sulphuric acid has no aftion on phofphoric Qf ^
acid; but when the twro acids are mixed together in
the liquid ftate, the fulphuric acid, on account of its
ftrong affinity for water, combines with the water in
the phofphoric acid j and if heat be applied, the ful¬
phuric acid is diflipated, and the phoiphoric acid re¬
mains behind in the ftate of a tranfparent vifeid mat-*
ter, or in that of glafs. Sulphurous acid is fepa-
rated from its combinations by the phofphoric acid.
Nitric acid feparates the phofphoric from its com¬
binations. Muriatic acid has the fame effect.
8. The component parts of this acid have been ac¬
curately afeertained by Lavoifter, and it confifts of,
58:
Compoti,
tion.
60 oxygen,
40 pholphorus.
IOO
9. The accuracy of our information with regard to import;
the component parts and properties of phofphoric acid,
renders it of great importance in many chemical opera¬
tions j and if it could be obtained with lefs difficulty
and expence, its ufes might be extended to medicine
and the arts.
10. It combines with the alkalies, earths, and me- Compali:
tallic oxides, and forms falts which are denominated
phofphates.
11. The following is the order of its affinities. Affinitia
584
Barytes,
Strontites,
Lime,
Potafti,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Magnefia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia,
Metallic oxides,
Silica.
Sect. XL Of Phosphorous Acid.
1. Phofphorous acid bears the fame relation to
phofphoric as fulphurous acid does to fulphuric.
It is combined with oxygen in the fmaller proper- «
tion. This was demonftrated by Lavoifier in 1777)Format®
when he pointed out the difference between the
produft from the flow or rapid combuftion of phofpho¬
rus. It is obtained by the flow combuftion of phof¬
phorus at the common temperature of the air. If phof¬
phorus, in fmall pieces, be expofed to the air in a glafs
funnel placed in a bottle, it attracts the oxygen and
moiftqre from the atmofphere, and runs down into
the bottle. This is the phofphorous acid. By this
procefs, about three times the weight of the phofpho¬
rus is obtained. <r 587
2. It is then in the form of a white thick liquid, Property
adhering to the fides of the veffel. It varies in con¬
fidence according to the ftate of the air. Its fpecific
gravity
39
r
Lids, gravity Is not known. It ha* an acid, pungent tafte,
Sj-f— not different from phofphoric acid. It alfo reddens
|jg vegetable blue colours.
yi:i) of 3. Phofphorous acid is not altered by light.
When expofed to heat in a retort, part of the water
combined with it is firft driven off; and wrhen it is con¬
centrated, bubbles of air fuddenly rife to the furface,
and colleft in the form of white fmoke, and fometimes
inflame, if there be any air in the apparatus. If the
experiment be made in an open veffel, each bubble of
air, when it comes to the furface, produces a vivid de¬
flagration, and diffufes the odour of phofphorated hy¬
drogen gas. This inflammable gas continues to be
evolved for a long time, and when the aftion ceafes,
phofphoric acid only remains behind. It ought to be
obferved, that the phofphorated hydrogen gas is not
difengaged till the phofphorous acid is concentrated and
brought to a high temperature, which feems to prove
that the phofphorus which is not faturated with oxy¬
gen, ftrongly adheres to it.
4. There is little attraction between oxygen and
phofphorous acid, which feems to be owing to the
great affinity between phofphorus and phofphoric acid.
It abforbs, however, very flowly, a fmall quantity of
oxygen ; and even after long boiling, it is not com-
90 pletely converted into phofphoric acid.
S'bgen. 5. Hydrogen gas has no aftion on phofphorous acid $
but this acid is decompofed at a red heat, by means of
charcoal, which feparates from it a greater quantity
of phofphorus than from phofphoric acid. There is no
aCtion between thefe bodies in the cold. Sulphur has
no aCtion on this acid at the ordinary temperature of
the atmofphere, and they cannot be combined by
means of heat, becaufe the phofphorus is diffipated
before it unites wdth the fulphur.
Of lids. 6. There is no aCtion between phofphorous acid and
fulphuric acid in the cold •, but when they are heated
together to the boiling temperature, the phofphorous
acid deprives the fulphuric of part of its oxygen, and
is converted into phofphoric acid, while part of the ful¬
phuric acid, thus decompofed, is difengaged in the
flate of fulphurous acid gas. Phofphorous acid pro¬
duces a limilar effeCt on nitric acid. The phofphorus
is converted into phofphoric acid, and part of the ni-
Ij52 trie acid is converted into nitrous gas.
7. This acid is compofed of the fame conftituent
parts as the phofphoric, and is confldered by fome as
Cm'ifs°y t^ie phofphoric acid holding in folution a fmall quanti-
Cb tom. ty of phofphorus *.
”■ 85. 8. Phofphorous acid forms compounds with alkalies,
pearths, and metallic oxides, which are known under
the name of phofphites.
9. The order of its affinities is the following.
CHEMISTRY.
Sect. XII. Of CaheoKic Acih,
93
'bounds.
94
:Ues.
At
Lime,
Barytes,
Strontites,
Potafh,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
-Zirconia,
Metallic oxides.
1. When a piece of charcoal, in a (late of ignition,
is plunged into a jar of oxygen gas, it burns with great
brilliancy j and after the combuftion has ceafed, the 595
air in the veffel is totally changed. If a little water is *'orniatlon*
introduced into the jar, and agitated, the air combines
with it j and this water, when examined, exhibits
acid properties. This is carbonic acid. It is formed
by the combination of carbone and oxygen. This is
one of the molt important acids, both on account of
its numerous combinations, and alio on account of the
difeovery of it having occalioned a total revolution in
chemical fcience.
2. It was regarded by the ancients, on account of
the noxious eftefts which it produced, as a peltilenti&L
vapour, and they gave it the name of fpintus lethalis. 596
Paracelfus and Van Helmont confldered it as a peculiar Names,
matter, to which they gave the name, Jpintus fylve-
Jiris, or gas. Hales, although he confldered it merely
as contaminated air, diitinguilhed it by the name of
Jixed air, becaufe it entered into the compofition of
many bodies. Dr Black demonitrated, that it is a
peculiar fubitance, different from the air $ that lime,
magnefia, and the alkalies, were deprived of their
cauiticity, by being combined with this air, and there¬
fore he gave it the name of Jixed air. It was after¬
wards found by the experiments of Keirand Bergman,
to be an acid, and hence Bergman gave it the name
of aerial acid. The nature and properties of this acid
were inveftigated by many chemical philofophers, and
from them it received various names, as mephitic acid,
calcareous or cretaceous acid, thus diftinguiffied from
its effefts, or from the fubftances from which it w'as
obtained. In the prefent chemical nomenclature it
has the name of carbonic acid, from its bafe carbone.
3. For fome time after the difeovery of the differ-fup3
ence between carbonic acid and common air, and its poled fun-
properties as an acid, it was confldered by many as apk.
Ample elementary fubftalice, and it was regarded as
the acidifying principle. In the progrefs of inveftiga-
tion it was found to be a compound fubftance, and
that oxygen -was one of its conliituent parts, and it was
generally believed that phlogifton conftituted the other.
When hydrogen was fubftituted for phlogifton, it was
fuppofed that oxygen and hydrogen conftituted car¬
bonic acid. The difeovery of Mr Cavendilh, proved
that water, not carbonic acid, was the product of
the combination of oxygen and hydrogen. But the
experiments of Lavoifier have eftablilhed the fa<ft, and
placed it beyond difpute. He demonftrated that the
weight of the carbonic acid which was obtained, was
exactly equal to the quantity of the oxygen and char¬
coal which had difappeared. s
4. Carbonic acid may be obtained by taking a quan- Method of
tity of chalk or limeftone, or marble, and reducing obtaining
them to a coarfe powder. Introduce it into a matrafs,
pour over it a quantity of diluted fulphuric or nitric
-acids ; a violent effervefcence takes place, carbonic
acid gas is difengaged, which paffes over, and may be
received in veffels in the ufual way. The chemical
action that takes place in this change muft be obvious.
The affinity of the fulphuric acid for the lime is ftrong-
3 LJ 2 er
599'
Properties.
600
Abforbed
by water.
C H E M
or than that of the carbonic acid, which is previoufly
in combination with it 3 the iulphuric acid, therefore,
feizes the lime, and the carbonic acid is difengaged in
the ftate of gas.
5. Carbonic acid thus obtained in the ftate of gas,
is an invifible, elaftic fluid. Its fpecific gravity is
0.0018. One hundred cubic inches of it weigh 46.5
grs. It is nearly double the weight of common air.
It has no fmell •, it is totally unfit for refpiration, and
equally fo for fupporting combuftion. It reddens the
tinfture of turnfole, which has its blue colour reftored
on being expoi'ed to the air, by the reparation of the
acid.
6. Water abforbs a confiderable proportion of this
acid, which is increafed by agitation. At the tempe¬
rature of 41° water abforbs its own bulk. When arti¬
ficial preffure is employed, the quantity of gas abforbed
may be greatly increafed. It is in this way that what
are called the aerated alkaline waters are prepared,
fome of which, it is faid, contain no lefs than three
times their bulk of the gas. Water impregnated with
this gas, acquires an acidulous tafte, and when poured
from one veffel to another, has a fparkling appearance.
When water impregnated with this acid is expofed to
the air, it foon difappears. The air of the atmofphere
attra&s it from the water, having a ftronger affinity for
it than the water.
When water containing this gas is raifed to the boil¬
ing temperature, the whole is driven off; and if wa¬
ter impregnated with it be expofed to the temperature
of 32°, the whole of the gas feparates during the
€ol freezing.
Not altered 7. Carbonic acid undergoes no change by the a&ion
by light or 0f light. It is not changed by the aftion of heat in
heat. clofe veffels, or by palling it through a red-hot
602 tube.
Attracted g There is no a£Hon between this gas and oxygen,
by the air. ^Xp0fe(j to aJr 0f the atmofphere, it is gradually
diffipated. The air of the atmofphere generally con¬
tains from .01 to .02 parts of this gas.
9. There is no aflion between this acid and azote.
Charcoal has no chemical aflion on carbonic acid j
but when it is heated, it has the property of abforbing
and condenling within its pores the carbonic acid; but
the acid is feparated by plunging the charcoal under
water.
10. Phofphorus has no aftion on carbonic acid $ but
by the aid of compound affinity, phofphorus can de-
compofe it.
11. Sulphur has ftill lefs aftion on carbonic acid than
phofphorus. It is faid, indeed, that a fmall quantity
of fulphur is diffolvtd by this gas by means of heat,
which gives it partly the fetid odour of fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas.
12. Carbonic acid gas mixed with carbonated, phof-
phorated, and fulphurated hydrogen gafes, diminiffies
the comburtibility of thefe inflammable gafes.
13. The carbonic acid combines with the alkalies,
forne of the earths, and metallic oxides, forming com¬
pounds known by the name of carbonates.
14. The following is the order of the affinities of
this acid :
Barytes,
Strontites,
Lime,
I S T R Y.
Potaffi, Acids.
Soda,
Magnefia,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Zirconia,
Metallic oxides.
15. Carbonic acid exifls in great abundance in na-v ^
ture. It is produced during the proceffes of combuf-jap^ “
tion and refpiration, and the fermentation of vegetable
matters. Hence it is found in pits and caverns, where
there is a ftagnation of the air, and being fpecifically
heavier than common air, it remains at the bottom.
This is the reafon why fmall quadrupeds, as dogs, are
inftantly fuffocated, becaufe they refpire only this gas,
when they enter places where it is accumulated. This
has been long obferved in the celebrated Grotto dell Ca-
ni in Italy, where dogs are inftantly fuffocated $ while
men, whole heads are in the ftratum of common air
603
Abforbed
by char¬
coal.
604
Dirninilhes
combufti-
bihty.
605
Cornpcunds,
doo
Affinities.
Men,
tfo8
near the top of the cavern, receive no injury. -l’iCllFataiefl-e^
have been fuddenly killed by going down into large pr0(juce$"
vats, in which the procels of fermentation had beenbyit.
carried on. In confequence of the greater fpecific gra¬
vity of the carbonic acid gas, and the great quantity
generated during the procefs, when the fermented li¬
quor is drawn off, it finks to the bottom of the veffel,
and there remains till it is difplaced by a denfer fluid,
or {lowly attrafted by the air. Similar accidents have
happened to perfons going down into pits or wells
which have been long ffiut up, and where the air has
been long ftagnant. It is by refpiring this gas that
perfons are fuffocated who have been expofed to the
fumes of burning charcoal in clofe places. During
the combuftion of the charcoal, the carbone combines
with the oxygen of the atmofphere j carbonic acid is ^
formed, which foon fills the apartment. In thefe cafes, iy[0(je 0f
where life is not totally extinguiffied, the beft method recovery,
of recovery is faid to be, to da(h cold water on the head
and body j a practice which is commonly obferved in
accidents of this kind, in northern countries, where
charcoal is burnt in clofe apartments.
Sect. XIII. Of Arsenic Acid.
610
1. This acid, and the four following, having metallic Five metal*
fubftances for their bafe. Moft metallic fubftances1^
combine with oxygen in different proportions, and the
compounds formed with thefe fubftances and oxygen,
are denominated oxides, becaufe they poffefs no acid
properties ; but fome of the metals combine with oxy¬
gen in greater proportion, which gives them the cha-
rafteriftic properties of acid fubftances.
2. The metallic fubftance arfenie, combines with
oxygen in two proportions j the firft, which is ufually
called the white oxide of arfenic, has been denominated
by Fourcroy, the arfenious acid. Macquer difeovered
fome of the combinations of arfenic acid, previous to
the year 1 746 ; for he {hews that a mixture of white
oxide of arfenic and nitre, fubje&ed to the action of a
ftrong fire, yields a neutral fait, to which he gave the
name of the neutral fait of arlenic. But it was by the
inveftigation of Scheele in 1775 that its properties were
fully known. 611
3. The procefs for obtaining it which was pointedProcefs^
G H E M I
is. out by Scheele^ Is the following. Take three parts of
it-—' the white oxide of arfenic, and diflolve it in feven
parts of muriatic acid. Add five parts of nitric
acid to the folution, and diftil it to drynefs. The arfe¬
nic acid remains behind. It may alfo be procured by
diffolving the white oxide in liquid oxymuriatic acid,
or by making a ft ream of oxymuriatic acid _ gas pafs
through a folution of the white oxide of arfenic. The
chemical aftion which takes place in thefe proceffes,
is the union of the arfenic with an additional portion
of oxygen, which it derives from the nitric acid, the
liquid oxymuriatic, or the oxymuriatic acid gas.
parties. 4- whatever procefs it is obtained, the arfenic
acid which is not cryftallized has an acid, cauftic, and
metallic tafte. It reddens the fyrup of violets, and
its fpecific gravity is 3.91. When it is expofed to a
ftrong heat in a retort or crucible, it fufes, attacks the
glafs of the retort, or the earth of the crucible j it re¬
mains tranfparent and pure at a high temperature, gives
out a little oxygen, and is partly converted into white
oxide.
5. Expofed to the air, it attra&s the moifture from
it, and abforbs two thirds of its own weight of water
from the atmofphere, which is fufficient to hold it in fo¬
il 3 lution.
Alonof 6. The arfenic acid is much more foluble in water
*fir' than the white oxide. Three or four parts of water are
fufficient to diflblve it. When it is evaporated, it af-
[[4 fumes a thick confiftence like honey.
Clombu- 7. Combuftible fubftances decompofe arfenie acid,
ftb. by depriving it of part of its oxygen, and converting
it into the white oxide. Hydrogen gas mixed with a
folution of this acid, has the property of precipitating
it. Charcoal, phofphorus, and fulphur produce a fimi-
lar effect. Expofed in a retort to heat with charcoal j
the charcoal is inflamed, and the arfenic acid is redu¬
ced to the metallic ftate. Sulphur heated with arfenic
acid, is partly converted into iulphurous acid gas, and
partly fublimed into the red fulphuret of arfenic. When
heated with phofphorus, part of the phofphorus is con¬
verted into phofphoric acid, and the arfenic, reduced to
the metallic ftate, unites with another part of the phof¬
phorus, with which it forms a phofphuret of arfenic,
I, which fublimes.
(Log. 8. The arfenic acid is compofed of the white oxide
til. of arfenic and oxygen. The proportions of its confti-
tuent parts, according to the experiments of Prouft, are
65 arfenic,
35 oxygen.
615 100 . . . r
Y1 pounds. 9. The compounds wffiich arfenic acid forms with
alkalies, earths, and fome metallic oxides, are known
1617 by the name of arfeniates.
Amities, JO* The order of its affinities is the following :
Lime,
Barytes,
Strontites,
Magnefia,
Potafti,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia,
S T R Y.
Sect. XIV. Of Tungstic Acid.
618
1. In the year 1781, Scheele and Bergman, in in-Hiftory.
veftigating the nature of a heavy ftone (called tungften
by the Swedes), difcovered that it is compofed of lime
combined with a peculiar acid. 1 heir difcovery was
afterwards confirmed by feveral ehemifts, and particu¬
larly by the experiments of the D’Elhuyarts, who de-
tefted the fame acid in the mineral wolfram. . . 6l9
2. This acid always exifts in combination with lime Methods of
and iron. It may be obtained by reducing the former obtaining,
to a fine powder, and treating it with nitric or muriatic
acids, which unite with the lime, and then by alkalies,
which diffolve the acid. The alkaline folution is to
be precipitated by the nitric or muriatic acid 5 the pre¬
cipitate is to be carefully wafhed and dried, which is
the tungftic acid in the lolid ftate. . .
3. Tungftic acid, thus prepared, is in the form of properties.
a white powder, which has an acid and metallic tafte 5
changes the colour of vegetable blues into red j and has
a fpecific gravity according to Bergman, equal to 62I
3.600. Heated under the blow-pipe, this tungftic acidAdionof
becomes firft yellow, then brown, and at laft black j itheat*
affords no fmoke, and gives no fign of fufion. When it
is calcined for fome time in a crucible, it is deprived of
the property of diflolving in wrater. . 621
4. Expofed to the air, it fuffers no change. It is Of water,
foluble in 20 parts of boiling water, but it is partially
feparated on cooling. I his folution has an acid tafte,
and reddens the tindlure of turnfole. Heated with
charcoal, it is reduced, but with difficulty, .to the metal¬
lic ftate. With fulphur and phofphorus it becomes of
a gray colour, but without reduftion.
5. The acids do not diffolve the tungftic acid in the Of acids,
form of white powder, but they change completely its
properties. The fulphuric acid changes it to a blue,
and the nitric and muriatic acids convert it into a fine
yellow colour. In this ftate it has loft its tafte and
folubility, has become fpecifically heavier, and has ac¬
quired the property of forming falts with the fame bafes
diftinttly different from thofe formed with what was
called the white acid. The Spaniffi chemifts D’Elhuy¬
arts, confider the latter as an acidulous triple fait, and
yellow oxide as real tungftic acid.
6. Vauquelin and Hecht, who inftituted a fet of ex¬
periments on thefe oxides, as they propofe to denomi¬
nate them, obtained the fame refults. They confider
the tungftic acid of Scheele as a triple fait, which has ^
retained a portion of the acid by which it was precipi-Only an.
tated in its compofition, and when the oxide of tungften oxide,
is pure, it poffeffes none of the properties which are
admitted and acknowledged as the charadteriftics of the
acids, but that it has a ftrong tendency to form triple
combinations, in which only it exhibits acid properties.
The compounds which it forms wnth the alkalies,
earths, and metallic oxides, are a fpecies of neutral
falts *, but the chemical combination is not fully com-
pleted to hide the alkaline properties-of the former
In forming thefe compounds, it is the only property in xix pi’j6-
which it agrees with the acids. The compounds are 625
denominated tungftates. Tungft&tes.
7. The order of its affinities is the following : 626
Lime, Affinities.
- Barytes,
Strontites^
C H E M
Strontites,
Magnefia,
Potafh,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia.
_ 027
Hiftcry.
Pfoceffes
for obtain¬
ing it.
629
Properties.
63°
Action of
heat.
631
rJdi water.
Sect. XV. Of Moltbdk Acid.
1. This acid was difcovered by Scheele in the year
1778. It is a compound of the metallic fubftance
molybdena and oxygen. Scheele fuppoled that it ex-
ifted in the mineral from which he obtained it, and
that this mineral was a compound of the acid, fulphur
and iron. The experiments of later chemiils have
fliown that the acid is formed in the procefs of prepar¬
ing it, by the metal combining with oxygen.
2. There are various proceffes for the preparation of
this acid.
a. Scheele found that by treating a little of the ful-
phuret of molybdena (fulphur combined with the me¬
tal) on a filver plate, the white fumes which exhaled
from it, adhered to the plate in form of a fmall fcale of
a brilliant yellowilh white colour, which was the true
molybdic acid. But a very fmall quantity can only
be obtained in this way.
b. Another procefs is by means of nitric acid. On
one part of fulphuret of molybdena in powder, pour
five parts of nitric acid, and diftil it to drynefs. The
fame procefs is repeated three or four times. The dry
refiduum is a white powder, which is the molybdic
acid mixed with the fulphuric acid, which is alfo form¬
ed during the procefs with the nitric acid. The ful¬
phuric acid may be walhed off with hot water, and the
molybdic acid remains behind in a date of purity.
c. It may be alfo prepared by projefting into a red-
hot crucible three parts of nitrate of potalh, and one
part of fulphuret of molybdena, reduced to fine powder
and well mixed together. A red mafs remains after
the detonation, compofed of the oxide of iron, of the
fulphate of potafli, and the molybdate of potafh. By
throwing the mafs into water, the two falts are diflolved,
and the oxide of iron is precipitated. Evaporate the
folution to obtain the fulphate of potafh, and drop in¬
to the liquid v'hich refufes to cryftallize, and which
fhould be diluted with water, fulphuric acid, till there
is no farther precipitation. The precipitate is molybdic
acid, but not in a date of perfeft purity j for it is com¬
bined with a certain portion of potafh.
3.. Molybdic acid, prepared in this manner, and
fufficiently purified, is a white powrder of a fharp me¬
tallic tafle. According to Bergman, the fpecific gra¬
vity is 3.4.
4. When heated in a large glafs retort, it yields a
little fulphurous acid. But when it is expofed to a
ilrong heat in a clofe veiTel, it fufes, attaches kfelf
to the fidcs of the veflel, and cryftallizes on cooling in
rays going, out from a centre. But if at the moment
the acid, is in fufion the veffel be uncovered, it rifes in¬
to a white fmoke by contact with air, and this vapour
attaches itfelf to cold bodies in form of brilliant fcales
of a golden-yellow colour.
It is readily foluble in warm wrater. One part of
the acid requires^about 500 grs. The folution is of a
I S T R Y.
yellow colour, has little fmell, and reddens litmus Acid:;
paper.
5. Molybdic acid is decompofed by charcoal, v'ithof^l
the afliftance of heat; it is alfo decompofed by ful-an/fut
phur, with the extrication of fulphurous acid, and the phur.
formation of fulphuret of molybdena. ^
6. The concentrated fulphuric acid diflolves a con-Of acid ,!
fiderable quantity of molybdic acid, with the aid of
heat. The folution on cooling becomes of a violet
blue colour, which difappears when it is heated. The
muriatic acid diffolves a confiderable proportion by ^
boiling. When this folution is diftilied to drynefs,7^/'
one part of the acid is fublimed, of a blue and white i^p.
colour. The nitric acid has no effeft whatever *. ^
7. Molybdic acid combines readily with the al-Compou
kaline and earthy bafes, which have the name of
molybdates,
8. This acid has not been applied to any ufe.
Sect. XVI. Of Chromic Acid.
• • • 635
1. This acid was difcovered by Vauquelm in the Difcovent:
year 1797. . 1° has on^y been found in fmall quantity,
in combination with lead or iron. , .
2. Chromic acid may be obtained by boiling the red Prcpsnl.
lead ore of Siberia in a folution of carbonate of potafli,tion.
and precipitating it by means of another acid, which
has a ftronger attra&ion for the potafli. A red or
yellow, orange powder falls to the bottom, which is
chromic acid. 4 I
3. It has an acrid and peculiar metallic take, more
perceptible than any other metallic acid.
4. When expofed to the a&ion of light and caloric,
in open.velfels, it aflumes a green colour ; but in clofe
veffels, it gives out pure oxygen gas, and lofing its acid
properties it returns to the flate of green oxide. This
is the only metallic acid, which by the aftion of caloric,
eafily parts with its oxygen. j
5. Strongly heated with charcoal, chromic acid be-AtfioJei
cdmes black, and is eafily reduced to the metallic flatecharcoaf
without fufion. It is probable alfo, that it may be
decompofed with equal facility by hydrogen, phofpho-
rus, and fulphur. ^ g
6. Chromic acid is foluble in water, and cryflallizes Water,
by cooling and evaporation, in prifms of a ruby red
colour. ^ *
7. l.he muriatic acid by diftillation with a moderateMuriatic
heat, with the chromic acid, paffes to the ftate of oxy- acid,
muriatic acid, and the mixture acquires the property of
diffolving gold. In this refpeft it refembles the nitric
acid, and it is the only metallic acid which is diftin-
guiflied by this property. ^ o
8- The chromic acid combines readily with the al-Compcunds.
kalies, and has the peculiar property of giving an
orange colour to the cryftals: from this it derived its
name.^ The compounds are called chromates. 641
9. I he chromic acid, from its peculiar colour, andUfes.
the beautiful colours which it communicates to other
bodies, promifes to be ufeful in painting on porcelain
and glafs, or even in dyeing.
Sect. XVII. Of Colummc Acid.
I. The laft of the metallic acids is the Columbia, Diicover)'*
which was difcovered by Mr Hatchet in 1801. In
the
CHEMISTRY.
; ;as.
u.,-
m
Nwa*
»(j
|44
't i;,rties.
-Kl of
le.
L
X ids.
11?.
TrV.
l8!.p. 44,
lif*
9
tlie ore from which it was ex traced, it is combined
with oxide of iron, from which it was feparated, by
expofing it to a ftrong red heat, with five times its
weight of carbonate of potafh. The alkali combined
with part of the acid, and from this it v'as feparated by
water. By repeatedly fufing the refiduum with potafii,
he feparated the whole of the acid from the iron,
which latter combined ivith muriatic acid that was
added to it. By treating the alkaline folution with
nitric acid, a precipitate of a white, flaky, infoluble
filbftance was obtained. This is the columbic acid.
2. It is of a pure white colour, but not very heavy,
and has fcarcely any perceptible tafle j it is not foluble
in boiling water. When fome of the powder is placed
upon litmus paper, moiftened with dilfilled v-ater, the
paper in a few minutes becomes red. When expofed
to the blow-pipe, it is not fufible, but only becomes of
a lefs brilliant vvhite.
3. It is diflfolved in boiling fulphuric acid, and
forms a tranfparent colourlefs folution, which is only
permanent while the acid is in a concentrated ft ate j
for if it be diluted with w ater, it affumes a milky ap¬
pearance $ a white precipitate is depofited, which, as
it dries on the filter, changes when completely dry to
a brownifli gray. It is then infoluble in water, has no
tafte, is femitranfparent, and breaks with a glofly, vi¬
treous frafture. This compound appears to be formed
of the fulphuric and columbic acids. Nitric acid has
no effe& on the columbic acid *.
Sect. XVIII. 0/ Acetic Acid.
1. Acetic acid, or vinegar, was one of the earlieft
known. This indeed was to be expe&ed, from the
manner and the abundance in which it is produced, as
it is the firft change to w'hich wine and fimilar liquids
are fubjedt. The fournefs which exifts in thefe liquids,
is owing to the produdtion of this acid. It has differ¬
ent names, according to the ftate in w’hich it is found.
When it is firft prepared, it is known under the name
of vinegar; when purified by diftiEation, it is called
diftilled vinegar •, and when it is ftrongly concentrated,
it is called radical vinegar, or acetic acid.
2. The procefs by which vinegar is obtained is the
fermenting procefs of many vegetable matters, what is
ufually denominated the acetous fermentation, or the
fecond ftage of the fermentative procefs of vegetable
matter. The circumftances in which this fermenta¬
tion takes place are, a temperature between 70° and
8o°, the addition of fome fermenting fubftance, and
expofure to the air.
The procefs which is recommended by Bocrhaave,
is generally followed. Two large hogftieads are pre¬
pared, by fixing about a foot from the bottom, a
grating of rods, on which vine branches are to be placed.
The wine to be fermented is poured into the veffels 5
the one is to be filled to the top, and the other only
one half. They are both left expofed to the air.
Fermentation begins in the veffel which is half full ;
when it is completely begun, fill it up from the other
veflel, which interrupts the fermentation in the full
hogfhead, and it commences in that which is half full.
When this has continued for a little time, it is filled
up from the other veflel, in which the fermentation
again commences; and is interrupted in the other.
527
Acids.
Thus, the preccfs is carried on by alternately empty¬
ing and filling the veflels till vinegar is formed, which
generally requires a period of from 12 to 15 days.
3. Vinegar is generally of a yellowifti colour, an Prcnertks,
acid tafte, and agreeable fmeli. It reddens vegetable
blues, and when it is expofed to heat, it is entirely dif-
fipated. The fpecific gravity varies from 1.005 to
1.0231. It varies eonfiderably in colour, fpecific
gravity, and other properties, according to the fub-
fiances from which it has been obtained. Vinegar in
this ftate is extremely apt to be decompofcd. Scheele
has pointed out a very Ample procefs, by which it may
be preferved for a long time. Put the vinegar into
bottles, and place them over the fire in a veffel filled
with water. Let the water boil for a moment, and
then take out the bottles, after which it may be kept
for feveral years.
4. To feparate the impurities with which vinegar ^
is contaminated, it is diftilled with a moderate heat jdiftillation.
the temperature muft not exceed that of boiling water,
and the procefs ftiould be carried on only till about y
of the quantity have paffed over. This is diftilled
vinegar, or the acetous acid of the chemifts. It is
then perfeftly tranfparent and colourlefs, has an agree¬
able odour, and a ftrong acid tafte. The vinegar in
this ftate, when expofed to a fufficient degree of cold,
is partly frozen. As the ice which is formed confifts
almoft entirely of water, when it is feparated the
fluid which remains is the vinegar highly concentra¬
ted.
5. To prepare what has been denominated radical of radical
vinegar, a fait, of which this acid forms a component vinegar.
part, muft be decompofed. The acetate of copper, or
verdigris, is generally employed for this purpofe. It is
reduced to powder, and diftilled in a retort with a
ftrong heat. The liquid which firft comes over is in-
fipid and colourlefs, and muft be kept feparate from
the remaining part of the product, which is the acetic
acid in a highly concentrated ftate. It has generally
a green colour, being contaminated with a little cop¬
per, but it may be purified by diftillation with a mode¬
rate heat, by which it is rendered colourlefs.
6. The acid in this ftate was at firft confidered
chemifts as different from the acetous acid in its pro- ana acetic
perties, affinities, and in the compounds it forms with acids fup-
other bodies. This was the opinion of the celebrated P0^ t0 be
chemical philofopher Berthollet, and this opinion wasc^erent‘
adopted by almoft all chemifts. It was fuj>pofed that
it was the acetous acid in combination with another
portion of oxygen, and hence it was denominated, ac¬
cording to the prefent nomenclature, acetic acid.
7. The nature and properties of thefe two fuppofed i,r.
acids were at laft inveftigated fully by Adet and Dar-the fame,
racq, who proved that there was no difference in the
proportion of oxygen in the acetous and acetic acids.
This conclufion was controverted by Chaptal and Da-
bit, who endeavoured to fupport the opinion of Ber¬
thollet, that the two acids are diftinguiffied from each
other by different properties and different combinations
with other bodies. It is now generally admitted, that
what have been called the acetous and acetic acids,
are effentially the fame, their apparent differences de¬
pending on the quantity of wat^r, mucilage and other
fubftances with which the acetous acid is combined.
8. This acid when pure, is tranfparent and colour-PropertW,
lefs.
by , *53
J Acetous
S2S
CHEMISTRY.
Acids.
656
Cryftallizes.
657
Adlion of
heat.
658
Of acids.
CS9
Anulyfis.
lefs. In the ftate of acetous acid, it has an agreeable,
aromatic odour. In the ftate of acetic acid, or when it
is highly concentrated, it acquires a fliarp, penetrating
odour, different from that of the vinegar, and in this
if ate it is extremely acid. Applied to the fkin it red¬
dens and deffroys it. It is highly volatile •, and when
expofed to the open air, it is foon diflipated. When
heated in contaft with the air, it inflames.
9. This acid may be obtained in cryltals, by forming
diftilled vinegar into a pafte with charcoal, and fub-
jefting the mixture to a temperature which does not
exceed 2i2°. By this heat the watery part is diflipa¬
ted, and the acid remains behind •, but when a ftronger
heat is applied, the afcid itfelf is driven off. By re¬
peating the procefs the acid may be obtained cryftalr
lized.
10. Acetic acid undergoes no perceptible change by
the aftion of oxygen, hydrogen, or azotic gafes } and it
is not altered by charcoal, phofphorus, or fulphur.
11. Acetic acid is decompofed by the fulphuric acid.
It abforbs carbonic acid, and dilfolves boracic acid. It
is alfo decompofed by nitric acid, and is converted into
carbonic acid and water. Dr Higgins analyzed the
acetic acid by decompofing it in combination with an
alkali. He diftilled in a glafs retort 7680 grs. .of ace¬
tate of potafh, that is, potafh combined with acetic acid,
and he obtained the following produfts.
Potafh
Carbonic acid gas,
Carbonated hydrogen gas,
Charcoal,
Oil,
Water,
Deficiency,
3862.9940
1473.5640
1047.6018
0078.0000
0180.0000
0340.0000
0726.9402
Dr Higgins was at a lofs to account for this defici¬
ency, till by repeated experiments he found that it is
always owing to the water and oil, and chiefly to the
Avater w'hich is carried off by the elaftic fluids. He
ftates the quantity of water carried off in vapour at
700 grs. and the quantity of oil carried off in the fame
way at 26.9402, which together make up the whole
t Experi- deficiency f. The potafh remained behind unaltered *,
merits and the acetic acid, therefore, has been decompofed, and
Obferva- yielded the produfts which were obtained by diftil-
uons, p. 27-2at;on. But the conftituent principles of thefe pro¬
dufts are oxygen, hydrogen, and carbone; and from
the proportions of oxygen and carbone which enter in¬
to the compofition of carbonic acid, the proportions
of carbone and hydrogen in carbonated hydrogen gas,
and of oxygen and hydrogen in the compofition
Compofi ' water> 100 Pa£ts acetic acid are compofed of
tion. about.
50 oxygen,
36 carbone,
14 hydrogen.
100
661
Compounds. 12. The compounds which acetic acid forms with
alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, are denominated
662 acetates.
Affinities. 13, The order of its affinities is the following.
Barytes,
Potafh,
Soda,
Strontites,
Lime,
Ammonia,
Magnefia,
Metallic oxides,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia.
Sect. XIX. Of Oxalic Acid.
1. This acid exifts ready formed in the ox alls aceto- i j
fella or wood-for re\, and fome other fpecies belonging pjants |j
to the fame genus of plants. From this it derives the
name of oxalic acid. It was originally deneminated
the faccharine acid, or the acid of fugar, becaufe it was
obtained from that fubfiance. Its properties were
firft particularly inveftigated by Bergman and Scheele,
and the method of preparing it is given by the for-
mer. .. B
2. An ounce of white fugar in powder is put into a Metholjl
retort, with three ounces of ftrong nitric acid. During obtainir l
the folution, a great quantity of fumes of the nitrous
acid efcapes. Apply heat till the liquor boils, and ni¬
trous gas is then driven off. When the liquor in the
retort acquires a reddifh brown colour, add three ounces
more of nitric acid } continue the boiling till the fumes
ceafe, and the colour of the liquor vanifhes. Pour out
the liquor into a wide (hallow veffel j and, when it cools,
cryftals will be formed in flender four-fidedprifms, which
may be collefted and dried on blotting paper. The
cryftals thus obtained may be again diffolved in diftilled
water, and evaporated to obtain new cryftals. Oxalic ]
acid may be obtained by a fimilar procefs from other
vegetables, and from fome animal fubftances, as gum
arabic, alcohol and honey.
3. Prepared in this way, oxalic acid is in the con-Propert: I
crete ftate, cryftallized in four-fided prifms, terminating
in two-fided fummits. They are white and tranfparent,
and have a confiderable luftre. They have a ftrong
ftiarp tafte, and change vegetable blues into a red co¬
lour, and produce the fame effeft on all vegetables ex¬
cept the indigo.
The acid properties of this fubftance are fo ftrong,
that one part of concrete oxalic acid gives to 3600
parts of water, the property of reddening paper ftained
with turnfole. ^6 i
4. When oxalic acid is expofed to heat, it is vo-Adiont
latilized, partly in a liquid, and alfo in a folid and cry-heat,
ftalline form. It is not decompofed, but at a high
temperature $ but, when it is expofed to a moderate
heat, it dries, is covered with a white cruft, and is
foon reduced to powder. It lofes of its weight when
put upon burning charcoal \ it exhales a pungent, irri¬
tating fmoke, and there remains behind a white alka¬
line refidue. . ^
5. This acid is deliquefcent in the air, when it is load- of wate
ed with moifture. Cold water diffolves about 4 its
weight of the acid ; boiling W'ater diffolYes a quantity
equal to its owrn weight. 658
6. Oxalic acid is decompofed by the fulphuric acid Compel
with the affiftance of heat, and charcoal is depofited j tion.
at
CHE M
elds, at the boiling temperature it is decompofed by the ni-
•■v-^ trie acid, and converted into water and carbonic acid.
According to Fourcroy, the component parts of oxalic
acid, as they have been afeertained by him and Vau-
quelin, are
hnnnifs'
rn. tom.
p. 225-
m
[apounds.
77 oxygen,
13 carbone,
10 hydrogen.
100 *
7. Oxalic acid combines with the alkalies, earths,
and metallic oxides, and the falts thus formed are di-
<669 ftinguifhed by the name of oxalates.
unities. 8. The affinities of this acid are in the following
order:
Lime,
Barytes,
Strontites,
Magnefia,
Potaffi,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Alumina.
Sect. XX. Of Tartabic Acid.
1. This acid was procured by Scheele in a feparate
ftate, in the year 1776, the procefs for which he com¬
municated to M. Retzius, who publiffied the account
of it in the Swediffi Memoirs for that year. It was the
firft difeovery in the bright career of that diftinguiih-
ed chemift.
2. The procefs which he followed was by boiling a
quantity of the fubftance called tartar, or cream of tar¬
tar, in water, and adding powdered chalk till effer-
vefcence ceafes, and the liquid no longer reddens ve¬
getable blues. It is then allowed to cool 5 the liquor
is filtered j and a white infoluble powder remains on
the filter, which is carefully removed and well waffi-
ed. This is put into a matrafs, and a quantity of ful-
phuric acid, equal in weight to the chalk employed, di¬
luted with water, is poured upon it. The mixture is
allowed to digeft for 1 2 hours on a fand bath, ftirring
it occafionally with a glafs rod. The fulphufic acid
combines with the lime, and forms a fulphate of lime,
which falls to the bottom. The liquid contains the
tartaric acid diffolved in it. This is decanted off, and
a little acetate of lead is dropt into it, as a teft to de¬
tect the fulphuric acid, ffiould any remain. With it
it forms an infoluble precipitate 5 and if this be the
cafe, it mult be digefted again with more tartrate of
lime, to carry off what remains of the fulphuric acid.
It is then evaporated, and about -y of the weight of
tartar employed is obtained, of concrete tartaric acid.
To purify this, the cryllals may be diffolved in diltill-
cd water, and again evaporated and cryltallized. It
feems probable, Fourcroy obferves, that this acid ex-
ills in a Hate of purity in fome vegetables. Vau-
Vol. V. Part II.
I S T R Y. 529
quelin has found a 64th part in the pulp of the ta- Acids,
marind.
3. Tartaric (or tartarous) acid, thus obtained, is iu crv^ls.
the form of very fine needle-ffiaped cryftals 5 but they
have been differently deferibed by different chcmiffs.
According to Bergman, they are in the form of fmall
plates attached by .one extremity, and diverging at the
other. They have been found by others grouped toge¬
ther in the thape of needles, pyramids, regular lix-fidcd
prifms, and fquare and fmall rhomboidal plates. 'Ihe
fpecific gravity is 1.5962. ,
4. This acid has a very ffiarp, pungent tafte 5 di-Properties',
luted with water, it refembles the tafte of lemon
juice; and it reddens ftrongly blue vegetable co-
iours. _ ^ . . 674
5. When it is expofed to heat on burning coals, it Action of
melts, blackens, emits fumes, froths up, and exhales a heat,
lharp, pungent vapour. It then burns with a blue
flame, and leaves behind a fpongy mafs of charcoal, in
which fome traces of lime have been detected. Four-
ounces of the concrete cryftallized acid, carefully di-
llilled, gave the following products * :
Cub. In.
431 carbonic acid gas,
120 carbonated hydrogen gas.
* Fourcroy
Connaif.
Chim. tom.
vii. p. 255.
673
6. In the decompofition of tartaric acid by heat, Action of
one of the moft remarkable products which particular-heat.
ly characterizes it, is an acid liquid of a reddiffi colour,
which amounts to one-fourth part of the weight of the
former. This was formerly known by the name of
pyrotartarous acid. It has a llightly acid tafte, pro¬
duces a dxfagreeable fenfation on the tongue, is ftrong¬
ly empyreumatic, and reddens the tinfture of turnfole.
But it has been found by the experiments of Fourcroy
and Vauquelin, to be the acetic acid impregnated with t Ann. Re
an oilf (Q_). _ _ Cbim.xom.
7. Tartaric acid is very foluble in water. The fpe-p l6*r
cific gravity of a folution formed by Bergman, was
found to be 1.230. This folution in v/ater is not liable ’Water,
to fpontaneous decompofition, unlefs it is diluted.
While it is concentrated, it lofes nothing of its acid
nature or its other properties.
8. Bergman fuppofed that tartarous acid could not con^/tej
be changed by the ftrongeft mineral acids, and more into oxalic,
efpecially by the nitric 5 but Hermftadt has fucceeded
in converting it into oxalic acid by feveral fucceflive
diftillations, with fix times its vreight of nitric acid, j Fourcroy
Three hundred and fixty parts of tartaric acid yielded Connaifs/
560 parts of oxalic acid, which ftiews that it had com- Chim. tom.
bined w ith a great additional proportion of oxygen J. vn- P* 2£6*
9. According to the analyfis of Fourcroy and Vau-Cornp/Opt-
quelin, 100 parts of this acid are compofed of tion.
70.5 oxygen,
19.0 carbone,
10.5 hydrogen.
100.0
3X
JO. The
(q3 The pyromucous and the pyroligneous acids are to be regarded in the fame light. The peculiar proper¬
ties which were fuppofed to diftinguilh them from other acids, were found by the fame philofophrrs to be owing
to a fimilar impregnation.
3 JJ
O
Aciils.
<579
Affinities.
C H E M I
10. The affinities of this acid are in the following
order.
Lime,
Barytes,
Strontites,
Magneiia,
Potalh,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Alumina.
S T R Y.
Sect. XXL Of Citric Acid.
But it has been obferved, that when an exeefs of Ada;
fulphuric acid is employed, it may adt upon the citric i
acfd itfelf, decompofe it, and produce the black mat- c 6s4!
Suppofe
ter which was fuppofed to be owing to the mucilage t0 pg
Foundin i> ^hc four or acid tafte of the juice of lemons and
fruits. oranges is Avell known. This is citric acid, but it
is mixed with water and mucilage •, and various pro-
6S r cedes have been propofed to obtain it in a ftate of purity.
Prepara- 2. The fir ft which fucceeded was propofed by M.
tion. Georgius, 1m account of which was publifhed in the
Swediih Memoirs for the year 1774. His procefs was
the following. It confifted in filling bottles with le¬
mon juice, fhutting them up clofe, and placing them
for fome time in a cellar to feparate the mucilage. He
afterwards expofed it to a temperature of about 240;
the watery part froze, and carried with it a portion of
mucilage. This was removed, and the liquid part
which remained was again frozen, till the folid part
had a perceptible acid tafte. The juice thus reduced
to one-eighth part of its original bulk, is eight times
ftronger, and requires the fame quantity of potafh for
faturation. In this ftate of concentration it was pre-
ferved.
Procefs of 3. But in this ftate it is not pure. We are indebt-
Scheele, ed to Sdheele for the difeovery of the procefs by which
it is obtained in a ftate of purity, and for afeertaining
the charafters by which it is diftinguifhed from tarta¬
ric acid, with which it was formerly confounded.
Lemon juice which has been filtered, is faturated with
powdered chalk. While the chalk is added, an effer-
vefcence takes place, which is owing to the combina¬
tion of the citric acid with the lime, and the fepara-
tion of the carbonic acid from it in the ftate of gas.
When the effervefcence ceafes, a white powder falls
to the bottom. This is the lime combined with the
citric acid. Walh this powder with warm water till
it paffes off colour!tfs, then put the fait which has been
valhed into a matrafs with a little water. Take fuch a
quantity of concentrated fulphuric acid, diluted with fix
or feven parts of water, as may be neceffary to laturate
the lime which has been employed j boil it for a few
minutes, then let it cool, and filter the liquor. The
fulphate of lime, formed by the decompofition of the
calcareous citrate, remains upon the filter. The fil¬
tered liquor contains the pure citric acid, which is to
be evaporated to the confiftence of a fyrup, and to be
fet by in a cool place to cryftallize. The citric acid
is thus obtained in fmall cryftals.
,Cgf/0f Scheele thinks that it is neceffary To add a fmall ex-
ad/tobe ce^"s fulphurie acid, to take up the whole of the
added lime from the citric acid. But Dize is of opinion that
*Fourcroy this excefs of lulphuric acid is only necellary, to de-
Covnaifs. -fi^oy the remaining portion of mucilage which adheres
T2. n! 204. t0 t^e c*tr*c ac’dj and thus to feparate from it every
extraneous fubftance *,
which adhered to it. And it appears, from an invefti-neceffaJ
gation by Prouft on the preparation of this acid, that
when too much fulphuric acid is employed, it decom-
pofes the citric acid, and prevents it from cryftallizing.
To prevent this, a fmall quantity of chalk is added.
He found that four ounces of chalk were neceffary for
the faturation of 94 ounces of lemon juice, and that
the produel which he obtained amounted to 74 ounces
of citrate of lime j and to decompoCe this, he added pi v^'1
20 ounces of diluted fulphuric acid f. ^
4. When citric acid is pure, it cryftallizes in thorn-prcpei
boidal prifms, whofe Tides are inclined to each other
at angles of 6o° and 12©°, terminating at each end in
four trapezoidal faces which include the folid angles.
By flow cooling of large quantities of the folution of
the pure acid, evaporated to the confiftence of fyrup,
Dize obtained very fine cr.yftals.
5. Citric acid has a very ftrong acid tafte, and
even feems to be cauftie j but when it is diluted with
water, the tafte is cooling and agreeable. It has a very
flight odour of lemons, and it reddens blue vegetable
colours. ($5$
6. When expofed to heat, it melts rapidly in its Afficn 1
own water of cryftallization. When the folid acid is heat-
put upon burning coals, it quickly fufes, froths up,
exhales a {harp, penetrating vapour, and is reduced to
the ftate of charcoal. Diftilled in a retort, it is partly
difengaged without decompolition, feems to be con¬
verted partly into vinegar, and then yields carbonic
acid gas, carbonated hydrogen gas, and there remains
in the retort a mafs of light charcoal. cs-
■7. Expofed to the air, it efflorefees in a dry, warm Water,
atmofphere j but when the air is moift, it abforbs wa¬
ter, and lofes its cryftalline form. It is very foluble
in water. Seventy-five parts of water diffolve 100 of
the acid. _ 688
8. Sulphuric acid, when concentrated, converts it Acids,
into acetic acid. It is alfo decompofed by the nitric
acid, which converts it partly into oxalic acid, but
the greater proportion into acetic acid. <;§<,
9. From the experiments .which have been madecompofi
with this acid, by decompofing it by -means of other tion.
acids, and the products which it affords, and its con-
verfion into acids whofe component parts are known,
it feems to be pretty certain that ©xygen, hydrogen,
and carbone enter into the compofition of citric acid.
1©. This acid enters into combination with alkalies, Ccunpoui
earths, and metallic oxides, and forms felts which are
denominated citrates, _ ^
i 1. The affinities of citric acid are the following. Affioitie
Lime,
Barytes,
Strontites,
Magnefia,
Potafh,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Alumina,
Zixconia-
Sect,
ads/
W,nr—'
C H E M I
Sect. XXII. Malic j4cid.
Up*
i. Malic acid is found in confiderable proportion in
the juices of a great number of fruits. In them it ex-
ifts ready formed, and particularly in the juice of ap¬
ples, from which it has derived its name. In fome
fruits it ex ills in fmall quantity, mixed with a great
proportion of citric acid, as in two fpecies of vaccini-
um, oxycoccos and vitis idee a, prunus padus, and fola-
num dulcamara* Thefe acids are found in nearly
equal proportions in fome other fruits, as in the goofe-
berry, cherry, and ftrawberry; but it exifts in greateft
abundance, and in the greateft purity, in the juice of
I , apples.
Vhod of 2. It is prepared by the following procefs, which was
faring difeovered by Scheele. Bruife a quantity of four ap¬
ples, exprefs thejuice^ and filter it through a linen
cloth. Saturate this juice with potalh, add to the fulu-
tion acetate of lead (lugar of lead) diffolved in water,
and continue the addition till there is no more precipi¬
tation. The acetic acid combines with the potaih, and
remains in the liquid, while the malic acid unites with
the lead, and being infoluble, falls to the bottom.
Wafh. the precipitate with water, and pour upon it di¬
luted fulphuric acid. The fulphuric acid combines
with the lead, and forms an infeluble fait, which falls
to the bottom. The malic acid remains uncombined
in the liquid. Care ihould be taken to add a fufficient
quantity of the fulphuric acid to feparate the whole of
the malic acid from the lead, which may be known by.
the pure acid tafte unmixed with the fweet tafte of the
fait of lead.
694 3. When this acid is mixed with citric acid, as is
^epa.‘ the cafe in the juices of many fruits, Scheele contrived
f* citric, the following procefs to feparate them. The juice is
firft evaporated to the confiftence of honey j alcohol is
poured upon it, by which the two acids are diffolved,
and a great quantity of mucilage is feparated j. the al¬
cohol is then evaporated •, the refidue after evaporation
is diluted with two parts of water, and faturated with
chalk, which combines with both the acids. The ci-
Strate of lime, which is the leaft foluble, is feparated by
evaporation j the malate of lime, or the combination
with the malic acid, may be alfo feparated, by adding
another portion of alcohol, Which does not diffolve the
fait, but a faccharine matter which had combined
with the malate of lime. The malic acid may then
be feparated as before, with the folution of the fugar of
lead.
^95 4. Vauquelin has extra£led a very pure and nearly
Thcufe C0^0U1^e^ ™alic acid from the juice of houfe-leek,
[t f Jemperviuurn teciorum, Lin.) It exifts in this juice
combined with lime. He extracted it by evaporating
the juice, pouring alcohol upon the refidue to feparate
a ftnall quantity of fugar which it contained, and by
adding to the remaining matter an equal weight of con¬
centrated fulphuric acid, previoufty diluted with leven
or eight times the quantity of water. But as fume
traces of fulphate of lime are always found in the ma¬
lic acid prepared in this way, he prefers the following
method.
^ ^ Add to the juice, a folution of fugar of lead 5 a pre-
n.x'xxiv c*pitate is formed, which is to be decompofed by means
27. of diluted fulphuric acid
S T R Y. 531
5. Malic acid thus obtained, is a reddiih brown 11-1 Adds. ^
quid, of a pungent acid tafte, leaving afterwards the Jl ^6
fenfation of fweetnefs. It reddens blue vegetable co-propc^tieSi
lours. It never affumes a eryftallme form, but be- ,/rrro,,
comes thick and vifeid like fyrup *, and when t xpok'd
to dry air, it dries in thin ftrata like a brilliant varnifh, tom.
for which purpofe it might be employed on poliihedvu. p. 799.
furfaces. f. 697
6. Malic acid is very readily decompofed by heat. Adtion of
It becomes of a dark colour, fwells up, exhales a thick heat,
acrid vapour in the open air, and leaves behind a bulky
mafs of coal. When diltilled in a retort, it yields an
acid water, a great deal of carbonic acid gas, a lit¬
tle carbonated hydrogen gas, and a light fpongy
coal. _ 69s
7. It is fpontaneoufly decompofed in the veffels in Decompo-
which it is kept \ undergoes a kind of vinous fermen-
tation, and depofits a mucous, flaky fubftance. I his
decompofition is owing to the intimate re-a£tion of its
conftituent parts. 559
8. All the ftrong acids decompofe it. Concentrated by nitric
fulphuric acid chars it 5 and it is converted into oxalic acid,
acid by nitric acid. Scheele difeovered, that mucous
matters treated wdth nitric acid, paffed to the ftate of
malic acid, or were converted into this acid, and into
oxalic acid. _ 700
9. The proportions of the conftituent parts of this Proportion
acid have not been afeertained j but from its decompo- of its con-
fition, and the products which are thus obtained, it is .
obvious that it is compofed of oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbone, of which the latter is fuppofed to be in great
proportion. 701
10. The affinities of this acid are not determined, and alfo
The compounds which it forms with alkalies, earths,
and metallic oxides, are denominated malates.
11. It is very foltible in water.
Sect. XXIII. 0/Gallic Acid.
1. This acid exifts moft abundantly in a well known Hiftory,.
fubftance, nut galls, and hencC it has obtained the name
of gallic acid. It is alfo found in the bark and wood
of many other plants. It was firft examined by the
academicians ol Dijon in 177^ ac^ proper¬
ties clearly afeertained; but it is to Scheele that We
are indebted for the difeovery of the procels by which
it may be obtained pure and cryftallized. The account
of this procefs was publifhed in ijSo, which is the fol¬
lowing. 13 5
2. To one part -of nut galls, reduced to a coarfe Prepara--
powder, add fix parts of pure water. Lfet the infufiontlon-
macerate for 15 days at the temperature bf between
70° and 8o° filter it, and put the liquid into a large
glafs or earthen veffel, expofe it to the air, and al¬
low it to evaporate flowly, A thick glutinous pelli¬
cle forms' on the top ; a great quantity of mucous
flakes are precipitated, and the folution has no longer
an aftringent, but a perceptibly acid tafte. At the
end of two or three months, Scheele had obferved on
the fides of the veflels in which the folution was con¬
tained, a brown cruft; covered with ftiining cryftais of
a yellowith gray colour. He found alf® a great quan¬
tity of thefe cryftais under the thick pellicle which
covered the liquid. He then decanted it, and added
alcohol to the precipitate, the pellicle and the cryftal-
3X2 < line
CHEMISTRY.
line cruft, and applied heat. The alcohol diffolved the
cry Utilized acid, without touching the mucilage. The
folution was now evaporated, and the gallic acid was
obtained pure, in fmall thining cryftals, of a yellowifli
gray colour.
3* Ueyeux has pointed out another method by which
with proper precautions, gallic acid may be more
readily obtained. ^ He introduces into a large glafs re¬
tort, a quantity of nut galls reduced to powder, and ap¬
plies heat flowly and cautioufly, by which he obtains
a large quantity of laminated, brilliant, lilvery cryftals,
fufficiently large, and which have all the properties of
gallic acid. But in following this procefs, it is necef-
* CannaifsS^y 1:0 °hferve, that the heat muft be very moderate,
Chim. viii. and n°t continued till an oil is difengaged, which in
duced by means of gallic acid, exhibit the following Acids,!
colours. -v—
704
Another
procefs.
p. 181.
7°5
Davy’s.
t Jottr.
p, 274..
706
Properties
7e7
Aftion of
water.
708
-0f heat,
ftantly diifolves all the cryftals fublimed before its ap¬
pearance *.
4. Mr Davy prepares it by boiling together for fome
time carbonate of barytes, and a folution of gall nuts.
This affords a bluifli green liquor. When diluted ful-
phuric acid is dropt into it, it becomes turbid j fulphate
Injht. 0f barytes is depofited, and after filtration, if the fatura-
tion of the earth be complete, a colourlefs folution of
gallic acid, apparently pure, is obtained f.
5. Gallic acid is cryftallized in tranfparent oftahe-
drons, or brilliant plates $ it has a ftiarp, pungent, and
auftere tafte, but lefs ftrong and aftringent than that
of the gall nut.
6. This acid is not fenfibly affe&ed by expofure to
the air. It requires 24 parts of eold water, and about
two-thirds of its weight of boiling water, to diffolve it,
from which it can only be cryftallized by a very flow
evaporation.
7. With a moderate heat, it rifes into vapour, which
on cooling is condenfed and cryftallized. In the ftate
of vapour, it has a ftiarp, aromatic odour, refembling
that of the benzoic acid. Every time that it is fu¬
blimed, even with a moderate heat, it is partially de-
compofed ; water is formed, an acid liquid, carbonic
acid gas, carbonated hydrogen gas, and fome drops of
a brown coloured oil j and there remains behind, a great
quantity of coaly matter.
8. Concentrated fulphuric acid decompofes and chars
i Fourcroy ^ ac^- Nitric acid converts it into the malic
Connnifs. an^ °xalic acids. Oxymuriatic acid produces peculiar
Cbim.tom. changes on the gallic acid, but thefe have not been
vii. p. 183. diftindtly afeertained ±.
Gf metallic 9‘ Althoiigl1 we have not yet treated of metallic
oxides.' fubftances, it may be neceffary to anticipate a little,
and mention the effefts of gallic acid on metallic
oxides. This indeed is its chief chara&eriftie. On
this account, it is much employed by chemifts, to dif-
eover metallic fubftances, which are held in folution
along with other bodies. Its effe&s on the metallic
oxides are extremely various, and with different metals
it affords different coloured precipitates. The more
readily the metallic oxides give up their oxygen, the
greater is the change produced by the gallic acid. On
fome metallic folutions it has no effeft ; fuch are, folu-
tions of platina, of zinc, of tin, of cobalt, and of man-
The precipitates of the'‘different metals pro-
Gold,
Silver,
Mercury,
Copper,
Bifmuth,
Iron,
Lead,
Nickel,
Antimony,
Tellurium,
Uranium,
Titanium,
Chromium,
Columbium,
Brown.
Brown.
Orange-yellow,
Brown.
Citron-yellow.
Black.
White.
Gray.
White.
Yellow.
Chocolate.
Reddilh-brown,
Brown.
Orange.
7°9
Of acids
„ 711
Compofi.
tion.
71:
Compoun:
Affinities;
ganefe.
10. The component parts of gallic acid are the fame
as thofe of the other vegetable acids, but having a
greater proportion of carbone j but thefe proportions
have not been afeertained.
11. The compounds which the gallic acid forms with
alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, are denominated
gal/ates.
12. The affinities of this acid have not been afeer¬
tained.
Sect. XXIV. Of Benzoic Acid.
1. Benzoic acid is obtained from feveral plants, Hifton-t
and particularly from the Jiyrax ben^oe, a tree which
grows in Sumatra ; from the balfam of Peru and To¬
lu ; from vanilla, and liquid amber. It alfo exifts in ’
the urine of children, and fometimes in that of adults,
but conftantly in the urine of quadrupeds which live
on grafs and hay, efpecially in that of the horfe and
cow. It is fufpeded alfo that it exifts in many of the
graffes, and that it is derived from them by means of
the aliment to the urine of the animals in which it is
found. Fourcroy and Vauquelin fufpeft that it exifts
in the fweet-feented grafs, (anthoxanthum odoratum,
Lin.) which gives the fine flavour to hay *. * Tonm
The firft mention of benzoic acid is made by Blaife CWni/f-
de Vigenere, w ho wwote about the commencement oiChtm- torn
the 17th century (r). He fays, that he obtained byVl'
diftilling benzoin, an acid fait which cryftallized in
needles, of a penetrating odour. It was then called
flowers of benzoin, but at prefent benzoic acid.
2. To obtain this acid by the moft common procefs,prepara,
put into an earthen pot a quantity of benzoin grofslytion.
powdered. Cover the veflel with a cone of paper,
and apply a very gentle heat. The benzoic acid is
fublimed, and attaches itfelf to the fides of the cone,
which may be renewed every two hours. Continue
the procefs till the acid fublimed begins to be colour¬
ed by the oil which is difengaged. By a procefs pro-
pofed by Geoffrey, the benzoin reduced to powder is
digefted in warm wrater, and this being filtered, yields
on cooling netdle-fliaped cryftals of benzoic acid 3
but the quantity obtained in this way is very fmall,
which led Scheele to adopt the following procefs. He
took
(r) Traite du feu et dufe/^ which was printed at Paris in 1608.
CHEMISTRY.
j : ciJs.
I|wy 1 1
jiS
t jetties.
1'1 .
i aon ot
l u
718
Ivater.
■17'9
C|'icids,
720
fj'ipofi-
! 721
^pounds,
in
* -aities.
took I part of quicklime, to which were added 3 parts
of water, and afterwards about 30 parts more, which is
then to be gradually mixed with 4 parts of powdered
benzoin. Heat the whole on a moderate fire for half
an hour, continually agitating the mixture j then re¬
move it from the fire, and let it remain at reft for fe-
veral hours. Decant the clear fupernatant liquor, and
add 8 parts more water to the refiduum. Boil it for half
an hour, and mix it with the former. Reduce the li¬
quor by evaporation to two parts ; add drop by drop,
to a flight excefs, muriatic acid, which caufes the ben¬
zoic acid to precipitate, by feparating it from the lime.
Wafli the precipitate w'ell on a filter j and to obtain it
in cryftals, diffolve it in 5 or 6 times its own weight
of boiling water, which on cooling, yields cryftals in
the form of long compreffed prifms.
3. Pure benzoic acid is either in the form of a light
powder, perceptibly cryftallized, or in the form of very
fmall needles, of which it is extremely ditftcult to de¬
termine the ftiape. It is white and brilliant, and has
fome degree of du&ility and elafticity. It has an
acrid, pungent, acidulous, and very bitter tafte. In
the cold the odour is flight, but is aromatic, and this
is fufficient to characterize it. It reddens the tinfture
of turnfole, but has no effeCI on the fyrup of violets.
The fpecific gravity of benzoic acid is 0.667.
4. Expofed to a moderate heat, it melts, forms a
foft brown and fpongy body, which cools into a folid
cruft, exhibiting on the furface fome appearance of
cryftallization. With a ftronger heat it is fublimed, and
exhales a white acrid vapour, which affefts the eyes.
It burns when brought into contaft with flame, and
the whole is confirmed without any refiduum. When
it is diftilled in clofe veffels, great part fublimes un¬
changed, but part is decompofed and yields a vifcid
liquid, a confiderable quantity of oil, and a much
greater quantity of carbonated hydrogen gas than any
other body of this nature. A very fmall portion of
coaly matter remains in the retort.
5. It is not fenfibly changed by expofure to the air.
It is fcarcely foluble in cold water. Four hundred
parts of boiling water diflblve 20 parts of the acid,
19 of which are feparated on cooling.
6. Concentrated fulphuric acid readily diflolves this
acid, and one part of the fulphuric acid pafles into the
ftate of fulphurous acid. Benzoic acid may be feparated
from this folution without having undergone any change,
by adding water. The nitric acid diflblves it in the
fame way, and it is alfo feparated by means of water.
Guyton found, by diftilling nitric acid on the concrete
benzoic acid, that nitrous gas was difengaged, only
towards the end of the procefs, and that the acid it-
felf then fublimed without alteration.
7. As this acid yields by diftillation oil and carbon¬
ated hydrogen gas, it is obvious that it muft be com-
pofed of carbone and hydrogen, and probably alfo
oxygen, although this latter has not been difcovered
in any experiments that have been made on this fub-
ftance.
8. Benzoic acid unites very readily with alkalies,
earths, and metallic oxides, and the compounds which
are thus formed are denominated benzoates.
9. The order of the affinities of benzoic acid is the
following.
White oxide of arfenic,
Potafli,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Barytes,
Lime,
Magnefia,
Alumina. '
Sect. XXV. Of Succinic Acid.
72 j
1. Succinic acid, formerly called volatile fait of am- HiftoryA
ber, was long regarded as an alkaline fait. It was
not till towards the end of the 17th century, that its
acid properties were difcovered. As amber, the fub-
ftance from which the acid is obtained, is found in
confiderable quantity under ftrata of fubftances which
contain pyrites, it was thought that this acid was
formed by fulphuric acid. This was the opinion of
Hoffman and Neuman. Amber is found on the fea-
coaft of different countries, efpecially in the Pruffian
territory on the ftiores of the Baltic. The name of
the acid is derived from fuccinumy the Latin name for
this fubftance.
2. Succinic acid may be obtained by the following prepa‘a„
procefs. Introduce a quantity of amber in powder tion.
into a retort, and let it be covered with dry fand.
Adapt a receiver, and diftill with a moderate heat in
a fand bath. There paffes over firft a liquid which
is of a reddiffi colour, and afterwards a volatile acid
fait, which cryftallizes in fmall, white, or yellowifli
needles in the neck of the retort j and if the diftilla¬
tion be continued, a white light oil fucceeds, which
becomes brown, thick, and vifcid. The acid which
is obtained in this way is contaminated with the oil ;
and therefore to feparate this oil, it may be diffolved
in hot water, and paffed through a filter on which has^
been placed a little cotton moiftened with oil of am¬
ber, which retains the oil, and prevents it from puf¬
fing through along with the acid. The acid may then
be evaporated and cryftallized. Guyton has obferved,
that the acid may be rendered quite pure, by diftilling
off it a fufficient quantity of nitric acid, but with this * Ann. de
precaution, that the heat employed is notftrong enough Ch,7n- to“*
to fublime the fuccinic acid *. XXX‘^1 ’
3. The acid thus obtained is in the form of v-hite, Properties,
fliining, tranfparent cryftals, which are foliated, trian¬
gular, and prifmatic. The tafte is acid, but not cor-
rofive. It reddens the tinflure of turnfole, but has no
efleft on the infufion of violets.
72(5
4. With the heat of a fand bath, the cryftals of fuc- Adlion of ’
cinic acid firft melt, and are then fublimed and con-heat,
denfed in the upper part of the veffel. There is, how¬
ever, a partial decompofition, for there is a coaly mat¬
ter left behind in the veffel.
At the temperature of 212°, two parts of water of water,
dilfolve one of this acid, which cryftallizes on cooling.
When the water is cold at the temperature of 50°, it
requires 96 parts of water to diffolve one of the acid. 7 2S
6. This acid like other vegetable acids, is compofed Compofi-
of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbone j for when it is dif-tl0n*
tilled in a retort .w ith a ftrong heat, carbonic acid gas,
and carbonated hydrogen gas are evolved, and char¬
coal. :
S34
Acids, coal Sremams ’behind in the retort. The proportions of
the component parts have not been afcertained.
Compounds. 7* This acid enters into combination with alkalies,
earths, and metallic oxides, and forms with them com-
pounds which are denominated fuccinates.
Affinities. 8. The affinities of this acid are in the following order:
Barytes,
Lime,
Potaih,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Magnolia,
Alumina,
Metallic oxides. *
Sect. XXVI. Of Saclactic Acid.
731
Hiftory. 1. To this acid Fourcroy has given the name of Mu¬
cous acid, becaufe it is obtained from gum arabic and
other mucilaginous fubftances } and it was formerly
called acid of fugar of milk. This latter name it re¬
ceived from Scheele, who difcovered it in the year
^80, while he was employed in making experiments
on the fugar of milk, in order to obtain from it oxalic
^2 acid, which he procured from fugar.
•Frepara- 2. This acid may be obtained by the following pro-
tion. cefs. To I part of gum arabic, or other mucilaginous
^ fubftance, add 2 parts of nitric acid in a retort, and
apply a gentle heat. There is at firft difengaged a
little nitrous gas and carbonic acid gas, after which
let the mixture cool. There is then precipitated a
white powder which is {lightly acid. This powder is
^ the facla&ic acid.
Properties. 3. Thus obtained, facla&ic acid is in the form of
a white powder, a little gritty, and with a weak acid
734 tafte*
Ad ion of 4. It is readily decompofed by heat , and yields an
heat. acid liquor which cryftallizes by reft in the ftiape of
needles, a fmall quantity of an acrid cauftic oil, of a
blood red colour, carbonic acid gas, and carbonated
* Fourcroy hydrogen gas ; and there is left behind a confiderable
Connaifs. quantity of coaly matter. It is partly fublimed in
Chyn. tom. OT brown plates, with an odour fimilar to that
'n 73S47‘ kenz®c ac^ *•
Of water. 5. Saclaftic acid in the ftate of powder is not very
foluble in water. Cold-water does not take up more
than 200 or 300 parts of its weight 3 boiling water
does not take up above one half more. On cooling,
the acid is depoftted in brilliant fcales, which become
^Method i a'r* f°lution has an acid tafte. It
p. 290. ' reddens the tin&ure of turnfole. Its fpecitic gravity
736 at the temperature of 590 is 1,0015 f .
Compounds. 5. This acid enters into combination with earths,
alkalies, and metallic oxides 3 and the falls which it
^ forms are known by the name offaccolates.
Affinities. 7- The order of its affinities, according to Bergman,
is the following.
Lime,
Barytes,
Magnefta,
Potafti,
Soda,
Ammonia,
Alumina,
Metallic oxides.
CHEMISTRY.
Sect. XXVII. Of Camphoric Acid.
Actdi!
•‘-Y-
1. This acid is obtained, as the name imports, from Hiftorv
camphor, a concrete fubftance procured from a fpecies
of laurel (Laurus carnphora, Lin.) which is a native
of the Eaft Indies.
2. Camphoric acid was firft obtained by Kofegarten, prep^r:
by diftilling nitric acid 8 times fucceffively off cam- ticm.
phor. This experiment was repeated by Bouillon La¬
grange with the fame refult. .He introduced into a
glafs retort, 1 part of camphor, and he poured over
it 4 parts of nitric acid. A receiver was adapted to
the retort, and the joinings were well luted. The
retort was placed on a fand-bath, and a gradual heat
was applied. A great deal of nitrous gas and carbonic
acid gas was difengaged. One part of the camphor is
fublimed, and another part feizes on the oxygen of the
nitric acid. The fame procefe muft be repeated till
the whole of the camphor is acidified, which is known
by its cryftalliz’ng when the liquor cools which re¬
mains in the retort. Thefe cryftals are camphoric
acid. To purify it, it muft be diffolved in diftilled
warm water, and the liquor is then to be filtered and
evaporated to nearly half its volume, or till a thin
pellicle is formed on it. When it cools, cryftals of
pure camphoric acid will be obtained. ^
3. Camphoric acid has a {lightly acid, bitter tafte. Propertis
It reddens the timfture of turnfole. The cryftals re-
femble, when, in a mafs, thofe of the muriate of am¬
monia. Expofed to the air the mafs efflorefees. I
4. Cold water diffolves this acid with great difficul-A&ionaif
ty. An ounce of water at the temperature of between water.
5a0 and 6o°, cannot dilfolve more than 6 grs. while
water at the boiling temperature will hold in folution
eight times that quantity. i
5. When this acid is put upon burning coals, it ex-oflieat. i|l
hales a denfe, aromatic vapour 3 with a lefs degree of
heat, it melts, and is fublimed. When put into a heat¬
ed porcelain tube, and if a ftream of oxygen gas be
palled through it, the acid remains unchanged, but it is
fublimed from the fides of the tube. When diftilled
alone, it firft melts and then fublimes. This fublima-
tion produces fome change in its properties. It no
longer reddens the tinfture of turnfole, and acquires a
ftrong aromatic odour, and a lefs pungent tafte 3 be¬
comes infoluble in water, and in the fulphuric and mu- * dnn. fo|,|
riatic acids. The nitric acid heated, makes it yellow,
and diffolves it *. > XW ^1
6. Camphoric acid enters into combination with thecompouni
alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, and the compounds
thus formed are denominated camphorates.
7. The affinities of this acid are the following f
Lime,
Potaffi,
Soda,
Barytes,
Ammonia,
Alumina,
Magnefia.
744
f Ib\i-
xxvii. p. 41
Sect. XXVIII. Of Suberic Acid.
745
1. This acid is obtained from cork, a well-known Hiftory.
fubftance, which is the bark of a tree (the quercus fiber
Lin.
CHEMISTRY.
;35
746
J para*
t <
i
747
’ertiej.
/
li|
C
748
ion of
t.
749
eat.
Lin. or cork-tree.) From the Latin name of this fub-
ftance,y»^r, the name of the acid is derived, and hence
it is called fuberic acid. The acid which is obtained
from cork, by treating it with nitric acid, was fuppofed
to be the oxalic acid, on account of poflefling feme
common properties, and particularly that of forming
with lime an infoluble fait. But the experiments of
Bouillon Lagrange have fhewn, that this is a peculiar
acid.
2. This acid is obtained by the following procefs.
Take a quantity of clean cork, grated down. Intro¬
duce it into a retort, and pour on it fix times its weight
of nitric acid ; the acid ought not to be too concentrated.
It is then to be ditlilled with a moderate heat. The
cork fwells up and becomes yellow, and there is dif-
engaged a quantity of red vapours ; and as the difiilla-
tion goes on, the cork is diflblved, and fwims on the
furface like foam. If this feum is not formed, the cork
has not been afted upon by the acid. In this cafe
when the diftillation begins to flop, return into the re¬
tort the acid which had paffed over into the receiver,
and diftil as long as any red vapours appear, and then
immediately remove the retort from the fand bath, and
pour out the contents while yet hot into a glafs or por¬
celain veiTel; put it upon a fand bath and apply a gentle
heat, ftirring it conftantly with a glafs rod. The mat¬
ter gradually thickens, and as -foon as white vapours are
difengaged, which excite a tickling in the throat, it is
to be removed from the fand bath, and conftantly ftir-
red till the mafs is nearly cold. In this way a fubftance
is obtained of the eonftftence of honey, of an orange-
yellow colour, of a ftvarp penetrating odour while it is
warm, but which gives out a peculiar aromatic imell
■when it is cold.
To procure the acid which is contained in this fub¬
ftance, put it into a matrafs, and pour upon it double
its weight of diftilled water. Apply heat till the mafs
becomes liquid, and feparate by filtration that part
-which is mfriluble in water. The liquor which is ob¬
tained is of a clear amber colour, and of a peculiar
odour. The filtered liquor on cooling becomes muddy,
is covered with a thin pellicle, and depofits a powdery
fediment. The precipitate is to be feparated from the
liquid by -filtration, and it is to be dried with a gentle
heat. . This precipitate is the fuberic acid. The re¬
maining liquor is then to be evaporated to drynefs with
a moderate heat, to obtain the whole of the acid which
it holds in folutiom
The acid which is prepared by this -procefs is a lit¬
tle coloured, and may be purified, either by faturating
the fuberic acid with potalh, and precipitating with an
acid, or by boiling it with charcoal powder.
3. Suberic acid is in the folid form, but it is not
cryftallized. When it is obtained by precipitation, it
is in the ftate of a powder, and by evaporation it is in
the form of thin irregular pellicles.
4. It has a flightly bitter and acid tafte. Diffolved
in a fmall quantity of boiling water, it tickles the
throat, and excites coughing. It reddens vegetable
blues.
5. Expofed to the light, it becomes brown after a
certain time ; but this effeft is more fpeedily produced
when it is expofed to the fun’s rays. Heated in a
matrafs, the fuberic acid is fublimed, and the glafs re¬
mains marked with zones of different colours. If the
fublimation be flopped in time, the acid is obtained on Acids,
the fides of the veflel, in fmall points formed of concen- v " /
trie circles. When expofed to the heat of the blow¬
pipe on a fpoon of platina, it firft melts, then falls
down into powder, and at laft is totally diftipated by
fublimation. 750
6. It undergoes no change from the afrion of oxygen Of aads.
gas. The action of the acids on fuberic acid is very
weak. The folution is not complete, efpecially when
it is impure.
7. Water at the temperature of 6o° or 70° diffolves of water,
the concrete acid only in the proportion of 10 grs. to
the ounce. When the acid is very pure, the water * Annul, de
will not diffolve more than 4 grs. Boiling water dif- Cbim. tom.
folves half its weight ; but as the liquor cools, it be- xxiii. p. 42.
comes muddy, and the acid is depofited *. 752
8. This acid combines with the alkalies, earths, and Compounds,
metallic o&ides, and forms with them compounds which
are knowji by the name of /liberates. 753
9. The order of its affinities is the following f. Affinities.
f Ibid.? 57,
Barytes,
Potafh,
Soda,
Lime,
Ammonia,
Magnefia,
Alumina,
Metallic oxides.
Sect. XXIX. Of Mellitic Acid.
T. The acid is procured from a mineral fubftance Difcoveiy,
which was difeovered about the year 1790. Werner
gave it the name of konigstein, (honeyftone) frem its
colour. By other mineralogifts it has been denomi¬
nated mellite, from the Latin name of honey, and
hence the acid which it affords has been called mellitic
acid. The mineral from which this acid is obtained
feems to be of vegetable origin. It is found in fmall
cryftals among the layers of wood coal at Arten in
Thuringia. In the firft analyfis to which this mineral
was fubjefted no new acid was detefted. But in the
year 1799 the acute and accurate Klaproth examined
its nature and component parts, and found that it is a
compound of a peculiar acid and alumina. His experi¬
ments have been flnee repeated by Vauquelin, and the
refult of his analyfis has been fully confirmed.
2. It is procured from mellite by the following pro-proCe(^fcr
cefs. The mineral is to be reduced to powder, and obtaining,
boiled with about 72 times its weight of water. The
alumina is precipitated in the form of flakes, and the
acid combines with the water. By filtration and eva¬
poration, cryftals arc depofited, which are the cryftals
of mellitic acid.
3. This acid cryftallizes in the form of fine needles, Properties
or in fmall Ihort prifms with ftiining faces. They arc
confiderably hard. It has a {lightly acid tafte, aceom-
panied with foirie degree of bitternefs. ^
4. This acid has very little folubility in water, but Adtion of
ft has not been afeertained to what degree ; or what water,
proportion of water it requires for its folution. (
5. A finall quantity of this acid expofed to the Qf
flame of the blow-pipe, at firft gave put {parks like
nitre ; and then fvellcd tip, and left a matter which
penetrated
CHEMISTRY.
759
Of acids.
760
Compofi-
tion.
penetrated the charcoal. Heated in a crucible of pla-
tina, it fwells up at firlt, is then charred, without the
produftion of any oily vapour, and leaves behind a
light coaly alkaline matter *.
6. When the nitric acid is added to this acid, it pro¬
duces no other change than giving it a yellowilh colour.
It has not yet converted it into any of the vegetable
acids, to which it is nearly allied in its properties and
conftituent parts.
7. According to Klaproth’s analyfis the mineral from
which the acid is obtained confifts of
46 mellitic acid,
16 alumina,
38 water.
pears in the form of a vifeid mucilaginous fubftance. Adi
It has a ftrong fharp tafte, which is far from being   j|
agreeable. It reddens the tinfture of turnfole, and
gives a reddifli violet fhade to the fyrup of violets.
4. When it is dillilled in a retort it yields an empy-c0nipc
reumatic acid which is very ftrong and analogous to thetion.
tartaric, very little oil, carbonic acid gas, and carbo¬
nated hydrogen gas, and a fmall quantity of coaly mat¬
ter which adheres to the glafs. This ftiews what are
the conftituent parts of this acid, but the proportions of
thefe have not been determined. g,
5. The compounds with alkalies, earths, and metal-Compt
lie oxides which are formed with the ladtic acid, are
denominated la&ates. ,
6. The affinities of this acid are in the following Affim
order.
100
When it vras diftilled in a retort the acid was com¬
pletely decompofed \ and the products obtained by
Klaproth in this way from 100 grains of mellite were
•the following:
54 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas,
13 hydrogen gas,
38 grs. of acidulous water,
1 aromatic oil,
^ 9 charcoal,
16 alumina.
The conftituent parts of mellitic acid are obvioufly
carbone, hydrogen, and oxygen. But the proportions
have not been afeertamed.
■Compounds. 8. Mellitic acid enters into combination with the
earths, alkalies, and metallic oxides, and forms com¬
pounds with them which are called mellates.
Sect. XXX. Of Lactic Jcid.
762
Dii'covery.
1*3
Prepara¬
tion.
7<4
Properties.
1. In inveftigating the changes which fpontaneoufly
take place in milk, the celebrated Scheele difeovered
that it contains a peculiar acid. To this has been
given the name of /a£h'c acid. The formation of this
acid depends on the change of the fugar of milk or
of the faccharine mucous matter j for after the acid is
once well formed, when the ferous part of the milk be¬
ing very four reddens vegetable blues, no more is ob¬
tained by evaporation and cryftallization.
2. Scheele did not fucceed in feparating the acid
from the ferous part of the milk by dftlillation. He
therefore contrived the following procefs. He eva¬
porated a quantity of four whey to -^th of its bulk, and
then filtered it to feparate the whole of the coagulated
cheefy matter. He then added lime-water to precipi¬
tate the phofphate of lime, and diluted the liquid w-ith
three times its weight of pure water. He then preci¬
pitated the cxcefs of lime by means of the oxalic acid,
adding no more of the latter than what is neceffary.
He evaporated the folution to the conliftency of honey,
poured on a quantity of alcohol which feparates the
portion of fugar of milk and of other extraneous mat¬
ter, and diffolves the la61ic acid j and diftilled the
clear filtered liquor till the whole of the alcohol em¬
ployed be driven off: what remains in the retort is the
laftic acid.
3. This aeid is never eryftallized j but always ap¬
Barytes,
Potafh,
Soda,
Strontites*
Lime,
Ammonia,
Magnefia,
Metallic oxides,
Glucina,
Alumina,
Zirconia.
Sect. XXXI. Of Laccic Acid.
?69
I. The fubftance from which this acid is obtained, Hiltory,
is collefted in the neighbourhood of Madras. It was
firft deferibed by Dr Anderfon, who fays that nefts of
infefts refembling fmall cowry ftiells were brought to
him from the Avoods by the natives, who eat them Avith
avidity. Thefe fuppofed nefts he ffiortly afterwards
difeovered to be the coverings of the females of an un-
deferibed fpecies of coccus ; and having noticed in the
abbe Grofier’s account of China, that the Chinefe cal¬
led a kind of wax, much efteemed by them, under the
name of pSla from a coccus depofited for the purpofe of
breeding, on certain flirubs, and managed exaflly in the
fame manner as the Mexicans manage the cochineal in¬
fers, he folloAved the fame procefs Avith his neAv infetfts,
and found means to propagate them Avith great facility
on trees and ffirubs in the neighbourhood. ytfp j
This fubftance, Avhich he called Avhite lac, Avas found and natu-
on examination to haAre a confiderable refemblance to01^^'
bees wax. Dr Anderfon fuppofes, that the animal which
fecretes it provides itfelf, by fome means or other, Avith
a fmall quantity of honey, refembling that produced by
our bees. The fweetnefs of it tempted the children
who wrere employed to collefr it, to eat fo much of it
as very much to diminiffi his crop. A fmall quantity
of this matter wras fent to Europe in 1789. It was ex¬
amined by Dr Pearfon, who publiflied an account of his
analyfis in the Philofophical Tranfafrions for 1794,
from Avhich we have extrafted the information which
W'e nowr lay before our readers.
A piece of Avhite lac, which weighs from three to
fifteen grains, is fuppofed to be produced by each infect.
Thefe pieces are about the fize of a pea, of a gray co¬
lour, opaque and roundiffi, but Avith a fiat fide, by
which they adhere to the bark. In its dry ftate, Avhite
lac is foft and toush. and has a ialtiffi and bftterilh
tafie.
•;u3.
4fv—
77°
p lira*
ti
771
P jerties,
771
f ion of
h .
C ipoii-
ti'
Ml.
m
Ml.
W3-
H
774
bry.
C H E M
tafte. A watery liquid, whicli has a flight fait tafte,
1 oozes out on prefling a piece of this fubftance. White
lac has no fmell, unlefs it be preffed or rubbed, when
it becomes foft, and then it emits a peculiar odour.
When it is gathered from the tree, the pieces of lac are
lighter than bees-wax j but after being melted and puri¬
fied, it finks in water. It melts in alcohol and in wa¬
ter at the temperature of 1450, and very readily in
boiling water.
2. Dr Pearfon expofed 2000 grains of white lac to
fuch a degree of heat as was fufficient to melt them.
They became foft and fluid, and there oozed out 550
grains of a reddilh watery liquid, which emitted the
fmell of newly baked bread. The liquid was filtered
and purified from extraneous matter. This liquid is
/acctc acid.
3. It has a {lightly faltifli tafte, with fome degree of
bitternefs. It fmells when heated like newly baked hot
bread. It reddens the tinfture of turnfole. Its fpeci-
fic gravity, at the temperature of 6o°, is 1.025. When
this liquid remains for fome time at reft, it becomes tur¬
bid, and depofits a fediment. When it is evaporated, it
becomes more turbid ; and allowed to remain at reft, it
affords fmall needle-like cryftals in mucilaginous mat-
ter.
4. Two hundred and fifty grains of this liquid were
expofed to heat in a fmall retort. As the liquor grew
warm, mucilage-like clouds appeared, but when it grew
hot, they difappeared. At the temperature of 200°
it diftilled over very faft. On diftillation to drynefs,
a fmall quantity of extractive matter remained. The
diftilled liquid was tranfparent and yellowifh, and while
hot, had the fmell of newly baked bread. Paper ftain-
ed with turnfole, which had been put into the receiver,
was not reddened. One hundred grains of yellowifti
tranfparent liquid being evaporated till it became turbid,
afforded in the courfe of a night, acicular cryftals
which had a bitterifh tafte. Under a lens they appear¬
ed in a group, fomewhat refembling the umbel of parf-
ley. One hundred grains of yellowifti tranfparent
liquid being evaporated in a low' temperature to drynefs,
a blackifti matter remained behind, which did not en¬
tirely difappear when expofed to pretty ftrong heat $
but on heating oxalic acid to a lets degree, it evapo¬
rated and left no trace behind.
From thefe properties, and from its peculiar aCfion
with alkaline, earthy, and metallic falts, Dr Pearfon
concludes, that this acid is different from any of the
acids already known.
5. The experiments which have been made on white
lac, and on the acid obtained from it, fhow that it is
clofely allied to the vegetable acids. Its component
parts, therefore, probably are, carbone, hydrogen, and
oxygen *, but experiments are ftill wanting fully to af-
certain its nature and properties *.
Sect. XXXII. Of Prussic Acid.
1. This is one of the moft important acids, both to
the chemift, and to the manufa&urer. It has been al¬
leged that the ancients were acquainted with Pruflian
blue, which they employed in painting } but Landriani
has ftiown, in his differtation on this fubftance, from
the evidence of Theophraftus and Pliny, and from the
analyfis of an Egyptian mummy, that the ancients em-
Vol. V. Part II.
m
I S T R Y.
ployed ultramarine blue and the fmalt cr azure of co-
bait •, and that Pruflian blue, which is readily afted on
by the fubftances to which it mull have been expofed
in thefe countries, could not refill their influence for fo
many ages, and retain the beautiful colours which arc
admired in the paintings of Herculaneum.
2. Stahl relates, in his 300 experiments, that the The dif-
difeovery of Pruflian blue v/as owing to an accident. covcr>’-
About the beginning of the 18th century, Dielbach, a
chemiil of Berlin, wilhing to precipitate a decoftion of
cochineal with an alkali, borrowed from Dippel fome
potafh, on which he had diftilled feveral times his ani¬
mal oil ; but as there was fome fulphate of iron in the
decoftion of cochineal, the liquor infiantly exhibited a
beautiful blue in place of a red precipitate. Refledting
on the circumftances which had taken place, he found
that it was eafy to produce at pleafure the fame fub¬
ftance, which afterwards became an objedl of commerce^
It obtained the name of PruJJian blue, from the place
where it was difeovered.
3. This difeovery was announced in the Memoirs ofph-ft ai)_
the Academy of Berlin, for the year 1710 j but thenounced.
procefs by which it w'as obtained was kept fecret, that
thofe who were in poffeflion of it might derive the
whole advantage from the manufacture. It was pub-
lilhed for the firft time by Woodward in the Pbilofo-
phical Tranfa&ions for the year 1724, who declared,
that it had been fent to him from Germany, by one
of his friends. This is all that is know n of the man¬
ner by which this procefs was made public. It is not
certain whether it came originally from the firft inven¬
tors, or whether it be owing to the refearches of fome
chemift.
4. The method which is deferibed by Woodward procels.
fucceeds very well. It is by preparing an extemporane¬
ous alkali, by detonating four ounces of nitre, and an
equal quantity of tartar j then to add four ounces of
bullock’s blood, well dried, and to calcine the whole
with a moderate heat, till the blood be reduced to
a coal, or emit no fmoke capable of blackening
any white body that is expofed to it. Towards the
end of the procefs the fire is to be increafed, till the
crucible which contains the materials ftiall be mode¬
rately red. Throw the red-hot matter into water, and
boil it for half an hour ; and having poured off the
firft water, add another quantity, and boil it again.
Repeat this operation till the laft water comes off in-
fipid, then add all the quantities of w'ater together,
and evaporate to the quantity of two pints. To this
liquid the Germans have given the name of blood ley.
By others it has been denominated phlofjlicated alka¬
line ley.
5. A folution of 2 ounces of fulphate of iron, and
8 ounces of alum, in two pints of boiling water, is to
be mixed with the former folution while both are hot.
A great effervefcence takes place ; the liquor becomes \
muddy, affumes a greenilh colour, inclining more or
lefs to blue ; and a precipitate is formed of the fame co¬
lour. Separate this precipitate, and to heighten the
colour, pour upon it carefully muriatic acid till it no
longer increafes the intenfity of the blue colour ; then
wafti it with water, and dry it {lowly.
6. Such was the procefs by which Pruflian blue was
obtained, before the theory was difeovered, to account
for the different changes and effefts which it prefented.
3 Y The
CHEMISTRY.
Acids, The fame year in which Woodward pubiiftied an ac-
~'VT~ 1 ’ count of the procefs, Brown inftituted a fet of experi-
N o nrc of ments> tw difeover the nature of this fubflance, and the
it. invefti- circumifances ■which attended its formation. He found
gated by that flefh, as well as bullock’s blood, poffeffed a fimilar
ieveral che-pr0perty# He thought that Pruflian blue was the bi-
m ^s* tuminous part of iron, developed by the alkaline ley,
and fixed in the aluminous earth. Geoffrey adopted
the fame explanation. He found that, in the animal
kingdom, oils, wool, hartfhorn, fponge, had the fame
effeft as blood with the alkali, in precipitating iron of
a blue colour ; and that fome vegetable charcoal treat¬
ed with the alkali, in fome meafure communicated to it
a fimilar property. Neuman difeovered that the ani¬
mal empyremnatic oils might be employed for the fame
frarpoft. The abbe Menon was of opinion, that the
colour of iron is blue j but that this colour, ufually dif-
guifed by fome faline matter, reappears, when it is fe-
parated by the phlogiilicated alkaline ley, and thus
Pruflian blue was only iron precipitated in its natural
flate. The aluminous earth, he faw, ferved only to
diminifh the intenfily of the colour, and to give it a
more agreeable fhade.
By Mac- 7. It is to the celebrated Macquer that we are in-
quer. dehted for the firft correft views in developing the
theory of this procefs. He obferved, 1. That pure al¬
kalies precipitated iron from its folutions of a yellow co¬
lour. 2. That this precipitate is foluble in acids. 3. That
the blue fecula obtained from the blue phlogifticated
ley after the addition of muriatic acid, was not a£!ed
on by acids. He therefore concluded that the firft
green precipitate was not a homogeneous fubflance,
but a mixture of two precipitates, the one yellow and
the other blue ; and that it was fufficient to remove the
firft by any acid, to give to the fecond its full inten-
fity of colour. Hence he fuppofed, that the acid of
the alum employed in this procefs was ufeful in fatu-
rating, in a great meafure, the pure alkaline portion of
the ley, and diminifhing proportionally the yellow pre¬
cipitate of iron. Having found that it was impoflible
to faturate the alkali with a colouring matter by means
of calcination ; and, having difeovered that the pure
alkali deprived iron (which v'as converted into Pruflian
blue) of its charafteriftic properties •, and finally, having
afeertained that the alkali which was employed in the
procefs became exaftly fimilar to that which was cal¬
cined with combuftible matters, to prepare it for the
precipitation of iron of a blue colour, and that its al¬
kaline properties difappeared as it was more or lefs
faturated with the colouring matter, he attempted to
faturate it fully. He therefore faturated an alkali fo
completely with the colouring matter, that it under¬
went no change by boiling, and exhibited none of its
alkaline properties by chemical tefts. By this dif-
covery wre are now in poffeflion of this valuable fub-
ftance which had been hitherto known under the name
of the faturated ley of the colouring matter of Pruf/ian
blue.
In the courfe of his experiments Macquer found,
that the faturated ley could not be decompofed by ful-
phuric acid, or by the folution of alum •, but, on the
contrary, that every metallic fubftance diffolved in an
acid, feparated the phlogiftic matter from all the fixed
and volatile alkalies. Hence he concluded, that in
the procefs of the formation p£ Pruffian blue, it is
neceffary that the affinity of the iron fhoulcf combine Acidi 1
with that of the acid with the alkali, to form a fum of
affinities capable of effe&ing the feparation. This lu¬
minous explanation of fo ftriking a procefs, has not a
little contributed to eftablifti the theofy of compound
affinities. . I
8. After the publication of Macquer’s differtation,and otb 1
almoft all chetnifts were occupied in refearches into the
nature of Pruffian blue, either to difeover the nature
of its principles, or to improve the procefs for prepar¬
ing the colouring matter : but they were chiefly occu¬
pied in examining thofe bodies which were capable of
phlogifticating the alkali, a9.it was called $ and this pro¬
perty was found to exift in a great number of fubftances.
Till the year 1775, no change or modification was pro-
pofed on the theory of Macquer.
9. About this time the celebrated Bergman, in hisg jjT 1
differtation on eledftive attractions, threw new light onmani I
this fubjeCt of inveftigation, by confidering the colour¬
ing matter of Pruffian blue as a diftinft acid, and pof-
fefled of peculiar attraftions. According to Sage, the
alkali which precipitated Pruffian blue was nothing but
an alkali faturated with phofphoric acid j but Lavoifier
juftly remarked, that, according to this theory, the fait
formed of phofphoric acid and an alkali ought to preci¬
pitate a folution of fulphate of iron of a blue colour,
which was not the cafe.
Many chemifts examined the nature of this fubftance
by means of heat; and among others Delius and Sco-
poli, Deyeux and Parmentier, Bergman and Erxleben,
fubje&ed it to diftillation, the product of which was a
quantity of ammonia. By others an oil was obtained
in this procefs, and fometimes a peculiar acid, which
had the properties of fulphuric acid. The difference
of thefe refults probably arofe from the different ftates
of purity of the Pruffian blue which was employed
in the experiment. 1
Fontana difeovered that the fulphuric acid diftilled
on Pruffian blue palled to the ftate of fulphurous acid,na.
and that the colouring matter produced detonation
with nitre. Landriani found that it yielded by diftilla¬
tion, befides ammonia, a fmall portion of liquid per¬
ceptibly acid, and fome oil, and a great quantity of
elaftic fluids, which confifted of azotic and hydrogen
gafes, the latter burning with a blue flame, and deto¬
nating ftrongly with oxygen gas. „
10. But the moft important ftep in the progrefs ofpy
the difeovery of the nature and properties of this
Angular fubftance, was made by Scheele, an account
of which he publifhed in two diifertations in the Stock- ^
holm tranfaftions for 1782 and 1783. He began byHeexa-
examining the blood-ley, and he found by expofing mines the
it for fome time to the air, that it loft the property ofky«
precipitating iron of a blue colour, and the precipitate
w hich it then yields is foluble in acids. To difeover
what change had taken place on the air, he put fome
of the ley frefh prepared into a large glafs globe clofe
fhut up, and he found fome time after, that neither
the air nor the ley had undergone any change. He
concluded, therefore, that the colouring matter was ^
not pure phlogifton. He fufpe<5ted that carbonic acid£ffe£of
might have fome effedl in changing the nature of thecarbonk
alkali w hen expofed to the open air. He filled a acid-
globe with carbonic acid gas, and having introduced
a quantity of Pruflian alkali, he kept k clofe Ihut
up
C II E M :
I l(!s. up for 24 hours, after which, on examining the alka-
lit it gave a precipitate which was foluble in acids j
the change, then, mull have been occafioned by the
carbonic acid gas. He repeated this experiment by-
adding’to the colouring matter a fmall quantity of ful-
phate of iron. This matter was not changed by the
a&ion of the carbonic acid gas. The fame refult was
obferved when he boiled the colouring matter in an
oxide of iron precipitated by an alkali. It fuffered no
change in the carbonic acid gas, but precipitated the
,^es iron as before. The iron then has the property of fix-
l oiour. ing the colouring principle, of defending it againtl the
in ^rinci- aftion of carbonic acid gas ; and hence it happens that
3I the neutral colouring fait formed with an alkali boiled
on Pruflian blue, does not fo eafily lofe its properties^
But if the colouring ley be digefted on an oxide of
iron, as that which is obtained from the fulphate of
iron boiled in nitric acid, and afterwards precipitated
by an alkali, no effea is produced. By this digeftion
the action of the gas is not prevented, and if the ful¬
phate of iron be added, even with an excels of acid
there is no longer a produ£tion of Pruffian blue.
To difeover what happened to the colouring prin¬
ciple, when it was charged with carbonic acid gas,
Scheele introduced into a globe filled with this gas,
fome of the Prufiian alkali, and fufpended in it a bit
of paper, previoufly dipped in a folution of fulphate of
iron, and on which he had let fall two drops of alka¬
line liquor to precipitate the iron. The paper was re¬
moved at the end of two hours, and, with the addition
of a little muriatic acid, was covered with a fine blue
colour. The fame experiments repeated with alkali
faturated with excefs of fulphuric acid, gave the fame
refult; that is to fay, the paper charged with oxide of
iron and fufpended as above, became of a blue colour
It difen- on adding muriatic acid. Hence it follows, that the
j|d by colouring principle is difengaged by acids, with-
•I. out deeompofition, for it ftill has the property of be¬
ing fixed with oxide of iron with which it comes in
contact. Thus he found that the colouring matter
might be feparated from the fubflances with which it
was generally in combination, and without undergoing
decompofition.
ij' parate 11. To obtain it, therefore, in a feparate ftate, he con-
tijtolour- trived the following procefs. He put into a glafs vef-
r natter. fei two parts of Prulhan blue reduced to powder, one
part of red oxide of mercury, and fix parts of water.
He boiled the mixture for fome minutes, continually
ftirring it. It then affumes a yellowifh green colour.
He put the whole on a filter, and poured upon the re-
fiduum two parts more of boiling water, to walh it
completely. This liquid is a folution of mercury com¬
bined with the colouring matter, which has the me¬
tallic tafte, and is neither precipitated by acids nor
alkalies. Pour this liquid into a glafs vefiel upon one
half part of clean iron filings, and a {'mailer quantity
of concentrated fulphuric acid. Shake the mixture
well for fame minutes, when it becomes black by the
redu&ion of the mercury. The liquid then h>fes its
metallic tafte, and gives out the odour which is pecu¬
liar to the colouring matter. Having allowed it to re¬
main at reft for fome time, it is poured off, put into a
retort to which a receiver is adapted, and diftilled w ith
a gentle heat. One-fourth part of the liquid only
fhould be allowed to pafs ever, for the colouring mat-
S T It Y. 5.19
ter is much more volatile than water, and co'nfequent-1
ly rifes firft* The liquid in the receiver is commonly
mixed with a little fulphurie acid, from which it may
be feparated by diftilling again off a little powdered 7Sp
chalk, which takes up the fulphuric acid. The liquid Ptuffic acid
then paffes over in a ftate of purity ; and this liquid is obtained.
prujfic acid. _ 793
12. In this procefs the oxide of mercury which was Nature of
mixed with the colouring matter, takes it from the this procefa.
iron with which it is combined in the ftate of Pruflian
blue, and is then a cryftallizable pruffiate of mercury.
The iron which is added in the metallic ftate, reduces
the oxide of mercury, and at the moment it combines,
with the fulphuric acid, which has alfo been added,
the heat applied fublimes the pruffic acid which has
been difengaged from the mercury) which is now re¬
duced to the metallic ftate. The pruflic acid thus ob¬
tained, partly in the liquid, and partly in the gafeous
ftate, combined with alkalies, produces , the fame ef¬
fects as the blood ley, and the colourlefs Pruflian
blue. ypt
13. Having obtained the pruflic acid in a feparate Compoll-
ftate, it was his next object to difeover its component tion.
parts. He had obferved in the procefs for procuring
it, that the air in the receiver was inflammable •, and
in decompofing the prufliates, he obtained ammonia
and carbonic acid, and found that fome metals were
reduced by diftillation with the metallic prufliateS.
He concluded from this, that pruffie acid was com-
pofed of ammonia and oil, and he endeavoured to
prove this by the left of experiment •, but he food
found that he could not fucceed in forming the colour¬
ing compound, by combining ammonia and the differ
ent oils heated together. Seeing that water was an
obftacle to the formation of the pruffic acid, he eon-
du£!ed his experiments in a different tf’ay, by combin¬
ing the ammonia with the dry combuftible principle,
which he fuppofed exifted in oils, and with the carbo¬
nic acid, equally in the dry ftate. He faw that char¬
coal alone, ftrongly heated with fixed alkalies, gave
them the property of colouring iron blue. Having
heated thefe two fubftances in crucibles, he added to
the one muriate of ammonia, at the moment when the
firft mixture had acquired a white heat, and he con¬
tinued the heat till no more vapour was difengaged.
This procefs furnifhed him with a pure Pruffian al¬
kali, whilft the combination of the alkali and the
charcoal, without the addition of the muriate of am¬
monia, afforded none. _ ^
14. Such was the ftate of our knowledge with £ertholkt59
regard to the colouring matter of Pruffian blue,experi-
when Berthollet, at the end of 1787, communicatedltients*
to the Academy of Sciences, the refult of his invelti-
gations into the nature and properties of this fubftance;
He repeated the experiments of Scheele, improved
and extended his views, and confirmed his conclufions;
The refult of his refearches on this fubftance was clofe-
ly connected with the light which he had thrown on
the nature and eompofition of ammonia fome years be¬
fore. He proved that the alkaline pruffiate is a triple
fait, which is compofed of pruffie acid, the alkali
and iron j that when it is evaporated and re-diffolved)
it affords cryftals in the form of offahedrons ; and mix¬
ed with fulphuric acid, and expofed to the fun, there
is precipitated Pruffian blue, which does not happen
3 Y 2 itt
54^
CHEMISTRY.
^Acicts. Jn the dark. Aftei; Lhefe preliminary experiments, he
^ " ' proceeded to the examination of pruffic acid, by the
action of oxymuriatic acid. This acid, in proportion
as it is diffolved in the pruffic acid, is deprived of its
oxygen, and is converted into the flute of muriatic
acid. The pruflic acid becomes more odorous and
volatile, and lefs fufceptible of combination with the
alkalies, precipitating iron from its folutions, of a
green colour. This green precipitate recovers its blue
yyy colour when expofed to the light, by contaft with
Oxy-pnijTic fulphun-js acid, by iron. It is the oxy-ptuflic acid,
acid. When the oxymuriatic acid is ftill continued to be ad¬
ded in the flate of gas, and is expofed to the light, the
new acid feparates from the water, and is precipitated
to the bottom in the form of an aromatic oil, which
is converted by heat to an infoluble vapour, which is
no longer capable of combining with iron. Thus fu-
peroxygenated, this acid can no longer return to its
original flate. It is totally different in its proper¬
ties.
When the oxyprufliate of iron, which is prepared
by treating Pruflian blue with the oxymuriatic acid,
and which is diftinguithed by its green colour, is de¬
prived of its acid, by being brought into contadl with
a cauftic fixed alkali, it is inftantly decompofed, and
is converted into carbonate of ammonia.
15. Scheele and Bergman were of opinion, that
pruffu? acid contained ammonia ready formed. Ber-
thollet, however, concludes from his experiments, that
it only contains the elements, namely, the azote and
hydrogen, both in combination with carbone j and
Pruitic acid thus he confiders pruffic acid to be a triple compound
a triple Qf hydrogen, carbone, and azote, but he has not been
compound. able
to afeertain the proportions. He thinks, how¬
ever, that the hydrogen and azote come near to the
* Fourcroy proportions which exiff in ammonia *.
Connaijf. Jn f0me experiments by M. Clouet, on the
Chim. tom. eoiourjng matter of Pruffian blue, he attempted to
JX‘ combine the elements of ammonia with charcoal, with
the view of producing pruflic acid j but in whatever
proportion he employed them, no colouring matter
was obtained. He therefore concluded, that it was
neceffary to combine direftly the ammonia with the
charcoal, for the production of this fubftance. He
took 2-§- parts of quicklime in powder, and mixed them
with one part of fal ammoniac dried, and alfo in the
flate of powder. He put the mixture into a porcelain
retort, which he placed upon a fand-bath. To the
beak of the retort was adapted a porcelain tube filled
^ with dry powdered charcoal. The porcelain tube
Pruflian paffed acrofs a furnace, in which it might be ftrongly
blue form- heated. It was then made red hot, and heat being
ed of car- afterwards applied to the retort, the ammonia was
ammonia, difengaged in the ftate of gas, which paffed through
the red hot porcelain tube containing the charcoal.
I d’tn- de The produfl was received in proper veffels, and when
tom. exarnjne(]j v,as fomid t,0 be the colouring matter of
P79V Pruffian blue f.
Properties 17. Pruflic acid thus obtained, is a tolourlefs, tranf-
of prutTk parent liquid, having a ftrong qdour of peach flowers,
ac^’ or of bitter almonds. This odour impregnates for fome
time the faliva of thofe who refpire it. The tafte is at
firft fweetifh, but foan becomes acrid and hot. It is apt
to excite coughing, and has a ftrong tendency to affume
the gafeous £ormr, and is therefore foon diflipated from
the veffels which contain it. It has no effecl on vege- Aeic
table blues.
18. - It is decompofed at a high temperature j and ,
when expofed to light, is converted into carbonic acid, heaU '!!
ammonia, and carbonated hydrogen gas. It combines light,
with dithculty with alkalies and earths, and without
deflroying their alkaline properties. |
19. The carbonic acid drives it off from thefe com-Of car]
binations. It deprives oxymuriatic acid gas of itsn'caciij
oxygen, and by this addition changes its properties. ^
It has no adlion on the metals j but it combines with
their oxides, changing the colour, and forming falts
which are in general infoluble. ^
20. This acid has the greateft tendency to form Triple
triple falts with the alkaline and metallic bafes. Thefe ct,mP04
complex combinations are more permanent and fixed Bool
than the fimple alkaline pruffiates. They are not de-not eaiu
compofed by carbonic acid, light, air, or the other acids. clec°mM
21. The affinities of pruflic acid are the following, t
Barytes,
Strontites,
Potaffi,
Soda,
Lime,
Magnefta,
Ammonia.
Sect. XXXIII. 0/Sebacic Acid.
1. The penetrating fumes which are exhaled from
melted tallow, and which affe£t the eyes, the noftrils,
and even the lungs, had been long ago obferved, and
Olaus Borrichius has thrown out tome hints, warning
againft the danger of being expofed to thefe fumes.
But little attention was paid to their nature and pro¬
perties. Grutzmacher was the firft who demonftrated
the exiftence of this ^cid, in a differtation de ojjiurrt
medulla, printed at Leipfic in the year 1748. Rhodes
publiftied a ffmall work in 1753 at Gottingen, in which
he makes particular mention of this acid. The fol¬
lowing year appeared a diflertation by M. Segner, 9ti
the acid of animal fat, which contained a number of
well-condutted experiments. Crell endeavoured to
improve the procefs for the reparation and purification
of this acid, and to afeertain the properties of its com¬
binations. Thefe were publiftied in the Philofophical
Tranfa&ions for the years 1780 and 1782.
But it appears, as Thenard, who made experiments
on this acid, obferves, that the acid obtained by thofe
who firft treated of the fubjeil, was either the acetic
acid, or fome acid different from the febacic, the
properties of which are quite diftinft from thofe which
had been formerly deferibed. go,
2. The procefs by which this chemift obtained thep,epar£
febacic acid is the following. He diftilled a quantity tion.
of hogs lard, and waftied the product feveral times
with hot water. He then dropt into it acetate of lead :
there was formed a flaky precipitate, which was col-
le&ed and dried, put into a retort with fulphuric acid,
and heated. The liquor in the receiver had no acid
charadter 5 but there appeared in the retort a melted
matter analogous to fat. This is carefully feparated 5 and
after being waftied, is boiled with water. By the adlion
of heat the whole is diffolved by the water, and when
it cools, cryftals in the ftiape of needles are depofited.
Tbafe
CHEMISTRY*
cids. THefe are febacxc acid. To be certain that thefe were
not produced by means of the fulphuric acid, he waflied
the fat which had been diftilled with water, which wais
filtered and evaporated, and needles were formed, ex¬
hibiting exadlly the fame properties. Or, after having
wafhed with water the diftilled fat, he faturated the
filtered liquor with potalh, evaporated it, and dropt in¬
to it a folution of lead. There was inftantly formed a
fait compofed of the febacic acid and lead. This is to
be decompofed as before with fulphuric acid. This acid
has the following properties.
3. It has no fmell, a (light acid tafte, and reddens
ftrongly the tindlure of turnfole. When heated, it melts
like tallow.
4. It is much more foluble in warm than in cold wa¬
ter. Boiling water faturated with this acid forms a folid
mafs on cooling. It cryftallizes in fmall needles, but
with certain precautions may be obtained in the form
n nnal.de oi long, large, and very brilliant plates *.
!o4
| (etU«s
l •'(. tom.
j«.
I 92-
505
I :ory and
80S
1 oerties.
807
i ion of
tifer.
808
< holds.
809
heat.
Sio
nbina-
Sect. XXXIV. Of Uric Acid.
1. This acid was difcovered by Scheele in the year
1776. It was at firft called lit hie acid. It conftitutes
one of the component parts of urinary calculi, and is
alfo found in human urine. There is one fpecies of
calculus which is almoft entirely compofed of this fub-
ftance. It is that fpecies which refembles wood in ap¬
pearance and colour.
2. This acid, as its properties have been deferibed by
Scheele, is thus characterized. It is infipid, inodorous,
almoft infoluble in cold water, and foluble only in about
360 parts of boiling water. It feparates from this when
it- cools, into fmall yellowifn cryitals. The folution in
water reddens the tinCture of turnfole.
3. There is fcarcely any aCtion between uric acid
and fulphuric and muriatic acids. It i§ foluble in the
concentrated nitric acid, to which it communicates a
red colour. It would appear that in this change of
colour the nature of the acid is alfo changed, for part
of it is converted into oxalic acid. Oxymufiatic acid
very readily acts upon uric acid, either by fufpending
a calculus in the liquid acid, or, which is eafier, by
pafling a ftream of oxymuriatic acid gas through wa¬
ter, at the bottom of which is placed the uric acid in
powder. Its Colour becomes pale, the furface fwells up,
it foftens, and is at laft converted into a jelly. This part
difappears, and is foon dilfolved, giving a milky colour
to the liquid. There is extricated by flow effervefcence
fmall bubbles of carbonic acid gas. The liquid by eva¬
poration gives muriate of ammonia, acidulous oxalate
of ammonia, both cryftallized ; muriatic acid, and ma¬
lic acid. Thus the oxymuriatic acid decompofes the
uric acid, and converts it into ammonia, carbonic, oxa¬
lic, and malic acids.
4. When uric acid is diftilled, there is a little of it
fublimed without decompolition. It yields alfo a very
fmall quantity of oil and water, cryftallized carbonate
of ammonia, carbonic acid gas •, and there remains be¬
hind a very black coal without any alkali, and without
any lime.
5. All thefe fa£ts (hew that uric acid is a compound
of a very peculiar kind, formed of azote, of carbone ot
hydrogen and oxygen, and fufceptible of a great num¬
ber of different changes by chemical agents.
Sect. XXXV. Of Rosacic Acid.
541
Inflam¬
mable fub-
ftances-
1 v——J
1. During certain difeafes, the urine, when it cools, gn
depofits a peculiar fubftance, which has been denomina- Origin,
ted from its colour, which refembles bricks, lateritious
fediment. During fevers, this appearance of the urine
takes place j and in gouty perfons, at the termination of
the paroxyftns, it is very abundant. And when this
fuddenly difappears, and the urine at the f?,me time con¬
tinues to depoiit this fubftance, a relapfe may be dread¬
ed. It appears in the form of red flakes, and adheres
ftrongly to the (ides of the veffel. If the urine be heat¬
ed, this fediment is again diflblved. gIS
2. This fubftance was formerly confidercd by che-Prepara-
mills as urie acid. If into frelh urine a little ni- dun-
trie acid is dropt, it becomes muddy, and a precipi¬
tate is formed. The nitric acid, and the fubftance
to which the name of rofacic acid has been given, com-
bine together, and are depoftted. The uric acid being Properties,
much lefs foluble than the rofacic acid, it is very eafy
t,o feparate them. All that is neceffary is to pour boil¬
ing water on the fediments, and to wa(h them on the
fame filter, in which cafe the uric acid remains be¬
hind.
Prouft, who made experiments on this fubftance,
confiders it as another charadfleriftic of rofacic acid, that
it produces with a folution of gold, a cloudy precipitate
of a violet colour *.
Chim. tom.
Sect. XXXVI. Of Amniotic Acid.
P. 265.
814
1. A peculiar acid has been detefted in the liquor Properties.•
of the amnios of the cow. This was difcovered by
Buuiva and Vauquelin. This acid is concrete, white,
and brilliant, has a very (light acid tafte, and reddens
the tinfture of turnfole. It is little foluble in cold wa¬
ter, but diffolves more readily in boiling water, from
whence it is depofited, by cooling, in long needle-
(haped cryftals. When this acid is expofed to heat, it
fwells up, and exhales an odour of ammonia fenlibly
mixed with pruflic acid. It leaves behind a volumi¬
nous coal. .
2. It feems at firft to have fome analogy with the dil
facla&ic and uric acids, but this is not really the cafe, ftindive
The faclaftic acid does not furnilh ammonia by diftil-cfiara(fters«
lation •, the uric acid yields ammonia and pruffic acid
by heat, but it is not equally foluble in warm water,
and does not cryftallize, in long, white, brilliant nee¬
dles, nor is it foluble in boiling alcohol, as the amni¬
otic acid is f. t Annal. de
toon
Ch'
Chap. XI.
Of INFLAMMABLE SUB- 1-- >
STANCES.
816.
The clafs of bodies which we are to examine in thislntroduc-
chapter, under the title of-inflammable fubftances, aretlon*
alcohol, ether, and oils. Thefe fubftances are clofely
allied to many of the bodies which were treated of in
the. laft chapter. Their conftituent parts are the fame,
with many-of the vegetable acids, arranged, however,
in different proportions, and totally different in their
properties and effects. The elements of thefe inflam¬
mable fubftances are carbone and hydrogen chieflv,
hut
542 C H E' M
Inflam- but in forae there Is a triple compound of carbone, of
Stances'5* ^)^ropen anc^ oxygen 'j the latter does not exift in that
. ~ ^ " quantity as to exhibit acid properties, or thefe proper¬
ties are concealed by the proportions of the other con-
i'tituent parts. It was therefore thought neceffary to
treat of thefe fubttances in this place, that we might
be early acquainted with their properties, fome of
which are of great importance in chemical refearches,
particularly their effects on many faline bodies. They
may be regarded, therefore, as valuable inftruments
of chemical analyfis. We fhall confider the inflam¬
mable fubitances in the four following feclions, name¬
ly ; i. Alcohol, 2. Ether, 3. Fixed oils> and 4* Vola¬
tile oils.
Sect I. Of Alcohol.
S17
'Prepara- I. When vegetable matters have been fubje6ted to
tion. the vinous fermentation, the fluid is totally changed.
It is converted into a fub(lance called wine or beer^
according to the nature of the materials from which it
has been prepared. When this product, the wine or beer,
is fubje&ed to another procefs, a very different produdf is
obtained, fly diflillation a fluid is obtained of very
different properties from the beer or wine from which
it is extrafted. This liquid, when it is perfectly pure,
is known in chemiftry by the name of alcohol, or fpirit
of wine, becaufe it is produced from wine. It is fome-
times denominated alfo ardent fpirU, from its effects.
Ardent fpirit, as it is firft obtained by diflillation, is
to be confldered as a mixture of alcohol and water,
becaufe the alcohol in the procefs of diflillation is con-
denfed by water. In this flate, ardent fpirit is dif¬
ferent in flavour, in colour and in flrength, according
to the nature of the materials from which it is obtained,
8l8 and hence in common language it is diltinguifhed by
Different different names. When it is obtained from the fer-
names. mented juice of the grape, it is known by the name of
brandy ; from that of the fugar-cane, by that of rum;
and from that of farinaceous fubflances by that of
whifky. All thefe fubilances, therefore, are to be
confidered as compofed of alcohol, or pure fpirit of
wine, water, and a peculiar oil, to which the flavour
8,9 is owing.
Hiftory. Ardent fpirit, it is fuppofed, was known in the dark
ages. It does not appear, from any of the writings
of the Greeks or Romans, that they were acquainted
with fuch a liquor. The preparation of it from wine,
and even the difeovery of alcohol, or pure fpirit itfelf,
is aferibed to Arnold de Villa Nova, who lived in the
820 13th century. _ .
Purification. 2. Ardent fpirit thus obtained, it has been obfer-
ved, is a mixture of alcohol or pure fpirit, water and
oil, with fome colouring matter. To purify it from
thefe fubilances, it is again diftilled 5 and to have it
perfe£lly pure, this procefs mull be repeated feveral
times. When ardent fpirit is diftilled for the firft
time, after it is extracted from the fermented liquors,
it is diftinguilhed by the name of reftified fpirits. The
procefs which is recommended by fome is the follow¬
ing. Diftil it in a water bath, till one fourth of the
quantity has palled over; then diftil it again for fe¬
veral times, taking only the firft half of the product.
Mix all thefe products together, and difti] them with
a very gentle heat j the firft half of the liquor which
I S T R Y. .
paffes over, is the purelt alcohol that can be obtained; Many
the remainder may by referved for ordinary purpofes f. mabkfti
Even in this Hate, the alcohol, thus obtained, contains flancfi
a certain proportion of water, to feparate which, Boer- i Ycura.
haave has given a very good procels, by means of an al- Connaijs,,
kali. Take a quantity of carbonate of potafh which Chim. to:
has been expofed to a red heat, to feparate the moi-vlI1I),If
fture j reduce it to pow'der, and put it into the fpirit.
This fait, on account of its ftrang attraction for water,
combines with the water of the alcohol *, and this folu-
tion of the alkali having the greater Ipecific gravity,
falls to the bottom. The alcohol which remains at the
top may be eafiiy feparated. To purify this alcohol,
from a frnall quantity of potalh which it holds in folu-
tion, it may be rediitiiled in a water bath. It ought
to be obferved, however, that the diftillation ftrould not
be carried on till the whole of the alcohol is driven off,
becaufe towards the end of the procefs, it carries part
of the potaflr along with it. git
3. Alcohol, thus prepared and purified, is a light, pr0pert;£
tranfparent, and colourlefs liquor, of a iharp, pene¬
trating, agreeable fmell, and of a warm, ilimulating,
acrid tafte. It has the property, in a much greater-
degree than wine, of producing intoxication. The
fpecific gravity of alcohol when perfeftly pure, is
0.800, but the ftrongeft fpirit which is afforded by
mere diftillation, according to Mr Nichollon, is 0.820
at the temperature of yi0. The alcohol or rectified
fpirit of commerce, has rarely a fpecific gravity below
0.8371. ' g22
4. When alcohol is expofed to the air at a tempera- Volatile,
ture between 50° and 6o°, it evaporates, and when it
is pure, without leaving any refiduum. By this rapid
evaporation it produces great cold, which is very fen-
fibly felt by dipping the fingers in alcohol, and ex-
pofing them to the air. It boils at the temperature of Adioii oi
176°, and is then converted into an elaftic fluid. In heat,
the vacuum of an air-pump it boils at 56°. It has
never yet been frozen by the greateft degree of cold
to which it has been expofed. It remains fluid when
the thermometer Hands at —-69°. When it is paffed
through a red-hot porcelain tube, it is decompofed,
and converted into carbonic acid gas, carbonated hy¬
drogen gas, and water.
5. With the aid of heat, alcohol diffolves a fmall Pholphoru
quantity of phofphorus. When this folutlon, w'hich has
a fetid odour, is precipitated, by dropping a little of it
into water, it becomes luminous in the dark. • There
arife jets of flame from the furface of the water j and
there is formed an oxide of phofphorus in the ftate of
white pow der. Alcohol feems alfo capable of diffolving
phofphorated hydrogen gas. 825
6. There is no action between alcohol and fulphur Sulphur,
neither at the ordinary temperature, nor even when
they are boiled together j but when the two bodies
are brought in conta£l with each other in the ftate of
vapour, they combine readily, and there is formed a
fetid fulphurated alcohol, which depofits a fmall quan¬
tity of white fulphur, and becomes muddy in cooling.
The fulphur is precipitated by water, and gives about
•50th part. Alcohol combines ftill more readily with
fulphurated hydrogen gas, which communicates to
the alcohol a little colour, and in this combination
is decompofed with more facility by oxygen gas, and
all other oxygenated bodies, than when it is in the
flats
!326
11 i.cuis,
«27
< water,
BiS
^ alies
1 tails.
CHEMIStRY.
S4'3
ftate of gas. Alcohol combines with fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas, which is contained in mineral waters, and
deprives them of this gas by diilillation.
7. The ftrong acids have a very powerful effeft on
alcohol. It is decompofed by the fulphuric, the nitric,
the oxymuriatic, and the acetic acids j and the product
of this decompofition varies according to the nature of
the acid, its ftrength, and the' proportions in which it
is employed. Some of the acids are foluble in alcohol.
With the aid of heat, it diflblves the boracic acid,
which communicates to it the property of burning with
a green flame. It alfo holds in folution carbonic acid
gas in greater proportion than its own bulk. It preci¬
pitates from water, on the contrary, the phofphoric
acid, almoft in the concrete ftate, and alfo the metallic
acids which are foluble in this liquid.
8. Alcohol combines with water in all proportions.
The affinity between the two fluids is fo ftrong that
water is capable of fepa rating from alcohol many
bodies with which it is combined, while the alcohol
decompofes many faline folutions, and precipitates the
fait. When water and alcohol are combined together,
there is an increafe of temperature, which fhews that
there is a condenfation of the two liquids. Accord¬
ingly it is found, that the denfity or fpecific gravity of
the mixture is greater than the mean of the uncombin¬
ed liquids. The denfity varies according to the dif¬
ferent proportions of the alcohol and wrater which are
employed. In confequence of this variation, it be¬
comes an objeft of confiderable importance to be able
to afeertain the ftrength of fpirits ; that is, the propor¬
tions of alcohol and water of different degrees of denfi¬
ty or fpecific gravity. This objefl is important, both
in a political and commercial view. For the purpofes
of commerce, various inftruments have been contrived,
and tables conftrucled, for the Convenience of thofe who
are concerned in the purchafe and fale of fpirituous
liquors. For the purpofes of revenue, a moft elaborate
and minute fet of experiments was inftituted by Sir
Charles Blagden, who was exprefsly employed by the
Britifti government to afeertain the relative value or
ftrength of ardent fpirit at different temperatures and
different fpecific gravities. An account of thefe expe-f
riments was publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfa£lionS
for the year 1790. Tables which ffiew the refult of
the experiments, were publifhed by Mr Gilpin in
1793 ; but as thefe are not immediately connefted
with the elements of chemiftry, we refer our readers
to the original papers, and to the article SPIRITUOUS
Liquors, in this work.
9. Alcohol diffolves the fixed alkalies in the pure
ftate, and forms with them an acrid folution of a red-
difti colour. The folution of potafh in alcohol was
formerly denominated the acrid tinBure of tartar. It
is in this way that the fixed alkalies are obtained in
their pureft ftate. Alcohol, therefore, becomes a va¬
luable inftrument of analyfis for feparating the fixed
alkalies from a great number of extraneous fubftancesi
Ammonia alfo combines with alcohol by the affiftance
of heat. The ammonia with a higher temperature is
driven off, and carries with it part of the alcohol. Many
of the faline bodies may be diffolved in alcohol, and
on this account alfo it is valuable to the chemitl in his
refearches. Tables have been conftrutted, fhewing
the quantity of different falts which may be diffolved af
different temperatures. The following tables Were Indam
drawn up from the experiments of M. Guyton *.
I. Table of Salts •which are readily Diffolved.
240 grains of al- .
cobol difiolve at <-
Grains.
Nitrate of cobalt:
copper.
Muriate of zinc.
alumina.
Nitrate of alumina.
Acetate of lead.
Nitrate of magnefia,
Muriate
of iron,
of copper.
Nitrate of zinc de¬
compofed.
Nitrate of iron part¬
ly decompofed.
Nitrate of bifmuth.
mable fub-
ftances.
* Journ.de
Physique,
i78S.P- 6S'
II. Table of Salts that are little Soluble.
Grains.
240 grains of alco¬
hol at the boiling
temperature dif-
folve
24O
214
212
11 2
ioo
23
18
i7
9
7
J
5
4
Muriate of lime.
Nitrate of ammonia.
Oxymuriateof mercury.
Acetate of foda.
Nitrate of filver.
Nitrate of foda.
Acetate of copper.
Muriate of ammonia,
Arleniate of potaih.
Superoxalate of potafti.
Nitrate of potaffi.
Muriate of potafli.
Arfeniate of foda.
Tartrate of potafti.
III. Salts that are Infoluble.
Borax,
Tartar,
Alum,
Sulphate of ammonia,
iron,
copper,
zinc,
foda,
potafh,
lime,
filvef,
mercury,.
Tartrate of foda,
Nitrate of lead,
mercury,
Muriate of lead,
Carbonate of potafh,
feda.
The
544 CHEMISTRY.
Tn®ai”' The following tabic, drawn up by Mr Kinvan, ftiews alcohol of different denfities.
nitances'^" <Pant*ty °f ^Its that are loluble in 100 parts of
The temperature in Infisn
which the folutions were made was from <o° to 8o°-f.
J ' ftance
Sip
Compofi-
tion.
*30
According
to Lavoi-
iier.
Salts.
Sulphate of foda.
Sulphate of magnelia.
Nitrate ©f potafh.
Nitrate of foda.
Muriate of potafh.
Muriate of foda.
Muriate of ammonia.
Muriate of magnefia
dried at 120°
Muriate of barytes.
Do. cryftallized.
Acetate of lime.
Alcohol of
0.900
o.
1.
2.76
10.5
4.62
5.8
6.5
21.25
1.
1.56
2.4
0.872
o.
1.
1.
6.
1.66
3-67
4*75
o.
0.848 0.834
o.
23-75
0.29
°-43
4.12
o.
o.
o.
0.38
0.38
°-5
1-5
36.25
0.185
0.32
4-75
0.817
o.
50.
0.09
0.06
4.88
10. A great variety of different opinions have been
propofed with regard to the compofition of alcohol. It
had been obferVed, in burning this combuflible fub-
ftance, in clofe veffels, that water was formed. Some
philofophers had even obferved that the quantity of
water obtained by the combuftion of alcohol, was
greater than the whole weight of the alcohol which
was confumed. From obferving this circumftance, it
Was fuppofed to confift of water, combined with an
acid, an oil, or phlogifton, according to the views and
theories of different philofophers.
It is to the experiments of Lavoifier that we are in¬
debted for afeertaining the real conftituent parts of
this fubftance. He burnt in a proper apparatus, with
a known quantity of oxygen gas, 76.7083 grs. troy of
alcohol, and, after the combuftion, carbonic acid gas
and water were found to be the only products -, and by
eftimating the oxygen gas confumed, the quantity of
carbonic acid and of water which were formed, it ap¬
peared that the quantity of alcohol confumed was com-
pofed of
22.840 carbohe,
6.030 hydrogen,
47.830 water.
no change. The oxygen, therefore, which combined
with the hydrogen in the formation of water, muft
have come from the alcohol *.
Sect. II. Of Ether,
* Nick
Jour. i.! |
p. 191.
832
By the aft ion of different acids with alcohol, the pormati
latter is decompofed, and different produfts are obtain¬
ed, according to the proportions of the acid employed,
and the heat which is applied. When the acid and
the alkali are in a certain proportion, and are expofed
to a moderate temperature, the product is a peculiar
fubftance, which has received the name of ether. Ether
has been obtained by the aftion of different acids on
alcohol, and hence it has received different names, asNain"
fulphuric ether, nitric ether, muriatic ether. The firft,
namely, fulphuric ether, which feems to have been
longeft known, and is moft eafxly obtained, has excited
the greateft attention among chemifts. We ihall there¬
fore conlider it firft.
I. Of Sulphuric Ethel-.
To Tour-
.crojr.
76.7CO
But it has been fince proved, by the experiments of
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, that oxygen is a component
part of alcohol -, for when they mixed together equal
parts of alcohol and concentrated fulphuric acid, and
while ether is formed from it, there was alfo at the
feme time a produ&ion of water 3 the alcohol in this
cafe was decompofed, but the fulphuric acid fuffered
• • • a't
1. It appears from different paffages in the writings
of the earlier chemifts, that the knowledge of fulphu¬
ric ether was among their fecrets. It w as then called
•leum vitrioli dulce. The method of preparing it is
deferibed in a book publiftied at Nuremberg about
the year 1540. But the nature of this iubftance was
not much attended to till the year 1730* "hen a cer"
tain quantity wras prefented to the Royal Society by
Dr Frobenius, with a paper which was publilhed in
their Tranfaftions for that year, containing an account
of a number of experiments which were made upon
I,,m. it. It was long known under the name of naphtha
in;: fub- among the Germari chemxfts.
yi|'lCeii‘ , 2. The following is the procefs by which fulphuric
*1 ether may be obtained. Equal parts of concen-
UL. trated fulphuric acid and alcohol are put into a re¬
tort, to which a receiver is to be adapted and luted.
Or perhaps it is better to add the acid by final! por¬
tions at a time, that the aftion may not be too violent,
and the heat produced too great. The receiver (hould
be immerfed in cold water, or furrounded with ice, or
it may be kept cool by the application of wet cloths,
over which a fmall ifream of water is dire&ed. Heat
is then applied, and the firft pfoduft which comes over
is a fragrant fpirit of wine j but as foon as the mixture
begins to boil, the ether comes over, is condenfed by the
cold, and runs in ftreams down the iides of the receiver.
When the quantity obtained amounts to about one
half of the alcohol employed, the procefs fliould be
flopped, and the receiver unluted and removed ; but if
it be continued, white fumes begin to come off, which
1 " are known to be the fumes of fulphurous acid.
After this there rifes a light yellowilh coloured oil,
which has been called the fweet oil of wine. The heat
ihould now be moderated after the ether has paffed
over, becaufe the matter contained in the retort be¬
comes black, thick, and fwells confiderably. When .
the whole of the fweet oil has come over, there is ftill
an evolution of fulphurous acid, which becomes thicker
and thicker, till at laft there is nothing but a dark
coloured fulphuric acid.
C H E M I S T R Y. •< 545
feparated, the ether which fwinls on the top, may be
drawn off by means of a fyphon, and it may be intro- m^an^e“ *
duced into a retort to be rectified by diftiilation *. ; v—‘ ^
4. The ether which is thus obtained, is a tranfparent * Ann. de
colourlefs fluid, of a very fragrant fmell, and a hot Cbirn- xhi.
pungent tafte. The fpecific gravity is o>ly 0.7581, P- 257-
.nj ui„ tv .V
Mlica. 3. The ether which is obtained by this procefs is
tic impure. It is generally contaminated with fulphurous
acid. To purify it, it has been ufual to mix a quan¬
tity of potafli with the fluid, and to diftil it over again.
The acid in this cafe, combines with the potafh, and
tke ether being feparated, paffes over into the receiver.
Dize, however, confidering this procefs as tedious and
uncertain, has propofed other fubftances in the room of
potafh, and he has tried feveral metallic oxides, fuch
as the red oxide of lead, the yellow oxide of iron, the
red oxide of mercury, and the black oxide of manganefe.
But after a variety of experiments, he is of opinion,
that the black oxide of manganefe is the moft conve¬
nient for the purification of ether. It is mixed with
ether, allowed to remain fome time, and is to be fre¬
quently agitated. The oxygen of the manganefe
combines with the fulphurous acid, and converts it in¬
to fulphuric acid, w'hich is a more fixed body than the
* Km. de fulphurous acid *.
P : xlvi. To feparate the liquid from the fulphurous acid,
Ip®' Prouft recommends the following method, which he
fays is employed in the large way, as by far the moft
preferable. Introduce into a bottle which is ^ths fil¬
led with impure ether, fome water, and a portion of
flaked lime. Agitate the bottle ftrongly, and do not
epen it to examine its odour, till after it has remained
for fome minutes in cold water, and when the vapour
within the bottle has ceafed to exert its elaftic force
againft the cork ; if the fulphurous fmell is not en¬
tirely removed, the procefs is to be repeated till it
is completely deftroyed. This method, which was em¬
ployed by Woulfe, Prouft prefers on account of its
economy, particularly as it affords at the lame time a ful-
phite. of lime, which is formed by the combination of the
fulphurous acid with the lime. When the liquids have
Vol. V. Part II.
fo that it is confiderably lighter than alcohol. It «pro:-erties.
extremely volatile, fo that when it is agitated, or pour-
ed from one veffel to another, it is inftantly diilipated.
It produces fo great a degree of cold, that water may
be frozen by means of it. It rifes in the ftate of gas
which burns with great rapidity, and the air which
holds ether in folution may be puffed through water
without being deprived of its combuftibility or fra¬
grance. 837
5. It boils in the open air at the temperature of 98°, Adlion of
and in the vacuum of an air-pump at —20°, fo that itheat-
would conftantly remain in the Hate of gas if the pref-
fure of the air were removed.
When ether is kindled in the open air, it burns very
readily. The ele&ric fpark alfo inflames it. It burns
with a copious white flame, and leaves behind it a
black trace on the furface of bodies expofed to the
flame. Lavoifier has obferved that there is always for¬
med an acid during the combuftion of this liquid j and
Scheele fays that the refiduum of ether burnt over a
little water, contains fulphuric acid. When the ether
is expofed to a cold of —46°, it freezes and cryftallizes.
It is decompofed when the vapour is paffed through a
red-hot porcelain tube, and the produdl is carbonated
hydrogen gas. 83S
6. Dr Prieftley difeovered that ether agitated with Increai'ca
any kind of gas, greatly increafed its volume, and in t^e v'^urne
moft cafes doubled it. Mr Cruickfhank made a fimi-ot £“'ts*
lar experiment, by agitating fome oxygen gas with a
little ether. The bulk was exatftly doubled. In this
ftate the gas did not explode, but when one part of this
mixture was added to three parts of oxygen, an ignited
body or the eleftric fpark produced a dreadful explo-
fion. The products were water, with 2\d carbonic
acid gas. Hence it would appear, Mr Cruickihank
obferves, that one part of this vapour requires about
feven of oxygen to faturate it; and according to this ^
experiment, the proportion of carbone to hydrogen in <voar,; *v.
the vapour of ether or ether itfelf, fhould be as five p. 205.
to one f. 839
7. Phofphorus is diffolvcd in fmall quantity in ether, Adion of
and produces a tranfparent folution ; but when alcohol phosphorus,
is added to the folution, it becomes milky. 8^0
8. Sulphuric acid has a peculiar aftion on ether, by of acids,
converting it into a kind of oil, w hich is called the fweet
oil of wine. This is one of the products in the preparation
of fulphuric ether. When a fmall quantity of ether is
introduced into a bottle filled with oxymuriatie acid
gas, it explodes, and inflames ; or if paper moiftened
with ether be introduced, the fame efteft follows. Car¬
bonic acid gas is produced, and charcoal is depofited
on the fides of the bottle. g4r
9. Various theories have been propofed, to account Compofi-
for the produ£lion of ether. From the manner of its1’011*
produ&ion by means of fulphuric acid, it was natural to
fuppofe that this acid formed one of its component parts.
This accordingly became a general opinion, till it was
found that the fulphuric acid fuffered no change in the
procefs, but merely afiifted or difpofed the alcohol to
5 Z that
CHEMISTRY.
546 . . , • •
Inflam- that change wlilcli it undergoes when it is converted
awble tub- jnto ether. According to Macquer, the alcohol has
, ilances- , not been changed, but merely deprived of the whole of
its water. Scheele fuppofed, that ether was alcohol
deprived of its phlogifton } and when the new theories
were introduced, ether was confidered as a combina¬
tion of alcohol and oxygen.
10. The experiments and refearches of Fourcroy and
Vauquelin have thrown new light on this fubjedt, and
have led to different views of the nature and compofi-
tion of ether. According to the refultpf thefe experi¬
ments, ether contains a fmaller proportion of carbone,
but a greater proportion of hydrogen and oxygen.
From their experiments, and from thofe of^ others, it
appears that the changes induced by the adlion of ful-
phuric acid on alcohol, depend on the quantity and
ftrength of the acid, and the temperature..
A Equal parts of concentrated fulphuric acid and
alcohol mixed together raife the temperature to 189°.
Bubbles of gas are emitted 5 the liquid becomes turbid,
and at the end of fome hours aifumes a deep red co-
*our-
J5. ^ mixture of twro parts fulphuric acid, and one
part alcohol, produces a temperature of 200°. The
mixture becomes inftantly of a deep red coloui, paffes
to black a few days after, and diffufes an odour which
is perceptibly that of ether.
C. When equal parts of fulphuric acid and alcohol
are expofed to the aftion of heat, in a proper appa¬
ratus, fuch as is employed for the preparation of ether,
the following phenomena are obferved.
a. When the temperature is raifed to 207°, the li¬
quid boils; there is produced a fluid W'hich is conden-
fed by cold, into a light, colourlefs and fragrant li¬
quor, which from its properties has received the name
of ether. If the procefs be properly condufted, no
permanent gas is evolved, till about of the alcohol is
converted into ether.
If, as foon as the fulphurous acid appears, the re¬
ceiver be changed, there is no longer any production
of ether j but the fweet oil of wme, water, and acetic
acid are formed, without a fingle particle of carbonic
acid. When the fulphurie acid makes about |ths of
the mafs which remains in the retort, there is evolved
an inflammable gas, which has the odour of ether, and
which burns with a white oily flame. Ihis is the gas
which the Dutch chemifts have called carbonated. hy¬
drogen or olejiant becaufe when it is mixed
with oxymuriatic acid it forms oil. At this period,
the temperature of the matter contained in the retort
is elevated to 230° or 234°.
c. When the fweet oil of wine ceafes to flow, if the
receiver be again changed, there is only fulphurous
acid emitted, water which was previouflj formed, car¬
bonic acid gas ; and there remains only in the retort, a
mafs which confifts chiefly of fulphuric acid thickened
with charcoal.
843 From thefe phenomena, which were uniform and con-
4.. trences. f0p0Wing conclufions were drawn.
a> \ fmall quantity of ether is formed fpontaneoufiy
without the aid of heat, by the combination of two
parts of fulphuric acid and one part of alcohol.
Z». As foon as the ether is formed, and there is at the
time a produ&ion of water, the fulphuric acid un¬
dergoes no change in its intimate nature, while the fir ft Inth I
of thefe compofttions takes place. _
c. When the fulphurous acid appears, there is no, 1 ancjj
longer any production of ether j but then there pafs q
over the fweet oil of wine, water, and acetic acid.
d. The fweet oil of wane having ceafed to pafs over,
nothing is obtained but fulphurous acid, carbonic acid,,
and at laft fulphur, if the diftillation be continued. ^
The operation of ether, then, may be divided into
three periods 5 the firft, in which a fmall quantity of
ether and water is formed, without the alftftance of
heat •, the fecond period, in which the greateft quanti¬
ty of ether which can be obtained without the evolu¬
tion of fulphurous acid at a temperature of 2070} and
the third, in which the fweet oil of wine, olefiant gas,
acetic acid, fulphurous and carbonic acid are produced,
while the temperature of the mixture is raifed to 230®
and 23 40. In all thefe three periods there is only one
common circumftance, and this is, the continual forma¬
tion of water from the beginning to the end of the ope¬
ration. . 841 I
On thefe obfervations, Fourcroy and Vauquelin have Theory I j
eftablifhed their theory of the formation of ether. In
the cafe in which ether is formed by the fimple mix¬
ture of alcohol and fulphuric acid, without the aid of
heat, the formation which appears by heat as well as
by the black precipitate, the charcoal which is feparat-
ed without the produclion of fulphurous acid, proves
that the fulphuric acid acfls in a different manner on
alcohol from what was fuppofed. This acid is not. de-
compofed by charcoal at that temperature. There is no
aftion between thefe two bodies in the cold, nor js there
any aftion between this acid and alcohol j for in that
cafe, fulphurous acid would be formed, of which not
the fmalleft trace can be perceived at the beginning of
the operation. Recourfe then muft be had to a dif¬
ferent adtion, namely the ftrong affinity wrhich exiils
betwreen fulphuric acid and water. It is this which de¬
termines the union of the conftituent principles of wa¬
ter exifting in the alcohol, and with which this acid
comes in contafl j but this affion muft be very limited.
There is foon eftablifhed a balance of affinities, and no
farther change takes place.
If then it be proved that ether is formed by the
mixture of certain quantities of fulphuric acid and al¬
cohol, it xnuft obvioufly follow, that a mafs of alcohol
may be completely converted into ether, water, and
acetic acid, by increafing the quantity of fulphuric
acid and it is equally obvious, that this acid w ould
undergo no change but that of being diluted with
water.
It is not neceffary to fuppofe, according to this theo¬
ry, that ether is alcohol deprived of a certain portion
of oxygen and hydrogen, for there is feparated at the
fame time a quantity of charcoal proportionally greater
than that of the hydrogen j and it may be conceived,
that the oxygen which is combined in this cafe with the
hydrogen, to form water, would not only faturate this
hydrogen in the alcohol, but that it wrould faturate at
the fame time the carbone which has been precipitated..
Thus, then, in place of confidering ether as alcohol
with a fmaller proportion of hydrogen and oxygen,
if we take into account the carbone which is precipitat¬
ed, and the fmall quantity of hydrogen contained in
CHEMISTRY.
547
lam-
e fub-
tices.
tKe water that Is tormed, it mull be confidered as al¬
cohol with a greater proportion of hydrogen and oxy¬
gen. Such teems to be the nature of the fpontaneous
action between fulphuric acid and alcohol without the
aid of heat.
But when the mixture is fubje&ed to heat, the pro-
duftion of ether is more complicated, and the produfts
more numerous.
It ought to be obferved, that the mixture of fulphu¬
ric acid and alcohol in equal proportions, boils only at
the temperature of 207°, whilft alcohol alone boils at
176° j whence we mufl: conclude, that^ the alcohol is
retained by the affinity of the fulphuric acid, .which
fixes it. Now, if we compare what happens in this
cafe to the change produced on all other vegetable
matter expofed to the aflion of heat, in which the
principles are volatilized, according to the order of
their affinity for caloric, Carrying with them a fmall
quantity of the more fixed elements, in proportion as
the fulphuric acid attra&s the alcohol and the water,
of which it favours the formation, the ether which is
evolved attrafls caloric, and is fublimed ; and when
the greateft part of the alcohol has been changed into
ether, the mixture becomes denfer, the heat more
coniiderable, and the affinity of the fulphuric acid for
the undecompofed alcohol being increafed, the acid is
decompofed, fo that on one hand its oxygen combines
with the hydrogen of the alcohol, and forms water,
which rifes gradually into vapour, whilft, on the other,
the ether retaining a greater quantity of carbone, with
which it rifes in vapours at this temperature, affords
the fweet oil of wine, which ought to be confidered as
an ether with a greater proportion of carbone. This
feems to be proved by its greater fpecific gravity, lefs
Volatility, and its citron colour.
II. From this theory the ingenious authors of it
have deduced the following praftical conclufions.
a. The formation of ether is not owing, as was fup-
pofed, to the immediate aft ion of the principles of the
fulphuric acid on thofe of alcohol, but to the reaction
of the principles of the latter on each other, and par¬
ticularly of its oxygen arid hydrogen, occafioned by
the fulphuric acid.
b. A portion of alcohol may be converted into ether
without the aid of heat, by increaftng fufficiently the
proportion of fulphuric acid.
c. With regard to the change which takes place on
alcohol in the production of ether, the procefs may
be divided into two periods. In the one, ether, and.
water are only produced j in the other, fweet oil of
wine, water, and fulphuric acid.
d. During the formation of ether, the fulphuric acid
is not decompofed, and there is no production of the
fweet oil of wine. When the latter makes its appear¬
ance, there is given out no more, or at leaft very little,
ether 5 and at the fame time the fulphuric acid is de¬
compofed by hydrogen folely, whence fulphurous acid
is formed.
e. The formation of the fweet oil of wine may be
avoided, by keeping the temperature of the mixture be¬
tween 2000 and 207®. This is managed by introdu¬
cing a few drops of water into the retort.
f And laftly, alcohol differs from ether, in con-
tainin^more carbone, lefs hydrogen and oxygen, and
the fweet oil of wine is to ether very near what alcohol bulam-
13 to the latter*. ftances.
II. Of Nitric Ether.
* rourcroy
1. Nitric acid, or rather nitrous acid, a£!s with Connaiff.
much greater violence on alcohol than fulphuric acid. t°^'
In this cafe the adtion muft be moderated, either by 1
diluting the two liquids, or by cooling the mixture.
The firft eafy procefs which was propofed for the pre¬
paration of nitric ether, was given by Navier, a phyfi-
cian of Chalons. 844
2. The procefs of Navier is the following. He Prepara-
put into a ftrong bottle 12 parts of pure alcohol, and^"byJ<a
plunged it into cold water, or rather furrounded it
with ice. To this he added, in different portions,
eight parts of concentrated nitric acid, agitating the
mixture, after every addition. The bottle is then
flopped with a cork, which is fecured with leather,
and the mixture is fet in a convenient place, to avoid
the danger of accidents on the burfting of the bottle,
which fometimes happens. At the end of fome hours,
bubbles rife from the bottom of the veffel, and drops
are collected on the furface of the liquid, which gra¬
dually form a ftratum of ether. This aftion continues
for the fpace of fix days. When it ceafes, the cork is
to be pierced with a needle, to permit the efcape of a
quantity of nitious gas, which, without this precau¬
tion, would rulh out rapidly on uncorking the bottle,
and would carry along with it the ether, which would
be loft. When the gas is diffipated, the cork is to be
drawn out, and the whole liquid in the bottle is to be
poured into a funnel. The ether fwims on the top,
and the remaining liquor being heavier, is allowed to
pafs off, and the ether is retained. 84-
3. This procefs \vas improved by Beaume. He Beaume.
found that the greateft produce of ether was from two
parts of acid to three of alcohol. He directed both
ingredients to be ufed in the coldeft ftate, by keeping-
each in melting ice, and the bottle in which the mix¬
ture is made, to be kept equally cold. In this propor¬
tion of ingredients, the danger of explofion is avoid¬
ed, and the low temperature greatly moderates the
violent aftion. The mixture in the bottle is always
to be well agitated before any new addition of acid is
made, and by this means the accumulation in any par¬
ticular fpot is prevented. The ether begins to form,
as in the former procefs, in the courfe of a few hours,
and if the bottle is allowed to remain undifturbed for
eight or ten days, a quantity of ether equal to one
half the weight of the alcohol is obtained, after which
no more is produced. S46'
4. Dr Black’s procefs is deferibed by himfelf in the Black’s
following words. “ Into a ftrong phial, having aProcef5»
ground ftopper, I firft pour four ounces of ftrong hale
nitric acid. I then add three ounces of water, pouring
it in fo gently, that it fwims on the furface of the acid.
I then pour in after the fame manner fix ounces of al¬
cohol. I put in the ftopper flightly, and I fet the
phial in a tub of water and ice. The acid mixes flow-
ly with the water, and in a diluted ftate comes in con-
ta£t with the alcohol on which it immediately ads,
and ether is produced llovly and quietly. The liquor
gets a dim appearance, becaufe imperceptible bubbles
are formed, which get to the top, and having colled-
3 Z 2 cd
CHEMISTRY.
548
Inflam- c-d to a certain degree, they lift the ftopper, and
niable tub- efcape After eight or ten days I find upwards of
. fta”ces- three ounces of nitric ether, though I am certain by
m B/ack's the fmell, tliat much efcapes with the vapour. I his
Lett. ii. is, however, a certain, eafy, and fafe proceis, though it
324- is flow and imperfeft
847 5. Many other procefles have been propofed for the
Laplanche’s prepara^jon 0£ nitric ether. Laplanche, a Parifian
apothecary, has employed nitre, which he introduced
into a tubulated ftone-ware retort, and firll pouring
the concentrated fulphuric acid, and then the alcohol
f Foisrerey upon it, there is an immediate produftion .of ether j
Cocntifs. but by this procefs it is fufpefted that the nitric ether
Chim. tom. may mjxe(j witb fulphuric ether. He has therefore
-PS170' propofed another procefs, which is more complicated f.
Chaptal’s. 6. The procefs which has been propofed by Chap-
tal, is, according to Prouft, the beft that can be adopt¬
ed. This procefs, with fome additions and altera¬
tions, which he has found it neceflary to make from
his own experience, is the following. I he proportions
which he employs are, 32 ounces of alcohol, and 24
of nitric acid. Thefe are introduced into a large re¬
tort, which is to be luted to a globular glafs veffel,
furniflred with a tube of fafety. A tube paffes.from
this globe to a fecond, which is alfo furnifhed with a
tube of fafety. One or two ounces of water fhould
be introduced into the fecond globe to (hut up its tube
of fafety. Three bottles of Woulfe’s apparatus, con¬
taining from 64 to 80 ounces of liquid, are then to be
connedted with the fecond globe. Thefe bottles are
half filled with alcohol. The alcohol and the acid
are poured into the retort, and are mixed by agitation.
The retort is luted to the glafs globe, and heat is ap¬
plied, with this precaution, that it mufl: be removed
as foon as there is any effervefcence. The procefs
now goes on, and requires no farther attention than oc-
cafionally cooling the globes and the bottles with
cloths moiftened with fnow-water. The greateft part
©f the ether which is formed, condenfes in the firfl; bot¬
tle, and gives the alcohol a yellow colour. It then
pafles to the fecond, in which the colour is lighter,
'and at lafl: to the third, where there is little percepti-
f Am. de ble change. To feparate the ether of the firft bottle,
tiburi. tom. ke mixture is to be faturated with an alkali, and dif-
xlu. p.261. ,
84.9 tilled
•Furifica- 7. But by whatever procefs nitric ether is obtained,
tion. it requires to be purified, to feparate the acid and al¬
cohol, which are generally mixed with it. This is
done by diftilling it from potafli, which reduces its
quantity, for the diftillation muft not be continued
longer than when two-thirds or one-half of the firit
ether has come over. To purify this ftill more, it is
direfted to be mixed w ith one-fifth of nitrous acid, and
diflilled again, taking two-thirds of the produft fet
apart, and reftify it from an alkali. The remainder
which comes over is a lefs pure ether, which has been
known under the name of Hoffman's mineral anodyne
liquor. What remains in the retort has been called
8<0 dulcified fpirit of nitre.
Properties. 8. Nitric ether, thus obtained, is a yellowifti colour¬
ed liquid, equally volatile as fulphunc ether. Its Info:
odour, though ftronger and lefs fweet, is analogous to
the fulphuric ether. The tafte is hot and more dif- ,
agreeable. It is often of a deeper yellow colour, and ’1
always contains a fmall excefs of acid and nitrous gas.
The Hopper is frequently driven out of the bottle in
which it is kept, for there is a conftant evolution of a
confiderable quantity of gas. . . St II
9. When it is fet fire to, it gives out a more bril-Burn''[
liant flame, and a denfer fmoke, than fulphuric ether jabriliJ
and it depofits a greater quantity of charcoal. When flame. !
it is long kept in a clofe veffel, there is formed fome
water, holding a fmall quantity of oxalic acid in folu-
tion, which falls to the bottom of the veffel. g5J j
10. Nitric ether is not only analogous to fulphuric AnaliT
ether in its properties, but alfo in the nature of the to fulptU
procefs by which it is obtained, and in the other pro-ether*
dudls which accompany this procefs. But in the pro¬
duction of nitric ether, there is no depofition of char¬
coal, and the acid itfelf is decompofed. This appears
from the great quantity of nitrous gas which is evol¬
ved during the procefs j and the reafon afligned for the
difappearance ot the charcoal is, that the oxygen of
the feid combines with it, and forms carbonic acid,
which efcapes in the form of gas. The produfts
which are generally obtained in the proceffes for the
preparation of nitric ether are nitrous gas, ether, oil,
acetic acid, oxalic acid, and carbonic acid gas.
If equal parts of nitric acid and alcohol are mixed to¬
gether, a violent effervefcence immediately takes place,
which is ow ing to the evolution of a great quantity of gas,
which being a compound of ether and nitrous gas, has
been denominated etherifed nitrous gas. ihe fame gas
is obtained by employing a diluted acid } but then the
mixture requires the affiltance of heat. X his gas may
be colledted in veffels over water. It has a difagree-
able ethereal odour, quite different from the odour of
nitric ether, and exaftly fimilar to that kind of ether
which is furnilhed by the oily, carbonated hydrogen
gas, treated with oxymuriatic acid gas. If a candle
be applied to this gas, it burns flowly with a yellow
flame. This gas is foluble in water, and is wholly ab-
forbed ; but the abforption is flow. The water ac¬
quires the odour of the gas. Alcohol alfo diffolves it
completely, and more rapidly. Oxygen gas mixed
with this gas, provided it be pure, produces no change j
but when the mixture is fet fire to, there is a violent
detonation. When this gas was expofed to fulphuric,
nitric, and muriatic acids, the ether was abforbed by
the acids, and the nitrous gas remained behind. The
fulphurous acid in the ftate of gas, combined with an
equal bulk of the inflammable gas, alfo decompofed it 5
but this effedt did not take place till after feveral
days*. _ #>41
If the alcohol and nitric acid be mixed together inpiy/xb
the proportion of one of the former to three of the lat- p-
ter, and a gentle heat be applied, there is a copious
evolution of gas, which is compofed of the ethcrifed
nitrous gas and nitrous gas. If towards the end of the
procefs, when a fmall part of the liquid remains in the
retort,
(s) Dr Black, we believe, contrived a fpring for the ftopper which kept down the cork till it was pulhed uy
by the elaftic vapours 5 and when they had efcaped, it returned to its place by the force oi the Ipring.
nflam- retort, it be allowed to cool, cryftals are formed j and
.ble iub- thefe cryftals are found to be oxalic acid. They were
:ances' formerly called crystals of Hie me, from the name of a
l^r. de Swediflr chemift, who firft difeovered them *.
\vfique, If one part of nitric acid be added to its own weight
i)46. of alcohol, and ®ne part of fulphuric acid be added
foon after, the mixture is fuddenly inflamed, and burns
with great violence. In this cafe, when the pro-
dufls are colledled, they are found to be ether and
oil.
From this ftatement of fafts, therefore, it appears,
that the produftion of nitric and fulphuric ethers is near¬
ly the fame j that the differences which take place, are
owing to the different nature of the acids j the violent
adlion which follows in the formation of nitric ether,
depending on the nitric acid itfelf being decompofed,
and by the operation of new affinities, new actions
having taken place.
CHEMISTRY. 549
4. Another method has been propofed for the pre-
paration of muriatic ether by Laplanche. He pours '
into a tubulated retort fulphuric acid and alcohol on
353
•oceffes
III. Of Muriatic Ether.
1. Muriatic acid has no fenfible adlion on alcohol,
r obtain- either by Ample mixture, or by dillilling them toge-
g it. ther, as in the former cafe. Beaume obtained a fmall
quantity of muriatic ether, by combining together mu¬
riatic acid and alcohol in the date of vapour. But
other means were thought of for this purpofe, and par¬
ticularly the oxymuriate of antimony, and the oxide
of zinc diffolved in muriatic acid, and to diftil this
fait, concentrated by evaporation, in clofe veffels with
alcohol. By this procefs muriatic ether has been ob¬
tained. But the moft fuccefsful method of procuring
this ether, was propofed by Courtanvaux. His procefs
is the following.
'rom falls 2. One part of alcohol is mixed with three parts of
tin. oxymuriate of tin, or the fuming liquor of Libavius,
in a glafs retort. A ftrong heat is produced, with
the produ&ion of a white fuffocating vapour, which
difappears when the mixture is agitated. There is
then emitted an agreeable odour, and the liquor af-
fumes a lemon colour. The retort is then to be placed
on a fand bath $ tw o receivers are to be attached, one
of which is to be immerfed in cold water. There
paffes over at firft fome pure alcohol, and foon after
the ether, which is known by its fragrant odour, and the
ftreams which run down the fides of the retort. When
the odour changes, and becomes {harp and fuffocating,
the receiver mull be changed •, and if the diftillation
be continued, a clear acid liquor is procured, on the
furface of which are obferved fome drops of fweet oil,
which is fucceeded by a yellow matter of the confift-
ence of butter, which is a true muriate of tin, and at
lafl: a brown heavy liquid, which exhales very copi¬
ous white vapours j and there remains in the retort a
gray matter in the {late of powder,
arifica- 3* To purify this ether, it is put into a retort over
•an. carbonate of potafli. A brilk effervelcence takes place,
and a very copious precipitate is produced. This is
owing to the oxide of tin which the acid had carried
oft’ during the diffillation. A little water is to be add¬
ed, and diftilled wflth a gentle heat. About the one-
half of the produft of the ether is thus obtained. All
the fluids which come over after the muriatic ether,
are loaded with oxide of tin j they attradl moifture
from the air, and combine with the water without any
precipitation.
8SS
common fait which has been ilrongly dried. The mu- 856
riatic acid gas, difengaged by the fulphuric acid, Prepared
meeting the vapours of the alcohol in the retort, com-trom 5°m-
bines with them. In this way an ether is obtained,
which may be purified in the ufual way. But in this
procefs, Fourcroy thinks, that the production of ether
is owing to a fmall portion of oxymuriatic acid which
is formed during the procefs. _ 857
5. Pelletier has fucceeded in obtaining muriatic and manga*-
ether, by diftilling in a large tubulated retort, a mix-'neie,
ture of oxide of manganefe, common fait, concentrated
fulphuric acid, aud alcohol. The quantity of ether
obtained by this procefs, is equal to one half the
weight of the alcohol employed.
6. Another procefs has been propofed by Berthol- an(j oxy._
let, by diftilling with a gentle heat, alcohol which muriatic
has been faturated with oxymuriatic acid gas, and by acid gas.
diftilling the oxide of manganefe, a mixture of alcohol,
and ftrongly concentrated muriatic acid. g-p
7. Muriatic ether, thus obtained, is tranfparent and Properties
very volatile. It has nearly the fame odour as fulphu¬
ric ether. It burns like it, and gives out a fimilar
fmoke j but it differs in two of its properties j the one
is, that it exhales, while burning, an odour as pun¬
gent and acrid as fulphurous acid ; and the other is,
that the tafte is aftringent like that of alum. This
difference in odour and tafte is owing, it is fuppofed,
to fome extraneous fubftances with which it is conta¬
minated ; for in the whole procefs of its formation it
appears to be exaftly the fame 5 a conftant produft of
the decompofition of alcohol, by whatever re-agent this
is effedled.
IV. Acetic Ether.
860
x. An ether has alfo been obtained by diftilling a prepara__
mixture of acetic acid and alcohol. This was the firft tion.
procefs which w as employed in the produdlion of this
ether. It was difeovered by the count de Lauraguais
in 1759. It has been improved by Pelletier, who di¬
ftilled equal quantities of acetic acid, obtained from
acetate of copper, and alcohol. It was then poured
back into the retort, and diftilled a fecond time.
When this procefs is finilhed, it is diftilled a third
time, and the produ6t of the third diftillation is a
mixture of acetic acid and ether. To feparate the acid
from the ether, it is faturated with potaffi, and diftil¬
led with a gentle heat.. The acetic ether paffes over
in a ftate of purity.
2. Another procefs has been propofed to obtain the
fame ether. Take 16 parts of acetate of lead, fix.-
parts of concentrated fulphuric acid, and nine parts of
alcohol. Let it be diftilled till ten parts come over.
Let this liquid be agitated with one third of its bulk
of lime water ; the ether feparates and fwims on the
top. The quantity generally amounts to about fix
parts.
3. This ether is fimilar to the other ethers in its
properties, excepting that it has a flight odour of acetic
acid.
4. Ether has alfo been formed by feveral other
acids, and it appears, that thefe acids poffefs one com¬
mon property in their adlion on alcohol, for all the
ethers
CHEMISTRY.
SS0
Inflam- ethers produced by the different acids are nearly the
mable fub- famej and indeed it is fuppofed would be exactly the
, . fame> were it not that they are contaminated with ex¬
traneous matters derived from the acids, the alcohol,
or other fubftances, which are employed in their for¬
mation.
Sect. III. Of Fixed Oils.
I. Oils, which are copious produftions of nature,
have been long khown j and their extenfive utility in
domeftic economy and the arts, ha# always rendered
them objects of great importance. The general cha-
s6i rafters of oils are combuftibility, infolubility in water,
Oils of Wo and fluidity. From the peculiar properties o{ different
kinds. oils, they are naturally divided into two kinds j fixed
or fat oils, and volatile or effential oils. The fixed
or fat oils require a high temperature to raife them to
the date of vapour, a temperature above that of boil¬
ing water j but the volatile or effential oils are volati¬
lized at the temperature of boiling water, and even at
a lower one. Both the volatile and fixed oils are ob¬
tained from plants, and fometimes from the fame plant,
but always from different parts of it. While the feeds
yield fixed oil, the volatile oil is extrafted from the
862 bark or wood.
Found only 2. One of the moft diftinguifhing charafteriftics of
in the feeds fixecl 0;is iSj that they exift only in one part of the
biW5^" vegetable. They are only found in the feeds. No
trace of fixed oil can be detefted in the roots, the
Item, leases or flowers of thofe plants, whofe feeds af¬
ford it in great abundance. The olive may feem an
exception to this. The oil which it yields is extraft¬
ed, not from the feed, but from its covering. Among
plants too, fixed oils are only found exiiting in thofe
whofe feeds have a peculiar ftrufture. The feeds of
plants have fometimes one lobe, in which cafe they
are called monocotifledonous plants ; and fometimes they
have two, when they are denominated dicotyledonous.
The formation of fixed oil in plants is exclufively li¬
mited to the latter clafs. There is no inftance of fix¬
ed oils being found in the feeds of plants which have
* Tourcroy only one lobe ** Thofe feeds which yield the fixed
Connaifs. 0j]s> contain alfo a confiderable portion of mucilage,
vn. 319. f0 that when fuch feeds are bruifed and mixed, with
water, they form what is called an emu/fion, which is
a white fluid containing a quantity of the oil of the
feed mixed with the mucilage. One of the moft com¬
mon emuifions, that of almonds, is an inftance of this.
Fixed oils are extrafted from the feeds of a great
number of plants. Thofe which yield it in greateft
abundance arc, the olive, thence called olive oil; the
feeds of lint, and the kernels of almonds, called linfeed,
or almond oil. Fixed oils are alfo obtained from ani¬
mals, fuch as train oil, as it is called, which is extrafted
from the fat or blubber of the whale. Fixed oil is ob¬
tained alfo in great abundance from the liver of ani-
863 mals, and is found to exift in the eggs of fowls.
Have diffe- 3. Thefe different kinds of fixed oils, although they
rent proper-p0q-efs many common properties, yet in others they
tie5, are very different. Many of the vegetable oils have
no fmell, and fcarcely any perceptible tafte. The ani¬
mal oils, on the contrary, are generally extremely
naufeous and offenfive. Thefe differences are fuppofed
to be owing to the mixture of extraneous bodies, or to Infi*
certain chemical changes which arife from the aftion”13^:.
of thefe bodies upon each other, or on the oil itfelf. , ftan(i:
4. As the fixed oils exift ready formed in the feeds " ^1
of plants, they are generally obtained by exfirejjion, and Prepanf
hence they have been called exprejfed oils. This is tion. |
done by reducing the feeds to a kind of pulp, or pafte,
which is enclofed in bags, and fubjefted by means of
machinery, when it is obtained in the large v'ay, to
ftrong preffure, fo that the oil flows out, and is eafily
collefted. The oil which is obtained by this procefs,
which has been called cold drawn oil, becaufe it is
procured without the application of heat, and merely
by preffure, is the pureft j but the quantity vdiich feeds
in general yield is comparatively fmall, and fome feeds
which contain a confiderable portion of oil, fcarcely
afford any when treated in this way. It therefore be¬
comes neceffary for eXtrafting the oil from feeds of the
latter defcription, and to have it in greater abundance
from all feeds, to employ heat, to facilitate the repara¬
tion of the oil from the mucilage or other matters
with which it is combined. For this purpofe heat is
applied, either to the apparatus which is employed in
prefling out the oil, or the bruifed feeds are expofed to
the vapour of Water, and fometimes they are boiled in
the water itfelf, by which means thofe fubftances
which are foluble in water, are feparated, and thus
the oily part which adhered to thefe fubftances, is dif-
engaged. ^
5. The oils which are obtained in this way are verypurjgc^
impure. They are mixed with mucilage, and other tion.
parts of the fubftances from which they have been ex¬
trafted. Many of thefe matters feparate from the oils
when they are left at reft. They are fometimes me¬
chanically purified by filtration through coarfe cloths,
by which means the groffer parts are feparated. Dif¬
ferent oils too, it is faid, undergo different kinds of
purification by different manufafturers, but thefe pro-
ceffes are kept fecret. After they have remained at
reft for fome time, they are filtered and agitated with
w ater, by which the parts that are foluble in this fluid
are feparated from the oil. Sometimes they are gent¬
ly heated, for a fliorter or longer time, according to
the nature of the fubftances with w'hich the oil is con¬
taminated. Acids diluted with water are employed
to feparate the mucilage ; lime and the alkalies are
alfo ufed to combine with an acid which holds this
mucilage in folution, and thus to favour its precipita¬
tion. Alum, chalk, clay, and afhcs, are alfo em¬
ployed in the purification of oils. $66 j
6. Fixed oils are generally liquid, but of a thick, Propertie
vifcid confiftence. They are mild or infipid to the
tafte j fometimes, however, they have a peculiar tafte,
which is analogous to that of the plant from which
they have been extrafted. When pure, they have no
fmell, but are fometimes impregnated with the odour
of the feed tvhich produces them. The fixed oils are
rarely quite colourlefs, but are generally green or yel-
lowifh. If they are green when frefti prepared, this
colour changes to a yellow, and in time to an orange
or red. Fixed oils in general are lighter than water.
The fpecific gravity varies from 0.9153, wdiich is that
of olive oil, to 0.9403, that of linfeed oil. The boil-
ing point of the fixed oils is not under the temperature
CHEMISTRY.
55i
jham-
r; le nib
ffhceS-
U.-v—^
/ bn of
b ■
168
Obofi-
t: ‘
of 6oo°. When expofed to cold, they congeal, and
even cryftallize. There is, however, a conliderable va¬
riety in this refpeft, among fixed oils : fome become
folid at the temperature of a few degrees above the
freezing point of water ; while others, on the contrary,
require a degree of cold =5° j and fome remain fluid
when expofed to the greateft cold. Thofe oils, it has
been obferved, which moft readily become folid, fuch
as olive oil, are lead; fubjeft to change , while thofe
which congeal with difficulty have a greater tendency
to fpoil and become rancid.
7. When fixed oil is expofed to heat, it does not eva¬
porate, till it is raifed to the temperature of boiling,
or 6oo° 5 but when it is thus raifed in vapour its pro¬
perties are changed. It is decompofed by the fepara-
tion of fome of its principles. The part that is volati¬
lized has a greater propc.tion of hydrogen j charcoal is
depofited, and water and febacic acid are formed, while
carbonated hydrogen gas is difengaged. By this diftil-
lation an oil was produced, denominated by the older
chemifts, phi/ofophical oil.
When oil is expofed to the open air, and a burning
body is brought in contaft with it, it readily takes
fire, and burns rapidly, with a yellowiffi white flame.
It is on this converfion of oil into vapour, and the in¬
flammation of this vapour, that the application of oil
in lamps and candles depends. The oil is gradually,
and in fmall quantities, brought in contact with the
burning part of the wick \ it is converted into vapour,
which is immediately inflamed, and continues to burn
till new portions are fupplied to undergo the fame
change, and thus keep up a conftant and uniform light
and heat.
8. According to the analyfis of olive oil by La-
voifier, it is compofed of hydrogen and carbone. In
the experiment which he inftituted to afeertain its com¬
ponent parts, he burnt
o11
oxygen gas 50.86
troy,
66.65
The produfts of this combuftion were water and car¬
bonic acid. The weight of the water could not be af-
certained with much precifion, but the quantity of car¬
bonic acid which was formed, amounted to 44.50 grs.
This quantity fubtrafted from the whole weight of
the fubftances confumed, namely the oil and oxygen
gas, left 22.15 grs. for the weight of the water. The
proportion of oxygen in this quantity of water is
18.82 grs. which leaves 3.33 grs. of hydrogen, the
other component part. The proportion of oxygen in
44.50 grs. carbonic acid gas is 32.04 grs. which leaves
12.46 of carbone. The oxygen of the water and of
the carbonic acid, namely 18.82 grs. of the one, with
32.04 grs. of the other, make up the whole quantity of
oxygen, namely 50.86 grs. that was confumed. From
this analyfis, therefore, 15.79 °iive are compofed
of
12.46 carbone,
3.33 hydrogen.
The component parts, therefore, of 100 grains of Inflam-
v •, 1 mable fub-
ollve ol1 are fiances.
78.92 carbone,
2i.c8 hydrogen.
100.00
*5-79
. . 869
9. The fixed oils are infoluble in water. When it is Ldbluble La
neceflary to combine them with this liquid, it is by water,
means of mucilaginous fubflances, in which cafe the
mixture is known under the name of emulfion, or with
alkaline fubftances, when it is diftinguithed by the
name of foap. gy0
10. When fixed oils are expofed to the air, they uo- A&ion of
dergo peculiar changes ; and theie changes are diffie- air.
rent, according to the nature of the oil.
11. Some of thefe oils become thick, opaque, white,
granulated, and are analogous in appearance to tallow.
Oils fubjeft to this change are called fat oils, fuch, for
inftance, is olive oil, almond oil, and rapefeed oil.
This change is more or lefs rapid in different eircum-
ftances. If a thin layer of oil be fpread on the furface
of water, and expofed to the air, it takes.place in a few
days, and this effect is owing to the abforption of oxy¬
gen, which combines with the oil. It was fuppofed
by Berthollet, that it depended on the aftion of light j
but his experiments were repeated by Senebier, who
found that olive oil when kept in the dark, became
rancid, while the fame kind of oil expofed to the
light, but excluded from the air, remained unchan¬
ged *. * Senei.
12. But other oils, when they are expofed to the Ann. de
air, dry altogether, yet have the property of retaining X1*
their tranfparency. Oils which have this peculiar pro-9 * g,t
perty are called drying oils. The oil of poppies, hemp- Drying oils,
leed oil, and particularly linfe.ed oil, are pofleffed of *
this property. The nature of the change which takes
place in thefe drying oils, is fuppofed to depend on the
abforption of oxygen j and this oxygen combining with
the hydrogen of the oil forms water. This opinion is
fupported by the pradlice which is followed to increafe
the drying property of linfeed oil. It is ufually boiled
with litharge, before it is employed by painters. The
litharge in this cafe is partly reduced to the metallic
Hate, by being deprived of its oxygen, which is fup¬
pofed to combine with the oil. s„,
13. But many of the fixed oils, when expofed to the Rancidity,
air for a fufficient length of time, undergo a farther
change, and acquire very different properties. They
are then faid to become rancid. During this change,
they affume a brown colour, have the property of chan¬
ging vegetable blues to red, and acquire a peculiar fmell
and tafte. In this change, the febacic acid is formed,
which depends on a new combination of the hydrogen
and carbone of the oil in certain proportions with the
.oxygen abforbed from the atmofphere. To this acid4 jr0UrCTCIy
therefore, the rancidity of oils feems to be owing. Part Cowra?/}.
of the hydrogen of the o;l too, it would appear, com- Chi™, vii.
bines with the oxygen and forms water f. 328-
14. Carbone in the ftate of charcoal, has no aftion Adlion^of
upon oils j but they are purified and rendered colour-charcoal,
l.efs by being palled through charcoal powder. R
15. Phofphorus combines with oils, with the affift-ofphcfpjie-
ance of heat. A fmall portion cf the phofphorus is dif-nn.
.. folved,.
■5'52
C H E M I S T R Y.
s7S
Gf faiphur,
Chim. vii.
329-
876
Of acids.
Inflam- folved, which communicates a luminous property to the
oils, fo that when they are fpread upon any "furface,
1   , they ftiine in the dark. When the oil is completely
faturated with the phofphorus with the afliflance of
heat, and is allowed to cool, part of the phofphorus is
depolited, and cryftallizcd in tranfpafent octahedrons.
When this phofphorated oil is diftilled, phofphorated
hydrogen gas is difengaged.
16. Sulphur eafily combines with fixed oil, with the
aflifiance of heat. The folution, which was formerly
called ruby of fulphur, is of a reddilh colour. When
it cools, the fulphur cryltallizes, by which procefs Pel¬
letier obtained fulphur in the form of octahedrons.
When the cooling is too rapid, the fulphur is precipi-
* 'Fourcroy tated of a yellowr colour, in the lhape of needles. If
Connaifu fulphurated oil, which has a peculiarly fetid odour,
be diltilled, it affords a great quantity of fulphurated
hydrogen gas *.
17. The acids have a powerful effeCt on the fixed
oils. The fulphuric acid, when concentrated, decom-
pofes them. They become brown, thick, and at laft of
a black colour. Water is formed, charcoal is precipi¬
tated, and even an acid is formed. Nitric acid in the
cold, thickens fixed oils by communicating part of its
oxygen. In the ftate of nitrous acid it produces a
more violent aCtion. There is a confiderable effervef-
cence, with the evolution of a great quantity of ni¬
trous gas. If a mixture of nitrous acid and concentrated
fulphuric acid be thrown upon fixed oils, they inftant-
ly inflame, and leave behind a fpongy mafs of char¬
coal. Muriatic acid has little effeft on fixed oils, but
the oxymuriatic acid thickens and bleaches them, in
the fame way as tallow or wax.
18. The various purpofes to which fixed oils are ap¬
plied, are too well known to require particular enume¬
ration. They are x employed in domeftic economy,
cither as articles of food, and for this purpofe are ufed
alone, or in combination with other fubftances \ or they
are employed for giving light, by being burnt in lamps.
They are ufed in medicine, either on account of the'
properties which peculiar oils poffefs, or on account of
the properties they communicate to other fubftances
with which they are combined. In this ftate the ufe
of oils is well known in the form of unguents, plafters,
and liniments. In the arts, fixed oils are of the moft
extenfive utility. They are employed in the fabrica¬
tion of foaps, for mixing colours in painting, for fome
kinds of varnilh, and for defending fubftances from the
afrion of air and moifture f.
19. The order of the affinities of fixed oils is the
following :
Lime,
Barytes,
Fixed alkalies,
Magnefia,
Ammonia,
Oxide of mercury,
Other metallic oxides,
Alumina.
Ufes.
S77
f Ibid. vii.
V‘ 33°-
878 .
Affinities.
879
Chaiadters.
Sect. IV. Of Volatile Oils.
I. Volatile oils are diftinguiffied from the fixed oils
by their volatility, fragrance, and acrid tafte. They
are alfo known under the name of aromatic oils, from
their odour ; or ejfential oils, or Amply ejj'cnces, from InfLiJ
being fuppofed to conftitute the effence or the exiftence fi
of the vegetable matters which furnilh them. ftancq
2. Volatile oils are not limited to particular parts of
plants, but are found to exift in every part of the plant, Names,
excepting in the feed, which furnilhes the fixed oils. 8S1
A great number of roots which are generally diftin- ^°Un(*:
guifhed by an aromatic odour, and have more or lefs pi^1
of an acrid tafte, afford volatile oils. They are fur- the lob-
niflied alfo by many woods, fuch as thofe of the pine the feec
and fir tribe, and by many of thofe which are natives
of warm climates. The leaves of a great number of
plants belonging to the didynamia clafs alfo afford vo¬
latile oil, as well as many of the umbelliferous plants..
It is obtained alfo from many flowers of vegetables, and
alfo from the covering of many fruits, as the (kin of
oranges and lemons. It is alfo obtained from a great
number of feeds \ but it is never found in the cotyle¬
dons or lobes themfelves, but only in the external co¬
vering. The quantity of volatile oil which is obtain¬
ed from vegetables, varies according to the age, the
foil in which they grow, and the ftate of the plant.
Some plants, while green, furnifh it in greateft abund¬
ance ; while others yield moft when they are dry. ^
3. There are twro proccffes by which volatile oil mayprepara.
be obtained. When it exifts in plants in great abund-tion.
ance, and in veficles in a fluid ftate, it may be fepara-
ted by mechanical means. Thus, by Ample expreffion,
the volatile oils are extra&ed from many plants, as, for
inftance, from the fruit of the orange and the lemon.
From the outer rind of thefe fruits, when they are
freffi, the volatile oil is obtained in the liquid form ;
but in general, the volatile oils of plants are neither fo
abundant, nor do they exift in that ftate of fluidity, by
which they can be procured by fo Ample a procefs.
In moft cafes they are fubje&ed to the procefs of di-
ftillation ; and for this purpofe they are macerated for
fome hours in water. They are then introduced into
a ftill along with the w ater ; a moderate heat is appli¬
ed and continued till the fluid boil, when a great
quantity of vapour of ■water, mixed with the volatile
oil, paffes over, and is received in proper veffels. The
oil colle&s on the furface of the water, from which it
may be eafily feparated. The water itfelf is of a milky
colour, on account of a fmall quantity of oil fufpended
in it •, and even after the water becomes tranfparent by
the particles of the oil feparating from it, and rifing to
the top, it is ftill loaded with the peculiar odour of the
plant. This was fuppofed to be a feparate principle
of vegetables, to which Boerhaave gave the name of
fpiritus re&or, and which is ftill known by the name
of aroma. This fragrance of the water is owing to
the folution of a certain portion of oil in it. In the
diftillation of the volatile oils, different practices are
followed, according to the nature of the plant, and
the proportion of the oil exifting in it. The roots,
w'ood, bark, fruits, dried plants, after being cut in pieces,
rafpcd down or bruifed, are macerated for feme hours,
or for fome days, according to the folidity or particu¬
lar ftate of the vegetable matter. Frefh plants are di¬
ftilled with the fmalleft quantity of w'ater, have no
need of previous maceration, and do not require fo high
a temperature. SS3;
4. The volatile oils are particularly diftinguifhed by Fragrawj
their fragrance, which varies in the oils extracted from
different
Jr
ijJity.
: 385
(ibis.
JS6'
(aur.
C H £ M I
(lam- different plants. The confidence of the volatile oils
j,|,)lefub- ajf0 varies eonliderably. Sometimes they are as fluid
as water, which is the cafe with thofe oils obtained by
expreflion. Some are thick and vifcid, as thofe gene¬
rally are which arc extracted from woods, roots, barks,
and fruits of the warmer regions. Some congeal, or
ailume a granulated folid confluence at different tem¬
peratures. Of thefe laft, fome are always found to be
in the concrete ftate. Several of the volatile oils are
fufceptible of cryftallization, depofiting in the remain¬
ing portion of the oil which continues liquid, tranfpa-
rent polyhedrons, more or lefs of a yellow colour,
which are found to be pure oil. This laft change,
Vauquelin thinks, is owing to an incipient oxidation •,
for it never takes place, unlefs oils have been kept for
fome time.
5. There is great variety of colour among volatile
oils. Some indeed are nearly colourlefs, as the oil of
turpentine •, but in general they are of different ftiades of
colour. Some are yellow, as the oil of lavender;
fome are of a reddiih yellow or brown, as the oil of
cinnamon or of rhodium 5 fome are blue, as the oil of
chamomile j and fome are green, as that of parfley.
But the moft prevailing colour among volatile oils is
S87 yellow or reddiih.
' tie. 6. Volatile oils have almoft always an acrid, hot, and
even burning tafte. It is obferved that the moft acrid
vegetable matters do not yield an oil poffeffed of this
quality. The fpecific gravity of volatile oils is gene¬
rally lefs than that of water. Some volatile oils, how¬
ever, as thofe of faffafras and canella, have a greater
fpecific gravity.1 The fpecific gravity of oils varies
from 0.8697 to 0.9910, in thofe which are lighter than
water 5 but thofe which are heavier are from 0.0363
to 1.4049.
7. When volatile oils are expofed to the light, the
colour becomes confiderably deeper 5 they become
thicker, and increafe in fpecific gravity. In fpeaking
of a fimilar change which takes place in the fixed oils,
this change was aferibed to the abforption of oxygen 5
but, according to the experiments and obfervations of
M. Tingry, it is effected merely by the aftion of
flight*, for in his experiments oxygen gas was entirely
excluded *.
(jljuat. 8. When volatile oils are expofed to heat, they evapo¬
rate very readily. They are much more combuftiblethan,
the fixed oils 5 and in burning give out a great quan¬
tity of fmoke, a very bright white flame, and a good
deal of heat. They require a greater proportion of
oxygen than the fixed oils, and yield a greater quan¬
tity of water. This arifes from a greater proportion
of hydrogen, and a fmaller quantity of carbone, which
they contain.
9. When volatile oils are expofed to the open air,
they undergo another change. They affume a deeper
colour, and become vifcid, exhaling at the fame time
a very ftrong odour. The air around is deprived of
its oxygen *, it combines with the hydrogen of the oil,
and forms water, which is obferved in drops on the
furface. Many of the volatile oils when thus expofed
pais into the refinous ftate, and are almoft entirely de¬
prived of their odour. This depends on the lofs of
part of their hydrogen, and confequently the increafe
of the proportion of carbone.
vater. 10. The volatile oils are in fome degree foluble in
Vol. V. Part II.
ion of
l)t.
'oar. de
ifique,
' p. ify
890
air.
1 .
S T It Y. 553
water. When they are agitated with this liquid, they ^
combine with it, and communicate a very ftrong odour, iu^a^ce^_
and a {lightly acrid tafte. _ —v '
11. Phofphorus and fulphur are foluble in volatile 892
oils. With phofphorus the iolution is luminous in the Pholphotus
dark, is extremely fetid, and gives out, by the force of aj^ Ul
heat, phofphorated hydrogen gas. The combination^ 1
with fulphur is known under the name of baljam offui-
phur. This gives out fulphurated hydrogen gas on the
application of heat. 895
12. The concentrated fulphuric acid produces a Of acids,
brown colour, increafes the vifeidity of the vola¬
tile oils, and dil'engages part of their hydrogen with
effervcfcence and heat. Part of the oil is deecinpofed 5
charcoal is depofited, and it contains an acid. Nitrous
acidj when brought into contafl with the volatile oils,
produces inftantaneous deflagration ; converts them in¬
to water in a great meafure, and carbonic acid ; and
there remains behind a voluminous mafs of charcoal.
Muriatic acid has fcarcely any abflion 5 but oxymuria-
tic acid renders them eolourlefs, concrete in part, or
vifeid, and brings them more nearly to the ftate of
refins. 894
13. Some of thefe oils are employed in medicine.Ufes.
They are ufed alfo for the folution of thofe fubllaiices
which are to be employed as varniflics 3 and many of
them are ufed in perfumery. 895
14. As many of the volatile oils are produced butTefts of pu-
in fmall quantity, they are coniequently high priced. nty’
There is therefore fome temptation to adulterate them
with fixed oils, with cheaper volatile oils, or with
other fubftances, to increafe the quantity. It is there¬
fore of fome importance, to be able to deteflft fuclx
frauds. When a volatile oil is adulterated with a fix¬
ed oil, there is a very eafy left to difeover it. Let a
Angle drop of the oil that is fufpefted fall on clean
paper, and expofe it to a gentle heat. If the oil is
pure, the whole will be evaporated, and no trace re¬
main on the paper 3 but if it has been mixed with a
fixed oil, a greafy fpot remains behind. Volatile oils
are frequently adulterated with oil of turpentine 3 but
this can only be detected by its peculiar odour, which
continues for a longer time than moft of the other vo¬
latile oils. When they are adulterated with alcohol,
it is eaffly detected by mixing a little of the oil with
water, which immediately produces a milkinefs, by the
abftra&ion of the alcohol from the oil, and its combi¬
nation w ith the water. s?6
15. There is another clafs of oils known under theEnipyreU,
name of empijreumatic oils, which have different pro-m:\tic oils,
perties from thofe which have been deferibed. Thefe
oils are acrid and ftimulating, with a ftrong fetid and
difagreeable odour. It would appear, that thefe proper¬
ties are owing to a partial decompofition of other oils.
Thefe oils are produced, as the name imports, by the
aftion of fire. They are obtained when oils are forced
to rife in vapour, and pafs over in common diftillation,
with a greater degree of heat than that of boiling wa¬
ter, or by the application of a ftrong heat to fubftan¬
ces from which no oil was previoufly extrafled. Thefe
empyreumatic oils agree in fome of their properties
with the volatile oils. They combine in fmall propor¬
tion with water, and they are foluble in alcohol 3 and
probably any difference that exifts between them, is
ow ing to a partial decompofition 3 for w hen they are
'4 A diftilkd,
554
CHEMISTRY.
Inflam¬
mable fub-
Itances.
diililled, tlie oil is redored to a {late of purity, and the
carbonaceous matter which had been feparated, remains
behind.
Chap. XTI. Of ALKALIES.
Origin of The v/ord olhali is derived from the Arabian name
the name, ef a plant, which affords the fubftance now diftin-
guifhed by that term. The name of the plant is kali,
to which the Arabic particle al was added, expreflive
of the valuable qualities of the plant. When other
fubftances were difcovered, poffeffed of {imUar proper¬
ties, the meaning of the term was extended, and ap¬
plied to fuch matters as had feveral common proper¬
ties. Three fubftances are generally ranked under the
head of alkalies. Thefe are potalh, foda, and ammo¬
nia. They are characterized by the following pro-
895 perties.
Characters. I. They have a peculiar tafte, which is difagreeably
cauftic, even when they are diluted with water.
2. They change vegetable blue colours to a green.
3. They have a ftrong attraction for water, and
combine with it in all propoftions.
4. They have a ftrong affinity for acids.
5. They melt in a moderate heat, but with a ftronger
g9^ heat they are volatilized.
Natural di- The alkalies have been divided into two kinds,
vifion. namely, the fixed and volatile. The two firft, potaffi
and foda, are denominated fixed alkalies, becaufe they
require a great degree of heat to diffipate or volatilize
them. Ammonia has been called the volatile alkali,
becaufe a very moderate degree of heat is fufficient to
volatilize it.
Fourcroy has claffed two of the earths, namely, ba¬
rytes and ftrontites, under the head of alkalies. In
fome of their properties, thefe earths, no doubt, are
analogous to the alkalies 5 but in other properties they
are more clofely allied to the earths. There feems,
therefore, to be no inconvenience or ambiguity in claf-
iing them, as ufual, among earthy fubftances.
It may perhaps be conlidered as one of the general
eharafters of the alkalies which we have now enume¬
rated, that they have no aftion on oxygen, azotic, or
hydrogen gafes j nor is there any adtion between the
alkalies and carbone.
Sect. I. Of Potash arid its Combinations.
Names. if* This fubftance has been long known in com¬
merce, under many different names, derived from the
fubftances from which it is extracted, or from the pro-
ceffes by which it is prepared. The name of ajh or
afhes has been given to this fubftance, becaufe it is
procured from the burnt allies of vegetables •, and it
has received the epithet of pot-afties, becaufe it is pre¬
pared in iron pots. It got the name of vegetable al¬
kali, becaufe it was fuppofed that it only exifted in ve¬
getables. Being prepared from nitre and tartar, it
was called the alkali of nitre or tartar, and the fait of
tartar, a name which it ftill retains in the {hops. It
has been propofed alfo to diftinguiffi it by the name of
kali, the name of the plant from which it was origi-
90t rally procured.
Viepara- 2. Potaffi is generally prepared by burning wood
'ii0n* or other vegetable matters, and thus reducing them to
affies. The affies are then to be waftied repeatedlyPotafla;
with water, till the liquid comes off perfectly taftelefs. '"■““Y-vj
If the liquid thus obtained be purified by filtration,
and evaporated to drynefs, a fait is obtained, which is
the potalh. In this ftate it is contaminated with much
extraneous matter *, but if it be expofed to a red heat,
many of the foreign fubftances with which it is mixed,
are diffipated j it becomes whiter, and from its colour
is then fold under the name of pearl-afh. This fait is
prepared in great abundance in thofe countries where
wood abounds, as in North America and the north of
Europe j and hence it is known in commerce under
the name of Rufiian or American pearl-ajh. 0
3. Potaffi, in this ftate, is confidered as fufficiently jn ^|
pure for the ordinary purpofes of life to which it is ap-isimpur
plied j but it is ftill mixed with much foreign matter,
which renders it unfit for the purpofes of the chemift.
It has therefore always been confidered as an object of
great importance, to obtain it in a ftate of purity.
But even when it is feemingly pure, by being de¬
prived of all extraneous fubftances, it is found to
poffefs very different properties, after being fubje£ted
to certain proceffes. In one ftate it is comparative¬
ly mild and inactive j in another, extremely acrid
and corrofive. Various opinions were entertained
of the caufe of this remarkable difference, which 1
it is unneceffary to enumerate. The true caufe was Black’si: 1
difcovered and demonftrated by Dr Black in the yearcovery. j
1756. This ingenious philofopher, by a few fimple
and fatisfaftory experiments, clearly proved, that the
different effects of the alkalies, lime, and magnefia,
are owing to their combination with a peculiar fub¬
ftance, to which he gave the name offixed air, becaufe
it is fixed in thefe bodies. This fixed air, it has
been already obferved, is now known by the name of
carbonic acid. When the alkalies are in combination
with carbonic acid, they are in the mild ftate j but,
when they are deprived of this acid, their effefts being
more powerful and corrofive, they are faid to be in the
cauftic ftate.
When fulphuric acid is poured upon a quantity of
potaffi in its ordinary ftate, a violent effervefcence
takes place. This, Dr Black proved, is owing to
the efcape of the carbonic acid in the ftate of gas;
for when the alkali is in its pure or cauftic ftate, no
effervefcence whatever takes place. He alfo proved,
that the alkalies and lime in their mild ftate, that is,
when combined with carbonic acid, are heavier than
in the cauftic ftate, and that this difference of w-eight
is exaftly equal to the quantity of carbonic acid
which efcapes. Since, then, thefe fubftances exhibit
fuch different properties in thefe two ftates, it is necef-
fary to procure them in a ftate of purity, to examine
their properties and effedls. This is not without diffi¬
culty, on account of the ftrong affinity which exifts be¬
tween the alkalies and carbonic acid •, for although they
are perfe&ly pure, as foon as they are expofed to the
air, they begin to attradl the carbonic acid and return
to their former mild ftate, 904
4. As this, therefore, is an objefl of importance,purifies*
various procefies have been propofed, to procure themtion.
as pure as poffible. Some of thefe proceffes we ffiall
now detail. 905,
a. The following procefs for the purification of pot- Berthoil
affi is recommended by Berthollet. It is to be mixed P™0415,
with
CHEMISTRY.
ij ili, Stc.vlth double its weight of quicklime, with eight or ten
■'V-—' times the weight of the whole mixture, of pure or rain
water. Boil it for two or three hours in an iron veffel $
then let it remain in a clofe veffel for 48 hours, taking
care to agitate it occalionally. Let it afterwards be
filtered, and boiled in a lilver veffel with a itrong heat,
till It affume the confiftence of honey. Pour a quantity
of alcohol upon it, equal in weight to \ of the alkali
which has been employed; then put it on the fire, and
let it boil for feme minutes. Pour it afterwards into a
bottle, and allow it to cool. The matter in the bottle
feparates into three different ftrata : at the bottom are
depofited folid bodies j in the middle there is an aqueous
folution, or carbonate of potafti j and on the top a liquor
of a reddilh brown colour, mixed with alcohol. Let
this be carefully decanted off by means of a fyphon.
This is a folution of pure potaftr in alcohol. Put it into
a bafon of filver, or of tinned copper j evaporate it ra¬
pidly, till a dry, black and charry cruft forms on the
furface, and the liquor below, which has an oily ap¬
pearance, becomes folid by cooling. Let the cruft be
removed, and pour the folution into porcelain veffels.
When it cools, it becomes folid. It is then to be broken
in pieces, and put into clofe veffels. This is the potafh
in a ftate of purity, not only freed from foreign maters,
but alfo deprived of the carbonic acid.
Lime has a ftronger affinity for carbonic acid than
the potafti. When, therefore, the lime deprived of its
carbonic acid, as it is in the ftate of quicklime, is
brought into contaft in fuffijcient quantity with the pot-
afh, it deprives it of the carbonic acid. It is with
this view that the lime is employed in this procefs.
The alcohol has the property of diffolving potafti, but
has no action on the other fubftances with which it is
combined. This is the reafon why the alcohol, holding
in folution the pure potafti by its lefs fpecific gravity,
forms the upper ftratum in the bottle. By the evapo¬
ration, the laft ftep of the procefs, the alcohol and water
are driven off, and the pure potafti remains behind in
, the folid ftate.
Lowitz. more economical procefs has been propofed by
Profeffor Lowitz of Peter {burgh. He boils together
the potafti and quicklime, as in the former procefs;
filters the liquor, and evaporates, till a thick pellicle
is formed on the furface. It is then fet by to cool,
till cryftals are formed in it, which are cryftals of
extraneous falts, and are to be removed. He then
continues the evaporation, and removes the pellicle as
it forms on the furface during the procefs. When
the fluid ceafes to boil and no more pellicle is formed,
he removes it from the fire, and keeps conftantly ftir-
ring it while it cools. He then diffolves it in double
the quantity of cold water, filters the folution, and
evaporates in a glafs retort, till regular cryftals begin
to be depofited. If the mafs fhould confolidate ever fo
little by cooling, a fmall quantity of water is to be
added, and it muft be heated again, to render it fluid.
When a fufficient quantity of regular cryftals has been
formed, he decants the liquid, which has a brown
colour, and re-diffolves the fi|lt after it is fuffered to
drain, in the fame quantity of water. The decanted Potafii, &c
liquor is preferved in a well-clofed bottle for feveral v “
days, till it fublide and become clear. He then de¬
cants it, evaporates, and cryftallizes a fecond time, and
repeats this procefs as long as the cryftals afford, with * Nichol
the leaft poflible quantity of water, folutions that &refon's Jaur~
perfectly limpid. Thefe folutions are to be preferved j^10’
in well-clofed bottles, to defend them from the accefs p l(;,
°fair.*' • . 907
c. The method of preparing pure potafli by the in- pv Kla-
defatigable and accurate Klaproth, is fomewhat differ-proth.
ent from this. We (hall detail it in his own words.
“ As many perfons think that the preparation of a
perfectly pure cauftic ley is fubjedt to more difficulties
than it really is, I will here briefly ftate my method
of preparing it. I boil equal parts of purified fait of
tartar, (carbonate of potaili, or vegetable alkali pre¬
pared from tartar) and Carrara marble, burnt to lime,
with a fufficient quantity of water, in a poliihed iron
kettle ; I ftrain the ley through clean linen, and
though yet turbid, reduce it by boiling, till it contain
about one half of its w eight of cauftic alkali; after
which I pafs it once more through a linen cloth, and
fet it by in a glafs bottle. After fome days, when
the ley has become clear of itfelf, by (landing, I care¬
fully pour it off from the fediment into another bottle*
To convince myfelf of its purity, I faturate part of it
w ith muriatic or nitric acid, evaporate it to drynefs,
and re-diffolve it in water. If it be pure, no turbid-
nefs wrill take place in the folution. The quantity of
cauftic alkali which this ley contains, I afeertain by
evaporating a certain weighed portion of the ley to
drynefs, in an evaporating difh of a known weight. I
alfo take care, in the preparation of this cauftic ley, that
the alkali be not entirely deprived of carbonic acid ;
becaufe, in that cafe, I can with greater certainty de¬
pend on the total abfence of diflblved calcareous earth.
By employing burnt marble, or, in its ftead, burnt oyfter-
(hells, I avoid the ufual contamination of the cauftic ley * Analyt.
by aluminous earth ; bccaufe lime, prepared from the^7-vx»
common fpecies of lime-ftone, is feldom entirely free T
from argil” *. 1 „
5. Potafti, thus obtained, is a white folid fubftance, pr0p ° t;e5i
which is fufceptible of cryftallization, in long, compref-
fed, quadrangular prifms, terminating in (harp-pointed
pyramids. Thefe cryftals, which are only obtained
from very concentrated folutions, are foft and deliquef-
cent (t). The tafte is extremely acrM; and it is fo
corrofive, that it deftroys the texture of the (kin, the
moment it touches it. It is from this property that it
has derived the name of cauftic ; and in furgical lan¬
guage it has obtained the name of potential cautery, be-
caule it is employed for the purpofe of opening abfeeffes,
or for deftroying excrefcences. According to Haffen-
fratz, the fpecific gravity of potafti is i.yoSy. It con¬
verts vegetable blues into a green colour.
6. Light has no adtion on potafti. When it is heat-A&icm of
ed in clofe veffels, it becomes foft and liquid, and is Heat,
afterwards converted into a white, opaque, and granu¬
lated mafs, when it cools. If the heat be inereafed
4 A 2 to
(t) By dehquefcence is meant the melting of fubftances in the water which they attract j.roni the air. Such
falts are faid to be deliquefeent.
5 5 d
Potafli, Scc.io rednefs, it fwells up, and rifcs in vapour. If the
' v vefi<4 be opened, there arifes a white fmoke, which is
extremely acrid, and condenfes on cold bodies with
which it comes in contact. But though it is thus
fublimed, it undergoes no other change than affuming
a flight green colour.
7. There is no afiion between potafh and oxygen
or azotic gafes, nor is there any diredt action between
potafh and carbone. Phofphorus and fulphur enter in¬
to combination rvith potafh, and form peculiar com¬
pounds, the nature of which we fhall confider, after
having detailed the general properties of potafh.
8. Potafh has a very ftrong affinity for water. Wa¬
ter at the ordinary temperature diffolves double its
weight of potaffi. The folution, when the potafh is
pure, is colourlefs and tranfparent, and is nearly of the
confiftence of oil.
9. Potafh combines readily with the acids, and forms
compounds with them, having different properties, ac¬
cording to the nature of the acid which is employed.
Its affinities for the acids are in the following order :
C H E M I S T R Y.
pro
Of water.
911
Acius.
912
AfFmities.
Sulphuric,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Phofphoric,
Phofphorous,
Fluoric,
Oxalic,
Tartaric,
Arfenic,
Succinic,
Citric,
Laftic,
Benzoic,
Sulphurous,
Acetic,
Saclaftic,
Boracic,
Carbonic,
Pruffic.
Ules,
913
I. Aftion of Phofphorus on Potaih.
PcUHi .
xo. Potafh is employed for a great variety of pur-
pofes j it enters into combination with many fubflan-
ces, and forms with them valuable and important com¬
pounds. It is employed in medieine as a ufeful and
powerful remedy j in many arts and manufactures, as
in bleaching, dyeing, and glafs-making.
^ fi9T4e j Potaih is to be confldered as a Ample fubftance.
fubftance. No attempts yet made have fucceeded in decompoflng
it. But although not the flighteft proof has been ad¬
duced of its formation or decompofltion, it is confldered
by feme as a compound fubftance. This opinion is
founded on the analogy of its properties with jammo-
nia } the compofition of which has been fully demon-
ftrated. According to fome, it is compofed of lime
and azote •, and, according to others, of hydrogen and
lime •, but all thefe are mere conje&ures, which have
probably had their origin in that eagernefs of the hu¬
man mind, which leads it to fancy what it wifhes to be
true.
12. But we ffiall now confider more particularly
the a&ion of the different fubftances which have been
already treated of, on potafh, and the different com-
binapons which it forms with them.
1. There is no direct combination between potafh
and phofphorus ; but although thefe two bodies have ted hyif
little tendency to unite, they have a very powerful ef-gen gj:|i
fe£t upon each other when they are heated together
with water. It was in this way that Gengembre firft
obtained the Angular gas, which has been already de-
feribed, when treating of phofphorus, under the name
of phofphorated hydrogen gas.
2. If one part of phofphorus and ten parts of con- proc^'r
centrated folution of pure potafh be introduced into obtain;
a fmall retort, and expofed to heat till it boils, phof-it.
phorated hydrogen gas will pafs over, which may be
received in jars over water : or if the beak of the re¬
tort be kept under the furface of water, the bubbles
of the gas, as they rife to the furface, explode, and
form the beautiful coronet of white fmoke, formerly
mentioned. In making this experiment, the retort
fhould not be larger than to hold the folution, or, it
fhould be filled with hydrogen or azotic gafes, in which
the phofphorated hydrogen gas will not inflame and ex¬
plode, with the rifk of breaking the veffel 5 for the in¬
flammation can only take place when it comes in con-
taft w ith the oxygen of the atmofphere.
3. In this procefs, the water which holds the potafli Nature7i
in 'folution, is decompofed. The oxygen combines with the proci
part of the phofphorus, and forms phofphoric acid, while
another part of the phofphorus unites with the hydro¬
gen, and paffes over in the form of phofphorated hy¬
drogen gas. Thus, without any perceptible aftion be¬
tween the phofphorus and the potaih, the decompofl¬
tion of the water is aided by means of the potaffi, in
confequence of its attraction for the phofphorus, com¬
bined with the oxygen in the ftate of phofphoric acid.
For it is found, that a quantity of phofphorus of potaffi
is formed, correfponding to that of the phofphorated
hydrogen gas which is obtained. The decompofition
is alfo affifted by the affinity of the phofphorus for the
oxygen and hydrogen of the water. The whole of the
phofphorated hydrogen gas which is formed, being dif-
engaged, ffiows that no combination takes place be¬
tween it and the potaih *. * Fo?trj
Connaiji]
II. AClion of Sulphur on Potaih. Chim-toi
1. Sulphur and potaffi very readily combine toge-11‘P-
ther. If one part of potafti and three of fulphur be
triturated together in a glafs or porcelain mortar, the
mixture becomes hot, the fulphur lofes its yellow co¬
lour, and acquires a greenilh tinge. There is difen-
gaged a fetid fmell of garlic j the mixture attrafts
moifture from the air, becomes foft, and is almoft en¬
tirely foluble in w'ater. 8
If two parts of potaffi and one of fulphur be well suiphUrej
mixed together,*and heated in a crucible, the mixture 0f potafW
fufes •, and by this procefs is obtained fulphuret of pot¬
afh in the dry ftate. This was formerly called hepar
fulphuris, or liver of fulphur, from its refemblance to
the liver of animals. The fame fubftance may be ob¬
tained by treating fulphur with the potaffi of com¬
merce, with this precaution, not to apply too ftrong
a heat, to occafion a fublimation of the fulphur, and
the too rapid evolution of the carbonic acid from the
potafti. When the fufion is completed, it is poured
out
U, &c.out on a marble flab j it is covered up from the air,
' 91?
f ernes,
910
] Iro-ful-
'I •et-
allowed to cool, and broken into fmall pieces, to be
inftantly put up in well-elofed glafs veflels.
2. The 1’olid fulphuret of potalh, thus prepared, is of
a fliining brown colour like that of the liver of animals,
from which it derived its former name. Expofed to
the air it becomes green, then pafles to gray, and even
to white. It is denfe, fmooth and has a vitreous frac¬
ture. It has no other fmell than that of heated or
fublimed fulphur ; is acrid, cauftic, and bitter to the
tafte, and leaves a brown fpot on the Ikin. With a
ftrongheat, in a porcelain retort, the fulphur is fublimed,
and the potalh remains in a date of purity at the bot¬
tom of the veffel. The fulphuret of potafli converts
vegetable blue colours to green, and afterwards deilroys
them.
3. But the fulphuret of potafli poffeffes thefe proper¬
ties, only while it is recently prepared, and very pure.
When expofed to the air, it is readily decompofed, and
more fo, as the air is loaded with moifture. It abforbs
water with avidity, acquires a green colour, and exhales
the fetid odour of fulphurated hydrogen gas. This
change is owing to the decompofition of the water which
has been abforbed. Part of the fulphur combines with
the hydrogen, and forms fulphurated hydrogen gas,
which combines with the fulphuret, and forms hydro¬
genated fulphuret of potafli.
4. This may alfo be formed by pafling the fulphu-
1 mother rated hydrogen gas into a folution of potalh. The gas
1 cds* is abforbed and condenfed, till the potafli is fully fatu-
rated. To this fubftance Berthollet, who particularly
inveftigated the nature of thefe compounds, gave the
name of hydro-fu/phuret of potafh.
This compound cryftallizes, and is more permanent
than the fulphuret. The cryftals are tranfparent and
colourlefs, while thofe of the fulphuret are brown and
opaque. The cryftals are large and in the form of four-
ftded prifms, terminating in four-fided pyramids. It is
decompofed by heat, and by the aftion of the acids.
Sulphurated hydrogen gas is difengaged, but there is
no depofition of fulphur. The oxymuriatic acid decom-
pofes the fulphurated hydrogen, and then fulphur is
precipitated. The pure hydro-fulphuret has no fmell,
when it has no addition of fulphur beyond the fatura-
tion of the hydrogen. The alkali feems to have a
ftronger affinity for the fulphurated hydrogen than for
the fulphur, fo tnat when it is faturated with the firft,
that is, in the ftate of hydro-fulphuret of potafli, which
is in the form of cryftals, and without fmell or inodo¬
rous, it combines with no more fulphur j but when ful¬
phurated hydrogen gas is made to pafs into a folution
of the fulphuret of potaffi, already hydrogenated by its
folution in water to a certain degree of faturation, the
CHEMISTRY. 557
forms a new compound, which may be obtained by Potafo, &-c-
pouring a liquid hydrofulphuret upon fulphur. The v
911
( ained
pn
Gerties.
^ rdrcny fulphurated hydrogen a6ts in the manner of acids, pre-
i cipitates the fulphur like them, renders the liquid co-
|. 206. iBurlefs, and leaves behind nothing but the hydro-ful-
923 phuret of potaffi *.
^ Irogen- J« Sulphur combines with the latter compound, and
I ful.
[ f ret.
924
fulphur is diffolved without the afliftance of heat j the
liquid affumes a darker colour, and then it is convert¬
ed into the hydrogenated fulphuret. Hydrogenated ful¬
phuret of potaffi is prepared by boiling together a mix¬
ture of pure potaffi and fulphur in water. This folu¬
tion is of a deep greeniffi yellow colour, has a very
acrid bitter tafte, and a powerful aftion on many fub-
ftances. It readily ablbrbs oxygen when expofed to
the air. When it is kept in clofe veflels, lulphur is
depofited 5 the liquid becomes tranfparent, and the
fmell is diffipated. Thus, there are three different
compounds of fulphur writh potaffi •, namely, fulphuret
of potalh, hydrofulphuret of potalh, and hydrogenated
fulphuret, which are all diftinguiffied by peculiar pro¬
perties.
III. Compounds of Potaffi with Acids, or Neutral
Salts.
1. Sulphate of Potaffi (u).
1. This fait, which was one of the moft early known, Names."
is a compound of fulphuric acid and potalh. It has
been diftinguiffied by a great variety of names, as fal
de duobus,fal polychrejlus, or fait of many virtues, arca¬
num duplicatum, and more lately vitriolated tartar, till
in the new nomenclature it received the name offul-
phate of potajlo.
2. It is prepared by different proceffes, either by prepara-
directly combining the fulphuric acid with the pot-tion.
affi, and evaporating and cryftallizing it j or by de-
compoling other falts which have potaffi for their bafe,
by means of the fulphuric acid, which having a ftronger
affinity for the potaffi, combines with it and forms the
new compound.
3. The fulphate of potaffi cryftallizes in hexaedral Properties,
prifms, terminated by fix-lided pyramids 5 but this
form is fufceptible of feveral varieties. It has a dif-
agreeable bitter tafte j it is not very hard, and may be
ealily reduced to powder. The fpecific gravity is
2.4073. At the temperature of 6o°, it is foluble in 16
times its weight of water 5 boiling water diffolves about
one-fifth part 5 on cooling it cryftallizes in a confufed
mafs j and it is only by flow fpontaneous evaporation
that regular cryftals can be obtained.
4. It fuffers no change by the aftion of the air. Adtionpf
When placed upon burning coals, it decrepitates, and heat,
lofes its water of cryftallization. At a greater heat it
melts, and is converted into, a kind of enamel as it
cools.
5. When this fait is expofed to a red heat> along
with hydrogen gas or carbone, it is decompofed, and
converted into a hydrogenated or carbonated fulphu¬
ret of potafli.
6. The fulphuric acid, with the affiftance of heat,
combines with the fait, and forms another w ith excefs of
acid. It undergoes a partial decompofition by the ac¬
tion
(u) The compounds of acids with any bafe are known by this name in the prefent chemical nomenclaturej
and when the acid has its greateft proportion of oxygen, as in this cafe the fulphuric acid, the name of the com¬
pound terminates in the fyllable ate, as fulphate of potafli, nitrate of potafli j but when the acid has its fmaller.
proportion of oxygen, the name of the compound terminates in ite ; as fulphite of potaffi, nitrite of potaffi.
558 C H E M
i’otafh, dec tion of nitric acid. The nitric acid combines with
*' v_ nearly -j of potafli, which is owing to the aftion of
double affinity. The nitric acid combines with one
part of the potafh, while the fulphuric acid unites with
the fulphate of pstaffi, and forms a fait with excefs of
acid. A fimilar decompofition takes place by means of
the muriatic acid.
7. The component parts of fulphate of potafh are,
according to
928
Oompofi-
tion.
Bergman,
Acid 40
Potafh 52
Water 8
100
Kinvan.
45-2
54-8
00.0
100
Karnes^ Acidulous fulphate of potajl), or fuper-fulphate of pot-
ajlj.—I. This fait M as formerly called vitriolated tar¬
tar with excefs of acid. It is prepared by heating to¬
gether, in a retort, three parts of the fulphate of pot¬
afh, M'ith one part of its weight of concentrated fulphu¬
ric acid.
Properties 2* ^ crydalhzes in long flexible, firming cryftals, and
fometimes it exhibits the form of fix-fided prifms. It
has a fharp, acrid, and hot tafte. It reddens vegetable
r blues. Expofed to the air it becomes a little more
Action of opaque, but without any other change. It is more fo-
water. luble in water than the fulphate of potafh, requiring
only 2 parts of water at 6o°, and diflblves in lefs than
Of heat. its own weight of boiling water. It melts very readily,
and has the appearance of a thick oil. When it cools,
it becomes a M’hite, opaque mafs, exhibiting on its fur-
face firming filky cryftals. When expofed to a great
heat, the excefs of acid is driven off, and it is converted
p,, into the fulphate of potafh.
Hydrogen. 3. It is readily decompofed by the action of hydrogen
and of red-hot charcoal, which deprive it of a great
portion of the fulphur 5 and by fulphur itfelf, which
carries off the excefs of fulphuric acid in the form of
fulphurous acid.
4. The firft of thefe falts, the fulphate of potaflr, is
employed in medicine as a purgative j the laft has been
applied to no ufe whatever.
2. Sulphite of Potafh.
^ames4and 1 • This fait was long known under the name of the
grepzrztion.fulphurovs fait of Stahl. It is a compound of the ful¬
phurous acid and potafh. Its nature and properties
have been particularly inveftigated by Berthollet,
Fourcroy, and Vauquelin. It may be formed by paf-
nng a current of fulphurous acid gas into a folution of
carbonate of potafh in three times its weight of diftilled
water, till the effervefcence ceafes. The liquor be¬
comes tranfparent and hot, and, as it cools, the fulphite
of potafh is depofited in cryftals.
P 935 2. This fait is in the form of long, fmall needles,
' * 1 ’ diverging from a centre, or in rhomboidal plates, or in
dodecahedrons formed by two tetrahedral pyramids,
I S T R Y.
united and truncated very near the bafe. The cryftals Potefr,
are W'hite and tranfparent, but fometimes of a flight'■"“V'
yellow colour. The taffe is acrid and fulphureous.
The fpecific gravity is 1.586. The fulphite of potafh, A&ion
expofed to the air, very readily efflorefees (u) j becomes the air. I
white and opaque, and is converted into fulphate of
potafh. This is owing to the fulphurous acid abflraft-
ing oxygen from the air, and becoming fulphuric acid.
It is very foluble in water, at the temperature of the
atmofphere, and much more fo in boiling M’ater. When
this folution is expofed to the air, it is foon covered
with a thick pellicle, which falls to the bottom, and is
afterwards replaced by another. This is fulphate of
potafh, which is formed in contact M'ith the air. The
oxymuriatic acid gas combined with this folution, forms
almofl; immediately fhining cryflals of the fulphate of
... . 93-
3. Charcoal heated with this fait in a retort, yields Of char
fulphurated hydrogen gas, and carbonic acid j and
there remains in the retort, a hydrogenated fulphuret
of potafh.
3. Nitrate of Potafh.
93S j
1. This fait is compofed of nitric acid and potafh,Conltitui
and is well known under the names of faltpetre and tjarts “W;
nitre. It has alfo been denominated fait of nitre, wf/rename5,
of potafh, or nitrated potafh. It is one of the moft im¬
portant of the falts, not only on account of the attention
which it has excited, in tracing its formation, and
ftudying its nature and compofition, but alfo on account
of its numerous and valuable applications in domeftic
economy and in the arts.
2. The nitrate of potafh exifts ready formed in many poun^
plants, as in tobacco, borage, buglofs, pellitory. It has many
been obferved cryftallized in needles in their dried plants,
flalks. According to fome, it has been abforbed by
the vegetable from the foil in which it grows, while
others fuppofe that it is formed within the plant, from
the elementary principles.
Nitre exifts in great abundance on the furface of the
earth in different parts of the world, efpecially in the
warmer regions, as in India, Egypt, and South Ame¬
rica. But the produ<5tion of nitre is not limited to 540
thefe countries. It is produced artificially in Germany PrepareJ
and France, by means of w'hat are called nitre beds, artificial
Thefe are formed by collefting together the refufe of
animal and vegetable matters, in which the putrefac¬
tive procefs is going on. They are mixed w ith earthy
fubftances, but chiefly with calcareous earth, fuch as
the rubbifh from buildings, or collections of the foil in
which lime abounds. All that is neceffary to favour
the formation of the nitre, is to moiften occafionally
with water the mixture of the animal, vegetable, and
earthy matters ; to expofe it to a moderate tempera¬
ture, and to defend it from rains, which would carry
off the fait as it is formed. This artificial production
of nitre was greatly improved and extended by the
French during the late war, when they were preclud¬
ed
(u) A fait is faid to effiorefee, when deprived of its water of cryftallization in the ordinary temperature of the
atmofphere. A powdery cruft is firft formed on the furface ; and as the procefs goes on, the whole falls down
into powder. I he. term ejforefcence is oppofed to deliqnefcer.ee, by which the deliquefeent fubftance attraCts
moifture from the air.
Cn,
)4I
F ncau
'4*
Perties.
^ on of
h„
J,H4
^3 bAr.
C H E M
,ed from the ufual fupply of this fait from India, It
is now produced, it is faid, in great abundance in
France.
The nature of the procefs, and the change which
takes place in this artificial produdtion of nitre, Mill
t>e underftood by confidering its component parts. The
conftituent parts of the nitric acid are azote and oxy¬
gen. The oxygen is furniihed by the air ; and unlefs
there is a fupply of air, no change takes place. A
great quantity of azotic gas is given out by animal
matters during the putrefaftive proeefs. But although
thefe fubftances, when brought into conta£l with each
other, do not combine to form nitric acid, it has been
found by experiment, that azote, in its nafcent ftate, or
in the moment of evolution, enters into union with oxy¬
gen, and forms nitric acid, while the nitric acid thus
formed combines with the potafh which is furnifhed by
the foil, or the vegetable matters.
3. After the nitre is formed, it is mixed with water,
which is evaporated, and a fait is obtained of a brown
colour, which is called crude nitre. This is a mixture
of feveral falts, and from thefe the pure nitre is fepa-
rated by other proceffes. When it is fufficiently
purified, it is obtained in cryflals of fix-fided prifms,
terminating in fix-fided pyramids. The primitive form
of its cryftals is a rectangular octahedron, in which
two faces of a pyramid are inclined to the other pyra¬
mid at an angle of 120°, and the two others at an
angle of 111°. The form of the integrant molecule
is the tetrahedron *, but there are confiderable varieties
in the cryftals of this fait, according as it is flowly or
more rapidly evaporated.
4. This fait is diftinguiflied by a cool, ftiarp, and bit-
terilh tafte. It is very brittle. When nitre in large
cryftals is reduced to powder, it is found to be a little
humid 5 but that which is in the form of a w hite, opaque,
irregular mafs, yields a dry powder, on which account
it is generally preferred for many purpofes, particular¬
ly in the manufacture of gunpowder. The fpecific
gravity of nitre is 1.9369. It is not altered by ex-
pofure to the air. At the temperature of 6o° it dif-
folves in feven times its weight of water, and during
the folution, a great degree of cold is produced.
Boiling water diffolves twice its weight of this fait.
5. When the nitrate of potaih is expofed to heat, it
fufes before it becomes red, and is converted into a
liquid of an oily confiftence. It lofes but very little of
its water of oryllallization, and if it be allowed to cool,
it congeals into an opaque mafs with a vitreous frac¬
ture, which is known by the name of mineral crystal.
While it is melted, it undergoes no change*, but when
the temperature neceffary for fimple fufion is increafed,
it gives out oxygen gas to the amount of about -g- of
its weight. Towards the end of the procefs, azotic
gas is evolved, and the potaih remains behind pure, fo
that the fait has been completely decompofed. But to
cffeCl this decompofition, a very ftrong heat is necef¬
fary. When only part of the gas is extracted, the ni¬
trate of potaih is converted into the nitrite.
6. When nitre is mixed v'ith charcoal in the pro¬
portion of three parts of the former to one of the lat¬
ter, a violent inflammation takes place, either by ex-
pofing the mixture to a red heat, or by bringing
it into contaCt with a burning body. Or the mixture
may be projected into a red-hot crucible, when a de-
I s T R Y. 559
ftagration or detonation takes place, and when the re- Potafli, £tc»
fid limn in the crucible is examined, it is found to be pot-
alh partly united with carbonic acid, or the carbonate of
potaih. This was formerly called nitre fixed by charcoal,
or an extemporaneous alkali of nitre. The deflagration
in this cafe is owing to the combuftible matter, the
charcoal, coming in contaCt with the oxygen which is
evolved by the nitre, expofed to a high temperature. In
another procefs, this experiment was performed in clofe
veflels, to coiled the elaftic fluids which are difengaged j
and befides the carbonic acid gas which is formed by
the union of the carbone and oxygen, and the azotic
gas disengaged by the decompofition of the nitre, a
fmall quantity of water was found in the veflels. To
this produCt the alchemifts gave the name of clyssus, and
aferibed to it very wonderful properties in the prepara¬
tion of the philofopher’s ftone. 94;
7. A violent deflagration alfo takes place when Of
phofphorus and nitre are treated in the fame way. But IJk°rus‘
this experiment fhould be performed with very final!
quantities, and with great caution. A mixture of nitre
and phofphorus ftruckfmartly with a hammer, produces
a very violent detonation*
8. When fulphur is combined with three times its Of fulphur.
weight of nitre, it burns with great rapidity. This
preparation was formerly made by detonating the two
fubftances in a red-hot crucible. The produCl is ful-
phate of potaih, known by the name offal polychrefi
of Glafer. The fulphur combines with the oxygen
of the nitric acid, and forms fulphuric acid, which ea¬
ters into combination with the potaih. ^
9. But one of the moll important combinations of Gunpow--
nitre is with charcoal and fulphur, in the formation of der.
crunpowder. This fubitance was fir ft known in Europe
in the 14th century. It is faid that it was known to
the Chinefe much earlier. The proportions of the ma¬
terials which enter into the compolition of gunpowder
are,
Nitre
Charcoal
Sulphur
76
9
100
94S'
The materials are firft reduced to a fine powder fe- prep;U-a.
parately. They are then carefully mixed together, tion*
and formed into a pafte M'ith a little water. When
the pafte has dried a little, it is forced through a fieve,
by v'hich means it is reduced to grains of fuch a lize as
may be wanted. The powder is then dried in the air, or
in the fun j and, after being dried, it is put into barrels
which turn round by means of machinery, and thus by
the friflion of the grains of powder againft the fides of
the barrel and againft each other, it is poliftied. This
is called $ lading the powder. 949
10. The theory of the combuftion, and terrible ef-Mature oP
fe£ls of gunpowder is thus explained. The fulphur *ts a®on*
and the charcoal burn with great rapidity by the ad¬
dition of the nitre with which they are intimately
mixed. During the combuftion carbonic acid gas,
azotic gas, fulphurous acid gas, and according to fome,
fulphurated hydrogen gas, are formed. Water and am¬
monia alfo are faid to be produced *. But according * Fourcroy
to Mr Cruickftiank, the quantity of water formed is Commifi.
not perceptible. The fubftances which remain after*u*
the deflagration are, carbonate of potaih, fulphate and
fulphuret
5oo
Potafh, See.
95°
Fulmina¬
ting pow¬
der.
C II E M I S T R Y.
95>
Powder of
fufion.
9S2
Fluxes.
9S3
Compofi-
954
Ufes.
lulplrdret erf potafli, and fonie cliarcoal. It is obvious,
that the irrefiftible effefts of gunpowder are owing to
the hidden evolution and expanfive force of the elaftic
lluids which are formed and difengaged.
11. Another combination of nitre produces effe£ts dill
more terrible. When three parts of nitre, two parts of
potato, and one of fulphur, are previouily well dried and
mixed together by trituration, they form a compound
which is known by the name of fulminating powder. A
few grains of this mixture expofed to heat in an iron ladle
firfl melt, aiTuming a darker colour •, and when the whole
is in fuhon, there is a violent explolion. The heat
toould be applied llowly and gradually, till it is com¬
pletely fluid, and then by bringing it nearer the heat,
the full effeft of the explolion is obtained. This corn-
bullion and explolion are alfo owing to the inllantane-
ous evolution of elaftic fluids. TLhe potafli unites with
the fulphur, and forms a fulphuret, which, with the af-
lifiance of the nitre, is converted into fulphurated hy¬
drogen. At a certain temperature the fulphurated
hydrogen gas is difengaged, along with the oxygen gas
of the nitre, and fuddenly taking, fire, Itrikes the air
by the explofion which accompanies the evolution of
the gafes. When the mixture is made w ith equal parts
of nitre and folid fulphuret of potato, the detonation is
more rapid, but the explofion is lefs violent. With
three parts of nitre, one of fulphur, and one of fawdult,
well mixed together, what is called powder of fufon
is formed. If a little of this powder is put into a wal¬
nut to ell, with a thin plate of copper rolled up, and the
mixture fet lire to, it detonates rapidly, and reduces
the metal to a fulphuret, without any injury to the
toell.
12. A mixture of equal parts of nitre and tartar de¬
tonated in a crucible, gives a produft which is much
employed in metallurgy. This compound, called white
flux, is a mixture of pure potafli with the carbonate.
When one part of nitre and two of tartar are treated in
the fame manner, the product obtained is a mixture of
potafli and charcoal. From its black colour, it is known
under the name of black flux. This alfo is employed
for a fimilar purpofe.
13. Nitrate of potafli, according to Bergman, is com-
pofe'd of _ (
31 acid,
61 potato,
8 water.
100
According to Kirwan, it is compofed of
44 acid,
51.8 potafli,
4.2 water.
100.0
14. Nitre is not only employed for the purpofes al¬
ready mentioned, but it is ufed in medicine as a cool¬
ing remedy in feverifli diforders, and as a diuretic in
urinary affeflions. It is employed alfo in many arts,
as in dyeing, and in domeftic economy, for the pre-
fervation of animal matters, which are to be ufed as
food. To thefe fubftances it imparts a red colour.
From nitre, nitric acid is obtained, by decompofing it
by means of fulphuric acid. Nitre is alfo employed
to burn along with fulphur in the formation of fulplui-Potuft j
ric acid.
4. Nitrite of Potato.
This fait cannot be formed by direcl combination
of the nitrous acid w ith potafli; but if a quantity of ni¬
tre be expofed for fome time in a crucible or retort, to
a ilreng heat, it becomes deliquefeent and acid. It
changes the blue colours of vegetables into green, at¬
tracts moifture from the air, detonates feebly with com-
buftible fubftances, and gives red thick vapours by the
aClion of fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, phofphoric, and
fluoric acids. This is the nitrite of potato, which is de-
compofed by thefe acids, and gives out the red fumes
of nitrous acid. Little more is known of the nature of
this fait, with regard to its form, folubilit)q affinities, or
proportion of its conftituent parts.
c. Muriate of Potafli.
J 95:
1. This fait was formerly known by the name febri-darne l
fuge fait of Sylvius. It was afterwards called digeflive
fait, regeneratedfca fait, and by Bergman falited vege¬
table alkali.
2. It is prepared by the direCl combination of muri¬
atic acid and potato. The folution is evaporated till a
pellicle appears, when it is fet by to cryilallize. j
3. The cryftals are in the form of regular cubes, orPropertl
reftangular parallelepipeds. It has a difagreeable bit¬
ter tafte, and by this is eafily diftinguifhed from mu¬
riate of foda or common fait. The fpecific gravity of
this fait is 1.836. When the air is moilt, it deli-
quefees ; but when the air is dry, it parts with its
moifture. Three parts of cold water arfe fufficient for
its folution. Boiling water diflblves a little more,
but regular cryftals cannot be obtained by cooling.
The folution muft be left to flow fpontaneous evapora-
tion. # _ 9571
4. When the muriate of pettato is expofed to heat, Aftion
it decrepitates, lofes its cryftalline form, and falls intoheat*
powder by the feparation of .c8 parts of its weight of
u'ater. When it acquires a red heat, it melts ; if the
temperature be elevated, it is fublimed in the form of
white vapour, unchanged. After complete fufion, if
it is allowed to cool fuddenly, it becomes folid, and
divides on the furface, into many fmall plates of a |
fquare form.
5. This fait is decompofed by means of the fulphu¬
ric and nitric acids. The firft difengages the muriatic
acid wdth effervefcence in the gafeous form. By the
aftion of the nitric acid the muriatic acid is con¬
verted into the oxymuriatic by combining with the
oxygen of the nitric acid. With one part of nitric
acid and two parts of muriate of potato, a compound
of the two acids is formed, which was formerly em¬
ployed in the folution of gold. This is a mtro-muria-
tic acid, or aqua regia. 95sj
6. This fait is no longer employed in medicine. It Ufes.
is recommended to be ufed for the decompofition of
nitrate of lime in the mother waters of nitre, to obtain
the nitrate of potafli, and alfo for procuring the cry-
ftallization of alum.
6. Hyper-oxymurjate of Potato. 559I
r. This Angular fait was the firft known of all the^^J
 vt, i.1— IJ TTcvn r rTHV
combinations with the acid in this Hate.
Fourcroy
mentions
|tih,8tc,
960
1 perties.
961
i iion of
ilk.
962
^ :har-
96'3
5 ulphur.
964
ihofpho'
C H E M
mentions, that Dr Higgins prepared this fait, which he
calls nitre, by palling the oxymuriatic acid gas into a
folution of potalh } but he feems to have paid no farther
attention to it, except obferving, that it detonated on
red-hot coals (x). It was firft formed, and its nature
and properties were firft inveftigated, by Berthollet.
And fince its difcovery, it has been particularly exa¬
mined by Lavoilier, Dolfuz, Vanmons, Fourcroy, and
Vauquelin, on the continent, and in England by Hoyle
and Chenevix. The method of preparing this fait has
been already defcribed (at N° 556, p. 520.) in treat¬
ing of hyperoxymuriatic acid. After the fait has been
removed from the folution in which it cryftallizes, it
may be purified by diffolving it in boiling water. The
folution may be filtered, and allowed to cool, when the
cryftals are depofited.
2. The cryftals of this fait are moft commonly in
the form of fquare plates or of parallelepipeds, of a
fhining filvery white colour. The primitive form of
the cryftals is an obtufe, rhomboidal prifm 5 they are
very tranfparent and brittle j the tafte is cool, pun¬
gent, and difagreeable, very different from that of ni¬
trate of potafh. When it is rubbed fmartly, it phof-
phorefees, and gives out a great quantity of fparks or
luminous traces.
3. It becomes yellow after long expofure to the air,
but is otherwife not changed. It is foluble in about
20 parts of water at the ordinary temperature of the
atmofphere *, but boiling water diffolves about one-third
of its weight, fo that the whole is nearly cryftallized by
cooling.
4. When this fait is expofed to heat, although it
contains a confiderable proportion of water of eryftal-
lization, it fufes quietly } and when the heat is increa-
fed, it gives out a quantity of oxygen gas nearly equal
to one-third of its weight. This is the pureft oxygen
gas that can be obtained.
5. But the moft extraordinary effects of this fait
are thofe produced by its action on combuftible fub-
ftances.
a. If a fmall quantity of charcoal reduced to pow¬
der and this fait be rubbed together in a mortar,
there is a flight explofion, aud the charcoal is in¬
flamed.
b. Three parts of the fait with one of fulphur, rub¬
bed together in a mortar, produce a violent detonation.
Or, if the fame mixture is ftruck with a hammer on
an anvil, there is an explofion like the report of a pi-
ftol (y).
c. The fame effeft is produced by employing phof-
phorus, and treating it in the fame way with this fait.
One or grains of the fait ftiould firft be reduced
to powder, and brought together to one place in the
bottom of the mortar, and then introducing the phof-
phorus, and rubbing it ftrongly on the fait, a vio-
Vol. V. Part II.
I S T R Y. 5Sr
lent explofion will inftantly take place. A fimilar de-Potam, See.
tonation may be produced with the fame fubftances,
by percuflion.
d. Three parts of the fait, one-half part of fulphur,
and one-half charcoal, give more rapid and ftrong-
er detonations, with the evolution of a very bright
flame. Detonations are alfo produced, by treating this
fait with fugar, gums, oils, and fome metallic fub¬
ftances.
96i
6. When concentrated fulphuric acid is poured upon of acids,
this fait, there is a confiderable detonation *, it is thrown
about to a great diftance, fometimes with a red flame j
and there is exhaled a brown vapour, accompanied
with a ftrong odour of oxymuriatic acid. Even when a
lighted taper is brought into contaft with the gas which
is difengaged, it explodes more violently than when the
acid firft came in contaft with the fait. In fome
cafes, the explofion was fo hidden and fo violent, that
it broke the veffels in which the mixture was made.
This happened to Mr Hoyle of Manchefter, and af¬
terwards to Mr Chenevix j fo that experiments w ith
fulphuric acid and this fait, fliould be conduced with
fmall quantities, and with great caution. If concen¬
trated fulphuric acid be poured on any of the mixtures
of this fait with fulphur, charcoal, the metals, or with
fugar, there is an inftantaneous inflammation, the moft
brilliant that can be conceived. There is no detona¬
tion, but the combuftion is extremely rapid, and the
odour of oxymuriatic acid is perceptible. Concen¬
trated nitric acid poured upon this fait, caufes it to
crackle and effervefee, but without explofion, and
without flame $ oxymuriatic acid gas is difengaged.
With the muriatic acid this laft produces efl'ervef-
cence, writh the evolution of a confiderable quantity
of gas, fimilar in colour and fmcll to oxymuriatic
acid gas ; but in fome of its properties confiderably
different. This gas is more rapidly abforbed by wa¬
ter. If a fmall jar or bottle be filled with this gas,
and a flip of paper moiftened with ether be introduced
into it, and the mouth of the jar be (lightly covered
to prevent the contact of air, an explofion takes place,
with a depofition of charcoal. A fimilar experiment
may be made, by moiftening a feather with oil of tur¬
pentine, and introducing it into the jar filled with this
gas. It inftantly takes fire with a red flame, and a
great quantity of black fmoke.
7. According to the analyfis of this fait, as given Cempofj.
by Fourcroy, it confifts of tion.
Muriate of potafh,
Oxygen,
67
33
100*
* Fottrcrcy
But according to the experiments of Mr Chenevix, Connaiju
its conftituent parts are,
4B Acid/-220’
(X) « The acid elaftic fluid (fays Dr Higgins), which iffues when two pounds of manganefe are mixed and
diftilled with two or three of ordinary fpirit of lea fait (muriatic acid), may all, except a fmall portion ot phlo-
giftic air, be condenfed in a folution of fixed vegetable alkali 3 and the folution, thus impregnated, yieldr
fiderable quantity of nitre, which cryftallizes in the ordinary form, and detonates on red-hot coals. « '
tion at the fame time yields regenerated fea-falt (muriate of potalh).” Higgins, Exfier. p. 181. _
(Y) In experiments with this fait, the quantity employed fliould never exceed one or two grains, at kaft
by thofe who have not been previoufly acquainted with its terrible effects.
con-
The fold-
5<52
Potafh, &c.
f Phil.
Trcwf.
Acid,
Potafh,
Water,
C H E M I
58.3
39-2
2-5
100.0 f
Ufesf 7 8. This fait has been employed in bleaching ; but
other fubflances, particularly lime, have been fubfti-
tuted for the potafh •, fo that at prefent it is more rarely
ufed. It was propofed by M. Berthollet, when he firft
obferved its effe&s, to employ it as a fubftitute for nitre
in the manufadture of gunpowder j and when it was
tried in the way of experiment, it feemed to be more
powerful than the ufual component parts of powder $
but when it was attempted to be made in the large
way, at Eflbne, in the year 1788, a dreadful accident,
which happened by the fpontaneous explofion of the
mixture, in the death of M. le Tors, and Mademofelle
Chevraud, prevented its effedls from being fairly proved.
The danger which attends the trituration of the pro¬
per materials with this fait, has precluded any future
attempt.
7. Fluate of Potafh.
Inttllf3 This fait has only been examined by Scheele and
known. Bergman. It is the combination of fluoric acid with
potafh. When the acid is faturated, there is formed a
gelatinous mqfs, which does not cryftallize, and which
has a flightly acrid faline tafte. When it is evaporated
to drynefs, and expofed to the air, it attradls moiflure.
If it be ftrongly heated in a crucible, it fufes without
effervefcence. It then becomes cauftic, is very foluble
in water, and is decompofed by the fulphuric and nitric
acids.
8. Borate of Potafh.
This is a compound of the boracic acid and potafh ;
but very little is known of its nature and properties.
It is prepared by decompofing nitre by means of the
boracic acid with the afliftance of heat. The heat
drives off the nitric acid, and there remains behind a
white, half-fufed porous mafs, which is foluble in water,
and yields by evaporation and cooling, fmall cryflals.
The fame fait may be formed by direft combination of
the boracic acid and potafh. This fait feems to be ana¬
logous in many of its properties to borax.
9. Phofphate of Potafh.
This combination of phofphoric acid with potafh wras
announced and defcribed by Lavoifier in the year 1774.
Its properties have been more carefully invefligated
by Vauquelin ; but from the invefligation of other
chemifts it appears, that there are two falts formed
from the fame acid and bafe *, the one in which they
are neutralized, and the other in which there is an ex-
cefs of acid.
a. Superphofphate of Potaf/j, is formed by the direfl
combination of phofphoric acid and potafh. This fait
does not cryftallize, but exifts in a gelatinous form,
p an(j Jjjjg a fweetifh faline tafte. Its fpecific gravity,
P when dry, is 2.8516. It is very foluble in water ; it
attracts the moifture from the air, and becomes thick
and vifcid.
Adwn°of 2. When heated, it undergoes the watery fufion, then
heat. froths up, and becomes dry. When the temperature
S T R Y.
is raifed, it melts into a tranfparent glafs. The ful- Potafli, ;fj
phuric, nitric, and muriatic acids decompofe this fait,
It has been applied to no ufe.
b. Phofphate of Potajl).—This fait may be formed
by expofing pure potafh and the former variety to a
ftrong heat. The alkali combines with the excefs of I
acid, and neutralizes the whole. By the aftion of A£hon „ ]
heat, a white-coloured fubftance is obtained, which isheat>
the phofphate of potafh. It is fcarcely foluble in cold
water, but foluble in hot water 5 and as the folution
cools, there is depofited a fhining gritty powder. This
fait is very fufible. Before the blow-pipe it melts
into a tranfparent bead, which becomes opaque on
cooling. i
2. This fait is foluble in nitric, muriatic^and phof- Of acid. |
phoric acids, and forms with them thick glutinous fo-
lutions. It has not yet been applied to any ufe.
10. Phofphite of Potafh.
This fait is prepared by diffolving carbonate of pot¬
afh in phofphorous acid. The folution is evaporated,
and it depofits cryftals of the phofphite of potafh. It has
a fharp faline tafte. It is cryftallized in four-fided
rectangular prifms with dihedral fummits. It is very
foluble in water, requiring only three parts of it for fo¬
lution. It is not altered by expofure to the air.
11. Carbonate of Potafh.
1. This fait, which is a compound of carbonic acid
and potafh, has been known under a great variety of
names, in fome meafure deferiptive of its properties,
before its compofition was difeovered by Dr Black. ^5
2. This fait is obtained from vegetable matters by Prepara/
burning, and wafhing out the fait and evaporating it $tlon*
but the potafh obtained in this way is not fully fatu- j
rated with carbonic acid. After it has been puri¬
fied from foreign ingredients, the faturated carbonate
of potafli may be prepared by expofing a pure folution
of potafh to carbonic acid gas, as it is difengaged from
fermenting liquors. The carbonate of potafh, as it is
formed, cryftallizes in the folution. The cryftals may
be taken out and dried upon unfized paper, and put
up in well-clofed bottles. Or it may be prepared by
paffing a current of carbonic acid gas, difengaged from
the carbonate of lime by an acid, into a folution of
potafh, in tall narrow bottles. The carbonate cryftal¬
lizes at the furface of the liquid. It may alfo be ob¬
tained by the procefs of Berthollet, which is to diftil
with an unfaturated folution of potafh, folid carbonate
of ammonia, from which the potafh carries off the car¬
bonic acid, while the ammonia is difengaged in the
Hate of gas.
3. The carbonate of potafh cryftallizes in quadran-pro^tjt
gular prifms, terminated by quadrangular pyramids.
It has a fweet alkaline tafte, and changes vegetable
blues to a green colour. The carbonate of potafh re¬
quires very near four times its weight of water to dif-
folve it. At the boiling temperature it diffolves five-
fixths of its weight. It does not cryftallize by cool¬
ing, but only by flow evaporation. Pelletier has ob¬
ferved, that carbonate of potafh diffolved in boiling
water, gives out bubbles of carbonic acid gas, which
fhews that this fait lofes a portion of its acid at this
temperature. Its fpecific gravity is 2.0X2. When it
is expoi'ed to the air, it foon eftlorefces. When it is
deliquefeent,
CHEMISTRY.
\ jin, &-c-
:75f
\ a oi
Ir 4
D FP°-
iei jy
;77
g ;.i acids,
dellquefcent, it is owing to part of the potafli being
unfaturated with carbonic acid.
4. When it is expofed to a flight degree of heat, it
lofes its water of cryftallization. Part of its carbonic
acid alfo feparates from it, but the whole cannot be
driven off by this procefs. The lafl; portions adhere
with a very ftrong affinity.
5. When the carbonate of potafh is heated with ful-
phur at a high temperature, the acid efcapes in the
ftate of gas •, and there is formed a fulphuret, at the
moment of the effervefcence produced by the extrica¬
tion of the acid.
6. All the acids hitherto difcovered, have the pro¬
perty of feparating the carbonic acid from potafli,
and of forming with its bafe particular falts. This
fait lofes more than a third of its -weight, by being
deprived of its carbonic acid. The component parts
of carbonate of potafti are, according to,
563
Bergman, Pelletier,
Carbonic acid, 20 43
Potafli, 48 40
Water, 32 17
Kirwan.
43
41
16
7. Potafli of commerce is never faturated with car- Potalh, &c.
bonic acid. It is in this Hate that the carbonate of
potalh is generally employed. It has a ftronger ‘dha-pota,}'ot-
line tafte, and is more acrid and corrolive. It foon de- commerce,
liquefces when expofed to the air. It does not combine
with a greater proportion of carbonic acid, merely by
expofure to the atmofphere. For the purpofes of the
manufacturer it is of great importance to be able to af-
certain, by a Ample tell, the quantity of pure potato ^
in the different kinds which are brought to market. puntv>
Mr Kirwan has propofed to difcover the proportion of
the fait, by determining the quantity of the earth of
alum which is precipitated by the potalh. A differ¬
ent method has been propofed by Vauquelin with
the fame view. His method is to faturate a given
weight of the fait with nitric acid of known denAty.
He has alfo made a number of experiments to dif¬
cover the quantity of foreign ingredients in different
kinds of potato. The following table toews the kinds
of matter and the proportions in Ax fpecies of pot-
ato *. * Ann. de
Chim. xl.
284,
IOO
100
100
Potato of Ruflia,
Potato of America,
American pearl-ato,
Potato of Treves,
Potato of Dantzic,
Potafli of Vofg es.
Potafli.
772
857
754
720
603
444
Sulphate of
Potafli.
65
I54
80
*6 5
I52
148
Muriate of
Potafli.
20
44
14
5l°
Infeluble
Relidue.
5<5
24
79
34
Carbonic
Acid and
Water.
254
I19
308
199
3°4
3°4
Total.
II52
II52
II52
II52
i imo
12. Arfeniate of Potafli.
180
irties.
1. The compound of arfenic acid and potafti forms
a fait which does not cryftallize. When evaporated
to drynefs, this fait deliquefces in the air, gives a green
colour to fyrup of violets without changing the tinc¬
ture of turnfole.
2. When ftrongly heated it fufes into a white glafs •,
and by the contaft of Alica and alumina in the cruci¬
ble it paffes to the acidulous flate, having been de¬
prived of part of the potafli. Expofed to a red heat,
m clofe veffels with charcoal, the arfenic is fublimed.
wrcroy It is decompofed by the lulphuric acid. It decompofes
falts which have bafes of lime and magnefla ; forming
In the folution arfeniates of lime and magnefla *.
Saperarjeniaie of Potafh.—If the arfenic acid be
added to the arfeniate of potafli till it no longer change
the colour of violets, but reddens that of turnfole, it
yields regular tranfparent cryftals in quadrangular
pnims, terminated by tetrahedral pyramids. This
fait is the arfenical neutral fait of Macquer. He ob¬
tained it by decompoflng the nitrate of potafli, by
9S3
182
1 more
!cry-
zes.
means of the white oxide of arfenic, employing equal
parts of each. It is different from the former, be-
caufe it cryftallizes, reddens vegetable blues, and does
not decompofe falts with a bafe of lime or magnefla.
13. Tungftate of Potafli.
1. This compound of tungftic acid and potafli, isprepara,
formed by diffolving the oxide of the metal in a folu-tion.
tion of pure potafli, or its carbonate. The alkali is
not fully neutralized. The fait precipitates from the
folution by evaporation, in the ftate of a w hite powr-.
der. - 0S4.
2. It is diftinguitoed by a cauftic metallic tafte, de- properties,
liquefces in the air, and is foluble in water. This fo¬
lution in water is decompofed by all the acids which
produce a white precipitate. This precipitate is a
triple fait, differing according to the nature of the acid
which is employed -j-. f fur. dir
Mine Si N°
14. Molybdate of Potafli. 19. p. 2I.
I. The compound of molybdic __acid and potafli isprepanL
formed by detonating three parts of nitre and one qf tion.
4 B 2 fulphuret
5^4
CHEMISTRY.
* Ana. tic
Chun. viii.
p 106.,
Potato, &c. fulphuret of molybtlena In a crucible j or by combining
-v- - direftly the molybdic acid with potaib. The fait af¬
fords fmall irregular cryftals, from its faturated folution
in boiling water. According to Klaproth, the cryftals
are in the form of fmall rhomboidal plates, of a fhining
«86 appearance, and heaped together.
Properties, 2. The tafte is metallic. When expofed to the
blow-pipe on charcoal, they fufe rapidly, without
fwelling up, and are converted into fmall globules,
which are abforbed by the charcoal. In a ftlver fpoon
they are melted by the blow-pipe into fmall gray par¬
ticles, which ftirink on cooling, and depofit, during
the procefs, a whitifh powder. This fait is complete¬
ly foluble in diftilled water with the afliftance of heat.
It has an excefs of acid, and is therefore an acidulous
molybdate of potaftr, or fupermolybdate of potalh. It
is decompofed by the nitric acid, which unites with
the alkali, and precipitates the molybdic acid in the
form of fmall cryftals *.
15. Chromate of Potalh.
Nothing farther is known of the nature of this fait,
than that it is eafily formed by the combination of the
chromic acid with potaftr, and that the cryftals are of
an orange colour, which fufficiently diftinguiflres them
from the cryftals of all other falls.
16. Columbate of Potalh.
Columbic acid, digefted for an hour with a folution
of potalh, affords this fait by evaporation and cooling,
in the form of white glittering fcales, refembling the
concrete boracic acid. It is not changed by expofure
to the air, has a difagreeable acrid tafte, and is not
very foluble in cold water j but after it is diffolved,
the folution is perfeft and permanent. It is decompo¬
fed by nitric acid, and precipitates in the form of
white powder f.
17. Acetate of Potalh.
1. This fait, which is a compound of acetic acid
and potalh, has been long known under a variety of
names, which were derived from the fubftances from
which it was obtained j or, from its properties and ef-
fctls. It was called regenerated tartar, fecret foliated
earth of tartar, ejfential fait of wine, digejlive fait of
Sylvius, diuretic fait. It may be formed by faturating
carbonate of potalh with diftilled vinegar, and by eva¬
porating the folution llowly to drynefs. When the
heat is too great, the acid is decompofed, and the fait
affumes a brown colour.
2. This fait has a pungent, and fomewhat alkaline
tafte. Expofed to the air, it becomes moift. It is
very foluble in water, and if the folution be diluted,
it is fpontaneoully decompofed in clofe veffels. Thick,
mucous flakes are depolited.
3. When it is heated, it melts and froths up, and
is then decompofed and charred. When diftilled in a
retort, it yields an acid liquid, an empyreumatic oil,
and a great deal of carbonic acid gas, and carbonated
hydrogen gas. In this procefs the acid is completely
decompofed *, what remains in the retort is potalh
mixed with charcoal. According to Prouft, this acid
liquid contains ammonia and the pruflic acid, and the
carbonate and prufliate of potalh are found in the re¬
tort^.
■t Phil.
Tranf.
j8o2, p. 58
987
Names.
988
Prepara¬
tion.
<j89.
Properties.
990
Action of
treat. •
4. This fait is decompofed by the ftrong acids. Di- Pot aft,,
Hilled with fulphuric acid, it yields an acetic acid
which is very acrid. The component parts of the ace-,- 591Il
,, A- TT- • Lonipoli
tate 01 potaih are, according tojDr iriiggins, t;oni
38.5 Acid and water,
61.5 Potalh.
100.0
m
{ Ann. de
Chim. xiii.
18. Oxalate of Potalh.
The compound of oxalic acid and potalh may be
formed by direft combination of the acid and the alkali.
The oxalic acid combines in two proportions with pot-
alh, either in a fmall quantity, or in fufficient quanti¬
ty to faturate the potalh. When the acid is in ex¬
cefs, it is called the acidulous oxalate, or fuperoxalate of
potajh. ^ # 99
1. The oxalate of potalh is formed by completely Prepau.
faturating the oxalic acid with potalh and by adding t‘on'
an excels of the alkali, cryftals are obtained.
2. Without this excefs of acid, the fait does not cry-
ftallize, but aflumes a gelatinous form. -
3. When this fait cryftallizes, it is in the formProperti
of lix-fided prifms, with two-fided fummits. It is
decompofed by heat, and alfo by the ftrong acids,
which deprive it of a portion of the potalh, and con¬
vert it into the acidulous oxalate. With an addition
of oxalic acid the acidulous oxalate is alfo formed.
Superoxalate of Potajh.—1. This fait exifts ready Exifts
formed in the rumex acetofa, and the oxalis acetofella ; P*antSi
hence it has been diftinguilhed by the name oifalt of
forrel, becaufe it is extracted from this plant. ..,1
2. This fait may be formed by gradually combining Preparl
potalh with a faturated folution of oxalic acid. Whention,
a fufficient quantity of the alkali has been added, the
fait is precipitated in cryftals. Scheele difeovered that
the fait which is extrafted from thefe plants, is in this
Hate of combination. He proved the exiftence of the
acid, and he ffiewed that the natural fait might be imi¬
tated by this procefs. ^6
3. The cryftals of this fait are in the form of fmall Propciu
opaque parallelepipeds. The tafte is acid, pungent and
bitter. It is not very foluble in cold water, but folu¬
ble in about ten times its weight of boiling water,
Expofed to the air, it undergoes no change. It is de¬
compofed by heat.
19. Tartrate of Potalh.
1. This is a compound of tartaric acid and potalh.prepa?».
It has been long known under the name of foluble tar- tion.
trate, and vegetable fait. It is formed by adding tartar
or cream of tartar to a hot folution of carbonate of pot¬
alh. The additions of the tartar are to be continued
as long as there is any effervefcence. The folution is
then boiled for half an hour, filtered and evaporated,
till a pellicle appears on the furface, and when it is
allowed to cool llowly, it depofits cryftals.
2. The cryftals of this fait are in the form of long, properta
re&angular prifms, terminated by two-fided fummits.
This fait has a bitter tafte. The fpecific gravity is
2.5567. Expofed to the air it is deliquefeent. Four
parts of cold water diffolve one of the fait; hot water
diffolves a greater quantity. When heated, it fwells
up and blackens. By diftillation it yields an acid li¬
quid, fome oil, and a great quantity of gas. It leaves
behind
CHEMISTRY.
5^5
1999
1000
] rifica-
11.
1001
ntains an
i (h, &.c. behind a confiderable portion of alkali, mixed -with
—' charcoal. It is decompofed by the flronger acids,
j -which deprive it of a portion of its potalh, and reduce
it to the acidulous tartrate, which is precipitated in
the folution. By the addition of tartaric acid to the
folution of this fait, it is alfo converted into the acidu¬
lous tartrate.
Supertartrate of Potafo.-—1. This Is a compound of
tartaric acid with potaih, but with an excefs of acid.
The fubilance which is well known under the name of
tartar, and which is found encrufted on the bottom
and fides of veflels in which wine has been kept, is
the fupertartrate or the acidulous tartrate of potafli ;
but in this ftate it is very impure. It is purified by
folution in boiling water, and by filtration -while it is
hot. When it cools, there is a copious depofition of
the pure fait in cryftals. Thefe are the cryftals or
cream of tartar.
2. It had been long known to chemifts, that potalh
could be obtained from tartar, by expofing it to a ftrong
heat, which produced a controverfy whether the alkali
exilted ready formed in the tartar, or whether it was
not, in fome way or other produced by the aclion of
heat during the procefs. This point was not fully fettled
till Scheele difcovered the method of extrafting the
acid, the other component part of tartar.
3. The cryftals of tartar are in the form of fmall
irregular cryftals, but chiefly of fix-fided prifms. This
fait has an unpleafant acid tafte, is very brittle, and its
fpecific gravity is 1.953. It requires for its folution
30 parts of boiling water, and 60 of cold water. It
undergoes no change when expofed to the air, but in
the folutien in water the fait is decompofed, depofiting
a mucous matter, and leaving behind an impure car¬
bonate of the alkali.
4. Expofed to heat, it melts, fwells up, blackens,
and the acid is totally decompofed. When it is diftil-
led, an oily matter, and an acid liquid, which is an im¬
pure acetic acid, with a great quantity of caibonic acid,
are obtained. Thi/ acid was formerly called pyrotar-
tarous acid (z).
5. The component parts of tartar, according to Berg¬
man are,
Acid 77
Potalh 23
20. Citrate of Potalh.
Potafli, &c.
1005
This compound of citric acid with potalh may be Properties
formed by combining together 36 parts of the acid
with 61 parts of the carbonate of the alkali. This fait
is very loluble in water, but little difpoled to cryftal-
lize. It is very deliquefcent. According to the ana-
lyfis of Vauquelin, it confifts of
Acid
Potalh
55-55
44-45
100.00
1002
jperties.
1003
4ion of
at.
1004
mpofi-
100
Or of the faturated fait,
Tartrate of potalh 56
44
Acid
100
By the analyfis of Thenard, it is compofed of
Acid 57
Potalh 33
Water 7
Amt. de
him.
I «viii,
1 39-
97
21. Malate of Potalh.
This fait, which is a compound of malic acid and
potalh, is deliquefcent, and very foluble in water, but
its properties are little known.
22. Gallate of Potalh.
The compound of gallic acid and potafh has little
folubility in water, but its other properties are un¬
known.
23. Benzoate of Potafli.
This fait, compofed of benzoic acid and potalh, cry-
ftallizes on cooling, into fmall needles. A drop of
the folution fpread on the fide of the vefiel, as it eva¬
porates, exhibits an arborefcent cryftallization. It has
a lharp faline tafte, is deliquefcent in the air, and very
foluble in water.
24. Succinate of Potalh.
This compound of fuccinic acid and potalh, forms
cryftals in three-lided prifms ; the tafte is bitter and
faline it deliquefces in the air, and is very foluble in
water.
25. Saccolate of Potalh.
This is the compound of facla&ic acid and potalh. It
forms fmall cryftals, which are foluble in eight times
their weight of boiling water.
26. Camphorate of Potalh.
1. This fait, which is a combination of camphoric Prepara,
acid and potalh, may be formed by faturating a folu-tion.
tion of carbonate of potalh with camphoric acid. When
the effervefcence has ceafed, the folution is to be eva¬
porated with a gentle heat, when it affords cryftals by
2. The camphorate of potalh is in the form of regular
hexagonal cryftals, which are white and tranfparent -,
the tafte is bitterilh and llightly aromatic. Expofed to
the air, when it is moift, the fait lofes its tranfparency j
but if the air is dry, there is no change. It is foluble
in four parts of boiling water } but in water at the tem¬
perature of 6o°, it requires 1 oo parts. . . loo8
3. Expofed to heat before the blow-pipe, it burns 0f i
with heat.
xoo<9
(z) The pyrotartarous acid, the pyromucous, and the pyroligneous acids, were difcovered by Fourcroy and
Vauquelin to be nothing elfe than the acetic acid impregnated with extraneous iubftances, particularly with what^
is called an empyreumatic oil. See Annales de Chwue, xxxv. p. 161.
566
Potafh, See.
loop
‘Of acids.
1010
Of alcohol.
1011
Decompofi-
tion.
* Annal. de
Ghim. xxvii.
with a blue flame, and the potafli remains behind pure.
When the heat is ftronger, it froths up, the acid is
fublimed, and it gives out a thick fmoke, which is
flightly aromatic.
4. It is decompofed by the mineral acids. If the
folution be much diluted with water, the decornpofition
is not perceptible j but if brought to the confiftence of
a thick fyrup, the camphoric acid cryftallizes in cool¬
ing. A new fait alfo is partially cryftallized. By fo¬
lution in cold water the acid may be feparated.
5. The camphorate of potalh is foluble in alcohol,
and it burns with a deep blue flame.
6. It is decompofed by, 1. Nitrate of barytes and of
fllver ; 2. By all the falts whofe bafe is lime ; 3. Sul¬
phate of iron j 4. Muriate of tin and of lead *.
CHEMISTRY.
alkali, but lefs fo when the acid is falurated. This Soda ,ti
fait has little tafte *, when neutralized is not very folu-
ble in water, and feems little difpofed to cryftallize. t Fo‘b\'
It is decompofed by the muriatic acid *. '
p. 24.
1012
Prepara¬
tion.
1013
Properties.
1014
Adtion of
heat.
f Annal. de
Chim. xxiii.
p. 53.
27. Suberate of Potafh.
1. This fait, which is a compound of fuberic acid
with potafh, is formed by faturating the acid with the
cryflallized carbonate of the alkali.
2. It cryftallizes in four-fided prifms, which have un¬
equal fides. The tafte is bitter and faline. It reddens
vegetable blues, and is very foluble in water.
3. Expofed to heat, it fwells up and melts; the
acid is diflipated, and the potafh remains behind. It
is decompofed by the mineral acids, which combining
with the potafh, precipitate the fuberic acid. It is de¬
compofed alfo by barytes, by all the metallic falts, by
fulphate and phofphate of alumina, by the nitrates and
muriates of lime and of alumina f.
28. Mellate of Potafh.
$ Ibid.
Xxxvi.
p. 208.
The mellitic acid combines with potafh, and forms
this fait, which is fully faturated with the acid, and in
this ftate it cryftallizes in long prifms ; but with an ad¬
ditional portion of acid, an acidulous mellate, or fuper-
mellate, is formed. This fait, as Vauquelin obferves,
alfo cryftallizes j but the properties of thefe falts have
not been much examined J.
29.
Laflate of Potafh.
This fait is only known as being deliquefeent, and
foluble in alcohol.
30. Prufliate of Potafli.
The compound of pruffic acid and potafh, is formed
f difl'olving the alkali in the acid. The fait is
by difl'olving the alkali m the acid. The fait is very
foluble in water, produces a green colour on vegetable
blues, and with the application of a moderate heat, it
is decompofed.
31. Sebate of Potafh.
|| Ibid.
xxxix.
P- 193-
This fait has been little examined. According to
the experiments of Thenard, it has little tafte, is not
affe&ed by expofure to the air, and is decompofed by
the fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids : the folution,
if it be concentrated, becoming folid on the addition
of the acid from the cryftallization of the febacic
acid 11.
32. Urate of Potafh.
This compound of the uric acid with potafli, is form¬
ed by triturating the acid with the alkali. The mix¬
ture aflumes the form of a faponaceous pafte, which is
IV. Compounds of Potafh with Inflammable Sub'
fiances.
Chbnj
1’. 2 211
T. Potafh is very foluble in alcohol. The folution A,1
aflumes a red colour, and becomes acrid. It is by a
folution of potafh in alcohol, that the former is obtain¬
ed in a ftate of purity ; for the alcohol diffolves the
potafli, while other fubftances are depofited. By the
application of heat to this folution, there is a partial
decompofition of the alcohol.
2. Ether has no perceptible action on potafli.
3. Potafli readily enters into combination with thepjx^J,
fixed oils, but particularly with that clafs of them de¬
nominated fat oils ; and forms with them very import¬
ant compounds, namely, foaps. The compound with
potafli and the fat oils is a foft foap. Jc
4. Potafli alfo enters into combination w ith the vo-Volat
latile oils, but in very fmall proportion, which likewife
forms a fpecies of foap.
Sect. II. Of Soda and its Combinations.
i°i:
’Name'
very foluble in Avater, when there is an excefs of the
1. Soda, the other fixed alkali, has been diftinguifh-
ed by a great number of different names. It was cal¬
led fofil or mineral alkali, becaufe it was fuppofed that
it only exifted in the mineral kingdom. It is the fub-
ftance which is mentioned in Scripture as a detergent,
under the name of nitre. ' * I I
2. This alkali exifts in great abundance in different Found,)
parts of the earth, and particularly on the furface of the foil j
the foil in Egypt, where it is diftinguiflied by the name
of natron. It is alfo found on the walls of caves and
places under ground, and old edifices. )•]
But the foda of commerce is generally obtained from obtain
different fpecies of plants which gnnv on the fea-fhore •jfrompK.
and as it is prepared from them, it has received dif¬
ferent names in different countries. The falfola foda
yields this alkali in greateft abundance. This plant
is called barilla in the Spanifh language, and from this
the foda which is prepared on the fhores of that coun- I.
try, has been called barilla affjes. For the purpofes
of commerce alfo, foda is prepared in great quantities
from the allies of another tribe of marine plants, namely
the algce, and particularly from the fact, all of which
yield it in greater or lefs proportion. As it is prepar¬
ed from thefe plants, it is known in France by the
name of varec, and in Britain by the name of kelp.
Soda exifts in great abundance in the waters of the
ocean. There it is in combination with the muriatic
acid, forming the well-known compound of common
fa^' _ ^ JOlj
3. In many of their properties foda and potafli ap-pirftdi-
proach very near to each other. They w’ere according-ftinguif
ly confidered as the fame alkali, till, towards the mid-*r°mlX/
die of the 18th century, by the experiments of Duha-“
mel, Pott, and Margraff, they were diftinftly charac-
terifed, and the properties of each fully afeertained. I0J
4. The foda of commerce is in very different degrees purifica|
of purity, according to the care and attention w ith non- j
which it is prepared, and the purpofes for which it is
intended. To have it perfe&ly pure, it muft be fub-
024
ton of
C H E M
a, Sec. je&ed to a fimilat procefa with thoie which have been
■v already detailed for the purification of potafh $ and by
means of thefe proceffes it may be procured in a folid
023 and cryftalline form.
jrties. 5. When foda is in a Hate of purity, it is ufually ia
the form of folid plates, of a grayifli white colour, and
the tafte exa&ly fimilar to that of potafh. It is alfo
extremely cauftic and corrofive. By flow evaporation
from a folution in alcohol, it affumes the form of prif-
matic cryftals $ but thefe, when expofed to the air, very
foon efflorefce, and fall to powder. Soda changes the
blue colour of vegetables to green. Its fpecific gravity
is i>336. When it is expofed to heat, it foftens, and
readily melts. It liquefies by the aftion of heat like
an oily matter, and when it becomes red-hot, boils, and
is reduced to vapour, which is the foda unchanged, ex¬
tremely acrid, and corroding the fkin when it comes
in contaft with it.
6. When expofed to the air, it firfl becomes moifl
and foft, by abforbing wrater and carbonic acid j but
when the air becomes dry, it efflorefees and falls into a
J>owder j and in this refpeft is fufficiently diftinguifhed
rom potafh. Soda has a very great affinity for water.
When the dry alkali is moiftened with water, it is ab-
forbed, and becomes folid, with the extrication of calo¬
ric. When more water is added, it diflolves, and alfo
gives out heat, and a peculiar odour, which is no doubt
owing to a portion of the alkali raifed in the Hate of
vapour along with th* water.
Maple 7. Soda, as well as potafh, is to be confidered as a
ii an«e. fimple fubftance j for no attempt which has yet been made
to decompofe it has fucceeded. Supported by certain
analogies, Fourcroy is of opinion that foda is a com¬
pound of magnefia and azote j and he thinks this
conjecture derives fome degree of probability from the
conftancy with which magnefia accompanies foda in the
waters, and different compounds, of which this alkali
makes a part j efpecially in animal matters and marine
:<ftures productions. Vauquelin, he obferves, has detedted
t 'ts magnefia in confiderable abundance in the affies of the
>°fi- falfola foda • an(J the fame earth is always obtained in
great quantity during the procefs for the extraction
and purification of foda.
8. The affinities of foda are the fame with thofe of
potafh.
9. Soda is employed for many fimilar purpofes as
potafh. On account of fome of its qualities, it is pre¬
ferred to potafh, in many manufactures, becaufe it is
lefs acrid and corrofive, and is therefore lefs apt to de-
ftroy the texture of animal and vegetable matters to
which it is applied.
I. ACtion of Phofphorus on Soda.
IJ]' Soda fcarcely enters into combination with phofpho¬
rus. There is no phofphuret formed either by the dry
or humid way j but when phofphorus is boiled with a
pure folution of foda, phoiphorated hydrogen gas is
evolved in the fame way as when it is treated with
potafh.
II. ACtion of Sulphur on Soda.
Sa Soda readily combines with fulphur by fimple tritu¬
ration, by fufion, and by the humid way. In the two
firft cafes, there is formed a fulphuret of foda, which
1 s T R Y. 567
may be decompofed by heat, and by the acids, and Soda, &c.
which decompofes water in the fame W’ay as the ful-
phuret of potaffi. By the humid way there is formed
a hydrogenated fulphuret of foda, which has an ex¬
tremely fetid odour, and emits, by the aCtion of the
acids which decompofe it, fulphurated hydrogen gas.
Hydrofulphuret of Soda.
This may be prepared in the fame way as the hydro¬
fulphuret of potafh. It forms a cryffallized fait in the
ffiape of four-fided prifms, terminated by quadrangular
pyramids. The cryftals are colourlefs, inodorous, and
very foluble in water. When this fait is expofed to
the air, it deliquefees, and becomes of a green colour.
It is decompofed by the aCtion of acids. Soda, it
would appear, has lefs affinity for fulphur and fulphu¬
rated hydrogen, than potafh.
III. Compounds of Soda with the Acids.
1. Sulphate of Soda.
1. This fait, which is a compound of fulphuric acid
and foda is well known under the name of Glauber'1 s falty
from the name of Glauber, a German chemift, who
difeovered it, in examining the refiduum of the decom-
polition of common fait by means of fulphuric acid. It
has alfo been called the admirable fait of Glauber, vi-
tnolated mineral alkali, and vitriol of foda. 103i
2. This may be obtained by the direCt combi-Prepara-
nation of fulphuric acid and foda. But it is more com- t‘on*
monly prepared by the decompofition of muriate of fo¬
da or fea fait, by means of fulphuric acid. The folu¬
tion is then to be filtered, purified and cryftallized in
the ufual way.
3. It cryftallizes by flow evaporation, in tranfparent, prop°^es^
fix-fided prifms, terminated by two-fided fummits j but
the cryftals are feldom regular, and the fides of the * MancheJ,
prifms are furrowed. The tafte is cool, bitter, and Men};vo1-
naufeous. The fpecific gravity is 1.4457 *• xxviii. p. 13*
4. When it is expofed to the air, efpecially when the Adtionof
air is dry, it efflorefees, which is ow'ing to the efcape of air.
the water of cryftallization. It lofes about 0.3 of its
weight. It is very foluble in cold water, and it re¬
quires only £ths of its w eight of boiling water. I034
5. When it is expofed to heat, it melts on account Of heat,.
of the great quantity of water of cryftallization which
it contains j and this is called the aqueous fifon. Af¬
terwards it dries wffien the water is evaporated. It
lofes about .58 of its weight. To melt it afterwards,
it muft be expofed to a red heat long continued, wfflich
is called the igneous fufon. After it is cooled, it is
found t@ have fuffered no change. When water is ad¬
ded, it returns to its former ftate.
6. It is decompofed by means of charcoal, which
at a red heat converts it into fulphuret of foda, by de¬
priving the acid of its oxygen. The component parts Compoii-
of this fait, according to Bergman, are tkm,
Acid 27
Soda 15
Water 58
IOO
But
SG8
Soda, &.c.
i" 'rich6l.
^fourn. iii.
P- si5-
. 1036
Difcovcry.
i°37
Properties.
1038
Adtion of
the air.
1039
Of water.
1040
Qf heat.
1041
Ccmpofi-
lion.
1043
Names.
C H E M I
But according to Mr Kirwan, it is compofed of
Cryftallized. Dried at 7000.
Acid 23.52 - 56
Soda 18.48 - 44
Water 58. - o
100.00
100
It is decompofed by barytes ; and by potafli, but leis
powerfully. Lime and Itrontites are alfo capable of
producing a partial decompofition in the humid way,
and in contaft with the air. n '
7. This fait is a good deal employed in medicine, as a
purgative j in chemiftry, for the purpofe of decompohng
other fubftances j and in the arts, for the extra&ion of foda.
2. Sulphite of Soda.
1. This fait, which is a compound of fulphurous
acid and foda, was firft taken notice of by Berthollet.
It is prepared by palling fulphurous acid gas into a fa-
turated folution of carbonate of foda. The fulphite of
foda is precipitated at firft, in a cotifufed mafs of very
fmall cryftals, which are re-diffolved in warm water,
and cryltallize again on cooling.
2. The cryftals of fulphite of foda are in four-fided
prifms, two broad, and two narrow, terminated by two-
fided fummits. They are perfeftly tranfparent. The
tafte is cool and fulphureous. The fpecific gravity is
2.9566.
3. Expofed to the air, it efflorefces, and the pow¬
der formed on the furface is converted into a fulphate.
It is extremely foluble in water. Boiling water takes
up more than its own weight. It cryftallizes again
on cooling, but fometimes the folution is formed into a
fingle mafs when it is expofed to the air ; and if quickly
cooled with agitation, it affords nothing but needle-
formed cryftals. This folution expofed to the air is
converted into the fulphate.
4. This fait readily undergoes the aqueous fufion j
if the heat be increafed, a portion of fulphur is driven
off, and it is converted into a fulphate.
5. It is decompofed by means of the acids, whch dif-
engage the fulphurous acid in the ftate of gas. The
oxymuriatic acid gas brought into contaft with a folu¬
tion of this fait in water, inftantly converts it into ful¬
phate. It is decompofed by barytes, lime and potalh j
by the fulphates of lime, of ammonia, and of mag-
nefia.
6. The component parts of this fait have been found
by analyfis to be,
Sulphurous acid
Soda
Water
31
18
100
It has net been applied to any ufe.
3. Nitrate of Soda.
T043
Proncrties.
1. This compound of nitric acid and foda was former¬
ly known by the name of cubic nitre, and rhomboidal
nitre. It is prepared by the direft combination of the
acid with the alkali; or by decompofing the muri¬
ate or carbonate of foda by nitric acid.
2. It cryftallizes in the form of rhomboids and prifms.
S T R Y.
The tafte is cooling, nut more bitter than that of the $oda,i|
nitrate of potaih.
3. The fpecific gravity is 2.0964. Expofed to the
air, it attracts moifture in a flight degree. It is foluble
in three parts of cold Avater, and in lefs than its own
weight of boiling water. Xo^
4. When it is thrown on red-hot coals, it decrepitates Heat,
flightly it is not fo fufible as nitre, but it is alfo de-
gompofed, and gives out oxygen gas mixed with azotic
§as-
5. In its decompofition it is fimilar to the nitrate of
potafh. It detonates, however, lefs powerfully with
combuftible bodies, and burns them with lefs facility.
It is decompofed by barytes and potalh.
6. The proportions of its conftituent parts are, ac- CJompi
cording to Bergman, / tl0n•
f Acid 43 v
Soda 3 2
Water 25
104:
100
According to Mr Kirwan,
Dried in a heat of 400°.
Acid 53.21
Soda 40.58
Water 6.21
After being ignited.
57*55
42.34
00.00
100.00 99*89 f.
4. Nitrite of Soda.
4 Nick,
Jour, iii
p. 215,
Chemifts are not acquainted with the properties of
this fait, although it is known to be formed after the
partial decompofition of nitrate of foda by means of
heat.
5. Muriate of Soda.
1046
1. The muriate of foda, which is a compound of mu- Commoa
riatic acid and foda, of all the other falls, from its great fait,
abundance in nature, and its valuable ufes, w^as the
earlieft known under the name of fa/t. It has been .
diftinguilhed by the names of common fait, kitchen fait, Barnes.
fea-falt, and fometimes fal gem, rock fait. I04g
2. This fait, which is found in fuch abundance in Abundai
nature, is never formed by art. In fome parts of the in natrf
world it exifts in the bowels of the earth in large maf-
fes, from whence it is dug out, and limply reduced to
powder, to be applied to ufe. But to obtain it from the
waters of the ocean, in which it exifts in different propor¬
tion, according to the temperature, the climate, and other
eireumftances, it muft be extracted by evaporation,
which is effefted by different proceffes, according to
the ftrength of the folution, and the art of the manu-
fafturer. In fome parts of the world, all that is done
is to colleft the fait as it forms on the Ihores of the fea,
or on the rocks, by the evaporation of the water •, but,
in general, fome art is neceffary, even when the fait is
obtained by fpontaneous evaporation. On the coafts
of France, Spain’, Portugal, and the Ihores of the Me¬
diterranean, the fea water is admitted into ponds du¬
ring the flowing of the tide, and its return is pre¬
vented by Unices which are fliut. It is then evapo¬
rated by the heat of the fun j and, as this evaporation
is gradual and flow, the fait cryftallizes in large
cubes, and it is known in commerce by the name of
baif
C H E M I
&c. lay fahi from the circumftance of its having been form-
' ed in creeks and bays of the fea.
!9 3. But as this procefs can only be followed in thofe
climates where there is a fufficient degree of tempera¬
ture to promote the evaporation fpeedily j artificial
heat is generally employed in the manufacture of fait.
Sometimes the water is received in large ponds or fiat
veflels, where it is allowed to evaporate for fome time
in the open air. It is afterwards boiled in flat iron
pans j and, during the boiling, the impurities which rife
to the furface are removed. When the w ater is fuffi-
ciently concentrated by the evaporation, a pellicle forms
on the furface, which is the cryftallization of the fait.
This falls to the bottom, and another pellicle forms,
till the whole of the fait is cryftallized. The purity
of the fait and the fize of the cryftals depend on the
flow evaporation ; and hence it is, that the pureft fait,
as it is manufactured in Britain, is that which is called
Sunday fait. This is obtained from the lalt quantity of
water which is boiled on the Saturday night \ and as it
has time to cool flowly, the evaporation is more gradual,
50 and the cryftals are purer and larger,
ra- But in this ftate the muriate of foda is far from
being pure. A very ingenious method has been pro-
pofed for the purification of fea fait by Lord Dundon-
ald. The falts with which common fait is impregnated,
are more foluble in water than the fait itfelf, and they
diffolve in much greater proportion in hot than in cold
water. But common fait is nearly equally foluble in
both. On this principle, therefore, the procefs pro¬
ceeds : A quantity of fait to be purified is put into a
conical veflel or balket, wdiich is {lightly flopped at
the apex, fo that the water may pafs through. A fa-
turated folution of common fait is then prepared. This
folution of fait is poured boiling hot over the fait in
the balket. It can diflblve none of the common fait
in the balket, becaufe it is already faturated •, but, .as
it pafles through, it diflblves the other falts, and carries
them along with it. It was found by experiment, that
a faturated folution of ! lb. of common fait poured Up¬
on 1 clbs. removes about yths of all the foreign falts with
which it is impregnated.
llT 5. But, even after this procefs, the fait is not per-
Jes. feftly pure for the purpofes of chemiftry. For this
purpofe it may be diltolved in four parts of cold wa¬
ter. Filter the folution, to feparate any fubftances
with which it is mixed. Pour into it fome drops of a
folution of foda, till no farther precipitate is obferved.
The fluid is then to be evaporated, and the fait, as it
forms on the furface in fmall cubical cryftals, may be
extrafted ; or it may be obtained in larger cryftals by
flow evaporation.
It may alfo be purified, by dropping into a folution
of common fait, a folution of muriate of barytes, and
then of carbonate of foda, as long as any precipitate is
formed. The liquid may then be filtered and evapora¬
ted, till the folution cryftallizes.
'inks. 6. The muriate of foda cryftallizes in perfeft cubes j
but from thefe there are feveral deviations in the form
of its cryftals. Sometimes the angles of the cubes are
. truncated •, fometimes they are in the form of octahe¬
drons •, which is the cafe w'hen common lalt is dilTol-
ved in human urine, and allowed to evaporate fponta-
neoufly. But the primitive form of the cryftal, as well
as of the integrant particle, according to Hauy, is
Vol. V. Part II.
S T R Y. 569
the cube. The tafte is fweetiftl and agreeable, and
is that which is properly called fi/t, with which all "v_”
fimilar taftes are compared. The fpecific gravity is
2.120. . . 1053
7. It undergoes no change by expofure to the air. A&ion @f
Common fait attracts moifture from the atmofphere j air,
but this is owing to an impregnation of other falts. ,
which are deliquefcent. Thefe falts are muriate of
magnefia, fulphate of magnefia, and fulphate of lime.
It is from thefe that it is to be purified by the pro- io54
cefles, which have been defcribed above. It is folu- and water,
ble in little more than 2^ times its Weight of water j
and it is almoil equally foluble in hot and cold wa¬
ter.
8. When it is expofed to a ftrong heat, it decrepi¬
tates and gives out its water of cryftallization. It
melts in a red heat, and rifes in the air in the ftate of
white vapour $ but it is unchanged ; for if this vapour
be collected by condenfing it in the cold, it is found to
poflefs all the properties of common fait. . j
9. The muriate of foda is decompofed readily by Decompofz-
fulphuric acid, as well as by feveral other acids which tiou.
have a ftronger attraction for its bafe than the muri¬
atic acid •, or by the aid of double affinity, when an
acid is in combination with a bafe, which at the fame
time aCts on the muriatic acid. It is by means of the By fulphu-
fulphuric acid that the chemift procures muriatic acid be acid,
from the muriate of foda. Sometimes the fait is de¬
compofed by the fame acid to obtain the foda. The
fulpburic acid combines with the foda, and forms ful¬
phate of foda, while the muriatic acid is difengaged,
and that it may not be loft, it is conveyed into a leaden
chamber, which contains a folution of ammoniac, where
it forms fal ammoniac. The fulphate of foda is ex¬
pofed to ftrong heat in a furnace, to drain off any
portion of fulphuric acid that it may contain. It is
then mixed with its own weight of chalk, and half its
weight of charcoal in powder. The mixture is Itrong-
ly heated in a reverberatory furnace, and occafionally
ftirred to permit the efcape of gas and fulphur, which
fly off. When the mafs cools, it becomes folid and
black. The charcoal, in decompofing the fulphuric
acid of the fulphate of foda, fets the fulphur free,
which combines with the lime of the carbonate of lime,
and is partly fublimed j while a part of the carbonic
acid combines with the foda 5 fo that the product is a
mixture of carbonate of foda, of lime and charcoal, ana¬
logous to the foda of commerce. In this way 0.58 of
crude foda may be extracted. Other acids, as well as
the fulphuric, lueh as. the acetic, the phofphoric, and
boracic, have been propofed to be employed with the
fame view ; or indeed, any acid which has a ftronger
affinity for the foda than the muriatic acid, and is not
decompofed with much difficulty.
10. But thefe proceffes are not fufficiently economi¬
cal to anfwer the purpofes of the manufafturer ; Other
proceffes have, therefore, been propofed and tried with
the fame view •, but fcarcely any has fueeeeded. This
lalt is very readily decompofed by barytes or potafh,
which combines with the muriatic acid, and fets the
foda free ; but the expence of preparing thefe fubitances
far exceeds the price of the foda in. the market, fo that
they cannot be employed to advantage. iq
It has been propofed to decompofe fea fait by means
of lime, for obtaining the foda. Soda is feparated
4 C from
C H E M I S T R Y.
* Refearck
p. 59, and
112.
IO58
By lead.
1059
By iron.
1060
Compofi-
tion.
from the acid by mixing the common fait with lime,
in the form of pafte, and by expofmg it to moifture.
In a fhort time the foda appears on the furface in the
Hate of efflorefcence. Scheele, it is obferved by Ber-
thollet, Avas the firft who noticed the decompofition of
the muriate of foda by means of lime. He explains
this decompofition by (bowing, that lime afts on falts
with fixed alkaline bafes. It decompofes a fmall part
of the muriate of foda, with which it is in contaft, and
the foda, eliminated by this means, combines with the
carbonic acid of the atmofphere. The carbonate of
foda efflorefces, fo that it oppofes all refilfance to the
aflion of the lime, and the decompofition of the muri¬
ate of foda continues until it is impeded by the quan¬
tity of muriate of lime formed. It is in this way that
the fame philofopher accounts for the formation of fo¬
da in the foil of Egypt. The circumftances neceflary
for this are, 1 ft, A fand containing a great quantity
of carbonate of lime j 2d, moifture j and 3d, muriate
of foda •, and thefe circumftances are found to exift in
thofe places where there is an abundant produftion of
1 foda *. A manufa&ory for the purpofe of extratting
foda from fea fait, by means of lime, Avas eftablifhed in
France by Guyton.
11. Common fait is decompofed for the purpofe of
obtaining the foda, by means of litharge. In a mix¬
ture of four parts of litharge, and one of fea fait, with a
little water, in the courfe of a few hours, a decompofi¬
tion of the fait is effected. The muriatic acid of the
fait combines with the lead, and is precipitated j while
the foda remains in the folution, from which it may be
fcparation by filtration and evaporation.
It has been found too, that fea fait may be decom¬
pofed by other metallic fubftances. Scheele obferved,
that iron produced this effedf. By dipping a plate of
iron in a folution of fait, and expofing it in a moift
place, it Avas incrufted Avith foda. From other experi¬
ments it appears, that this decompefition may be ef-
fedied by means of copper and zinc.
12. Muriate of foda, according to Bergman, is com-
pofed of
Acid 52
Soda 42
Water 6
100
According to Kinvan, when dried in the tempera¬
ture of 8o°, it is compofed of
Acid
Soda
Water
38.88
53*00
8.12
100.00
1061
Ufes.
Scdc, i
6. Hyperoxymuriate of Soda,
1. This fait is prepared in the fame manner as thep^^'
combination of this acid with potafh. It is, however,tion
difficult to obtain it pure, as it has nearly the fame de¬
gree of folubility in Abater as the muriate of foda. It
is foluble in three parts of cold and lefs of warm rvater.
It is alfo/oluble in alcohol, and it feems to communi¬
cate a greater degree of folubility to the muriate of
foda. _ _ Io6j
2. The cryftals of this fait are in the form of cubes, j>roper-
or in rhomboids. It produces the fenfation of cold in
the mouth, and its tafte is eafily diftinguifhed from
muriate of foda. It is decompofed by heat, by com-
buftible bodies, and by acids, in /the fame manner as
the hyperoxymuriate of potafh. I
3. This fait is com poled of
Hyperoxymuriatic acid
Soda
Water
66.2
29.6
4.2
100.01
1064
Comp, • |
tion.
Fluate of Soda.
* Phil, l|
TranJ,
1802,
p. 144.
icfiji
13. Common fait may be regarded almoft as a ne-
ceffary of life. It is the moft ufeful of all fubftanees
for the prefervation of animal matters which are in¬
tended for food. It is probable that it is highly ufe¬
ful, not merely as a feafoning for food, of which it is
one of the moft agreeable, but alfo to promote its di-
geftion. It is alfo employed in many arts, as in me¬
tallurgy, ip dyeing, and in the enamelling of ftone-
'ware.
1. This fait, which is a compound of fluoric acidprepara.
and foda, is formed by faturating the acid Avith the al- tion.
kali. If the folution be evaporated till a pellicle ap¬
pears, cryftals of fluate of foda are obtained. ^ I
2. Thefe cryftals are in the form of fmall cubes,Pro^rtJ
have a bitter and aftringent tafte, are not deliquefcent,
and not very foluble in water. They decrepitate on
hot charcoal, and melt before the blow-pipe into a fe-
mitranfparent globule.
3. The concentrated acids difengage the fluoric acid
with effervefcence. This fait is allb decompofed by
limewrater, barytes, and magnefia.
8. Borate of Soda.
This fait, a compound of the boracic acid and fo¬
da, is formed by faturating the acid with the alkali)
but nothing is known of its nature and properties. The
fpecific gravity is 1.1351. But the combination of fo¬
da with this acid, which is a natural produdion, has
been particularly examined.
Sub-borate of Soda, or Borax.
I. This fubftance has been long known. Indeed it Hiftorj.
is fuppofed, that the ancients Avere acquainted with it,
and that they employed it for feveral purpofes, under
the name of chrysocolla which is mentioned by Pliny.
It received this name from them, it is fuppofed, from
knowing its property of foldering gold and the other
metals. The name borax is derived from fome of the
oriental languages. Although borax was the fubjed
of refearch among the alchemifts and earlier chemifts,
yet nothing was known of its nature and compofition,
till the beginning of the 18th century. It was then
decompofed by Homberg, by expofing it to heat with
fulphate of iron. The acid was feparated by fublima-
tion, and long after known by the name of the fedative
fait of Homberg. In 1732 its real compofition Avas
difcovered by Gcofffoy. He obtained the acid cry-
ftallized in the humid way. In 1748 Baren decom-
pofed
C H E M I S T R Y.
b
:6S
Pi (ica-
tit
569
Pi'jrties.
072
Ipofi-
jjofed borax by means of tlie vegetable acids, and he
completed the knowledge of its compofition, by form¬
ing it with the acid and the alkali* Bergman after¬
wards the wed, that borax is a fait with excefs of foda ;
and to be neutralized, it requires one half of its weight
of boracic acid.
2. Borax is a natural produftion of the earth in many
parts of the world. It is formed at the bottom of fome
lakes in Perfia, the Mogul territory, in Thibet, in
China and Japan. It has been alfo found in fome
lakes in Tufcany. In the Eaft Indies it is known un¬
der the name of tincal, and in commerce under that of
crude borax. In this ilate the borax is in the form of
fmall, femitranfparent, greenith cryftals, intermixed
with a greafy matter, of a dirty gray colour, and of a
fweetith alkaline tafte.
3. The purification of borax was originally in the
hands of the Vbnetians *, but it has fince been pra&ifed,
and now almoft exclufively, by the Dutch. Their
procefs is not exactly known. Valmont-Bomare, who
vifited one of thefe places in Holland, fays, that 80
parts of purified borax are obtained from too of the
crude materials ; and to extraft the fait completely,
from eight to twelve folutions and cryftallizations are
neceflary j that all the veftels employed in the purifi¬
cation of this fait, are either of lead, or covered with
lead } but he adds, that one part of the procefs was
concealed from him, and he fufpefts that lime-water
may have been employed in this part of the procefs.
4. Borax, after being thus purified, is in the form of
comprefifed fix-fided prifms with three-fided fummits.
The tafte is fweethh, and perceptibly alkaline. It
changes the vegetable blues to a green colour. The
fpecific gravity is 1-742. It efflorefces flightly in the
air, and is foluble in water. Twelve parts of water of
the temperature of 6o° diffolve one of borax. Six
parts are only neceflary at the boiling temperature.
5. When borax is expofed to heat, it readily melts.
As the water of cryftallization flies off, it fwells up and
acquires a greater bulk, and affumes the form of a por¬
ous mafs. By this procefs it lofes more than one-third
of its weight, and in this ftate it is called calcined bo¬
rax. When it is expofed to a red heat, it is converted
into a tranfparent glafs, which is foluble in water.
6. Borax is decolhpofed by all the acids which have
a ftronger affinity for the feda. It is by means of the
fulphuric and the nitric acids, that boracic acid is
obtained from borax.
7. The component parts of borax, according to Kir-
Wan, are
Boracic acid
Soda
Water
3*5
I?
47
too
°73
* ntreroy
( naifs.
^ iii.
khc.
9. Bhofphate of Soda.
1074
1. This compound of phofphoric acid and foda, wasHiftory.
the firfl: difeovered of the combinations of phofpho¬
ric acid. Margraaflf was the firfl: who extracted it
from human urine, then in combination with ammo¬
nia, forming a triple fait, which was known by the
name of fujible or microcofmic fait. Haupt after ¬
wards obtained it feparate, and diftinguiihed it by
the name of fal mirabile perlatum, or wonderful per-
lated fait, on account of its pearl-like colour. At
laft the younger Rouelle difeovered that foda was one
of its conftituent parts. By fome it was fuppofed,
that the acid was different from the phofphoric, be-
caufe no phofphorus could be obtained from it. To
this acid Bergman gave the name of perlated acid ;
but by the analyfis of Klaproth, it was proved that this
fait confilts of phofphoric acid and foda, with an excefs
of acid. 107^
2. This fait is prepared by faturating the liquid acid Prepara-
phofphate, which is obtained from burnt bones by boo.
means of the fulphuric acid, with carbonate of foda,
which muft be added in excefs. The carbonate and a
little phofphate of lime are precipitated in the folution,
which muft be filtered and evaporated till a thin pel¬
licle appears on the furface. The phofphate of foda is
cryftallized by cooling. Or it may be obtained by
the direft combination of phofphoric acid and foda,
which muft alfo be added in excefs.
1076
It is fuppofed that only five parts of the foda are fatu-
rated with the acid, and that the other twelve parts
form the excefs of alkali which is contained in the fait.
8. Borax is much employed in the arts, as a flux
for metals, and to promote the foldering of the more
precious tnetals. It is alfo employed by the mineralo-
gift as a flux for treating minerals by the blow-pipe.
Calcined borax is employed in medicine as an abiur-
bent*.
3. The phofphate of foda cryftallizes in lengthened Properties,
rhomboids whofe angles are often truncated, and fome-
times it affords rhomboidal prifms, and feveral other
varieties. The excefs of foda is neceffary, to make it
aflume a regular form, and thus it changes vegetable
blues to a green. The fpecific gravity is 1.33. It has
a fweetith, faline tafte, fimilar to that of common fait. I0^
4. It efflorefces in the air, and is very foluble in Aftion of
water. Four parts of Water at the temperature of 6o°, water,
and one half its weight of boiling water, are fufficient
to diffolve it. 10^g
5. The phofphate of foda, expofed to heat, under-of heat,
goes the watery fufion. In a red heat it melts, and is
converted, on cooling, into a milky white glafs. By
the aftion of the blow-pipe on charcoal, it melts into
a globule which is tranfparent while it is hot, but be¬
comes opaque on cooling, and affumes the polyhedral
form when it becomes folid.
6. The fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids dccom-of acids,
pofe it partially, and convert it into the acidulous phof¬
phate of foda. . lo8o
7. Since thej properties of tills fait were difeovered, ufes.
it has become an objedl of confiderable importance, on
account of the Various ufes to which it has been ap¬
plied. It v'as introduced into medicine by Dr Pear-
fon, and is found to be a mild laxative, particularly
agreeable on account of its tafte, as it may be taken in
broth, as a fubftitute for common fait. It is employed
by miheralogifts as a left for the fjafion of mineral fub-
ftances by the blow-pipe, and in foldering, as a cheap
fubftitute for borax.
10. Phofphite of Soda.
I. This compound of phofphorous acid and foda,
may be formed by the direft union of the acid and tiorff
4 C 2 alkali
57 2
Soda, See.
1082
Pioperties.
1083
A<£tion of
heat.
1084
Compoli-
tion.
Miftory.
1086
Prepara¬
tion.
1087
Properties.
rc88
Aftipn of
water.
TpSq
©f heat.
CHEMISTRY.
alkali in folution ; and by evaporation cryftals may be
obtained.
2. This fait cryflallizes fometimes in four-fided prifms
with unequal faces *, lometimes in long rhomboids,
or in the form of feathers. 'ihe tafte is cool and
fweetilh. It efflorefees in the air, and is foluble in
two parts of cold water, and little more foluble in warm
water ; fo that it cryilallizes by evaporation rather than
in cooling.
3. It melts readily under the blow-pipe, gives out
fine phofphoric light, and is converted into a glafs
which continues tranfparent while it is hot, but be¬
comes opaque when it cools.
4. The component parts of this fait are,
Phofphorous acid 16.3
Soda - 23.7
Water - 60.0
100.0
5. This fait is eafily decompofed by lime, barytes,
and magnelia. It decompofes the fulphates, nitrates,
and muriates of lime, of barytes, ftrontites, and mag-
neha. It has not yet been applied to any ufe.
11. Carbonate of Soda.
1. This fait, which is a compound of carbonic acid
and foda, was long applied to various ufes, before its
nature and compofition were known j nor was it per-
fe£tly underftood till the difeovery of Dr Black, which
fhewed the two ftates in which the alkali exifts ; in
the cauftic or pure date, and in the mild date, when
it is combined with fixed air, or carbonic acid. I he
different names under which it is known, have been
already mentioned in treating of foda. It is found in
great abundance in Egypt, where it efflorefees on the
foil, and is didinguhhed by the name of natron. In a
fimilar date of effiorefcence, the carbonate of foda is
found in fubterraneous places, and on the walls of build¬
ings 5 but it is chiefly extracted, as has been already
obferved, from fea-plants, efpecially from thofe which
belong to the genus oifuci.
2. Carbonate of foda may be obtained by diffolving
a quantity of the foda of commerce with three or four
times its weight of pure cold water, and then by filter¬
ing the liquor, and evaporating till a flight pellicle is
formed. This pellicle, which confids of fmall cubes of
common fait, is to be removed. The heat is to be con¬
tinued as long as any pellicle is formed, after which
the liquid is fet by to cool, and the carbonate of foda
crydallizes.
3. The form of the crydals of carbonate of foda are
irregular or rhomboidal oftahedrons, formed by two
quadrangular pyramids, truncated near the bafe, which
exhibits dicahedral folids, with two acute and two ob-
tufe angles. The tade is flightly acrid j it converts
vegetable blues to a green colour, and its fpecific gra¬
vity is 1-3591 •
4. The carbonate of foda efflorefees very rapidly in
the air. It is foluble in two parts of cold, and little
more than its weight of boiling water. It crydallizes
on cooling •, but to obtain regular crydals, the evapo¬
ration mud be dow and fpontaneous. -
5. When expofed to heat, it undergoes the watery
fafion, and if the heat be continued, it paffes into the
igneous fufion. It is fomewhat more fufible than the Soda,!,
carbonate of potafh, which renders it preferable in the '‘"“‘ww
manufacture of glafs.
6. In its decompofltion by other fubdances, it is ex¬
actly fimilar to the carbonate of potalh. |c
7. The component parts of carbonate of foda are ac- Com^J
cording t6 tion. [
Bergman.
Carbonic acid 16
Soda 20
Water 64
100
Kirwan.
In cryftals. Dry.
14.42 40.05
21.58 59.86
64.00 00.00
iootO©^ 99-91
12. Arfeniate of Soda.
1. This is the compound of the arfenic acid with
foda j and when the acid is faturated tfith the alkali,
the fait cryflallizes.
2. According to Scheele the form of the cry dais of
this fait is like thofe of the acidulous arfeniate of pot-
aflr. Pelletier obferves that the arfeniate of foda cry¬
flallizes in fix-fided prifrns, terminated by planes per¬
pendicular to their axis. In other refpedts it is fimi¬
lar to the arfeniate of potaffl, being decompofed by
charcoal, by the acids and the earths. With an ex-
cefs of acid, it does not cryflallize, but becomes deli-
quefeent.
13. Tungdate of Soda.
1. This fak, which is the compound of tungflicPrepan
acid and foda, may be formed by diffolving the oxide
of tungden in a folution of pure foda, or carbonate of
foda. By evaporating the folution, cryflals of tungdate
of foda are obtained. 109I
2. The cryflals of this fait are in the form of eJon-Proper^
gated, fix-fided plates. The tade is acrid and metallic.
It is foluble in four times its weight of cold w ater j
and boiling water diffolves one half of its weight. It
reflores the colour of turnfole which has been reddened
by an acid. _ _ I0?
3. This fait is decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric, A(tyon
muriatic, acetic, and oxalic acids. They form a white acids,
triple fait, which is alfo produced by lime water. The
phofphoric acid produces no change, and if the ful¬
phuric acid be afterwards added, it no longer caufes a
precipitate. The tungdate of foda is not decompofed
by the fulphate of potafli or of magnefia. 1 he muri¬
ates of lime and barytes occafion a white precipitate.
The folution of tin, and all other metallic folutions, al-#
fo decompofes it *. Mines,
N° ij-
14. Molybdate of Soda. p-n*
15. Chromate of Soda.
The chromic acid combines with foda, and forms a
fait, the cryflals of which are of an orange colour, but
its other properties are unknown.
16. Columbate of Soda.
Columbic acid enters into combination with foda,
but little is known of its properties.
17. Acetate of Soda. ic^
j. The combination of the acetic acid with foda wasP^P1*12
formerlytlon-
CHEMISTRY.
573
, gjc. formerly known by the name of crystallised foliated
iL^—' earth. This fait is prepared by faturating the acetic
acid with carbonate of foda. The folution is then fil¬
tered, and evaporated till a flight pellicle appear on
the furface j and when it is fet by t© cool, cryfials are
depofited.
I#55 2. The cryftals of acetate of foda are in the form of
1 pities. ^rjate(j prifmSj like thofe of fulphate of foda. It has a
bitter, pungent tafte, is not deliquefcent in the air, and
is folufele in about three parts of cold water. The fpe-
cific gravity is 2.1. When expofed to heat it is de-
compofed, being firft deprived of its water of cryftalli-
zation. After diftillation, the refiduum has the pro¬
perty of phofphorus. It is decompofed by barytes and
Fo«woyPotaih *•
1 18. Oxalate of Soda,
i \m. vui.
23. Benzoate of Soda.
Soda, 8cc.
The compound of benzoic acid with foda, forms.a
fait ■which readily cryftallizes. It is deliquefcent in
the air, and very foluble in water. Bhe tafte is fharp
and faline. This fait exifts ready formed in the urine
of graminivorous animals.
24. Succinate of Soda.
The combination of fuccinic acid with foda, forms
beautiful tranfparent cryftals by fpontaneous evapora¬
tion. The cryftals are in the form of four-fided prifms
with two-fided fummits. T he tafte of the fait is hit¬
ter. It is not deliquefcent in the air, and it requires
about three times its weight of water to diffblve it*.
It is decompofed when it is expofed to heat in clofe
velfels.
19S.
The oxalic acid is capable of forming an acidulous
fait with foda j but when it is fully faturated, the oxa¬
late of foda thus formed, is difficult of cryftallization.
If two parts of cryftallized carbonate of foda are dii-
folved in one part of oxalic acid, part of the oxa¬
late of foda is precipitated, and what remains in
the folution, being evaporated, affords cryftals in
the form of fmall grains. This fait is more folu¬
ble in warm than in cold water, and gives a green
colour to the fyrup of violets. It is decompofed by
potafh. In other refpedls it refembles the oxalate of
potafti.
19. Tartrate of Soda.
This compound of tartaric acid and foda, is form¬
ed by faturating the acid with the alkali. The form
of the cryftals of this fait is that of fine needles. The
fpecific gravity is 1.7437. This fait combines with
another portion of acid, and forms an acidulous tartrate
or fupertartrate of foda, which is not more foluble in
water than the acidulous tartrate of potafh.
2©. Citrate of Soda.
1. This fait, which is a compound of citric acid and
foda, is formed by diredlly combining the acid and al¬
kali.
2. It cryftallizes in fix-fided prifms which are not
terminated by a pyramid. It has a faline tafte, efflo-
refces in the air, and is foluble in two parts ol water.
When heated, it boils up, fwells, and is charred. It is
decompofed by barytes and lime water. It is compof-
ed of
25. Saccolate of Soda.
All that is known of this fait is, that it cryftallizes
in fmall cryftals, and is foluble in five times its weight
of boiling water.
36. Camphorate of Soda.
1. This coifipound of camphoric acid with foda is
formed by faturating a folution of carbonate of foda
in water with the acid 5 and by evaporation with a
gentle heat, the cryftals are obtained, when the folution
cools.
2. The cryftals of camphorate of foda are irregular.
They are white and tranfparent. The tafte is bitter.
Expofed to the air, this fait efflorefces. It is foluble
in eight parts of boiling water.
3. Expofed to heat, it melts and fwells, and the acid
is diflipated in thick vapours of an aromatic odour.
With the blow-pipe it burns with a blue flame, and is
decompofed. The acid is fublimed, and the alkali re¬
mains behind. It is decompofed by potalh, and by the
ftrong acids *.
27. Suberate of Soda.
* Ann. de
Chim. xxvii.-
p. a£.
The compound of fuberic acid with foda, forms a fait
which does not cryftallize. It has a (lightly bitter tafte,
and reddens the tindlure of turnfole. It deliquefces in
the air, and is very foluble in water. Expofed to heat,
it fwells and melts j the acid is fublimed, and the al¬
kali remains behind. The mineral acids decompofe it,
and it is alfo decompofed by the calcareous, aluminous
and magnefian falts f. f 75^. xxiiL
28. Mellate of Soda. P' S3’
Acid 60.7
Soda 39.3
100.0
21. Malate of Soda.
This fait, formed of malic acid and foda, is deliquef¬
cent in the air, and Very foluble in water. Its other
properties are unknown.
22. Gallate of Soda.
The nature of the compound of gallic acid with foda
has not yet been afcertained. A green colour is pro¬
duced, when the alkali is dropt into the acid.
The compound of mellitic acid with foda, when it is
faturated, forms cryftals in cubes or three-fided tables.
Sometimes they are formed in groups,, and fometimes
they are infulated.
29., La&ate of Soda-
All that is known of this fait is* that it does not
cryftallize,. but is foluble in alcohol-
30. Prufiiate of Soda.
This fait, which is a . compound of pruflie acid and
foda, is very foluble in water, converts vegetable blues
to green, and when it is expofed to a very moderate
heat, it is partially decompofed.
31. Sebate
574
CHEMISTRY.
31. Sebate of Soda. / .
Nothing farther is known of the compound of fe-
bacid acid with i'oda, than that it is foluble in water.
IV. Compounds of Soda with Inflammable Subftances.
I. Soda enters into combination with alcohol, and
forms a reddith coloured acrid folution •, but when heat
is applied to this folution, it appears that the alcohol is
partially decompofed.
2.. There is no action between ether and foda.
3. Soda readily combines with the fixed oils, and
efpecialiy that clafs of them called fat oils, and forms
with them compounds called foaps.
4. Soda combines in very fmall quantity with the
volatile oils, and the compounds thus formed have fome
of the properties of foap.
Sect. III. Of Ammonia and it's Combinations.
1096
Hiftory. 1. This fubftance has been long known under the
names of volatile alkali, volatile fbint of fal ammoniac,
caufic volatile alkali, hartfhorn, fpirit of hart floor n and
of urine, becaufe it was obtained from thefe fubitances.
It has received the name ammonia, from /?/ ammoniac,
a fait which was extracted from the urine and dung
of camels, colledted near the temple of Jupiter Ammon
in Africa. This fait was firit known to the ancients.
It is firft mentioned by Bafil Valentine, who lived in
the 15th century, as being prepared from certain fub-
llances, with an account of fome of its properties. But
the difference between the pure fait and its compound
with the carbonic acid was not known till the difcovery
of Dr Black. It was fuppofed to be in the Hate of
greateft purity in the folid and cryltalline form } and
in its pure, cauflic, and liquid ftate, it was fuppofed to
be changed, and contaminated with the lime or the dif¬
ferent matters which had been employed in extrafting
it from fal ammoniac. It was afterwards examined by
Dr Prictlley in the Hate of gas, and he decompofed it
by eleffricity, but without difcovering its conifiluent
parts. This was at laft effected by the refearches and
experiments of Scheele and Bergman, and finally con-
1097 firmed by thofe of Berthollet.
Prepara- 2. Ammonia may be obtained by the following pro-
tion. cefs> Three parts of quicklime, and one part of fal-
ammoniac reduced to powder, are to be put into a re¬
tort, and the beak of the retort immerfed under mer¬
cury in the mercurial apparatus. A jar filled with
mercury is inverted above it. Heat is applied to the
retort, and a gas comes over in great abundance. This
gas is ammonia, or atnmoniacal gas. Sal-ammoniac
confifts of the muriatic acid and ammonia. The affini¬
ty of lime for muriatic acid is ftronger than that of am¬
monia, and therefore the ammonia is difengaged in the
ftate of gas, while the lime combines with the acid.
The gas muft be received over mercury, becaufe it is
1098 readily abforbed by water.
Properties. 3. Ammonia in the ftate of gas refembles common
air. It is tranfparent and colourlefs, and may be in¬
definitely comprefied and dilated. The fmell is ex¬
tremely pungent and acrid, particularly irritating the
eyes and noftrils. It has an acrid and cauftic tafte,
but is much lefs corrofive than the other alkalies. It
changes vegetable blues to a green colour. It is lighter Acnfiori
than common air. Its fpecific gravity is 0.000732 ; ^
fo that it is nearly one half lighter. According to Mr
Kirwan, a cubic inch of this gas weighs only .27 of a
grain.
It is totally unfit for refpiration. No animal can
breathe it without inftant death. It is alfo unfit for
the fupport of combuftion •, but although it extinguilhes
burning bodies, the flame of a candle let down into this
gas, is confiderably enlarged in volume by the addition
of another flame, which is of a pale yellow colour.
4. This gas is unaltered by the afHon of light. A&ion
When it is expofed to a ftreng heat, as when it is paf-heat.
fed through a red-hot porcelain tubey-kjs decompofed
and converted into azotic and hydrogen gafes. It is
alfo decompofed by the cleftric fpark. When it is ex¬
pofed to the temperature of—450, it is condenfed, and
aflumes a liquid form •, but it returns to the gafeous
ftate by an elevation of temperature.
5. There is no action between oxygen gas and this of ox^
gas in the cold •, but if the two gafes mixt together are
made to pafs through a red-hot porcelain tube, the am¬
monia is decompofed •, a detonation takes place, the
hydrogen combines with the oxygen and forms water.
The azote pafl'es off in the ftate of gas.
6. There is no adftion between this gas and azotic Coramotj
gas, nor is there any asftion between common air andair-
ammoniaeal gas in the cold 5 but if the mixture be
made to pafs through a red-hot porcelain tube, water
is formed, and the gas which efcapes is a combination
of the azotic gas of the atmofphere, and of that which
entered into the compofition of ammonia. ^ But if the
fame experiment be made with a greater proportion of* k'ourn
oxygen gas, the. product is nitric acid, which is formed
by the combination of part of the oxygen and thep
afcote
7. It has been already mentioned, that the conftitu- Compoii
ent parts of ammonia were difeovered by Scheele andtion.
Bergman, and Prieftley and Berthollet. According
to the experiments of the latter, ammonia is compofed
of 121 parts of azote, and 29 of hydrogen. This refult
was obtained by decompofing the ammonia by means of
eleftricity. One hundred parts of ammonia, therefore,
are compofed of
Azote 80
Hydrogen 20
IOC
n°y\
8. Ammomacal gas combines very rapidly with wa- 01 water
ter. If a bit of ice be brought into contaift with this
gas, it abforbs and condenfes it, and inftantly becomes
liquid. There is at the fame time a prodmftion of
cold ; but water in the liquid ftate, as it abforbs this
gas, becomes warm, becaufe the gas is deprived of that
quantity of caloric which is neceffary to retain it in
the gafeous form. The water, as it abforbs the gas,
becomes fpecifically lighter. When water is faturated
with this gas, it is known under the name of liquid
ammonia. The fpecific gravity of a faturated folu¬
tion is 0.9054. When this folution is expofed to the
temperature of 130° the ammonia is driven off, and
affumes the galeous form ; and when it is flowly and
gradually cooled to the temperature of from —35 to
s
CHEMISTRY.
—4^3> ^ cryftalhzes 5 but ‘when the temperature is ra¬
pidly diminilhed to —58° it affumes the form of jelly.
At that temperature it has no fmell f.
By Mr Davy’s experiments, a faturated folution of
ammonia contains, in too parts,
Water 74-63
Ammonia 25.37
100.00
He has alfo afcertained the different proportions of
water and ammonia which are contained in 100 parts
]aW/ of liquid ammonia of different fpecific gravities J.
es, q’hefe are exhibited in the following table.
TABLE of the quantities of Ammonia, fuch as exi/ls in
the aeriform fate, faturated with water at ; 20, in
Aqueous atnmoniacal Solutions of different fpecific gra-
and fulphur. By this proccfs a liquid of a deep orange
colour, which exhales extremely fetid vapours, on ac¬
count of the excefs of ammonia which it contains, is
produced. This was known under the name of the
fuming liquor of Boyle. This fulphuret is decompofed
by heat, by the acids and fulphurated hydrogen gas.
2. When ammonia abforbs fulphurated hydrogen gas,
either by agitating the gas in a veffel with liquid am¬
monia, or by paffing a current of the gas through it,
there is an evolution of caloric and the formation of
vapour, and the liquid is converted into an orange co¬
lour. This is the hydrofulphuret of ammonia. It has
no longer the fetid odour of the hydrogenated fulphu¬
ret, and it may be cryflallized. It is decompofed by
the aft ion of heat, bv the acids, and by the metallic
oxides.
III. Compounds «f Ammonia with the Acids.
575'
Ammoniat
8tc.
vities.
inities. 9. The order of affinities of ammonia is the fame as
the fixed alkalies.
100
Specific grav.
9° 54
9166
9255
93 26
9385
9435
9476
95*3
9545
9573
9597
9619
9684
9639
97'3
Ammoniac.
25>37
22,07
J9>54
17,52
5,88
M,53
!3,46
12,40
11,56
10,82
10,17
9,60
9,53
9,°9
7,17
Water.
74,63
77,93
80.46
8 2,48
84,12
85.47
86,54
87,60
88,44
89,18
89.83
90,40
9°,5
9°,9I
92.83
I. Aftion of Phofphorus on Ammonia.
th heat. There is no aftion between ammonia and phofpho¬
rus in the cold •, but when the two gafes are puffed
through a red-hot porcelain tube, the ammonia is de-
cempofed, and its conftituent parts enter into combi¬
nation with the phofphorus. There is formed phof-
phorated hydrogen gas, and phofphorated azotic gas.
In this cafe, there is a double aftion of the phofphorus,
one part combining with the hydrogen, and another
with the azote.
2. Ammonia is alfo decompofed by red-hot charcoal,
when it pafles over in the Hate of gas at this tempe¬
rature. Part of the carbone of the charcoal combines
with the ammonia, and forms pruffic acid.
II. Aftion of Sulphur on Ammonia.
!I. Ammonia combines with fulphur in the Hate of
vapour. This combination conftitutes a fulphuret of
ammonia, which has the property of decompofing wa¬
ter, and is then converted into a hydrogenated fulphu¬
ret of ammonia. This may be prepared by diftilling
in a retort, a' mixture of muriate of ammonia, lime,
I. Sulphate of Ammonia.
^ . . . no<5
1. The compound of fulphuric acid with ammonia Hiftory.
wras formerly called fecret fal ammoniac of Glauber, be-
caufe it was difeovered by that chemilt. It was alfo
called vitriolated ammonia, and vtriolaled volatile alka¬
li. It was difeovered by Glauber in examining the
refiduum of the decompofition of ammonia by means of
fulphuric acid. 1107
2. This fait may be formed by faturating the acid *!rePara“
with the alkali, and afterwards cryilallizing it.
3. The cryftals of fulphate of ammonia are fix-lidedproperties*-
prifms with unequal fides, terminated by fix-lided pyra¬
mids. The fulphate of ammonia undergoes little
change in the air. It flowly attrafts moifture in a
humid atmofphere. It is foluble in two parts of cold
water, and in a fimilar quantity of boiling water. nop
4. When expofed to heat, it melts; and if the heat Aftion of-
be continued, it lofes a part of its bafe, and is converted ^eat*
into the acidulous fulphate of ammonia. This differs
from the fulphate by its (harp tafte, and its property of
reddening vegetable blues, greater folubility, and a
different aftion on feveral compounds.
5. This fait is not decompofed like the other ful
phates, on account of its greater volatility. The com¬
ponent parts of this fait, according to Mr Kirwan, are,.
Acid 54*66
Ammonia 14.24
Water Si-to
100.00
2. Sulphite of Ammonia.
1110
r. The compound of fulphurous acid with ammonia Prepara-
is prepared by palling a itream of fulphurous acid gasb°n*
into a veffel with liquid ammonia. The gafeous acid
is readily abforbed, much heat is produced, and the
fulphite of ammonia cryftallizes on the cooling of the
faturated folution. ins
2. This fait is in the form of fix-fided prifms termi-Ptoperties,
nating in fix-fided pyramids, or in that of four-fided
rhomboidal prifms, with three-ffded fummits. The
tafte is at firft cool and pungent, and afterwards fulphu*.
rous. It is deliquefeent in the air, from which it ab--
forbs oxygen, and is converted into the fulphate. It is
foluble- in its own weight of cold water. The folution
produces.
57^
Ammonia,
&c.
ilia
Compoli-
tion.
Hiftory.
1114
Prepara¬
tion.
1II5
Properties.
ni6
Aftion of
water.
1117
Of heat.
C H E M I
produces a great degree of cold. Boiling water dif-
folves ftill more. Water faturated with fulphite of
ammonia, and agitated in the open air, prefents this
fait in a few hours converted into the fulphate, without
any cruft on the furface, or muddinefs in the liquid,
becaufe it is very foluble in water.
3. It decrepitates {lightly on red-hot coals : when it
is gradually heated in a clofe veffel, it gives out at firft
water and ammonia, and then fublimes totally in the
ftate of acidulous fulphite.
4. The conftituent parts of this fait are,
Sulphurous acid 60
Ammonia 29
Water 11
ICO
3. Nitrate of Ammonia.
1. This compound of nitric acid and ammohia was
formerly called nitrous fal ammoniac, inflammable nitre.
This fait has been particularly examined by Berthollet,
and more lately by Mr Davy.
2. Nitrate of ammonia is prepared by direflly com¬
bining the acid and the alkali, and it may be obtain¬
ed in cryftals by careful evaporation and flow cool-
ing.
3. This fait cryftallizes in fix-fided prifms, termi¬
nating in long fix-fided pyramids but the appearance
of the cryftals varies with the temperature in which
the evaporation goes on. Sometimes they are in long
filky threads, foft and elaftic the tafte is very acrid,
bitter, and penetrating $ and the fpecific gravity is
1.5785.
4. When the nitrate of ammonia is expofed to the
air, it attracts moifture, and deliquefces. It is foluble
in two parts of cold water. Boiling water diffolves
double of its own weight.
Nitrate of ammonia very readily undergoes the
watery fufion. If the heat be continued, it is entirely
deprived of its water of cryftallization j and when the
temperature is increafed, it explodes fpontaneoufly,
p-iving out at the fame time a brilliant white flame,
with confiderable noife 5 it is then entirely diflipated
into vapour. This detonation inftantaneoufly takes
place, when the nitrate of ammonia is thrown on a
red-hot iron. It was from this property that the fait
derives its name of inflammable nitre. The nature of
this rapid combuftion will be underftood by confider-
ing the component parts of the fait. The hydrogen of
the ammonia enters into combination with the oxygen
of the acid *, water is formed, and azotic gas is difen-
gaged from each of the component parts of the fait.
In the different ftates of cryftallization, this fait re¬
quires different temperatures for its fufion and decom-
pofition. The following are the conclufions from Mr
Davy’s experiments.
“ a. Compaft or dry nitrate of ammonia undergoes
•little or no change at temperatures below 260°.
4< b. At temperatures between 275° and 300°, it
&c.
S T R Y.
flowly fublimes without decompofition, or without be- Ammo?i
coming fluid.
“ c. At 3 20° it becomes fluid, decompofes, and ftill
flowly fublimes 5 it neither affuming, nor continuing
in, the fluid ftate, without decompofition.
“ d. At temperatures between 340° and 480°, it
decompofes rapidly.
“ e. The prifmatic and fibrous nitrates of ammonia
become fluid at temperatures below 300°, and undergo
ebullition at temperatures between 360° and 400°,
without decompofition.
u f. They are capable of being heated to 430°
without decompofition or fublimation, till a certain
quantity of their Water is evaporated^
‘‘ g. At temperatures above 450°, they undergo de-
competition without ptevioufly lofing their water ofp. 85, '
cryftallization*.” ms
6. The component parts of nitrate of ammonia are,Compoii.
according to
Kirwan, Fourcroy,
Acid, 57 46
Ammonia, 23 40
Water, 20 14
100
100
Mr Davy has afcertained the proportions of the com¬
ponent parts of this fait in its three different ftatesf.
Acid,
Ammonia,
Water,
Fibrous.
72-5
8.2
100.0
100.0
Compact.
74-5
19.8
5-7
100.0
f IbiL
p.72.
7. This fait has been applied to no ufe, but for the ufeSt
purpofes of chemical experiment, and efpecially for the
preparation of the nitrous oxide or gafeous oxide of
azote, which has been already defcribed in treating of
the compounds of azote.
4. Nitrate of Ammonia.
If this fait be formed by depriving the nitrate of
ammonia of part of its acid, it muft be extremely diffi¬
cult, Fourcroy obferves, to obtain it in this way, be-^
fore the fait is totally decompofcd j.
1119
5. Muriate of Ammonia.
1 Connn
Chim. in
p. 160.
mcj
1. The compound of muriatic acid and ammonia hasHiftory
been known, from time immemorial, by the name oiflal
ammoniac. It derives this name from Ammonia, a
country of Libya, which name is defcriptive of the fandy
foil of that region (a). Hence too is the origin of
the epithet Ammon given to Jupiter, to whom a tern-
pie was erefted in that country. This ialt was origi¬
nally collefted in great quantities near this temple,
where it was formed in the fand from the excrementi-
tious matters of different animals, particularly camels.
It was well known to the Greeks and Romans, and
was employed by them in feveral arts. Before the na¬
ture
(a) From the Greek word aupto', which fignifies_/a«/.
ft, noma,
c.
pi
Pi tea*
j*. 122
Pi .-rties.
!23
bn of
v. «r.
C H E M I
ture of tins fait was known, it was chiefly brought
from Egypt; but it is now found to exift, ready form¬
ed, in different countries, particularly in the vicinity
of volcanoes, where it feems to be fublimed. It is
found alfo in the mountains of Tartary and Thibet, in
grottoes in the neighbourhood of Puzzuoli, and dif-
folved in the waters of feme lakes in Tufcany. The
nature of the muriate of ammonia was flrft difeovered
by Geoffrey *, it was afterwards more accurately exa¬
mined by Duhamel j and, at laft, its properties were
fully developed by Black, Bergman, and Scheele, Ber-
thollet and Fourcroy.
2. The muriate of ammonia, which is found ready
prepared in nature, is extremely impure. It mult
therefore be fubje£ted to feveral proceffes, to feparate
the foreign matters with which it is impregnated. The
fait which is found fublimed in the crater of volca¬
noes, is generally mixed with arfenic and fulphur.
In Egypt it is prepared by colle&ing together the ex¬
crements of animals which feed on faline plants.
Thefe fubftances are dried and burnt in furnaces which
are conftrufted on purpofe, or ufed as the common
materials of fuel. The foot which is thus formed, is
collefted, and put into large glafs bottles, and ex-
pofed to a ftrong heat, which is gradually increafed
for 72 hours. Towards the fecond day the fait is fu¬
blimed, and attaches itfelf to the upper part of the
bottles. When the apparatus has cooled, the bottles
are broken, and the fait in form of a cake is taken out,
which amounts to little lefs than one-third of the foot
which was employed. This manufacture is carried on
at Grand Cairo •, and the French conful then refident
there, communicated an account of it to the Academy
of Sciences, in the year 1719. But it was not till
40 years after this period that it was manufactured in
Europe. The firlt manufactory was eftablifhed in Ger¬
many in 1759 j others afterwards commenced in France,
and in different parts of Britain.
In the European manufactories it is prepared by dif¬
ferent proceffes. Sometimes the calcareous muriate is
precipitated by a carbonate of ammonia extracted from
animal matters. After the lime is depofited, the liquor is
evaporated, and the muriate of ammonia is fublimed.
Sometimes too it is prepared by forming a fulphate of
ammonia; and by mixing the fait with a muriate of foda,
and expofing the mixture to heat, a double decorapofi-
tionis effeCted, and the muriate of ammonia is fublimed.
It is alfo prepared by the direCt combination of muriatic
acid and ammonia.
3. Prepared in this way by fublimation, it is in the
form of a folid mafs, which has feme degree of elafti-
eity. It yields to the preflure of the finger, may be
compreffed into fmaller bulk, and is with difficulty
reduced to powder. The fpecific gravity is 1.42.
The tafte is pungent, acrid, and cooling. By folu-
tion in water and flow evaporation, it cryftallizes in
the form of long four-fided pyramids. The primitive
form of the eryital is the regular oClahedron •, and
that of the integrant particle, the regular tetrahedron.
Sometimes it cryftallizes in cubes, and fometimes the
prifms are very fmall, and grouped together, exhibiting
a feathery appearance.
4. The muriate of ammonia is not altered by expo-
fure to the air. It is foluble in three or four times its
Weight of cold water. Great cold is produced during
Vol. V. Part II,
S T R Y. _ 577
the folution ; and on this account it is employed with Ammonia,
fnow and ice in the production of artificial cold. Boil- ^
ing water diffolves nearly its own weight of this
fait. . . _ 1124
5. The muriate of ammonia is fufible and volatile. Of heat.
When it is thrown on red-hot coals, it is entirely dil-
fipated in white vapour. Expofed to a high tempera¬
ture, it is decompofed. .
6. This fait is readily decompofed by the fulphuric Of acids,
acid, which difengages the muriatic acid with violent
effcrvefcence. It is alfo decompofed by the nitric acid,
which oxygenates the muriatic acid. In this way a
nitro-muriatic acid is prepared, which is employed for
the folution of gold. Barytes, potafli, foda, and lime,
dccompofe the muriate of ammonia, and difengage the
ammonia in thi? ftate of gas, merely by trituration j
but if heat be applied, the decompofition is more ra¬
pid and complete. Tt2g
7. According to the analyfis of Mr Kirwan, theCompofi-
component parts of the muriate of ammonia arc, tiou.
Acid,
A*imonia,
Water,
42.75
25.00
32.25
100.00
* Jtsichol-
for's Jour¬
nal. iii.
216.
1127
1128
8. No fait is more generally employed than muriate Ufes.
of ammonia. In chemiftry it is ufed for the extrac¬
tion of ammonia, and the carbonate of ammonia j for the
production of cold, and as an inftrument of analyfis.
It is alfo employed in medicine ; in the art of dyeing,
for the preparation of colours ; in metallurgy, for the
indication and reparation of fome metallic fubftances,
and in the arts, for covering the furface of copper and
other veffels, to prevent oxydation in the procefs
of tinning j and for the fame purpofe in folder-
ing.
6. Hyperoxymuriate of Ammonia.
The compound of hyperoxymuriatie acid and am- Prepani-
monia is formed by pouring carbonate of ammonia in-tion.
to a folution of any of the earthy hyperoxymuriates.
A double decompofition takes place, and a hyperoxy¬
muriate of ammonia is formed. This fait is very Soluble pr”jfie?>
in water and in alcohol. It is decompofed at a low
temperature, and gives out a quantity of gas together
with a fmell of hyperoxymuriatic acid. Such a fmell,
Mr Chenevix obferves, is doubtlefs owing to the great
quantity of oxygen contained in the acid, which is
more than what is neceflary to combine with the hy¬
drogen contained in the alkali. Some part, therefore,
is difengaged without decompofition. Mr Chenevix
who formed this fait, could not fucceed in afeertaining * W/.
the proportion of its conftituent parts *. Tmnf.
7. Fluate of Ammonia. P- H3*
1. This compound of fluoric acid and ammonia is preparation
prepared by faturating the acid with the alkali. By and proper-
evaporation it cryftallizes in fmall needles or prifms,ties,
which have a pungent tafte analogous to that of ful¬
phate of ammonia.
2. When it is heated, this fait gives out ammonia,
and is fublimed in the ftate of an acidulous fluate.
This fait decompofes the nitrate and muriate of lime,
and the fulphate of magnefia.
4 8. Borate
578
C H E M I
Atm won; a,
£*c.
8. Borate of Ammonia.
v—J Xhe compound of boracic acid and ammonia is little
known. It is formed by the direct union of the acid
with the alkali. It has fo little permanency, that the
folution being evaporated, the whole of the ammonia
l Feweroy, *s volatilized, while the boracic acid cryftallizes. The
('ckwi i'i\ evtr7 oi-^er hilt decompofes it f.
P* 33^-
X131
Names and
Liftory.
H3-2
Prepara¬
tion.
”33
Properties.
Action of
•water.
1133
Of heat.
1136
Acids.
”37
ITfes.
9. Phofphate of Ammonia.
1. This fait, the compound of phofphoric acid and am¬
monia, was long confounded with the phofphate of fa-
da, as it exifts with it in urine, under the names of
fvfibh fait, native fait of urine, microcofmic fait. It was
hr ft accurately diftlnguifhed by Schloffer, De Chaul-
nes, and Roueile, about the year 17705 foon after by
Lavoifier, and more lately by Vauquelin.
2. At firft it was extracted from the fait of urine 5
and many proceffes were adopted to obtain it pure, and
feparate from the muriate and phofphate of foda, with
which it is always accompanied. It is now prepared
artificially by direftly combining phofphoric acid, with
ammonia 5 and by flow evaporation of the folution to
a certain confiftence cryftals are obtained on cooling.
3. The phofphate of ammonia cryflallizes in regular
four-fided prifms, terminated by four equal-fided pyra¬
mids, and fometimes in the form of fmall needles clofe-
ly interwoven with each other. It has a cooling, fa-
line, pungent tafte, and changes the fyrup of violets
to a green colour. Its fpecific gravity is l.Soyi-
4. In a moift air, it is flightly deliquefeent, but
otherwife it is unchanged. It is foluble in four parts
of cold water, and ftill more fo in boiling water.
5. Expofed to heat, it undergoes the watery fufion,
fwells up, and melts into a transparent glafs, which is
acid, part of the bafe being driven off. Hence it de¬
rived the name oifufible fait.
6. It is readily decompofed by charcoal by the ful-
phuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, and by the two fixed
alkalies.
7. The phofphate of ammonia is employed as a flux
in effaying mineral fubftances with the blow-pipe. It
is greatly ufed alfo in the fabrication of coloured glaffes
and artificial precious ftones.
”3S
Prepara¬
tion.
1239
Properties.
1140
A ft ion of
water.
1141
Of heat.
10. Phofphite of Ammonia.
1. This is a compound of phofphorous acid and am¬
monia. It is prepared by the direft combination of
the acid with ammonia or the carbonate of ammonia,
and by flow evaporation it may be obtained in cry-
ilals.
2. It fometimes cryftallizes in long tranfparent
needles, and fometimes in four-fided prifms, terminat¬
ed by four-fided pyramids. It has a ftrong pungent
tafte.
3. This fait is flightly deliquefeent in the air, is
foluble in twice its weight of cold water, and being
more foluble in boiling water, it cryftallizes on cooling.
4. When it is heated on charcoal with the blow¬
pipe, it boils up, and lofes its water of cryftallization.
When this has efcaped, it is furrounded with a fine
phofphoric light 5 and as the fait begins to vitrify,,
there are evolved bubbles of gas, which burn as they
come in contaft with the air, with a vivid flame, and
form with the atmofphere a ring of white vapour of
S T R Y.
phofphoric acid. What remains is phofphoric acid in Amn<:,
the vitreous ftate. The fame effeft may be produced
by heating fix or feven grains of the fait in a fmall
glafs globe to which a tube is adapted, and immerfed
under jars over mercury. The fait melts, fwells, and
gives out bubbles of phofphorated hydrogen gas, which
fpontaneoufly inflame as they come in contact with the
air, and exhibit the white coronet of vapour which is
the characfcriftic property of the combuftion of this
gas. During this decompofition, the bafe of the fait,
the ammonia, is alfo volatilized, and pure phofphoric
acid remains behind. This fait is decompofed by
charcoal, the acids, and by potafh and foda.
5. The conftituent parts of thk falt arc the follow-.
ing. _ tion.
Phofphorous acid, 26
Ammonia, 51
Water, 23
IOO
6. It has not hitherto been applied to any ufe.
11. Carbonate of Ammonia.
114']
1. The compound of carbonic acid with ammonia Names;|
has been diftinguifhed by different names, as concrete
volatile alkali, aerated volatile alkali, and cretaceous fal
ammoniac. Its peculiar nature and properties were
not clearly underftood, till, by the difeovery of Dr
Black, it was demonllrated to be a compound fait.
This fait is obtained by a great many different procef¬
fes. Formerly it was procured by diftilling animal
matters, and particularly horns, as the horns of the
hart, whence it derived the name of volatile fait of j
hartfhorn.
2. Carbonate of ammonia may be prepared by di-Prepar#'
reftly combining carbonic acid and ammonia in thetion.
ftate of gas over mercury j or it may be obtained by
mixing together two parts of chalk, and one part of Id
muriate of ammonia, well dried and reduced to pow¬
der, and expofing them to heat in a porcelain retort.
The gas, as it comes over, is collefted in a receiver,
which is to be cooled with cloths moiftened with wa¬
ter. This is the carbonate of ammonia, which is fub-
limed and attaches itfelf to the tides of the receiver.
In this procefs there is a double decompofition. The
carbonic acid of the lime combines with the ammonia,
and forms carbonate of ammonia, which is driven off
by heat 5 and the muriatic acid of the muriate of am¬
monia combines with the lime, and forms muriate of
lime, w'hich remains in the retort. 114]
3. The carbonate of ammonia is cryftallized j butProput]
the cryftals are fo irregular, that their form has not
been accurately afeertained. Bergman deferibes them
as octahedrons, whofe four angles are truncated ; while,
according to Rome de Lifle, they are compreffed four-
fided prilms, terminated by a two-fided fummit. The
tafte of this fait is flightly acrid, and the fmell is
perceptibly that of ammonia, though more feeble.
It converts vegetable blues to green. Its fpecific gra¬
vity is 0.966. 114^
4. When this fait is pure, it is not fenfibly changed A<fron
by expofure to the air. It is very foluble in water,wat'er'
and, during its folution, produces cold. Twro parts of
cold water difiblve more than one of the fait- Water,
at the temperature of about 120°, diffolvcs-more than
its
C H E M I
noma, {ts own weight, See. When it is rapidly cooled, the
U fv* fait cryftallizes in the moft regular form which it af-
^ fumes. Boiling water cannot be employed for its fo-
t4y lution, becaufe at this temperature the fait is driven
0 Lt. off in the Hate of vapour. When this fait is thrown
upon hot iron, it melts, boils, and is converted into
i 8 vapur.
Olids. 5* ^ decompofed by all the acids with ef-
fervefcence j and the effervefcence with this fait is
more violent than with the carbonate' of the two fix¬
ed alkalies, becaufe the proportion of carbonic acid is
’ 149 greater.
DbolU 6. The conftituent parts of this fait, according to
u Bergman, are,
Carbonic acid 45
Ammonia 43
Water 12
100
But Mr Davy has found, that the proportion of
acid and water in this fait depends on the tempera¬
ture at which it is formed. It is greater when the
temperature is low, and diminilhes as the temperature
150 is increafed.
V j. This fait is employed in medicine, and alfo in
the manufafture of muriate of ammonia, for which pur-
pofe it is produced by diftillation from animal matters.
The ufe of it, when it is mixed with volatile oils, as
a perfume, or as a ftimulant in fmelling bottles, is well
known.
1SI
Pt ira-
Sk .
krties.
. I53
A Jti of
h
12. Arfeniate of Ammonia.
T. This fait, the compound of arfenic acid and am¬
monia, is formed by combining the acid with the al¬
kali. When the folution is evaporated, it affords cry-
llals of arfeniate of ammonia.
" 2. It cryftallizes in the form of rhomboidal prifms;
or, with an excefs of acid, in the form of needles.
The cryftals of the firft convert the fyrup of violets
mto green, and thofe of the fecond are deliquefeent in
the air.
3. When this fait is gently heated, the ammonia is
difengaged, and the arfenic acid remains behind ; but
when the heat is violent and hidden, part of the alkali
and of the acid are decompofed, water is formed, azo¬
tic gas is difengaged, and the arfenic is fublimed in the
metallic ftate.
154
bJi
VH'ira.
Pr
55
:rue$.
13. Arfenite of Ammonia.
This is a compound of the white oxide of arfenic,
or arfenious acid, with ammonia j but nothing is known
of its properties.
14. Tungftate of Ammonia.
1. This compound of tungftic acid and ammonia is
formed by diffolving the oxide of tungften in the folu¬
tion of ammonia or carbonate of ammonia ; and by
evaporating the folution, the fait is obtained in the
form of cryftals.
2. It cryftallizes in fmall feales, which have fome
refemblance to boracic acid j or in fmall needles, which
are four-fided. This fait has a metallic tafte. It is not
deliquefeent in the air, but is foluble in water. When
it is expofed to heat, it is decompofed.
S T it Y.
3. The component parts of this fait are,
Tungftic acid 18
Ammonia and water 22
100
15. Molybdate of Ammonia.
16. Chromate of Ammonia.
17. Acetate of Ammonia.
1, This compound of acetic acid and ammonia has Prepara-
been long known by the name of fpiritus mindereri. ho11*
In this ftate it is combined with an excefs of acid. It
may be obtained, but with fome difficulty, on account
of its volatility, by flow evaporation. It then cryftal-
Lizes in the form of needles. Cryftals are alfo obtained
by very flow fublimation of this fait. T r
2. The cryftals of acetate of ammonia are long, flen- Properties,
der, flat, and pointed, of a pearly white colour *. The * Higs}m *
tafte is cooling-, with a mixture of fweet. Expofed to ^‘xPe'l~
air, it is deliquetcent, and is very ioluble in water.^ ,58.
When it is heated to the temperature of 170°, it melts }
and when the temperature is raifed to 250°, it is fub¬
limed. By diftillation of the fait in folution, with &
ftrong heat, it is partly decompofed. The ammonia is
firft driven off, then the acid, and, towards the end of
the procefs, part of the neutral fait.
A79
Annnemis,
See.
tictf
iiS3
18. Oxalate of Ammonia.
1. The compound of oxalic acid and ammonia may prepara-
be prepared by diredtly combining the acid with thetion.
alkali. By evaporating the folution, the fait cryftal¬
lizes.
2. When the acid is faturated with the alkali, the
cryftals are in the form of four-fided prifms, terminated
by two-fided fummits 5 one of which is larger, and in¬
cludes three fides of the prifm. Thefe falls are foluble
in water.
3. When this fait is expofed to heat, carbonate of Adlion of
ammonia is driven off, and nothing remains behind but heat.
a little charcoal. From this it appears, that the acid
is decompofed, the carbone and oxygen combining to¬
gether to form carbonic acid, which enters into combi¬
nation with ammonia. It is decompofed by the mineral
acids. The oxalic acid combines with it, and forms an
acidulous oxalate of ammonia. The oxalates of potafti
and foda form compounds with this fait, which are
known by the name of trip/e falls.
4. This is one of the moft ufeful falls to be employed ufes.
as a reagent in detecting lime in liquid folutions, and
for afeertaining the nature and proportions of calcare¬
ous falls.
1160
19. Tartrate of Ammonia.
The compound of tartaric acid and ammonia forms
a fait which very readily cryftallizes. This fait has
a cooling bitter tafte, is very foluble in water, and
eafily decompofed by heat. It is fubjeft alfo to fpon-
tanequs decompofition. By the adtion of the itronger
acids, part of the bafe is feparated, and it is converted
into an acidulous tartrate of ammonia.
20. Citrate of Ammonia.
I. This fait, which is a compound of citric acid and
ammonia, is formed by the direil combination of The
4 D 2 acid
s8o
CHEMISTRY.
Ammonia, acid and alkali, and It cryfialllzes when the folution is
evaporated to the confiftence of a thick fyrup.
a™ v" 2. The crvitals are in the form of an elongated prifm.
They are very foluble in water, and have a faline cool¬
ing tafte. This fait is decompofedby heat, the ammo¬
nia being driven off.
3. It is compofed of
Acid 62
Ammonia 38
100
21. Malate of Ammonia.
This fait, which is a compound of malic acid and
ammonia, is a very foluble and deliquefcent fait. Its
other properties are unknown.
22. Benzoate of Ammonia.
The compound of benzoic acid and ammonia forms
a very foluble fait, which readily cryftallizes, and the
cryftals arrange themfelves in an arborefcent or plu-
mofe form. This fait is volatile, and is decompofed by
* Fotircray all other acids *.
Connaifs. .
23. Succinate of Ammonia.
The compound of fuccinic acid and ammonia forms
a fait, which affords needle-fhaped cryftals that are
deliquefcent, and are fublimed by heat, without being
decompofed.
Chim. vil
193
24. Saccolate of Ammonia.
Nothing farther is known of this fait, than that it
has an acid tafte, and is readily decompofed by heat.
n6t
Prepara¬
tion.
1162
Properties.
1163
Aftion of
heat.
1164
Of acids.
\ Ann. de
Cb'rtn. xx vi
P- 31,
25. Camphorate of Ammonia.
1. This fait, which is a compound of camphoric
acid and ammonia, is prepared by adding the acid to
a folution of carbonate of ammonia, and hot water,
till effervefcence ceafes. The evaporation muft be
condufted with a very gentle heat, on account of the
volatility of the ammonia.
2. It is difficult to obtain this fait cryftallized.
When the folution is too much evaporated, it affords
a cryftalline mafs, in which appear fmall needles but
if it be evaporated to drynefs there remains a folid
opaque mafs, which has a (lightly bitter and pungent
tafte.
3. This fait is (lightly deliquefcent in the air *, it is
not very foluble in cold water, but may be diffolved
in three parts of boiling water. In thefe falts, it
would appear that the acid refills the attion of the wa¬
ter ; for when there is an excefs of bafe, they become
more foluble.
4. Expofed to heat on red-hot coals, it fwells and
melts, and then rifes in vapour. With the blow-pipe,
it gives a blue and red flame, and is entirely diffi-
pated.
5. This fait is decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric,
and muriatic acids, and if the folution be fufficiently
concentrated, the camphoric acid is depofited. It is
alfo decompofed by potalh and foda, and more rapidly
with the affiftance of heat. This fait is completely fo¬
luble in alcohol f.
Amnuft:
26. Suberate of Ammonia. ~
This compound of fuberic acid with ammonia af- TM
fords cryftals in the form of parallelepipeds. It has
a flight faltilh tafte, leaving an impreflion of bitternefs.
It reddens vegetable blues, and is deliquefcent in the
air. It is very foluble in water. When it is thrown on
burning coals, it fwells up, and is deprived of its water
of cryftallization. It is entirely diffipated by the action
of the blow-pipe. It is decompofed by the fulphuric,
nitric, muriatic, and oxalic acids, by the fixed alkalies,
and the aluminous and magnefian falts J. $ Anm
. Chim.
27. Mellate of Ammonia. xxiii.p.
This fait, which is a compound nf mellitic acid and
ammonia, is formed by faturating the acid with the
alkali. By evaporation it affords tranfparent, fix-fided
cryftals. This fait when expofed to the air, becomes
opaque, and of a filvery white colour.
28. Laftate of Ammonia.
This-compound of la&ic acid and ammonia forms a
fait which cryftallizes. It is deliquefcent in the air,
and is decompofed by heat, great part of the ammonia
being driven off.
29. Prufliate of Ammonia.
The compound of pruffic acid and ammonia affords
a fait which has the odour of ammonia. When this
fait is expofed to heat, it is entirely diflipated.
30. Sebate of Ammonia.
31. Urate of Ammonia.
The compound of uric acid and ammonia, forms a
fait which is not very foluble in w ater, and in many
of its properties refembles the acid itfelf.
IV. Compounds of Ammonia with Inflammable Sub-
ftances.
1. Ammonia enters into combination with alcohol,
with the afliftance of a moderate heat; but the am¬
monia is feparated when the mixture is expofed to a
temperature below the boiling point of alcohol.
2. Ammonia readily mixes with ether j but the na¬
ture of the compound, or whether it be a chemical
combination, is not known.
3. Ammonia forms a compound with the fixed oils,
which is well known under the name of foap or lini¬
ment.
4. With the volatile oils it forms compounds, which
have fomewhat fimilar properties.
Chap. XIII. Of EARTHS.
1. The w'ord earth is taken in different fignifrea-
ftons. Sometimes it fignifies the globe, and fometimes
it is ufed to denote the foil on the furface of the globe.
In chemiftry it is employed to fignify certain elementary
fubftances, of which a great proportion of the folid parts
of the globe is compofed 5 and thefe fubftances are found
to poffefs many peculiar, and fome common properties, jjd
2. The general properties of the earths are the fol-proper1
lowing.
a. They have neither tafte nor fmell.
, h. They
C H E M I
jj,e, fee. b. They are incombuitible.
I3”v   c. They are nearly infoluble in water.
HI ,, d. They have a fpecific gravity which is under 5.
Ijnera- The number of the earths which are at prefent
IT known, is nine, and we {hall treat ef them in the fol¬
lowing order.
1. Lime,
2. Barytes,
3. Strontites,
4. Magnefia,
5. Alumina,
6. Silica,
7. Yttria,
8. Glucina,
o. Zirconia,
Sect. I. Of Lime.
j I. Lime has been known from the remoteft anti-
j wn. quity. The great abundance in which it is found in
nature, and the important ufes to which it may be
applied, led men to employ it for many purpofes from
the earlieft ages of the world. It was well known to
the ancients as mortar, and as a manure, and they were
not unacquainted with fome of its medicinal virtues.
But it was long before the nature and properties of
lime vrere fully known j and particularly thofe changes
which quicklime undergoes when it is expofed to the
air, or limeftone to the aftion of heat. It was not till
Dr Black made his brilliant difcoveries, that the nature
of thefe changes was fully developed, and the fanciful
theories which had been propofed to account for them
1 [tg8 were entirely rejected.
f I aara- 2. Lime is feldom found perfectly pure in nature •,
t; of pure but it is univerfally diffufed, and exifts in fome places
. ^ ’* in the greateft abundance, in combination with other
fubfiances, and particularly with carbonic acid. To
obtain it pure, a quantity of chalk, or marble, or
limeftone, is expofed to a ftrong heat, by whicl^. means
the carbonic acid with which it is in combination is
driven off. When the limeftone, or marble, or chalk,
which has been employed, is fufficiently burnt or cal¬
cined, and removed from the fire, and water poured
upon it, it fwells up, and at laft falls down into a
\ d powder. This powder is called quicklime. In this
0 procefs of flaking lime, as it is called, a great quanti¬
ty of water is quickly abforbed, and the water being
fixed in the lime in the folid ftate, gives out that calo¬
ric which is neceffary to retain it in the ftate of li¬
quidity, fo that a great quantity of heat is evolved,
Part of the water, alfo, rifes in vapour, in confequence
of the great heat, before it is confolidated with the
lime. The heat produced is fo great, that water may
be boiled, and combuftible bodies may be inflamed.
Accidents have happened to carriages and veffels load¬
ed with lime, to which water had been admitted. So
much heat was produced, that they have been fet fire
to, and burnt. Light is alfo emitted when lime is
flaked. This, it is faid, is feen when the procefs is
conducted in a dark place, and the quantity of lime
is confiderable.
3. The purity of lime, thus obtained, is in pro¬
portion to the purity of the fubftance which was cal¬
cined. The lime which is obtained by burning pure
s t R y. 581
white marble, or what is called calcareous /par, is t;o- Lime,
lerably pure. But there are other proceffes by which ~v
thofe fubftances with which it may happen to be mixed
may be feparated. If a quantity of chalk be walked
in pure water, diffolved in diftilled acetic acid, and
afterwards precipitated by carbonate of ammonia, the
precipitate being walked and calcined, pure lime is the
product. The lime which is obtained from oylter-
ftiells, may be rendered pure by the following procefs,
Firlt walh the Ihells in different quantities of water, and
boil them, to feparate any mucilaginous fubftance. In¬
troduce them into a furnace, and calcine them to white-
nefs. After the firft calcination, put them into a por¬
celain retort, and expofe it to a red heat. By this
procefs pure lime is obtained. To preferve it in this
ftate of purity, it mult be kept in dole veffels. ,^3
4. Pure lime is of a white colour, has a hot, lharp, Properties,
caultic tafte, and dellroys the texture of animal fub- *
fiances, to which it is for fome time applied. It con¬
verts the fyrup of violets and other vegetable blues to
a green colour. The fpecific gravity of lime is 2.3. 1171
5. After the lime has been thus prepared and flak- A&ion of
ed $ if more water be added to dilute it, and reduce itwater’
to the confiftence of thick cream, this is what was
formerly called milk or cream of lime. But if a greater
quantity of water be added, and the folution be filter¬
ed, a tranfparent liquid is thus obtained, which is known
by the name of lime water. Four hundred and fifty
parts of water are required, it is faid, to diffolve one
of lime. This water is clear and limpid, has a lharp,..
acrid tafte, and renders the fyrup of violets green*.
When this water is evaporated, and the whole driven off,
the lime remains pure. If the folution of lime-water be
expofed to the air, the furface is foon covered with a pel¬
licle, which gradually acquires folidity and thicknefs«,
The pellicle is owing to the attraftion of the lime for
the carbonic acid of the atmofphere, forming a carbon¬
ate of lime, which being infoluble in water, .is preci-
pitated. < 117 V.
6. Lime, according to Trommfdorf, cryftallizes. Cryftal-
This was firft difcovered by Scheele. The method by lizes.
which Mr Trommfdorf obtained the cryftals of lime is the
following. Boil any quantity at pleafure of muriate of
lime, with one-fourth or lefs of cauftic lime, and eva¬
porate the folution till a drop of it let fall on a cold
ftone affume the confidence of fyrup. It is then to bo
filtered, and put into a clofe veffel, that the folution
may cool as flowly as poflible. Cryftals of lime 'ars-
thus obtained, which mult be walked in alcohol, to fe¬
parate any part of the muriate of lime which.may ad- ^
here. For the complete fuccefs of this experiment, Ma
fome pounds of the muriate of lime muft be ^employ- x‘ ’
ed *. . 1173
7. Lime undergoes no change b’y the action of light, Aeftion ef
and it remains unaltered when it is expofed to thereat-
greateft heat.
8. Lime is one of the molt important of the earthy
bodies. It is applied to a great , many valuable pur¬
pofes, and fortunately it can be obtained ia the great¬
eft abundance. It is employed in medicine, both as an
internal remedy, and an external application. As a
manure, it is of the tpoft extenfive utility j nor is it of
lefs importance, as it is empldyed for a cement in build¬
ing. When quicklime is mixed with fand and water,
and reduced to the. form of a thick pafte, it is in the
ftate
S82
Lime, &c.
”74
Mortar.
”75
Affinities.
S T R Y.
Boractc,
Carbonic,
Pruffic.
C H E M I
ilate of mortar. It is an’obje& of the utmoft import¬
ance that the mortar which is employed as a cement in
building, fhould be durable. To obtain this objeft, a
good deal of attention has been paid by different phi-
lofophers in afcertaining the proportions which feem to
anfwer belt, or the additions which may be made to
the ufual materials in the formation of good and dur¬
able mortar. The proportions which have been pro-
pofed by Dr Higgins are,
Coarfe fand, 4 parts,
Fine fand, 3
Quicklime, 1
The lime fhould be recently flaked, and the quantity
of water fhould be juft fufficient to bring it to a proper
confiftency.
Dr Higgins found that burnt bones, if they did not
exceed one-fourth of the lime, added to the mortar,
improved its tenacity, and prevented it from cracking
in drying.
It has been propofed to add a certain proportion of
unflaked lime to the mortar, with the view of giving
it greater folidity. Mortar acquires its hardnefs from
the lime abforbing carbonic acid, and returning to the
ftate of lime-ftone, and alfo from the combination of
part of the water with the lime. According to Guy¬
ton’s experiments, the following proportions compofe a
good, durable mortar.
Fine fand 3 parts,
Cement of well-baked bricks 3
Slaked lime 2
Unflaked 2
It is fometimes neceffary to ufe mortar as a cement
under water, but common mortar is unfit for this pur-
pofe. It has been found by experiment, that manga-
nefe added to mortar, gives it the property of confoli-
dating under water. To prepare a mortar for this pur-
pofe, Guyton recommends the following procefs. Mix
together 90 parts of limeftone, fix parts of black oxide
of manganefe, and 4 parts of blue clay in the ftate of
powder. Let the mixture be calcined, to drive off the
carbonic acid ; then add 60 parts of fand, and mix it
together with a fufficient quantity of water, to bring it
to the confiftency of mortar.
9. The order of the affinities of lime is the follow¬
ing :
Oxalic acid,
Sulphuric,
Tartaric,
Succinic,
Phofphoric,
Saclaftic,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Suberic,
Fluoric,
Arfenic,
Lactic,
Citric,
Benzoic, *
Sulphurous,
Acetic,
I. Phofphuret of Lime.
1. Lime combines 'with phofphorus, and forms a prep^'
compound which is called phofp/mret of lime. To pre-tion,
pare this compound, introduce into the bottom of a
glafs tube, clofed at one end, one part of phofphorus,
and afterwards place a little above it four or five times
its weight of quicklime in powder. Expofe to a heat
that part of the tube which contains the lime, fo that
it may become red hot. In this ftate raife the tube
and draw it along the coals, tilPthat part of it contain¬
ing the phofphorus be alfo expo&d to the heat. The
phofphorus is raifed in the ftate of vapour through the
lime, and combines with it, fo that the whole mafs forms
a compound of a brown colour. This is the phofphuret
of lime. j
2. It has a deep brown colour, no fmell, and whenPropm'
it is expofed to the air it falls to pieces. It is ihfolu-
ble in water, but it decompofcs that liquid at the mo¬
ment it comes in contaft with it. An effervefcence
takes place, and phofphorated hydrogen gas is emitted,
which is fpontaneoufly inflamed when it comes to the
furfiace of the water. It is owing to this gas that phof¬
phuret of lime, when it is moiftened, gives out the fe¬
tid fmell of garlic 5 and as this gas is formed by the
decompofition of the water, part of it combines with
the phofphuret of lime and forms a hydrogenated phof¬
phuret, fo that the phofphuret when it is taken from
the water and dried, gives out flame, when- concentrat¬
ed muriatic acid, which difengages the phofphorated
hydrogen gas, is poured upon it.
II. Sulphuret ©f Lime.
1. This compound of fulphur and lime may be Prepaid ’
formed by expofing to heat in a crucible, fulphur and tion.
lime reduced to powder. They fufe flightly, or rather
combine into an acrid, reddiih mafs, which is the ful-
phuret of lime, formerly call calcareous liver of ful-
phur' . . 1179
2. When it attra&s moifture from the air, or if a Hydroge
little water be thrown upon it, it changes colour, andated ful-|
paffes to a greenilh yellow, emitting at the fame timeph01*1'
an extremely fetid odour, and forming fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas, becomes a hydrogenated fulphuret.
3. When fulphur and lime are combined together
by means of ivater, the refult is not a Ample fulphu¬
ret, but always a hydrogenated fulphuret, on account
of the water which is decompofed. This may be pre¬
pared, either by throwing water on quicklime, cover¬
ed with fulphur in powder j the heat which is emitted
by the flaking of the lime effecting the combination .*
or it may be prepared by heating in a matrafs, fulphur
and lime in powder with ten times their weight of wa¬
ter, or by heating lime water on fulphur. By the two
firft proceffes, a liquid is obtained of a red, orange, or
yellow colour, of an extremely fetid od»ur, and a
pungent, acrid tafte. This hydrogenated fulphuret of
lime expofed to the air, is deprived of its colour, gra¬
dually decompofed, and the fulphur combining with the
oxygen of the air, is firft converted into fulphurous,
and afterwards into fulphuric acid. It is decompoied
CHEMISTRY.
583
LjSic. by the acids, fulphur is precipitated, and fulphurated
||V 1 hydrogen gas is difengaged.
BiL-ful. 4- Lime combines readily with fulphurated hydro-
g611. When fulphurated hydrogen gas is paffed into a
bottle of lime-water, the gas is abforbed and fixed by
| combining with the lime, it renders it more ibluble,
and forms the hydrofulphuret of lime. This hydroiul-
phuret, as Berthollet obferves, performs the part of an
acid, by faturating the lime, and gives it the property
of cryftallizing. This hydrofulphuret has no colour,
and, expofed to the air, emits a llrong fetid odour. It
is extremely foluble in water, and is decompofed by
the acids with effervefcence, while fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas is given out. Thus, lime enters into three
different combinations with fulphur, namely into the
fulphuret of lime, the hydrofulphuret, and the hydro¬
genated fulphuret.
III. Compounds of Lime with Acids.
181
ies.
182
Fcid na-
tn:
183
Pi 'erties.
K ,|i84
A im of
he
485
ids.
186
wfu
I. Sulphate of Lime.
1. The compound of fulphuric acid and lime has
been known under a great variety of names, as felenite,
gypfum, plqfler of Paris, alabajler, vitriol of lime. The
iulphate of lime is found in great abundance in nature j
and it is found fufficiently pure, fo that artificial pre¬
paration is not required.
2. When fulphate of lime is pure, it is frequently
found cryftallized. The primitive form of its cryftals
is a quadrangular prifm, whofe bafes are rhomboidal,
and the angles. 1130 and 67°. The integrant particle
has the fame form. The fpecific gravity is from 2.1679
to 2.3114. It is not changed by expofure to the air.
It is little foluble in water. Five hundred parts of cold
water, and 450 of boiling water, are required to dif-
fblve it. When it is expofed, to heat, it lofes its wrater
of cryftallization, decrepitates, becomes very friable, and
falls down into a very white opaque pow der. When
this pew'der is reduced to a pafte with water, it abforbs
it very rapidly, and becomes in a very fhort time folid.
From this peculiar property, it is employed for forming
cajls, under the name of plafter of Paris. When it is
firongly heated for a long time, it becomes phofphoref-
cent, and then melts *, and before the blow-pipe it gives
an opaque, vitreous globule.
3. This fait becomes more foluble by tire a<5Hon of
fulphuric acid, without being converted into an acidu¬
lous fulphate of lime. The nitric and muriatic acids
increafe its folubility without deeompofing it. It is
partly decompofed by the phofphoric acid in the cold.
4. The component parts of fulphate of lime, accord¬
ing to Bergman, are,
Acid 46
Lime 32
Water 22
100
After being dried in different temperatures, accord¬
ing to Mr Kirwan, the component parts are,
Dried in 270°
Acid 50.39
Lime 35.23
Water 14.38
In a red heat.
55-84
38.81
5-35
In a white heat.
56
4.1
00
100.00
100.00
JOO
Anhydrous Sulphate of Lime.
Lime, &.c.
This is a variety of the fulphate of lime found native
in different places, w'hich, as the name imports, con¬
tains no water of cry ftallization. It is found cryftallized.
The primitive form of the cryftal is a rectangular
prifm, having two of its bafes broader than the ether
two. The Ipecific gravity is 2.950. It has a pearly
luftre, confiderable hardnefs, phofphorefces when it is
heated, is tranfparent, and infoluble in wrater. The
component parts are, according to the analyfis of Mr
Chenevix,
Acid 44.88
Lime 55-12
100.00
2. Sulphite of Lime.
1. This fait maybe prepared by palling a current prepa^a-
of fulphurous acid gas into a bottle of diftilled water, tion.
in which is fufpended pure carbonate of lime in pow¬
der. A brilk effervefbence takes place j the iulphite,
as it forms, falls to the bottom in the ftate of powder j
and if the gas be continued to be added after the ef¬
fervefcence has ceafed, the fulphite of lime in the ftate
of powder is completely re-diffolved j the liquid be¬
comes warm j and as it cools, it affords cryftals. jtgg
2. This fait is either in the ftate of white powder, or pr0pertie^s
in the form of fix-lided prifms, terminated by long,
lix-fided pyramids. At firft it has no tafte, but when
it is kept in the mouth for fome time, it becomes ful-
phureous. It efflorefees flowly when expofed to the air,
and is converted into fulphate of lime on the furface.
It is lefs foluble in water than the fulphate of lime, re¬
quiring 800 parts of water to diffolve it. iiS$
3. When it is expofed to heat, it is deprived of fome A<ftion of
water, becomes white, and is reduced to powder. A ^eat’
ftrong heat feparates fome fulphur, and it is then con¬
verted into fulphate of lime.
4. The component parts of this fait are,
Sulphurous acid 48
Lime 47
Water 5
1190
Compofi-
tion.
100
3. Nitrate of Lime.
1. This fait, which is the compound of nitric acidHi{torj>
and lime, has been long known under the names of cal¬
careous nitre, mother water of nitre, Baldwin’s phofpho-
rus. It always accompanies nitre, and, as one of its
names imports, remains in the folution from which nitre
has been obtained. ri92
2. This fait may be prepared by diffolving carbonate Prepara-
of lime in nitric acid, evaporating to the confiftence oftlon'
fyrup, and* allowing the lolution to cool llowly. It is
thus obtained in the ftate of cryftals.
3. The cryftals of nitrate of lime are in the form of Properties*
fix-fided prifms, terminated by long pyramids. Some¬
times they are in the form of long ftriated needles,
grouped together, of a filvery whitenefs. The tafte is
acrid, hot, and bitter. The. fpecific gravity is 1.6207. ItQ^
4. 'Hiis is one of the moft deliquefeent falts. Ex-A&ionof'
pofed to the air for a few hours, it is totally melted, water.
It
5® 4
ii9S
Of heat.
C H E M
Lime, See It is fometimes employed in cliemiftry on account of
this property of attracting moifture, to deprive gafes
of the vapour of water with which they may be com¬
bined. For this purpofe, the gafes are made to pafs
through tubes which contain dried nitrate of lime. It
is owing to a mixture of this fait, that nitre is fome¬
times deliquefeent in the air. The nitrate of lime is
extremely foluble in water. One part of cold water
diffolves four of this fait. Boiling water dilfolves ftill
more.
5. When heated, this fait is very fufible. It melts
like oil, and after it becomes dry, it often acquires,
during calcination, the property of becoming luminous
in the dark. Hence the origin of one of its names.
More ftrongly heated, it is decompofed ; gives out red
vapours of nitrous gas, oxygen and azotic gafes, and
there remains behind pure lime.
6. This fait is decompofed by the fulphuric acid, par¬
tially by the phofjihoric, and by potalh and foda. By
double affinity it is decompofed by the fulphates of pot¬
alh, of foda, and ammonia. Sulphate of lime, which is
an infoluble fait, is always precipitated.
7. By the analylis of Bergman, the conftituent parts
of nitrate of lime are the following.
Acid, 43
Lime, 32
Water, 25
I
1196
Of acids.
U97
Compofi-
tion.
100
By the analyfis of Mr Kirwan, when it is well dried in
the air,
Acid, 57.44
Lime, 32.00
Water, 10.56
100.00
This fait has not been applied to any ufe. It is re¬
commended by Fourcroy as a fubftitute for nitre in the
* Foam-ay extra&ion of nitric acid *.
4. Nitrite of Lime.
When the nitrite of lime is expofed to heat, till it
give out fome bubbles of oxygen gas, there remains be¬
hind a calcareous nitrite, which converts vegetable
blues to green, and gives out a great quantity of red
vapour by the aftion of acids. It feems to be in the
Hate of nitrite of lime, that this compound polfelfes the
phofphorefcent property f.
5. Muriate of Lime.
1. The compound of muriatic acid and lime has
been known by the names of calcareous marine fait,
fixedfal ammoniac, and Hotnberg's phofplwrus. This
fait is frequently found in folution in fome mineral wa¬
ters.
2. It is prepared by faturating muriatic acid with
carbonate of lime, and evaporating the folution to the
confillence of fyrup. It cryftallizes on cooling.
p_ 3. The muriate of lime cryllallizes in lix-fided prifms,
~ °per 1 ' terminated by fix-fided pyramids. The talie is acrid,
bitter, and difagreeable. It is extremely deliquefeent
in the air. Cold water diffolves nearly double its weight.
Its fpecific gravity is 1.76.
Commip.
Chirn. iii.
P- *33’
| Ibid.
p. 159.
1198
Names.
1199
.Prepara¬
tion.
I zoo
S T R Y.
4. Expofed to heat, it becomes foft, melts, and
fwells up, and then is deprived of its water of cryftal-
lization. At a very high temperature it is aifo de¬
prived of part of its acid. In this d ate, with an excels
of lime, it acquires the property of fhining in the dark,
from which it has been called the phofphorus of Horn-
berg.
5. This fait is deco»pofed by the fulphuric acid,
by the nitric acid, which converts it into the oxymu-
riatic, and partly by the phofphoric and Huoric
acids.
6. According to the analyfis of Bergman, the con¬
ftituent parts of this fait are,
bime, {
120
Adliom
lieat.
12<
Of ad
12
Compi,;
tioa
Muriatic acid,
Lime,
Water,
31
44
25
100
But according to Mr Kirwan, when it is dried in a
red heat, it is compofed of
Acid, 42
Lime, 50
Water, 8
100
. 12c.
7. This fait is only employed for chemical experi-ufes.
ments, and "particularly for the produftion of artificial
cold, by mixing it with fnow or pounded ice. Of all
the falts employed for this purpofe, it feems to have
the greateft effedft, in confequence of the rapid tranfi-
tion from the folid to the liquid ftate. To prepare the
fait for this purpofe, it is moft convenient to evaporate
it to the confiftence of a pretty thick fyrup *, and then
by ftirring it conftantly as it cools, it is obtained in a
dry granulated ftate, which Ihould be reduced to pow¬
der in the cold, and put up in bottles fecured with
ground ftoppers.
6. Hyperoxymuriate of Lime.
no [
This fait, which is the compound of hyperoxymuri-prCpara
atic acid and lime, is prepared by putting a quantity oftion.
pure white marble, reduced to powder, into one of the
bottles of'Woulfe’s apparatus, half filled with water,
and by paffing a current of oxymuriatic acid gas into
the liquid, till the effervefcence ceafes, and the powder
has nearly difappeared. It acquires a pungent ftyptic
tafte, with a reddifh colour. It exhales the odour of
oxymuriatic acid, and not of the hyperoxymuriatic acid.
When ammonia is added to this folution, it is decom¬
pofed, and there remains ordinary muriate of lime,
from which circumrtance it feems doubtful whether
there is at all formed a hyperoxymuriate of lime. Ac¬
cording to Mr Chenevix, this fait is extremely deli¬
quefeent, melts at a low heat, in its water of cryftalli- iJC(
zation, and is very foluble in alcohol. The component^^1',
parts of this fait are, ton.
Add, 55.2
Lime, 28.3
Water, 16.5
100.0 *
* Phil-
Tranf
1802.
This
p. 147'
CHEMISTRY,
u te
• '' r
=7
jn
;d8
ii I--
0?
Pr -ra-
;i«
.10
Pr J:rti#8.
11
Ar m of
hti
u
0! ids.
Hi
11114
Pfryand
Pr lia-
tig
This fait has been fuccefsfully employed in the pro-
cels of bleaching.
7. Fluate of Lime.
1. The compound of fluoric acid and lime has been
long known under the names of Jiuor /par, cubic /par,
and phofphoric/par, from the figure of its cryftals, or
from feme of its properties. This fait exifts in great
abundance in nature, and in a ftate of confiderable pu¬
rity.
2. It may be artificially prepared, by combining
fluoric acid with lime in folution in water. The fait
is depofited in the form of powder in the bottom of
the velfel; and when it is taken out, it is to be well
walked and dried.
3. "Vyhen the fluate of lime is found native, it is ge¬
nerally cryftallized in the form of cubes, the angles of
which, and fometimes the edges, are truncated. The
primitive form of the cryftal is the regular o&ahedron.
The form of its integrant particle is the regular tetrahe¬
dron. It has frequently a confiderable degree of tranf-
parency, and exhibits a great variety of colours. The
fpecific gravity is 3.15. It has no tafte, is not altered
by expofure to the air, and it is infoluble in v’ater.
4. When it is expofed to heat, it decrepitates and
becomes luminous m the dark; but w-hen it has once
given out this light, it cannot be reftored, either by ex-
pofing it to the fun’s rays, or by calcination with char¬
coal or any other combuftible fubfiance. From this
circumftance it appears, that this phofphorefcent pro¬
perty is owing to fome volatile principle which has been
a conftituent part of the fait. The artificial fluate of
lime alfo polfelTes the fame property, and even, accord¬
ing to Scheele, in a higher degree. When it is Itrongly
heated, it melts into a tranfparent glafs.
5. This fait is decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric,
and muriatic acids, by the carbonates of potalh and
foda, and by moll of the phofphates. It is by decom-
pofmg it by means of the fulphuric add, that the fluoric
acid is obtained.
6. The fluate of lime is much employed in fmall
pieces of fculpture, and for ornamental purpofes in the
formation of cups, vafes, and pyramids. It is employed
alfo as a flux for mineral fubftances.
8. Borate of Lime.
This fait, which is a compound of boracic acid and
lime, is prepared by pouring a folution of boracic acid
into lime water, or by decompofing the foluble alkaline
borates by means of lime water. A precipitate is thus
formed, of a fait nearly infoluble, which is infipid, and
in the form of a white pow der. Little is know n of the
properties of this fait.
9. Phofphate of Lime.
I. The compound of phofphoric acid and lime,
known under the name of calcareous phofphoric fal-t,
is one of the molt interefting difeoveries of modern
chenuftry. This was made by Scheple and Gahn in
I774> "hen they proved that it farmed the bafis of
bones. To obtain this fait in a ftate of purity, a quan¬
tity of bones is calcined to whitenefs, reduced to pow¬
der, and v’ell waflied with water to feparate the car¬
bonate of foda and other foluble falts which are gene¬
rally combined v ith it. The phofphate of lime is thus
Vim.. V. Part II.
5^5
procured in the form of an infipid white powder. In Lime, Src;
this ftate it is generally mixed with a little carbonate
of lime, which may be leparated by diluted acetic acid, -
and aftervrards waihing it with Water. 121$
2. By this procefs the phofphate of lime is procured Properties,
in a ftate of purity from the folid matter of bones. It
has no tafte, and does not change the colour of vege¬
table blues. When it is prepared artificially, it is in
the form of white powder, but as it exifts in nature, it
is found regularly cryftallized. 'i his is known to mi-'
neralogifts under the name of apatite, of which there
are feveral varieties. The primitive form of its crystal
is the regular fix-fided prifm ; the primitive form of the
integrant molecule is a three-fided prifm, whole bafes
are equilateral triangles. It remains unaltered by ex¬
pofure to the air, and it is foluble in water. 1216
3. When this fait is expofed to heat, it fcarcely un-
dergoes any change ; but when it is expofed to theheat*
ftrong heat of a glafshoufe furnace, it is converted into
a femitranfparent porcelain.
4. -The phofphate of lime is decompofed by the ful-0J acids,
phuric, nitric, muriatic, and other acids ; but this de-
compofition is only partial. Part of the lime only is
abftrafted, and the ialt is converted into an acidulous
phofphate of lime. 1218
5. The component parts of phofphate of lime, ac- ^
cording to Fourcroy and Vauquelin, are, tlon'
Acid, 41
Lime, 59
ICO
1219
6. The phofphate of lime is of great importance in Ufes,
chemiftry, for the purpofe of extrattiog phofphoric
acid, to be decompofed to obtain pholphorus. It is
alfo employed for making cupels, for polilhing metals
and precious ftones, and for removing fpots of greafe
from linen, paper, and filk. It is ufed in medicine as
a remedy for rickets, to correct the fuppofed eftb&s of
acids in foftening the bones.
Superpho/phate of Lime.
1. This fait, with an excefs of acid, was difeovered Hiftory.
by Fourcroy and Vauquelin in 1 795. Scheele had re¬
marked, that the phofphate of lime was diifolvcd by an
acid in human urine; but he had not afeertained that
this combination between the phofphoric acid and the
phofphate of lime conftituted a permanent fait. 122[
2. It may be obtained artificially by the partial de-Prepara-
compolition of the phofphate of lime by means of any Aon.
acid, or by diflblving this fait in phofphoric acid. This
laft procefs, Fourcroy obferves, is the molt certain ; and
w'hcn the phofphoric acid has diffolved as much as it
can take up of the phofphate of lime, the fait is in the '
ftate of acidulous phofphate, or fuperphofphate.
3* I-his fait cryftallizes in fmall filky threads, or in Properties,
brilliant plates of a pearly luftre, which are attached to
each other, and feem to have the confiftence of honey
or glue. It has a firong acid tafte. Expofed to the
air, it is flightly deliquefeent. It is foluble in water,
and the folution produces cold. It is more foluble in
boiling water, and cryftallizes by cooling.
4. When this fait is ex poled to heat, it firft melts, AAionof
and then fwells up.and dries. If the temperature be5ieat*
increafedj it undergoes the igneous fufion, and is coni
4 ^ verted
586
CHEMISTRY.
Lime, &c. verted into a t ran {parent glafa. The phofphoric acid
l-11 a “ ' in this fait is more readily decompofed by charcoal
than in the neutral phofphate of lime. It is not de¬
compofed by any of the acids, excepting the oxalic.
The proportions of its conftituent parts are the fol¬
lowing.
Add, 54
Lime, 46
T224
Competi¬
tion.
•* Fourcroy
Conna ifs.
Chvn. iii.
p. 247.
1225
Prepara¬
tion.
1226
Froj)erties.
1227
Action of
heat.
1228
Of acids.
1229
Com poli¬
tico.
1230
Names.
1231
Prepara¬
tion.
*232
Properties.
*233
A&Lon of
heat.
rj:
Of ac ;
12
IOO
10. Phofphite of Lime.
1. This fait, compofed of phofphorous acid and
lime, is formed by the direct combination of the acid
with the earth, and when they are faturated, it falls
to the bottom in the form of white powder. This1
powder is re-diflolved with an excefs of acid, and in
this ft ate of acidulous phofphite of lime, cryftallizes by
evaporating the folution.
2. When thus obtained, it is in the form of a white
powder, if it is juft neutralized j but with an excefs of
acid, it forms fmall prifms or needles. This fait has
no tafte; it is not changed by expofure to the air j
and it is infoluble in water.
3. When it is expofed to heat, it gives out a phof¬
phoric light, yields a fmall quantity of phofphorus, and
is converted into a phofphate. By the aftion of the
blow-pipe it melts into a tranfparent globule.
4. The neutral phofphite of lime is foluble in acids,
without being decompofed. The proportions of its con¬
ftituent parts are,
Phofphorous aeid, 34
Lime, 51
Water, 15
100
ir. Carbonate of Lime.
1. This fait exifts in great abundance in nature;
and it is known by great variety of names, as lime/ione,
marble, chalk. It may be prepared artificially, by dx-
reftly combining carbonic acid with lime; but in this
procefs the proportions of the acid and earth muft be
accurately adjufted ; for, if there is too little acid, the
firft precipitate which is formed is re-diflolved in the
water, and feems to form carbonate with excefs of
lime. If there be too much acid, the carbonate firft
precipitated is alfo re-diflblved, and difappears in this
excels of carbonic acid.
2. The carbonate of lime is perfectly taftelels. The
fpecific gravity is 2.7. It is frequently found cryftal-
lized, and exhibits a great variety of forms. When it
is tranfparent and in the rhomboidal form, it has the
property of double refraction. The primitive form of
its cryltals is an obtufe rhomboid, whofe angles- are
about ioi-J-0 and 784°. The integrant molecule has the
fame form.
3. When it is expofed to the air it undergoes no
change. It is infoluble in water.
4. Expofed to a ftrong heat, it decrepitates, and is
deprived of its water of cryftallizatiort. It becomes
white, opaque, and friable. If the heat be increafed
and continued, the whole of the carbonic acid is dri¬
ven- off in tb« ftate of gas.
5. The carbonate of lime is readily decompofedby lime
all the acids with effervefcence, owing to the difen- ^
gagement of the carbonic acid in the ftate of gas.
6. The component parts of carbonate of lime, as
they have been afeertained by the analyfes of Bergman Comix
and Kirwan, are the following. tion.
Bergman. Kirwan.
Aeid, 34 45
Lime, 55 55
Water, n 00
100
100
heat.
12. Arfeniate of Lime.
This fait, which is a compound of arfenic acid andPrepar
lime, is prepared by dropping the acid into lime water.tion*
A precipitate is formed, which is foluble, either with * F()“
an excels of the bafe, ar the acid. Or it may be form-
ed by diffolving carbonate of lime in arfenic acid, p gt
The acidulous arfeniate of lime, when it is evapora- m
ted, affords fmall cryftals. When this fait- is heated, it Aftior
melts, but is not decompofed *.
13. Tungftate of Lime.
The compound formed by tungftic acid and lime, is found 1
found native. It is from the mineral called tungften, tive,
that the metallic fubftanee is obtained which bears this j
name. When the folution of tungftic acid is added Pre[
to lime water, a precipitate of tungftate of lime is tion
formed, fimilar to the native compound tungften.
This mineral is found cryftallized. The primitive
form of the cryftal is the o&ahedrtm, w-hieh is com¬
pofed of two four-fided pyramids, applied bafe to bafe.
It is of a yellowilh colour, with fome degree of tranf-
parency and confiderable hardnefs. It is infoluble in
water, and is fcareely altered by the aftion of heat. i2j)
The fpecific gravity is about fix. The component partsCompcj,
of this fait are, tion.
Tungftic acid, 70
Lime, 30
ICO
14. Molybdate of Lime.
15. Acetate of Lime.
t. The compound of acetic acid and lime is formedprepaii
by diflblving the carbonate of lime in the acid, till it tion.
is faturated. By evaporating the folution till a pellicle
forms on the furface, it cryftallizes on cooling. 124)
2. The cryftals ©f acetate of lime are in the form ofBwptt
fmall prifms, with a ftiining filky luftre. The tafte is
bitter and four. It is not changed by expofure to the
air, but is foluble in water. The fpecific gravity is
l-.CQJ. . _ _ . J34
3. When it is expofed to heat, it is decompofed,Adion
partly by the feparation of the acid, and partly by its heat-
deeompofition. The component parts of this fait, ac-^^
cording to Dr- Higgins, are,
twn.
Acetic acid and water, 64.3
Lime, 7 35.7
fee.
16. Oxalate of Linfe.
The oxalic acid faturated with lime, forms an in-
foluble fait, which may be formed by dropping oxalic
acid into any of the acid folutions of lime. The oxalate
of lime, thus formed, is a white powder, which converts
the fyrup of violets to a green. This fait cannot be de-
compofed by any other acid, the affinity of oxalic acid
for lime is fo ftrong. It is on this account that oxalic
acid is employed as a teft for lime, whether it is in a
ftate of combination, or uncombined. This fait may
be decompofed by expofing it to heat. The acid itfelf
is driven off, and undergoes decompoiition.
The component parts of this fait, according to Berg-
CHEMISTRY. 587
lowiih coloured, infoluble fait, which, with an excels Lime, &.c.
of bafe, becomes foluble.
21. Benzoate of Lime.
man, are,
Acid 48
Lime 46
Water 6
100
245
I*' ara-
t
246
I’lara.
ti-
U m
^!:pofl.
17. Tartrate of Lime.
The compound of tartaric acid and lime may be form¬
ed, by diffolving lime in the acid •, or by adding a
{elution of lime in powder to a folution of tartar in
hoiling water, till it ceafes to effervefee, and to redden
vegetable blues. The fak precipitates in the form of
» white pow der, which is infoluble, excepting with an
excefs of acid. This fait is decompofed by the fulphu-
ric, nitric, and muriatic acids.
18. Citrate of Lime.
This fait, which is a compound of citric acid and
lime, may be formed by the direct combination of the
acid and the .earth. Small cryftals are formed, which
are precipitated, and are fcarcely fuftble in water, ex¬
cepting with an exccfs of acid, and from this folution
it may be obtained cryftallized. The component parts
of this fait are,
Citric acid
Lime
mercy
p- *°7-
548
kra-
62.66
37-34
1.00,00
*49
k in
its.
1250
Gerties.
1251
19. Malatc of Lime.
j. The compound of malic acid and lime may be
formed by combining the acid with the earth, and
neutralizing them. Small irregular cryftals are thus
obtained, which are fcarcely foluble in boiling water,
but become very foluble with an excefs of acid. In
■this ftate it is the fupermalate of lime. T his fait is found
ready formed in fome vegetables, as in houfe-leek and
fimilar fucculent plants.
2. This acidulous malate of lime has an acid tafte.
When it is evaporated, it forms a folid, fliining fub-
ftance, analogous to varnilh. It is decompofed by the
fulphuric and oxalic acids, and alfo by the alkalies.
Lime water added to a folution of this fait, combines
with excefs of acid, and precipitates the malate of
lime.
20. Gallate of Lime.
The gallic acid combined with lime, forms a yel-
The compound of benzoic acid and lime, forms a
fait which is very foluble in water. This fait cxyftal-
lizes in an arborefeent form on the fides of the veffel
which contains the folution. It is decompofed by the,
fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids* It exifts in great
abundance in the urine of graminivorous quadrupeds.
22. Succinate of Lime.
The compound of fuccinic acid and lime forms falts
which are not very foluble in water, and are not alter¬
ed by expofure to the air.
23. Saccolate of Lime^
. Sacla&ic acid and lime form an infoluble fait.
24. Camphorate of Lime.
1. This fait, which is a compound of camphoric Prepara-
acid and lime, is formed by adding lime water to cryf-tion.
tallized camphoric acid. The folution is then to be
boiled, filtered, and evaporated to three-fourths of its
quantity. As it cools, the fait is depofited. I2,2
2. The camphorate of lime has no regular fhape, un-Properties,
lefs the evaporation has been properly managed, when
it is found in the form of plates lying on each other.
It is of a white colour, and has a flightly bitter tafte. I2S3
3. It efflorefees in the air, and falls down into Action of
potvder. It as fcareely foluble in cold, and requires water and
about 200 parts of boiling water for its folution; eat*
When it is expofed to Iieat, if it be moderate, it melts
and fwells, but if thrown on red-hot coals, or heated
in clofe veffels, the acid is decompofed and fublimed,
and the lime remains pure.
4. It is decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric, and mu¬
riatic acids. With the fulphuric acid there is formed
an infoluble precipitate. The nitric and muriatic acids
-precipitate the camphoric acid. This fait is alfo de¬
compofed by the carbonate of potafh, and the phof-
phate of foda.
5. The component parts of this fait are,
Camphoric acid 50
Lime 43
Water 7
‘ * Ann- di
100 * Chim.
25. Suberate of Lime.
This fait, which is a compound of fuberfo acid and Properties,
lime, does not cryftallize, is perfectly white, has a
flight faline tafte, and does not redden the tinflure of
turnfole. It is fcarcely foluble in cold water. Boil¬
ing water diflblves it more abundantly, but as it cools, ,2 .5
a part of it is precipitated. When it is placed upon Adion of
burning coals, it fwells up, the acid is decompofed, heat,
and the lime remains in the flate of powder. This
fait is decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric, and muri¬
atic acids, by potafh and foda, and their carbonate^
and by the phofphate and borate of fodaf. f H/d. xxiii,
26. Mcllate of Lime. P
The mellitic acid dropt into lime-watpr, forms a
precipitate which is re-diffolved by adding nitric acid.
4 E 2 Or
588
Barytes,
&.C.
!25<5
Hiilory.
* Edlru
Trnvf. iv.
36.
f Ann. de
Chirr. sxi.
^3-
”57
Prepara¬
tion.
C H E M 1
Or wKen tKe mellitic acid is mixed with a folution of
fulphate of lime, a precipitate is formed of fmall, grit¬
ty cryftals, which do not affe£l the tranfparency of the
water.
27. Laclate of Lime.
The compound of laftic acid and lime forms a deli-
quefcent fait, which is foluble in alcohol.
28. Prufliate of Lime.
The compound of pruffic acid and lime is formed
by difiolving the lime in the acid. The folution is
then to be filtered, and the lime which has not com¬
bined with the acid is to be feparated by adding car¬
bonic acid in water, in the proportion neceffary to pre¬
cipitate the lime from the fame bulk of lime-water.
The folution, after a fecond filtration, mull be pre-
ferved in clofe veffels. By diftillatibn the pruffic acid
is driven off, and the pure lime remains behind. This
fait is decompofed by all the other acids, and alfo by
the alkalies.
29. Sebate of Lime.
When febacic acid is dropped into lime-water,
the tranfparency of the water is not dilturbed, fo
that the compovmd of this acid with lime is foluble in
water.
IV. Compounds of Lime with Inflammable Subftances.
Lime does not enter into combination with alcohol
or ether j but it forms compounds with the fixed oils,
which are known by the name of foaps. Lime com¬
bines alfo in fmall quantity with the volatile oils, form¬
ing a fimilar compound.
Sect. II. Of BARYTES and its Combinations.
1. For the knowledge of this earth we are indebted to
modern chemillry. It was difcovered by Scheele in
1774 •, and its properties were inveftigated by him, and
in the following year by Gahn, who analyzed a mine¬
ral which had been diflinguilhed by the name of pon¬
derous /par, on account of its weight, and found that
it was compofed of fulphuric acid and the new earth.
It received the name of terra ponderofa from Bergman,
who alfo examined its properties, and confirmed the
experiments of Scheele and Gahn. Mr Kirwan gave
it the name of barytes, from the Greek w’ord
which fignifies heavy. Its properties were farther in¬
veftigated by Dr Hope, in 1793*, and by Pelletier,
Fourcroy, and Vauquelin, in 1797 f.
2. This earth may be obtained in a Hate of pu¬
rity by the following procefs : A quantity of ful¬
phate of barytes, a mineral fpund in confiderable
abundance in nature, is firfl: reduced to a fine powder.
Mix it with -^th of its weight of charcoal powder, and
expofe the mixture in a crucible to a ftrong heat, for
feveral hours. The fulphuric acid, by this procefs, is
decompofed, by being deprived of its oxygen, which
combines with the carbone of the charcoal, and forms
carbonic acid, which is driven off. The fulphur re¬
mains in combination with the earth, forming a ful-
phuret of barytes. This fulphuret is to be diffolved
S T R Y.
in water, and nitric acid poured into the folution. The Batr,'
nitric acid combiries with the barytes, and forms nitrate &W
of barytes, while the fulphur is precipitated. The fo-
lution is to be filtered, and flowly evaporated till it 1
cryftallize. The cryftals thus formed are then put in¬
to a crucible, and expofed to a ftrong heat. The ni¬
tric acid is decompofed, and driven off, and the earth
remains behind in a ftate of purity.
Dr Hope has recommended another procefs, which 1 j
is more economical. By this procefs the fulphate of 1
barytes is decompofed as in the former. The fulphu¬
ret which is obtained, is thrown into water, that all
foluble matters may be diffolved. To the folution, af¬
ter filtration, a folution of carbonate of foda is to be
added. A precipitate takes place in the form of a
white powder. This powder is to be wafhed with wa¬
ter, made up into balls with charcoal, and expofed to a
ftrong heat in a crucible. The balls are afterwards
to be thrown into boiling water, when part of the
barytes is found diffolved, and, as the water cools, it
cryftallizes. II
3. Barytes, as it is obtained by decompofing theprope-i,
nitrate in the firft procefs, is in the form of fmall, gray,
porous maffes, which are eafily reduced to powTder. It
has a hot, burning tafte j and when introduced into
the ftomach, is a deadly poifon. Its fpecific gravity
is 4.00. It deftroys the texture of all animal fubftan-
ces. It converts vegetable blues to a green colour.
In many of its properties it is perfe&ly analogous to
the fixed alkalies. IJ(
4. When it is expofed to the air, efpeeially if the A&ior
atmofphere be loaded with moifture, it fw ells up in a water
few minutes, becomes hot, and at laft falls into a white
powder. It is then deprived of part of its acrimony, and
is increafed in weight 0.22. This is owing to the ab-
forption of water from the atmofphere. If a fmall
quantity of w ater be thrown upon barytes, it boils up,
is ftrongly heated, is enlarged in volume, and gives
out a great quantity of heat. After being flaked in
this manner, it is diluted with water, the earth cryftal¬
lizes, and affumes the appearance of needle-formed cry¬
ftals, which, at the end of fome time, if expofed to the
air, fpontaneoufly fall to powder. With a greater quan¬
tity of water the barytes is completely diflolved. Cold " n,
water takes up about of its weight. This folution
changes the fyrup of violets to green, and at laft de¬
ftroys the colour. When this liquid is expofed to the
air, a thick pellicle is formed on the furfaee, which is
owing to the abforption of carbonic acid from the at¬
mofphere. Boiling water diffolves -§■ its weight of
pure barytes. The folution affords eryftals as it cools.
They are in the form of long, four-fided prifms, tranf-
parent and white, which efflorefee in the air 5 but the
form of the cryftals varies according to the rapidity of
the evaporation and cryftallization. 126
5. Light has no a£Hon on barytes. Heated on char-Ofhea
coal with the blow-pipe, it melts into an opaque, gray
globule, which foon penetrates the charcoal. Expofed
to heat in a crucible, it melts, and attaches itfelf to the
fides of the veflel, to -which it adheres ftrongly, form¬
ing a kind of greeniffi covering. Lefs ftrongly heated,
it hardens, and internally affumes a bluifti green ftiade.
There is no adlion between barytes and oxygen, azote,
hydrogen, or carbone.
I. Phofpburet
ii6i
perties
i?1,
para-
1264
‘perties,
1265
iroge-
:ed fu!-
iret.
C H E M I
I. Phofpliuret of Barytes.
1. Barytes enters into combination with phofphorus,
forming the compound called phofphuret of barytes.
This is prepared by introducing a mixture of barytes
and phofphorus into a glafs tube clofed at one end, and
expofmg the mixture to the heat of burning coals.
The two fubftances rapidly combine together.
2. The phofphuret of barytes, thus obtained, is of a
dark or flrining brown colour, having a metallic ap¬
pearance, very fufible, and exhaling, when it is moif-
tened, a ftrong fetid odour : in the dark it is lumi¬
nous. When it is thrown into water, it is decompofed,
giving out phofphorated hydrogen gas, and is gradu-
c ally converted, by the aflion of the air and the water,
naifu y into pkofphate of barytes *.
II. Sulphuret of Barytes.
1. A fimilar combination alfo takes place between
barytes and fulphur. The combination may be formed
by introducing barytes and fulphur well mixed toge¬
ther, into a crucible, and expoirng them to a red heat.
At that temperature the mixture melts, and the com¬
pound which is formed is the fulphuret of barytes.
2. This fubftance is very foluble in water, which it
inftantly decompofes 3 and, when it is faturated with the
fulphurated hydrogen which is formed, it is converted
into a hydrogenated fulphuret of barytes, which depofits
by cooling, cryftals of different forms, fometimes in that
of fmall needles, fometimes in that of large fix-fided
prifms, fometimes in the form of octahedrons, and of¬
ten in that of fmall, brilliant, hexagonal plates, which
are cryftals of fulphurated hydrogen and barytes, de¬
nominated by Berthollet, hydrofulphuret of barytes.
When the fulphuret of barytes is diffolved in water,
it inftantly exhales the fetid odour of fulphurated hy¬
drogen gas. The liquid which has depofited cryftals
of hydrofulphuret of barytes, retains a hydrogenated
fulphuret in folution. "When it is expofed to the air,
this folution becomes of an orange yellow. Cvyftals
of hydrofulphuret of barytes, with fpots or yexiowifh
plates, are often obferved in the midft of the white
maifes.
3. The fulphuret of barytes is moft remarkable for
the great rapidity wdth which it decompofes water, and
the great quantity of the fulphurated hydrogen w ith
which it combines, forming the hydrofulphuret of ba¬
rytes j which latter is flowly, and wdth difficulty, de¬
compofed by the air, and the great proportion of ful¬
phurated hydrogen gas which is difengaged by the ac¬
tion of acids, without any precipitation of fulphur.
4. Thus, there are three different combinations of
fulphur with barytes. In the firft, the fulphur is di-
redtly combined with the barytes, as when they are ex¬
pofed to heat in the ftate of drynefs, which is the fimple
fulphuret of barytes. In the other, the fulphur com¬
bined with the hydrogen, is in the ftate of hydroful¬
phuret of barytes. This compound is prepared by pai-
„ fing fulphurated hydrogen gas into water holding ba¬
rytes'in folution, which, as it combines with the gas,
becomes more foluble, and is condenfed and abforbed
by the water. The diftinCtive charaCler betv. een the
latter combination and that of the fulphuret of barytes
is, that the firft, by the action of acids, only gives out
1266
fee com
inds.
S T R Y. 589
fulphurated hydrogen gas, without any depolition of Ea<yes-
fulphur ; and the fecond, expofed to heat, is deprived , ....  f
of its fulphur, which is fublimed, without affording
fulphurated hydrogen gas. Between thefe two ftates,
there is an intermediate combination, in which the ful-
phuret of barytes holds in folution more or lefs ful¬
phurated hydrogen ; fo that, by the action of acids, it
affords fulphurated hydrogen gas, with a depofttion of
fulphur at the fame time. To this intermediate com¬
pound, Berthollet lias given the name of hydrogenated
fulphuret of barytes *.
III. Compounds of Barytes with the Acids. pf 19*1! ’
Barytes enters'into combination with the acids, and
forms with them compounds, which are diftinguiftied 1 lz^
by the name of falls. The order of the affinities of ba- Affinities’,
rytes for the acids, according to Bergman, is the fol¬
lowing :
Sulphuric acid,
Oxalic,
Succinic,
Fluoric,
Phofphoric,
Sacla&ic,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Suberic,
Citric,
Tartaric,
Arfenic,
La£tic,
Benzoic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Sulphurous,
Carbonic,
Pruflic.
Sulphate of Barytes.
'116S
1. This fait, which is a compound of fulphuric acid Found na-
and barytes, was formerly diftinguiftied by the name oftlve‘
heavy fpar, phofphoric fpar, or Bolognian Jlone. It ex-
ifts in great abundance in nature, particularly accom¬
panying metallic veins j from which circumilance, pro¬
bably, and from its great weight, it was fuppofed to
contain a metallic fubftance. It is rarely formed arti¬
ficially, as that found in nature is fufficiently pure. i26-
2. The fulphate of barytes is the heavieft of all thepr0perties.,
falts, the fpecific gravity being 4.4. It has neither
tafte nor fmell. Sometimes it is found cryftallized,
and fometimes compact. There is a confiderable va¬
riety among the forms of its cryftals. The primitive
form ©f fulphate of barytes is a rhomboid, with right
angles at the bafes, whofe angles are ioi^-0 and 784-0.
The integrant molecule is the fame. x^q
3. This fait remains unchanged in the air, and it is Adtion of-
infoluble in w’ater. When it is fuddenly heated, ftheat*
decre pitates. By the action of a ftrong heat, it melts
with difficulty *, and before the blow-pipe it fufes, and
is converted into a white opaque globule. It is de¬
compofed at a red heat by hydrogen and charcoal, and
is converted into a fulphuret which is phofphoric.
This was formerly called, from an accident, Bologman
phofphorus,,.
.59'0
iiaiytes,
&c.
CHEMISTRY.
plxofpliQrus. A piece of tlie fulphate of barytes was
.found in the neighbourhood of Boiogna, by a fhoe-
maker of that city, who fufpecting that it contained
fiver, put it into the fire to feparate the metal. He
found no metal, but he obferved that by heating it ac¬
quired the property of thining in the dark, and thence
it obtained the name of Bolognian Hone or phofpho-
Sulphurous acid 39
Barytes 59
Water 2
Baryt«f
&-C,
u—V-»
100
3. Nitrate of Barytes.
1271
Compoll-
tion.
♦ Tourcroy
Gonnaifs.
Cbim. iii.
p. 25.
This fait is decompofed by the carbonates of potafh
and foda, either by expofing them to a itrong heat in a
crucible, or by boiling them together in folution.
According to the different analyfes which have been
made to afcertain the conftituents of this fait, it ap¬
pears that there is a confiderable difference between
the natural and artificial fulphate of barytes, as in the
following table.
Native.
Acid 13
Barytes 84
Water 3
100
100'
By another analyfis, when the artificial fulphate
was heated to rednefs, the component parts were found
according to
4 Artn. de
Chim. xxxii.
p. 266.
} Nicbol.
your. fi.
Svo. p. xpS.
Acid
Barytes
Thenard f.
25.18
74.82
100.00
Chenevix f.
24
76
100
1272
Prepara¬
tion.
1273
Properties,
1274
life*.
i*75
Compoli-
tion.
* Fourct\
Connaifi,
Cbim. 11.,
P- 75-
1
1. This compound of nitric acid and barytes is pre-Prepara,
pared by faturating the acid with native carbonate of tion.
barytes j or, by the decompofition of fulphuret of ba¬
rytes, by nitric acid. By filtration and evaporation
this fait eryftallizes.
2. The cryflals of nitrate of baryte?'are in the formProperti
of regular oftahedrons, nr in fmall brilliant plates. The
fpecific gravity is 2.9149. It has a hot, acrid, and au-
ftere tafle, and is little changed by being expofed to
the air. It is foluble in 12 parts of cold, and in about
three or four parts of boiling water. When placed
upon burning coals, it decrepitates, boils up, and be¬
comes dry, and gives out fparks round the points
where it comes in contact with the burning coal.
When it is heated in a retort, it gives out a little wa¬
ter, oxygen gas, and azotic gas *, and there remains be¬
hind, the barytes in the form of a folid, gray, porous
mafs. . ' > ‘ i,73
The conflituent parts of this fait, according to Four- Cotnpof!-
croy, Vauquelin, and Kirwan, are the following : don.
Fourcroy and Vauquelin f.
Nitric acid 38
Barytes 50
Water 12
2. Sulphate of Barytes.
1. This compound of fulphurous acid and barytes,
is formed by pafling fulphurous acid gas into water, in
which is mixed, or fufpended, carbonate of barytes in
the ftate of fine powder } or by the direct combination
of fulphurous acid and barytes, either folid or in folution.
In whatever way it is prepared, the fait is depofited in
the form of powder, or cryftallized.
2. The cryflals of fulphate of barytes are fometimes
yin the form of fitnall, brilliant, and opaque needles, or
very hard branfparent cryftals in the form of tetrahe¬
drons, with truncated angles. It has little tafle. The
fpecific gravity is 1.6938. It is fcarcely altered when
expofed to the air, and is infoduble in water. When it
is expofed to heat, fulphur is driven off, and there re¬
mains a fulphate of barytes. It is decompofed by the
fulphuric and muriatic acids, with the difengagement
■of fulphurous acid.
3. This fait has been applied to no ufe, excepting
for .the chemical purpofe of afeertaining the purity of
fulphurous acid. It is employed in this way by Four¬
croy. If there be any mixture of fulphurous acid with
the fulphuric, it may be defeated by this fait; for as
there is a ftronger affinVy between fulphuric acid and
barytes than between fulphurous acid and the fame earth,
the fulphuric acid, if any be prefent, combines with the
barytes, and forms with it an infoluble fait, which is
precipitated.
4. The following are the proportions ef the conftitu-
ent parts ef this fait.
ICO
Kinvan
S*
57
11
■100
f Ibid, iii
p io(5.
t Nicbd
Jour. iii.
p. H5.
This fait is only employed for deleting fulphuric
acid in nitric acid, and to be decompofed for the pur¬
pofe of obtaining pure barytes.
4. Nitrite of Barytes.
Nothing farther is known of this fait, than that it is
formed when the nitrate of barytes is decompofed in a
retort by means of heat. If the operation be flopped
at the time that a third part of the oxygen gas has
been difengaged, the nitrite of barytes remains.
5. Muriate of Barytes.
1. This fait, which is a compound of muriatic acid Hiftory*
and barytes, was firft inveftigated by Scheele and Berg¬
man, and little more has been iince added by the expe¬
riments and refearches of other chemifts. I2s0
2. It is prepared by the direft combination of mu- Prepara-
riatic acid with the carbonate of barytes ; or, by de-d°n>
compofing the fulphuret of barytes by the muriatic acid,
filtering the folution, and evaporating till a pellicle ap¬
pear on the furface. If it be allowed to cool fiowly,
-cryilals of muriate of barytes are formed. But the fu-1-
phate of barytes, which is employed, fometimes contains
iron } fo that a muriate of this metal is formed along
with the muriate of barytes. To feparate the iron, the
mixture is to be calcined, by which the acid is driven
off, and the iron remains behind in the Hate of oxide,
which is infoluble in water, nSi
3. The primitive form of the cryftals of this fait isProperd*
CHEMISTRY.
S91
♦ -V 
!:aS2
1 ton of
V«:r.
1283
(-.eat.
:t284
( icids.
12S5
(r.poft-
t 1.
a four-lided prifm with fquate bafes. The form of the
integrant particle is the fame. It cryftallizes in tables,
or in eight-fided pyramids. The tafte is acrid, aftrin-
gent, and metallic. The fpecific gravity is 2.8257.
4. It undergoes no change by expofure to the air.
It is foluble in five or fix parts of cold water, but boil¬
ing water diffolves more j and, on cooling, the fait
cryfiallizes.
5. When expofed to heat, it decrepitates, lofes its
water of cryftallization, dries, falls down to powder,
and at laft melts j but no heat that can be applied de-
compofes it.
6. This fait is dccompofed by the fulphurie and ni¬
tric acids, and a precipitation of nitrate or of fulphate
of barytes is formed.
7. The conftituent parts of this fait, according to
Mr Kirwan, are,
When dried.
Acid, 20 23.8
Barytes, 64 76.2
Water, 16 00.0
too 100.0
\ ^ 8. This is one of the molt delicate tefis for delet¬
ing fulphuric acid in any folution. Water, which
holds 0.0002 parts of fulphuric acid, exhibits a vifi-
ble precipitate by a fingle drop of the folution of mu¬
riate of barytes. Nay, there is a flight cloud in a few
minutes produced by the addition of a folution of this
fait to water which holds 0.00009 parts of fulphuric
acid in folutiorr. The muriate of barytes has been
propofed and recommended as a cure for fcrophula j
and it is faid, in feme cafes in which it has been ufed,
with good effet j but it ought to be adminiftered with
the utmoft caution. The carbonate of barytes is one
of the moll adlive poifons, and probably all the falts
ef this earth are pofl'efled of fimilar properties. The
'oureroy dofe fhould not exceed five or fix drops of the folution
< ™f- at fir ft *.
I n iu.
t .
■67.
nS7
para-
6. Hyperoxymuriate of Barytes.
1. The compound of hyperoxymuriatic acid and ba¬
rytes was formed by Mr Chenevix. The procefs
which he followed was, to caufe a current of oxymuri-
atic acid gas to pafs through a folution of a large
quantity of barytic earth in warm water. This fait
he found foluble in four parts of cold, and lefs of
warm water j but as it cryftallizes like the muriate of
this earth, and has the fame degree of folubility, he
could not feparate the hyperoxymuriate from the mu¬
riate, which was formed at the fame time. He there¬
fore thought of obtaining it by double affinity, as in
the following procefs.
2. When phofphate of filver is boiled with muriate
of barytes, a double decompofition takes place 5 mu¬
riate of filver and phofphate of barytes are formed,
both of which being infoluble, are precipitated. But
the phofphate of filver does not decompofe the hyper¬
oxymuriate of barytes. When therefore the muriate
and hyperoxyfnuriate of barytes are boiled with phof¬
phate of filver, the muriate of barytes only is decom-
pofed. The muriate of filver and the phofphate of
barytes are precipitated, and the hyperoxymuriate of
barytes remains in folution. When this fait iv decom-
pofed by the fttonger acids, it is accompanied with a
llalh of light, which Mr Chevenix conjectures, is ow¬
ing to the relative proportionate affinities, and confe-
quently the greater rapidity of the difengagement.
The proportions of this fait are,
Hyperoxymuriatic acid, 47.0
Barytes, 42.2
Water, 10.8
Barytes,
Set.
1288
Compofi-
tion.
100.0*. * Phil.
Tranf.
7. Fluate of Barytes. 1802.
This compound of fluoric acid and barytes may be^’
formed, by pouring fluoric acid into a folution of ni¬
trate or muriate of barytes. A precipitate is formed,
which is the fluate of barytes. This fait is decompo-
fed with effervefcence by the fulphuric acid, and it is
precipitated by lime water. Of the proportions of its
conftituent parts and other properties nothing is
known.
8. Borate of Barytes.
The compound of boracic acid and barytes is fbrm--
ed by pouring a folution of boracic acid into a folution
of barytes. An infoluble white powder is precipitat¬
ed, which, according to Bergman, may be decompo-
fed, even by" the weak vegetable acids.
9. Phofphate of Barytes.
1289'
t. The compound of phofphoric acid and barytes, Prepara--
has been only examined by Vauquelin. It is prepared, t“m’
either by the direct combination of phofphoric acid
with barytes, or the carbonate of barytes ; or by pre¬
cipitating a folution of nitrate or muriate of barytes,
by means of an alkaline phofphate. The phofphate
of barytes is precipitated in the form of powder. . J 2 Q
2. This fait is in the form of white powder, with- Properties,
out any appearance of cryftallization. It is not alter¬
ed by expofure to the air, and is infoluble in water.
The fpecific gravity is 1.2867. l2t)1
3.. This fait at a high temperature is fufible. It is A&ionof
converted into a vitreous matter or gray enamel. Be-^eat'
fore the blow-pipe, on charcoal, it gives out a yellow
phofphoric light. The vitreous globules become
opaque on cooling. It is decompofed by the fulphu¬
ric acid. The phofphoric and phofphorous acids, when
added in excefs, have the property of re-diffolving the
falts which they form with barytes.
10. Phofphite of Barytes.
1. This compound of phofphorous acid and barytes, is Prepara-
formed by the direct combination of the acid with the tion.
earth or by precipitating, the foluble phofphites by a
folution of barytes. By the laft procefe the fait is ob¬
tained in the greateft purity.. i2r),
2. The phofphite of barytes is in the form of a Properties,
white powder, which is infipid, not altered by ex¬
pofure to the air, not very foluble in water, and with¬
out an excefs of acid, by which means it is converted
into the acidulous pholnhite. ^
3. The phofphite of barytes melts under the blow-A&ionof
pipe into a globule, which is foon furrounded with a heat,
inoft brilliant light. The vitreous globule becomes, en
cooling, white and opaque. 1295
4. This fait is decompofed by moft of the acids ; by Of acids.
lime
\
S92
Barytes,
Sec.
1296
Compofi-
tieJn.
C H E M
lime and lime water. The other alkaline and earthy
bafes combine with the excefs of phofphorous acid,
when it is in the ftate of acidulous phofphate, and
there remains behind a neutral phofphite.
5. The component parts of this fait are,
Phofphorous acid,
Barytes,
Water,
41.7
S'-S
7.0
Fourcrcy
Coihiaifs.
Cbim.Wi.
p. 281.
*‘97
Karnes.
JOO.O *.
1298
Native.
I299
Prepared
by art.
1300
Aition of
heat.
1301
Compofi-
tiSn.
Native Carbonate.
Acid
Barytes
100
100
Artificial Carbonate.
Bergman.
Acid 7
Barytes 65
Water 28
JOO
& c;
-y.
11. Carbonate of Barytes.
1. This compound of carbonic acid and barytes has
been known by the names of aerated heavy ff>ar, ae¬
rated barofelenite, and witherite from the name of Dr
Withering, who firft difeovered that it is a natural
production. Its nature and properties were firft invef-
tigated by Scheele and Bergman, about the year 1776,
and fince that time by Kirwan, Hope, Klaproth, Pel¬
letier, Fourcroy, and Vauquelin.
2. The carbonate of barytes is found native in ftri-
ated, lamellated, femitranfparent maffes. The primi¬
tive form of its cryftals is the fix-iided prifm.' The
fpecific gravity is 4.331.
3. The carbonate of barytes may be prepared artifi¬
cially, by expofing a folution of pure barytes to the
air; or, by pafling carbonic acid gas into the folution.
It may be prepared alfo in the dry way, by mixing to¬
gether fulphate of barytes and carbonate of potaftr or
foda, and expofing the mixture to ftrong heat : or,
by decompofing, by means of carbonate of potafh, lo-
da, or ammonia, the nitrate or muriate of barytes in
folution in water. By whatever proceffes the carbo¬
nate of barytes is obtained, it is in the form of a white
taftelefs powder. When thus prepared, the fpecific
gravity is 3.763.
4. It undergoes no change by expofure to the air.
Cold water dlffolves 5 boiling water yroT Part*
5. The carbonate of barytes undergoes little change
when it is expofed even to the ftrongeft heat. 1 he
artificial carbonate lofes about 0.28 of its weight by
calcination, while the native carbonate becomes white
and opaque, and is converted into a bluifti green co¬
lour, without any perceptible lofs of weight; but if it
be heated in a black lead crucible, or if it be formed
into a pafte, with ico parts of the fait to 10 of char¬
coal, the carbonic acid is feparated.
6. The component parts of the carbonate of barytes
are the following:
I s T R Y.
When both the natural and artificial are expofed to a Bary
red heat, the component parts, as afeertained by Mr
Kirwan, are,
Acid 22
Barytes 78
100
7. This fait has been found native only in fmall ufof"
quantity, otherwife it is fuppofed, that it might be of
great ufe for the preparation of barytic falts, vvhich
promife great fervice in feveral arts and manufactures.
It has been propofed to employ it in medicine ; but in
experiments on animals, it has b*eji found to aft as a
moft deadly poifon. Great caution, therefore, Ihould
be obferved in employing it as an internal remedy *. *Fom
iv. 10.
12. Arfeniate of Barytes.
The compound of arfenic acid and barytes is formed
by diffolving the earth in the acid. It is an infoluble,
uncryftallized fait; but with an excefs of acid it be¬
comes foluble, and is decompofed by fulphuric acid.
It melts when expofed to a ftrong heat, but is not de¬
compofed.
13. Tungftate of Barytes.
With the tungftic acid, barytes forms an infoluble
fait.
14. Molybdate of Barytes.
Barytes with the molybdic acid forms a fait which
has very little folubility.
15. Chromate of Barytes.
It is little known, but faid to be infoluble in water.
16. Columbate of Barytes.
100
17. Acetate of Barytes.
*3°3
1. This fait, which is a compound of acetic acid Prepara
and barytes, may be prepared by direftly combiningtlon'
the acid with the earth j or, by decompofing fulphuret
of barytes by means of acetic acid. By evaporating
the folution, it may be obtained cryftallized.
2. The cryftals of the acetate of barytes are in theproperti!
form of fine tranfparent prifms. The fpecific gravity
is 1.828. This fait has an acid bitter tafte, eftlorefces
in the air, is very foluble in water, is decompofed by
the carbonates of the alkalies, but not by the alkalies
themfelves, or the pure earths. J30-
3. This fait may be employed to deteft the prefence ufes.
and quantity of fulphuric acid in folutions, particularly
in vinegar, which may be adulterated with the addition
of this acid J. J Town
viii. 196'
18. Oxalate of Barytes. ^
1. The compound of oxalic acid and barytes is form-Prepara-
ed by adding the acid to a folution of barytes in water.tlon*
A white powder precipitates, which is oxalate of ba¬
rytes j it is infoluble in water. With an excefs of oxalic '
acid, this precipitate is diffolved, and fmall angular
cryftals are formed. 1307
2. If thefe cryftals are diffolved in boiling water, AAonoj
they become opaque, and fall down in the form of anheat'
infoluble
CHEMISTRY.
tes, Infoluble powder, for the water combines with the ex-
cefs of acid, which held them in folution.
19. Tartrate of Barytes.
The compound of tartaric acid and barytes forms a
fait in the .ltate of white powder, which has little folu-
bility, excepting with an excefs of acid. It is decom-
pofed by the fulphuric, nitric, muriatic, and oxalic
acids.
20. Citrate of Barytes.
1. The compound of citric acid and barytes forms
ra* a fait, by adding the earth to a folution of the acid.
A flocculent precipitate at firft appears, which is dif-
folved by agitation. The precipitate afterwards be¬
comes permanent when the acid is faturated.
2. This fait, which is at firft depofited in the form
of powder, ftioots out afterwards into a kind of vege¬
tation, of a filvery whitenefs, with great brilliancy
and beauty. It is foluble in a great proportion of wa¬
ter. This fait is compofed of
Acid, 50
Barytes, 50
100
21. Malate of Barytes.
The compound of malic acid and barytes is formed
by adding the acid to a folution of the earth in water.
A cryftallized, folnble fait is precipitated.
22. Gallate of B ary tes.
The compound of gallic acid and barytes is formed
by the direct combination of the acid with the earth.
A fait is thus formed, which is not very foluble, but
with an excefs of the bafe.
23. Benzoate of Barytes.
593
the air. It is only foluble in 600 parts of water at the Strontites,
boiling temperature. . ' ~
4. When expofed to the aftion of the blow-pipe, I3II
the acid is volatilized, and the earth is converted into A&ion of
a vitreous fubftance. The camphoric acid, as it burns,heat,
firft exhibits a blue, then a red, and at laft a white
flame.
5. This fait is decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric,
and muriatic acids, and by the oxalic, tartaric, and ci¬
tric *. * dnn. de
Chin:.
27. Suberate of Barytes. xxvii. p. 28.
This fait does not cryftallize, and is only foluble in
water w ith an excefs of acid j when expofed to heat, it
fwells up and melts, and is decompofed by the fulphuric,
nitric, muriatic, and oxalic acidsf. t Ibid.
Kxiii. 52.
28. Mellate of Barytes.
By adding mellitic acid to a folution of acetate of
barytes, there is formed a flaky precipitate, which is
re-diffolved with the addition of more acid. When
the acid is poured into a folution of muriate of barytes
no precipitate is formed *, but a fhort time afterwards
a group of tranfparent needle-formed cryftals is de¬
pofited.
29. Laftate of Barytes.
Barytes forms with laftic acid, a deliquefcent fait.
30. Prufliate of Barytes.
Pruflic acid and barytes form a fait which is very
little foluble in water, and is decompofed, not only by
the fulphuric acid, but even by carbonic.
31. Sebate of Barytes.
Sebacic acid, added to a folution of barytes in water,
forms no precipitate $ from which it is inferred that
the febate of barytes is infoluble in water.
Benzoic acid combines with barytes, and forms a fait
which is foluble in water, cryftallizes, undergoes no
change by expofure to the air, and is decompofed by
heat and the ftronger acids.
24. Succinate of Barytes.
Barytes forms, with fuccinic acid, a fait which has
little folubility.
25. Saccolate of Barytes.
This fait is infoluble in water.
26. Camphorate of Barytes.
309
ra-
310
cities.
1. The compound of camphoric-acid and barytes is
formed by adding the cryftallized acid to the folution
of the earth, and then boiling the mixture. It is afte"-
wards to be filtered and evaporated to drynefs. What
remains is camphorate of barytes.
2. This fait does not cryftallize j but when it is
flov/ly evaporated, fmall plates are depofited, which
feem tranfparent in the liquid, but become opaque
when expofed to the air. It has fcarcely any tafte •,
but an impreflion remains on the tongue, which is
flightly acid and bitter.
3. This fait undergoes no change by expofure to
You V. Part H.
Sect. III. Of Strontites and its Combinations.
1312
1. This earth was not difcovered till about the yearHiftory.
1791 or 1792. Dr Crawford, indeed, previous to this
period, in making fome experiments on what he fuppofed
was a carbonate of barytes, and obferving a ftriking
difference between this mineral, and the carbonate of
barytes which he had been accuftomed to employ,
conjeftured that it might contain a new earth j and
he fent a fpecimen to Mr Kirw-an for the purpofe of
analyzing it. This conjedture was fully verified by
the experiments of Dr Hope Mr Kirwan, and M. jEdm.
Klaproth, who vrere all engaged in the fame analyfis T
nearly about the fame time. Strontites is found na-lv> 3*
tive in combination with carbonic and fulphuric acids.
With the former it is found in confiderable quantity in
the lead mines of Strontian in Argylefliire, from which
it has derived its name fronirtes, or Jbontmn as it is
called by others. The nature and properties of this
earth have been ftill farther inveftigated by Pelletier,
Fourcroy, and Vauquelin. . ^ ,313
2. This earth may be obtained in a ftate of purity, preuA-
eitber by expofing the carbonate of ftrontites, mixed tlon.
with charcoal powder, to a ftr • ig heat, by which the
carbonic acid is driven off; or, by diflolving the native
4 F ialt
Strontites,
8tc.
1314
Properties.
1315
A&ion ©f
lieat.
1316
Of water.
1317
Affinities.
fait in nitric acid, and decompofing the nitrate of
ftrontites thus formed, by heat. Strontites obtained
by either of thefe precedes, is in fmall porous frag¬
ments of a gresnifli white colour. It has an acrid, hot,
alkaline talte, and converts vegetable blues to green.
The fpecific gravity is 1.647.
3. Light has no perceptible aftion upon this earth.
When it is expofed to heat, it may be kept a long
time, even in a red heat, without undergoing any
change, or even the appearance of fufion. By the ac¬
tion of the blow-pipe it is not melted, but is furround-
ed with a very brilliant white flame.
4. When a little water is thrown on ftrontites, it
exhibits the fame appearance as barytes. It is flaked,
gives out heat, and then falls to powder. If a great¬
er quantity of water be added, it is diffolved. Ac¬
cording to Klaproth it requires 200 parts of water at
the ordinary temperature of the atmofphere for its fo-
lution. Boiling water diffolves it in greater quantity,
and when the folution cools, it affords tranfparent cry-
ftals. Thefe cryftals are in the form of rhomboidal
plates, or in that of flattened lilky needles, or com-
preffed prifms. The fpecific gravity is 1.46. Thefe
cryftals efflorefee in the air, and have an acrid hot
tafte. The folution of this earth in water is acrid
and alkaline, and converts vegetable blues to green.
It is foon covered with a pellicle, by abforbing carbo¬
nic acid from the atmofphere.
5. Strontites has the property of communicating a
purple colour to flame.
6. The order of the affinities of ftrontites is the fol¬
lowing.
Sulphuric acid,
Phofphoric,
Oxalic,
Tartaric,
Fluoric,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Succinic,
Acetic,
Arfenic,
Boracic,
Carbonic.
I. Phofphuret of Strontites.
The phofphuret of ftrontites is prepared in the fame
way as the phofphuret of barytes.
II. Sulphuret of Strontites.
Prepara- The fulphuret of ftrontites is formed by expofing
tion. fulphur and the earth in a crucible, to heat. This ful¬
phuret is foluble in water, by means of fulphurated hy¬
drogen, which is difengaged by the decompofition of
the water. The ftrontites thus combined with fulphu¬
rated hydrogen, forms a hydrofulphuret of ftrontites $
and if this folution be evaporated, the hydrofulphuret
of ftrontites may be obtained in cryftals, and the hy¬
drogenated fulphuret remains, as in fimilar compounds,
in folution. When the hydrogenated fulphuret is de-
compofed by means of an acid, the fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas which is difengaged, burns with a beautiful
purple flame, on accouat of holding in folution a fmall
quantity of the earth, which communicates this pro-
perty.
kJ X XV X •
III. Compounds of Strontites with the Acids,
i. Sulphate of Strontites.
1. The compound of fulphuric acid with ftrontites>
may be formed by adding fulphuric acid to a folution
of ftrontites in water, and it is obtained in the ftate of
a white powder. It is found native in different places,
cryftallized in fine needle-formed prifms. It has no
tafte, and is fcarcely foluble in water. It fuffers no
change in the air. By the action of the blow-pipe it
gives out a yellowilh purple light. It is not decom-
pofed by any of the acids ; but it is decompofed by the
carbonate of potafli and foda, by the barytic falls, by
the fulphates of potalh and of ibda, the phofphates of
potaffi, foda, and ammonia, and by the borate of am¬
monia.
2. The component parts of this fait, according to
Vauquelin, are,
Acid, 46
Strontites, 54
100
But according to Klaproth, Kirwan, and others,
Acid, 42
Strontites, 58
100
2. Sulphite of Strontites.
This fait is yet unknovm.
3. Nitrate of Strontites.
1. The compound of nitric acid and ftrontites, is
formed by precipitating, by means of nitric acid, the
fulphuret of ftrontites, obtained from the decompofed
fulphate, or by diffolving the carbonate of ftrontites in
the acid. By evaporation it may be obtained in cryf¬
tals.
2. The cryftals of nitrate of ftrontites are in the
form of oftahedrons. The tafte of this fait is cool and
pungent. It is not altered by expofure to the air.
The fpecifie gravity is 3.0061. It is foluble in 15
parts of cold water, and much more foluble in boiling
water, in which it cryftallizes on cooling. Expofed to
fudden heat it decrepitates. When it is fubjefled to
heat in a crucible, it fwells up, gives out oxygen and
nitrous gas, and there remains behind pure earth.
This fait has the property of communicating a purple
flame to combuftible fubftances with which it is mixed;
as when a little of the fait in powder is thrown on the
wick of a candle.
3. The component parts of this fait are, according
to
Vauquelin. Kirwan.
Acid 48.4 31.J
Strontites 47*^
Water 4.0 32.72
100.0 100.00
4. Nitrite of Strontites.
The properties of this fait have not been examined-
5. Muriate
utesj
in?
itra-
-txo
irtie*.
ii
314
ara-
5. Muriate of Strontites,
1. The compound of muriatic acid and ftrontites 13
prepared by diffolving carbonate of ftrontites in the
acid. By evaporating the folution, the fait is obtained
cryftallized.
2. This fait cryftallizes in long, {lender, hexagonal
prifms. The tafte is cooling and pungent. The fpeci-
fic gravity is 1.4402. It is not altered by expofure to
the air. It is very foluble in water. Three parts of
the fait are diffolved in two parts of cold water. Thefe
cryitals, which are foluble in alcohol, communicate a
purple colour, which is the diftinguilhing charadteriitic
of this fait. When heated, it melts, and parts with its
water of cryftallization, without being decompofed, and
there remains behind a femitranfparent enameh This
fait is deeompofed by a very (Irong heat. It is decom¬
pofed alfo by the fulphuric, nitric, and phofphoric acids $
and by potalh, foda, and barytes.
3. The conftituent parts of this fait are, according
to
CHEMISTRY. 595
a white enamel, and gives out a purple, pWphorefcent Stronmes,
light. a u—4
3. The conftituent parts of this fait are,
Vauquelin.
Acid, 23.6
Strontites, 36.4
Water, 40.0
100.0
Kirwan.
18
40
42
IOO
6. Hyperoxymuriate of Strontites.
1. This combination of hyperoxymuriatic acid and
ftrontites was prepared by Mr Chenevix, by a fimilar
procefs to that which he employed in the formation of
barytes with the fame acid ; and in many of its proper¬
ties it is analogous.
2. The cryftals of this fait are in the form of needles.
They melt in the mouth, and give the fenfation of
cold. It is compofed of
Acid, 46
Strontites, 26
Water, 28
100
■JH
para-
MV?
perties.
Acid, 41.24
Strontites, 58.76
100.00
I0» Phofphite of Strontites.
The name of this fait is unknown.
ir. Carbonate of Strontites.
132#
1. This fait is found native 5 and, as we have already Found na~
mentioned, was pointed out by Dr Crawford as diffe-tive.
rent from the carbonate of barytes, with which it had
been formerly confounded.
2. It may be prepared artificially, by faturating a fo- prepfira-
lution of ftrontites in water with carbonic acid j or, by tion.
precipitating foluble falts with a bafe of this earth,
by means of alkaline carbonates. The carbonate of
barytes cryftallizes in needles, or in fix-fided prifms.
It has no tafte. The fpecific gravity is 3.6750. It is
not changed by expofure to the air, and it is nearly in-
foluble in water. When it is ftrongly heated in a cru-Properties,
cible, to produce fufioh, it is deprived of part of its
carbonic acid. When heated under the blow-pipe, it
melts into an opaque, vitreous globule, and gives out a
purple flame. 1329
3. The component parts of this fait, according to Compofi-
different chemilts, are
turn.
Hope. Klaproth and Kirwan.
Acid, 30.* 30;
Strontites, 61.2 69*5
Water, 8.6 0.5
100.0
100.0
Pelletier.
3°
62
100
7. Fluate of Strontites.
The properties of this fait have not yet been in*
veftigatcd.
8. Borate of Strontites.
This compound of boracic acid and ftrontites, is in
the form of a white powder, and requires 130 parts of
water for its folution. It converts the fyrup of violets
to a green colour, from which it is inferred, that it con*
tains an excefs of the earth.
9. Phofphate of Strontites.
1. The compound of phofphoric acid and ftrontites, is
formed by diffolving the carbonate of the earth in acid }
or, by mixing together the folutions of muriate of ftron¬
tites, with thofe of the alkaline phofphates.
2. It is thus obtained in the form of white powder,
which is perfectly taftelefs. It is not altered by ex¬
pofure to the air. It is infoluble in water, without
an excefs of acidk It melts under the blow-pipe into
12. Arfeniate of Strontites.
When arfenic acid is dropped into a folution of
ftrontites in water, a copious precipitate is formed,
which is re-diffolved when there is an excefs of acid.
When the arfeniate of ftrontites is neutralized, it is on¬
ly in a flight degree foluble in water *.
13. Tungftate of Strontites. •>
■4- Molybdate of Strontites. ( Unknown
15. Chromate ot otrontites, t
16. Columbate of Strontites. J
* Fdim
Trail/, iv.
I7*
1330
17. Acetate of Strontites.
1. This compound of acetic acid and ftrontites is Prepara*
formed by diffolving the carbonate in the acid. By bon.
evaporation the fait may be obtained cryftallized. 1^1
2. The cryftals remain unaltered by expofure to the Properties,
air. They change vegetable blues to green, and are
equally foluble in hot and cold water f. f Edin.
Tranf ir.
18. Oxalate of Strontites. p. 14.
The compound of oxalic acid and ftrontites is formed
by the direct combination of the acid with the earth in
folution. A precipitate appears in the form of a white
powder, which is nearly infoluble in water. It is de¬
compofed by heat.
4 F 2 The
sg6
CHEMISTRY.
Magnefia,
&c.
The component pails of this fait are,
Acid
Strontites
4°*5
59-5
100.0
19. Tartrate of Strontites.
j. This fait is formed by diffolving the earth in the
acid. The cryftals are in the form of fmall triangu¬
lar tables j they are not altered by the air, are infipid
to the tafle, and foluble in 320 parts of boiling water.
2. The conflituent parts of this fait are,
Acid and water
Strontites
47.12
52.88
100.00
20. Citrate of Strontites.
j. This combination of citric acid with ftrontites
may be formed by mixing together a folution of ni¬
trate of ftrontites and citrate of ammonia. A double
deeompofition takes place, but no precipitate is form¬
ed. By flow evaporation, cryftals of citrate of ftron¬
tites may be obtained.
2. This fait is foluble in water.
21. Malate of Strontites.
This fait is fcarcely known.
22. Gallate of Strontites.
Little known alfo.
23. Benzoate of Strontites.
Unknown.
24. Succinate of Strontites.
Succinic acid combines with ftrontites, and forms
cryftals, which may be obtained by flow evapora¬
tion.
25. Camphorate of Strontites.")
26. Suberate of Strontites. |
Mdlate of Strontites. i 0nkn(mu
28. Laftate of Strontites.
29. Prufliate of Strontites. J
* ~trontites. J
30. Sebate of Strontites.
Sect. IV. Of Magnesia and its Combinations.
1 -'ilory? I- Magnefia was firft known about the beginning
of the 18th century, when it was fold by a Roman ca¬
non, under the name of magnejia alba, or white mag-
nejia, and the powder of the count of Palma, as a cure
for difeafes •, and like many new remedies, it was con¬
sidered as univerfal. In the year 1707, Valentini dif-
eovered that this boafted panacea was the produce of
the calcined ley which remains after the preparation of
nitre. He gave it the pompous name of the laxati A
powder of many virtues. In the year 1709, Slevogt
defcribed the method of obtaining it by precipitation,
from the mother ley of nitre. Lancili and Hoffman
examined fome of its properties in 1717 and 1722 j
and although the latter difcovered that it formed dif¬
ferent combinations with acids from thofe of lime, it Magnf j
was generally confounded with this latter fubftance.
But the nature of magnefia was not fully known, ^
till Dr Black, in 1755, entered upon his celebrated
inveftigations of the different properties of this fub¬
ftance, lime and the alkalies, in the mild and cauftic
ftate. Margraaf publiftied the refult of his experi¬
ments and refearches on it in 1759, in which he gave
many diftinftive characters of this earth, and of its
combinations \ and, at laft, by the obfervations of
Bergman, publiftied in 1775, and thofe of Butini of Ge¬
neva in 1779, the nature and properties of magnefia
were fully demonftrated. ^
2. Magnefia, although it exifts in great abundance pr«pai
in combination with other fubrtances, has never been bon.
found perfedftly pure in nature. The procefs by which
it may be obtained in greateft purity, is the following.
A quantity of Epfom fait, which is a compound of ful-
phuric acid and magnefia, is to be diffolved in w'ater,
and then precipitated by potafti. The precipitate
which is formed is to be well waftied and dried, both
with cold and hot water, to feparate any faline matters
with which it may be mixed. The nature of this pro¬
cefs is obvious. The potafti has a ftronger affinity for
fulphuric acid than magnefia. It therefore combines
with the acid, and the magnefia is precipitated. 13^
3. Magnefia, when it is obtained pure, is in thePropertii
form of a fine white pow der, or in white friable cakes
refembling ftarch. It has no fmell, and no fenfible
tafte j but becomes dry, and leaves on the tongue a
flight fenfation of bitternefs. Its fpecific gravity, ac¬
cording to Kirwan, is 2.330. It gives a flight tinge
of green to fyrup of violets, or other delicate vegeta¬
ble blues.
4. Magnefia is not afted upon by light. It is not Adion
melted when expofed to the greateft heat. By ftrongheat.
calcination it becomes finer, whiter, and more friable.
When it is expofed to heat in the form of pafte with
water, it contrafts its dimenfions, and acquires a
phofphorefcent property j for when it is ftrongly rub¬
bed on a hot iron plate, it becomes luminous in the
dark. It is not altered by the aftion of the blowr-pipe
on charcoal, but gives out a flame of a flight yellow
colour.
5. There is no aftion between magnefia and oxy-of air.
gen or azote. When expofed to the air, it attracts a
little moifture from the atmofphere, but this goes on
very flowly.
Butini expofed a quantity of magnefia for the fpace
of two years in a porcelain cup flightly covered with
paper, and he found that it had acquired only tt?
part of its w eight in addition, during that time.
6. There is no attion between magnefia and hydro¬
gen or carbone, and very little between it and phol-
phorus. *337
7. Magnefia is very little foluble in water. Ac-Of water
cording to Mr Kirwan, it requires near 8000 times its
weight of cold water to diffolve it. Butini found, that
water boiled with this fubftance, and left in contaft
with it for three months, had fcarcely acquired
part of its weight; but water combines with magnefia
in the folid ftate. One hundred parts of magnefia,
according to Bergman, thrown into water, and taken
out and dried, acquired 18 parts of additional weight. ,.38
8. Magnefia enters into combination with the acids,
and
*335
C H E M I
Jjrnefia, and forms with them peculiar falts. The order of its
] pc- aflinities is the following, according to- Bergman,
lify ' <1
Oxalic acid,
Phofphoric,
Sulphuric,
Fluoric,
Arfenic,
Sacla&ic,.
Succinic,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Tartaric,
Citric,
Ladlic,
Benzoic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Sulphurous,
Carbonic,
Pruflic.
33? 9. Magnefia does not enter into combination with
^ the fixed alkalies $ but in combination with fomeof the
earths, it becomes fufible by means of a ftrong heat.
With lime in certain proportions, it forms a greenifti
yellow glafs.
34° 10. Magnefia is much employed in medicine as a
fn* gentle laxative, and as an abforbent to deilroy the
acidity in the ftomach. It is ufed in pharmacy to fuf-
pend or aid the folution of refinous and gummy fub-
ftances, fuch as camphor and opium, in water, which
are other wife little foluble.
PW
t,:
I. Of Sulphuret of Magnefia.
I. Magnefia enters into combination with fulphur,
either in the dry or humid way. Two parts of mag¬
nefia and one of fulphur, put into a crucible, and ex-
pofed to heat, form an orange yellow mafs, which is
not very foluble in water, but emits the odour of ful-
phurated hydrogen gas, when it comes in contact with
that liquidj and which is very readily decompofed by
means of heat. The heat that is applied to obtain
this fulphuret muft be very moderate, otherwife the
fulphur is driven off.
2. The fulphuret of magnefia is formed with more
difficulty in the humid way. When two parts of mag¬
nefia and one of fulphur in powder, with 20 parts of
water, are expofed to heat on a fand bath, the liquid
becomes of a pale yellow colour, which is flightly fe¬
tid, but has nothing of the firong odour of the other
fulphurets. There is formed very little of the fulphu¬
ret of magnefia 5 for the greatelt part of the fulphur
and magnefian earth remains uncombined. There is
very little fulphurated hydrogen produced, the water
1342 fcarcely exhaling the odour of this gas.
perties. 3. The folid fulphuret of magnefia decompofes ra¬
pidly when expofed to the air. It feems to abforb
very little fulphurated hydrogen gas •, fo that the pro¬
perties of the hydrofulphuret of magnefia are yet un-
II. Compounds of Magnefia with Acids.
I. Sulphate of Magnefia.
ary. j. The compound of fulphuric acid and magnefia was
formerly known under the name of Epfom and Seidlit%
S T E Y. 597.
falls, becaufe it exifts in the water of thefe fprings, Magneha,
and fal catharticus amarus, bitter purging fait, on ac- , . _ ,
count of its properties. It w-as long confounded with
fulphate of foda, till its properties were inveftigated by
Black, Macquer, and Bergman, and its nature and
compofition fully afcertained. > 1344
2. This fait exifts abundantly in nature. It isPrepara-
found in many mineral fprings, and it forms a Confider-tl0n-
able proportion of the faline ingredients of fea water.
The bittern or mother water of common fait, that is,
the water which remains after the cryftallization, con-
fifts chiefly of fulphate of magnefia. It is therefore
rarely prepared by art, by the diredl combination of
its conftituent parts. It is eafily purified by difiblving
the fait in water, and by evaporation and cryftalliza-
tion. _ 234-
3. The fulphate of magnefia, thus prepared, is cry-prop£<rtieS
ftallized in four-fided prifms, terminated by four-fided
pyramids. There is, however, fome deviation from
this form. The primitive form of the cryftal is a qua¬
drangular prifm with fquare bafes. The integrant
molecule is a triangular prifm, whofe bafes are right-
angled ifofceles triangles. It has a cool, bitter tafte.
The fpecific gravity is 1.66. _ 1346 ,
4. Expofed to the air, it efflorefces. It is foluble AAion ot
in its own w eight of cold water : boiling water dif-^a^er aa
folves more than two-thirds of its weight. Expofed
to heat, it undergoes the w atery fufion, and being de¬
prived of its water of cryftallization, it does not melt,
nor is it decompofed by the ftrongeft heat. By the
a£tion of the blow-pipe it melts with difficulty into an
opaque, vitreous globule. 2347
5. The fulphate of magnefia is decompofed by the of alkalies,
fixed alkalies, but with ammonia it forms a triple fait. I3^8
The component parts of this fait are, according to
Kirwan.
Sulphuric acid
Magnefia
Water
Bergman.
33
*9
48
100
In cryftals.
29-35
17.00
53-65
100.00
Diy.
63-32
36.68
00.00
100.00 5
Compofi-
tion.
* Nichol.
yaurti- iii.
p. 215.
6. The fulphate of magnefia is employed in medicine ufes; 4
as a purgative. From this fait, too, the earth of mag¬
nefia is ufually extra&ed.
2. Sulphate of Ammonia and Magnefia.
1. This is a triple combination of fulphuric acid prep^r^_
with ammonia and magnefia. It is prepared by thetion.
partial decompofition of the fulphate of magnefia by
means of ammonia. By evaporating the folution, the
triple fait is obtained in cryftals.
2. This fait cryftallizes in o&ahedrons. It has aprop^ties>
bitter acrid tafte, does not efflorefce in the air, is lefs
foluble in water than either of the falts of which it is
c -mpofed, but it is more foluble in hot than in cold wa¬
ter, and it cryftallizes on cooling. By heat it undergoes
the Avatery fufion. It then dries and is decompofed,.
The component parts of this fait are,
Sulphate of magnefia, 64 f Fomcmf
of ammonia, 32 Connai/s.
___ Chirn. iii.
IQOf.
49.
3, Sulphate
598
C H -E M I S T Px Y.
Magneua,
&c
3. Sulphite of Magnefia.
135*
Prepara¬
tion.
T3S3
Properties.
1354
Adtion of
air, &c.
1. The compound of fulphurous acid and magnefia is
formed by palling fulphurous acid gas into two parts of
water, with one of carbonate of magnefia. A violent
effervefeence takes place, with the evolution of heat.
The fulphite of magnelia is formed, and precipitated to
the bottom in the date of powder •, but with an excefs
of acid it is re-diiTolved, and cryftallizes.
2. The cryftals of fulphite of magnelia are in the
form of deprelfed tranfparent tetrahedrons. It has a
mild earthy tafle, which foon becomes fenlibly fulphu-
reous 5 it has no fmell. Its fpecific gravity is 1.3802.
3. It efflorefees in the air, and is llowly converted
into fulphate of magnelia. It is foluble in 20 parts of
cold water. Boiling water diffolves a greater propor¬
tion, and from this it cryltallizes on cooling. Expofed
to heat, this fait becomes vifeid, and by calcination it
lofes 0.45 of its weight. If the heat be increafed, it is
decompofed •, the acid is driven off, and the pure earth
remains behind.
The component parts of this fait are,
Sulphurous acid 39
Magnelia 16
Water 45
ICO
1355
Prepara¬
tion.
*356
Properties.
4. Sulphite of Ammonia and Magnelia.
1. This triple fait is formed by decompoling the ful¬
phite of ammonia by magnelia, or the fulphite of mag¬
nelia by ammonia, m folution in the cold $ or, by mix-
ing together the folutions of the two falts.
2. This fait is in tranfparent cryllals, the form of
which has not been determined. When it is expofed
to the air, it is converted into fulphate of ammonia and
magnelia. It is lefs foluble in water than either of the
two fulphites of which it is formed. By the aftion of
heat, fulphurous acid is given out, acidulous fulphite of
ammonia is fublimed, and there remains behind pure
f Ibid. p. 8£. magnelia f.
5. Nitrate of Magnelia.
1.357
Action of
heat.
I35<>
Hiftory and
prepara¬
tion.
*3 5 9
Properties.
1360
Action of
water.
1361
Of heat.
13(52
Compofi-
fion.
1. This compound of nitric acid and magnelia was
formerly called nitre with bafe of magnefia, and mag-
nelian faltpetre. It is formed by the direft combina¬
tion of the acid with the earth. By evaporation it is
cryftallized.
2. This fait cryftallizes in four-fided rhomboidal
prifms, whofe fummits are oblique or truncated. Some¬
times it is in the form of fmall needles combined in
groups. The tafte is penetrating and bitter. The fpe-
cifie gravity is 1.736.
3. It is deliquefeent in the air, and is foluble in its
own weight of cold water. It is more foluble in boil¬
ing water, in which it cryftallizes on cooling j but it
can only be obtained in regular eryftals by flow evapo¬
ration from its folution in cold water.
4. By the adlion of heat it undergoes the watery
fulion •, the water is driven off, and it becomes dry. It
is decompofed in a ftrong heat, gives out a little oxy¬
gen gas, then nitrous gas, and at laft the nitric acid.
The pure earth remains behind.
The component parts of this fait are, according to
Acid
Magnefia
Water
Magnd
&c,
wr|
100
100
6. Nitrate of Ammonia and Magnefia.
^eI
1. This triple fait is formed, either by the dire£i:Prepar^
combination of the folutions of nitrate of ammonia,ft°n.
and nitrate of magnefia, by which the fait is obtained
pure and cryftallized j or, by partially decompofing the
nitrate of ammonia by magnelia, or the nitrate of mag¬
nefia by ammonia.
2. The cryftals of this fait are in the form of fine Proper i
prifms. It has a bitter, acrid, and ammoniacal tafte. It
is lefs deliquefeent in the air than either of the confti- ■
tuent falts, and lefs foluble in water. It requires 11 parts
of cold water to diffolve it, but lefs of boiling water.
It cryftallizes on coaling. |
When it is rapidly heated, it inflames fpontaneoufly.Aftioiu
When flowly heated in clofe veflels, it gives out oxy-heat.
gen gas, azotic gas, a greater proportion of water than
it contains, nitrous gas, and nitric acid, without the
fmalleft trace of ammonia $ which fhows that it is de¬
compofed, that the hydrogen combines with the oxygen
of the acid, and forms water.
The component parts of this fait are,
Nitrate of magnefia 78
—.—     ammonia 22
13W
CompoL
tion.
ICO
7. Nitrite of Magnefia.
Nothing is known of the properties of this fait.
* Fourr
Connaijit
Chim. iiii! I
p. 144.
8. Muriate of Magnefia.
1367
1. This compound of muriatic acid and magnefia Found n
was formerly called marine fait of magnefia, and was five,
confounded with the muriate of lime, with which it
is frequently accompanied. The dift'erence between
thefe two falts was firft pointed out by Dr Black, and
Bergman afterwards examined the nature and proper¬
ties of muriate of magnefia. The fait is obtained by
diflblving magnefia in muriatic acid till they are fatu-
rated, and then evaporating the folution. Small irregu¬
lar cryftals are obtained. This fait exifts in the waters
of the ocean, and in mineral waters, along with the mu¬
riates of foda and lime. 136$
2. It is extremely difficult to obtain the muriate ofProperti<
magnefia in any regular form. It is either in the ftate
of powder, or very fmall regular needles, or in a kind
of jelly. It has a difagreeable bitter tafte. The fpe¬
cific gravity is 1.601.
3. It is very deliquefeent in the air. Cold water
readily diffolves its own weight, and it is ftill more fo¬
luble in boiling water.
4. It is completely decompofed by heat; the acid isAftiono
driven off, and the pure earth remains behind *.
Acid
Magnefia
Water
Kir wan.
34-59
31.07
34*38
heat.
i37r0
Compoii-
tion.
* Yourct
iii. 204.
IOO
IOO.O4 f*
9, Muriate
+ Nitbol
fon'f011
ui.21*
■r.eiia,
!t72
trrties.
S.
'74
y tofi-
ici
* ‘il.
|
P‘ '9*
575
ira-
9. Muriate of Ammonia and Magnefia.
This triple fait is formed by mixing the folutions of
muriate of magnefia and muriate of ammonia j and
by evaporating the folution the fait cryflallizes in
the form of finall polyhedrons. It has a bitter, am-
moniacal tafte. It is little altered by expofure to the
air, and is foluble in fix parts of cold water. It is
decompofed by heat. The muriate of ammonia is fub-
limed, and the muriate of magnefia is deprived of its
acid.
The component parts of this fait are,
CHEMISTRY. 599
foluble even in boiling water. Expofed to a ibrong red Magnefia,
heat, the cryftals lofe their luftre j and with a white, ,
heat they decrepitate, and at laft melt into a yellow
Muriate of magnefia,
ammonia.
73
27
100
urcroy.
.oS.
piS.
tic
■» 1 evties.
f3?9
M id na-
‘ Gerties,
coloured glafs.
3. The component parts of this fait are,
Acid, 73.5
Magnefia, 14.6
Lime, 11.9
13S1
Ccmpofi-
tion.
100.0
10. Hyperoxymuriate of Magnefia.
This is fimilar in its chemical and phyfical proper¬
ties to the hyperoxymuriate of lime, and it is prepared
in the fame way. It is precipitated by lime and am¬
monia.
The component parts are,
Acid, 60.
Magnefia, 25.7
Water, 14.3
100.0 *
ix. Fluate of Magnefia.
r. This fait is formed by combining together fluoric
acid and magnefia. According to Scheele, it precipi¬
tates in the form of a gelatinous mafs j but Bergman
obferves that great part of the fait is depofited as the
faturation approaches. By evaporating the folution,
cryfials in the form of fix-fided prifms, terminated by
a low pyramid compofed of three rhomboidal fides, are
obtained.
2. This fait is not decompofed by the ftrongeft heat,
or by any acid.
12. Fluate of Ammonia and Magnefia.
This triple fait is formed by mixing the folutions of
the fluate of ammonia and magnefia. A precipitation
is formed, which is the triple fait in cryftals. The
properties of this fait are unknown f.
13. Borate of Magnefia.
1. This fait is formed by the diredl combination of
boracic acid with magnefia. The earth is flowly dif-
folved, and when the folution is evaporated, cryftals are
obtained.
2. The cryftals of this fait are very fmall and irre¬
gular. It melts when expofed to heat, without be¬
ing decompofed 5 but it may be decompofed, it is faid,
by alcohol J.
14. Borate of Magnefia and Lime.
1. This fait, which has been lately difeovered native,
is called by mineralogifts cubic quartet. It wras ana¬
lyzed by Weftrumb in 1788. It is an infipid fait, and
is regularly cryftallized in polyhedrons of 22 faces.
The fpecific gravity is 2.566.
2. It is not altered by expofure to the air, nor is it
15. Phofphate of Magnefia. ^
1. This fait may be obtained by thediredl combination Prepara-
of phofphoric acid and carbonate of magnefia •, for, ittl0n*
may be prepared by mixing together phofphate of foda
and fulphate of magnefia in folution. In a few hours,
large, tranfparent cryftals are formed in the folution. 1383
2. This fait cryftallizes in fix-fided prifms with un-Properties!
equal fides, but it is frequently in the form of powder.
It has a cooling, fweetilh tafte. The fpecific gravity
is 1.5489. ... . 23§4
3. It efflorefees in the air, is not very foluble in Action of
cold water, and requires about 50 partsof boiling water water.
for its folution, and part of it cryftallizes on cooling.
When it is heated, it is eafily deprived of its water of Of heat,
cryftallization, and if the heat be moderate, it melts
and falls down into a white powder. With a ftronger
heat, it is melted into glafs.
16. Phofphate of Ammonia and Magnefia.
1. This triple fait was difeovered by Fourcroy in aP°und na*
calculous concretion, found in the colon of a horfe.tlve<
The refults of his experiments on this fubftance have
been confirmed by Berthollet and Vauquelin.
2. It may be prepared artificially, by mixing together Compofi-
a folution of phofphate of magnefia with a folution of1'011-
phofphate of ammonia. 1388
3. The cryftals are in the prifmatic form, but cannot P10?61-2'^
be acourately afeertained. This fait has no tafte. L«
the concrete form, it is found in the cavities of animal
bodies, and fometimes it is cryftallized, but moft fre¬
quently lamellated and femitranfparent.
4. It is not changed by the aftion of the air, and is Action of
fcarcely foluble in water. When it is heated mode-heat,
rately, it falls to powder. With a ftrong heat it is de¬
prived of the ammonia, and under the blow-pipe it
melts into a tranfparent globule. It is decompofed by
the fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids. ,„90
The component parts of this fait found in the in-Common
teftine of the horfe are, f»h.
Phofphate of ammonia, 33.3
 magnefia, 33.3
 water, 33.3
100.0
17. Phofphite of Magnefia.
1. This fait may be prepared by directly combin- prepara-
ing phofphoreus acid with magnefia. Or it may be ob-tioru
tained in a purer ftate, and cryftallized, by mixing to¬
gether folutions of phofphites of foda or of potafti, and
fulphate of magnefia, by which means it is obtained in
brilliant milky flakes.
2. This
6gq
Magnefia,
6cc.
1393
Properties.
CHEMISTRY.
2. Tins fait, which has no fenfrble tafte, fomctlmes
cryftallizes in the form of tetrahedrons. It efBorefces
in the air, and is foluble in 400 parts of cold water.
When expofed to heat, it fuddenly fwells up, and melts
into a glafs. Under the blow-pipe it gives out a phof-
phoric light, and becomes opaque on cooling.
The component parts of this fait are,
21. Arfeniate of Magnefxa,
When arfenic acid is faturated with magnefia, a
thick matter forms towards the point of fat ur at ion,
which is foluble in excefs of acid ; but when it is eva¬
porated, it does not cryftallize. It affumes the form of
a jelly. It is decompofed by the alkaline arfeniates.
Magn*
Names and
prepara
tion.
Acid 44
Magnefia 20
Water 36
100
18. Phofphite of Aittmonia and Magnefia.
This fait is formed by the partial decompofition of
phofphite of ammonia by means of magnefia, or by
mixing together the folutions of the two phofphites.
If the folutions be fufficiently concentrated, the triple
phofphite is readily depofited. It forms cryftals, and
has little folubility in water* Its other properties are
unknown.
19. Carbonate of Magnefia.
1. This fait, which was firft diftinguithed by Dr
Black, has been called mild tnagnejia, aerated magne-
Jia. It is formed by mixing together fulphate of mag¬
nefia and carbonate of potalh in folution. Or it may
be obtained by diffolving pure magnefia in water fatu¬
rated with carbonic acid* The fait, as the folution is
evaporated, cryftalliies.
2. The magnefia of commerce, which is in the ftate
of powder, or light*friable cakes, is not fully faturated
with the acid. But when it is cryftallized by the above
proceffes, it is in the form of transparent fix-fided prifms,
terminated by a hexagonal plane. This fait has little
tafte. The fpecific gravity is 0.2941*
Action 01 3* When it is cryitallized, it loon lofes its tranfpa-
water and rency in the air. It is foluble in 48 parts of cold water.
Expofed to heat in a crucible, it flightly decrepitates, is
deprived of its water and acid, and falls down into a
powder. It is decompofed by all the acids. The com¬
ponent parts of this fait are, according to
Bergman. Butini.
Acid 30 36
Magnefia 45 43
Water 25 21
100 100 *’ 100
The magnefia of commerce is compofed of
Fourcroy. Kirwan.
48 34
*394
Properties
*395
Adhon of
heat.
'1396
Compofi-
tion.
Carbonic acid
Magnefia
Water
40
12
45
21
22. Tungftate of Magnefia.
This acid, in combination with magnefia, forms a fait
which appears in the form of brilliant fcales. It is not
altered by expofure to the air, and it is foluble in wa¬
ter. It is decompofed by acids, and a white powder is
precipitated.
23. Molybdate of Magnefia. "ji
24. Chromate of Magnefia. > Unknown.
25* Columbate of Magnefia. J
26. Acetate of Magnefia..
This fait is formed by the direft combination of
magnefia with acetic acid. It does not cryltallize, but
a vifcid mals remains when the folution is evaporated.
It has a fweetilh tafte, leaving afterwards an impreffion
of bitternefs. The fpecific gravity is 1.378. It deli-
quefces in the air, is very foluble in water, and is de¬
compofed by heat.
27. Oxalate of Magnefia.
This fait is formed by combining oxalic acid with
magnefia, and evaporating the folution. A fait is ob¬
tained in the form of white powder, which is fcarcely
foluble in water. It is deeompofed by heat. The
component parts of this fait are,
Acid and water
Magnefia
65
35
100
100 loo
20. Carbonate of Ammonia and Magnefia.
This triple fait is prepared by decompofing carbonate
of ammonia by means of magnefia ; or by precipitating
a folution of carbonate of magnefia by means of pure
ammonia. This fait, however, has not been particu¬
larly examined.
28. Taftrate of Magnefia.
This compound of tartaric acid and magnefia forms a
fait which is infoluble in water, without an excefs of acid.
When this is the cafe, it cryftallizes by evaporation.
The cryftals are in the form of hexangular truncated
prifms. It is firft melted, and then decompofed by
heat.
29. Citrate of Magnefia.
This fait is obtained by diflolving carbonate of mag¬
nefia in citric acid. From the thick folution of this
fait, there is no cryftallization ; but after fome days,
by a flight agitation, it affumes the form of a white
opaque mafs, which remains foft, as it feparates front
the edges of the veffel. The component parts of this
fait are,
Acid 66.66
Magnefia 33.34
100.00 *.
30. Malate of Magnefia.
This is a deliquefeent fait, and very foluble in wa¬
ter.
31. Gallats
# Towi
vii. ao8.
leiia,
397
fijara-
lit
C H E M I
3i. Gallute of Magnefia.
Magnefxa boiled with an infufion of nut galls, affords
a clear liquid, which affumes a green colour. By eva¬
poration to drynefs the green colour vanifhes, and the
acid is decompofed.
3 2. Benzoate of Magnefia.
The combination of benzoic acid with magnefia af¬
fords plumofe cryftals which ate eafily foluble in water.
This fait has a bitter tafte.
33. Succinate of Magnefia.
This fait which is formed by the combination of fuc-
cinic acid and magnefia, does not cryftallize. It is a
white glutinous mafs which is deliquefeent in the air.
34. Saccolate of Magnefia.
This fait is infoluble in water.
35. Camphorate of Magnefia.
1. This fait is formed by mixing carbonate of mag¬
nefia with water, and adding cryftallized camphoric
acid. A flight effervefcence takes place. The tem¬
perature fhould be increafed, to drive off the carbonic
acid. The folution is filtered wrhile it is hot, and eva¬
porated to drynefs. The mafs is diffolved in diflilled
water, filtered and evaporated by a gentle heat, till
a pellicle appears on the furface. By cooling there
are depofited fmall plates, which are heaped upon each
other.
2. This fait, which does not cryftallize, is white
and opaque, ahd has a bitter tafte. In the air it is
{lightly efflorefeertt. It is not very foluble in water.
Boiling water diffolves a little, but it is precipitated in
cooling. When it is thrown on red-hot coals, the
acid is volatilized, and pure magnefia remains behind.
By the aftion of the blow-pipe it gives out a bluifh
flame. It is decompofed by fulphuric, nitric, and mu¬
riatic acids *.
36. Suberate of Magnefia.
The compound of fuberic acid and magnefia is in the
form of powder; It has a bitter tafte, is deliquefeent
in the air, and foluble in water. It reddens the tinc¬
ture of turnfole. Expofed to heat, it fwells up and
melts. By the aftion of the blow-pipe, the fait is de¬
compofed, the acid is driven off, and pure magnefia re¬
mains behind. The fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic
acids, decompofe it. It is alfo decompofed by the al-
9. xxiii.kalies, barytes, and lime f.
jr37. Mellate of Magnefia.
Unknown.
38. La£late of Magnefia.
A fait in fmall deliquefeent cryftals.
39. Prufliate of Magnefia.
This fait may be prepared by dire<ftly combining
Vol. V. Part II.
39?
brties.
nn. de
xxvii,
S T R Y. , . 601
pruflic acid with pure magnefta j but the magnefia is Alumina,
precipitated when the folution is expofed to the air. It ^c' ,
is alfo decompoled by the alkalies and lime.
Sect. V. Of Alumina and its Combinations.
r399
1. Alumina, which is now employed to fignify one ofHiftory.
the fimple earths, is derived from the word alum, of
which this earth forms a conftituent part, and from
which it is obtained in greateft purity. It was former¬
ly denominated argil and argillaceous earth ; but thefe
names, being expreflive of mixtures of difterent earths,
have been properly rejefted. Pott and Margraaf were
the firft wdio diftinguiihed this earth from the calcare¬
ous earth or lime, and proved that this latter earth could
not be obtained from it by calcination. In the year
1739, Hellot ftiewed, that the bafis of alum, feparated
from this fait by an alkali, was pure argil, or alumina.
In 1758 and 1762 Macquer examined this earth, and
detailed its chara&eriftic properties. Thefe were after¬
wards farther elucidated and confirmed by the experi¬
ments and refearches of Bergman and Scheele, fo that
the nature and charafters of this earth were completely
developed, and it was univerfally admitted as diftindl
from all others hitherto known.
2. Although alumina exifts in great abundance in Prepara-
nature, yet it is rarely found uncombined, or in a ftatetion*
of perfect purity. It may be obtained pure by the fol¬
lowing procefs.
DifTolve a quantity of common alum in water, and
add to the folution, a folution of potafh or carbonate of
potafh, or, what is fuppofed to be {till better, liquid am¬
monia. An abundant white precipitate is immediately
formed. Continue the addition of the alkali as long as
any precipitate appears. When the whole of the pre¬
cipitate has colletled at the bottom of the veffel, pour
off the fluid part, and wafti the precipitate repeatedly
with large quantities of water, to free it from all faline
matters which it may have retained. Dry the precipi¬
tate in a moderate heat, and the fubftance thus obtain¬
ed b alumina in a ftate of tolerable purity. If this pre¬
cipitate retain any portion of fulphuric acid, it may be
feparated by adding muriatic acid in fmall quantities
at a time, till the whole is diffolved. Evaporate the
folution till a drop of it, when fuffered to cool on a
plate of glafs, yields minute cryftals. Then fet by the
folution till it cool, and cryftals will be depofited. Let
thefe cryftals be removed by pouring off the fluid, and
continue the evaporation till no more cryftals are form¬
ed. In this way the alum which the earth retained,
may be feparated. The liquid which remains is to be
mixed with ammonia as long as any precipitate appears.
This precipitate, well waflied and dried, is pure alu-
mina‘ . . . r . . . 1401
3. Thfc alumina obtained by this procefs, is either in Propci ties,
the form of friable fragments, or of very fine white
powder, foft to the touch, and infipid to the tafte. It
has a peculiar odour, which is diftinguiftied by the name
of earthy fnell, and is only perceptible when it is breath¬
ed upon, or moiftened (o). It adheres to the tongue in
4 G confequence
(o) This fmell, however, as it has been jufily obferved by Sauffure, is owing to the oxide of iron, with
U-hich the alumina, in its ordinary ftate of purification, is contaminated j for when it is perfeftly pure, and no
traces
002
Alumina,
&c.
143?
Spongy
alumina,
* your, de
Phyfique,
iii. p. apo.
1403
Gelatinous.
1404
Adlion of
water.
1405
Of water.
1406
Ofcafbone,
1407
Of acid.
confequcnoe of its rapidly abforbing moifture.
fpecific gravity is 2.
4. Sauffure has obfervcd, that alumina exhibits two
different appearances, according to the quantity of
water which has been employed in the folution of the
aluminous fait. If the quantity of water does not ex¬
ceed what is neceffary for the folution of the fait, we
obtain a light friable white earth, which is very fpon-
gy, and adheres to the tongue. Xhis he c2WsJpongif
alumina. But when the fait is diffolved in a large
quantity of water, we obtain, after drying the preci¬
pitate in the fame temperature, a yellowilh brittle
tranfparent mafs, which fplits into fmall fragments,
when held in the hand, like folid fulphur. It has a
fmooth conchoidal fradlure, no earthy appearance, does
not adhere to the tongue, and does not fwell up when
put into water. It occupies 10 or 12 times lefs volume
than in the fpongy ftate, and has fome reiemblance to,
gum arabic, or a dried jelly. This he diftinguifhes by
the name gelatinous alumina *.
5. Alumina undergoes no change by being expofed
to light. When it is expofed to heat, it is diminiftied
in bulk, in confequence of being deprived of the wa¬
ter with which it is combined. Accordingly, Sauffure
has obferved, that the fpongy alumina, expofed to the
lame temperature, lofes a greater quantity of moifture
than the gelatinous alumina. The former, when ex¬
pofed to a red heat, lofes 0.58 part of its weight; but
the latter only 0.43 part. When they are both ex¬
pofed to a very ftrong heat, the fpongy alumina is de¬
prived of no more water that what it gives out with a
red heat, while the gelatinous parts with only 0.4825.
On this property of the contraction of bulk of alumina
when expofed to heat, depends the principle of the ther¬
mometer, or pyrometer, of Wedgwood, of which we
ihall immediately give a fhort defcription.
When alumina is expofed to a very ftrong heat fud-
denly applied, as by means of the blow-pipe, w'ith a
ftream of oxygen gas, it is fufceptible of a kind of fu-
ilon } and, when it is cooled, it appears under the form
of an enamel, of a greenilh colour, and fo hard as to
cut glafs. .
6. Alumina is not foluble in water, but it ablorbs
and retains that fluid in conflderable quantity. With
a greater quantity of w'ater it is diffufed in it, and may
be formed into a pafte, in which ftate it is moulded
with great facility into any form.
7. There is no aftion between alumina and oxygen,
azote, hydrogen, or phofphorus j and very little be¬
tween it and fulphur, except when they are in a ftate
of minute divifion, or in combination with fome other
fubftances. Carbone combines with alumina, of which
there are many natural compounds, among the ciafs of
bituminous foflils; but even in thefe compounds, the
carbone and alumina are mixed with other earths, and
with the oxide of iron. ,
8. Alumina enters into combination with almoft all
the acids, and forms falls which are more or lefs folu¬
ble, and fufceptible of cryftallization. Some are info-
lubie in water, and others require an excefs of acid.
CHEMISTRY.
9. The order of its affinity for the acids, is the fol-
The
lowing :
Sulphuric acid,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Oxalic,
Arfenic,
Fluoric,
Tartaric,
Succinic,
Saclaftic,
Citric,
Phofphoric,
La&ic,
Benzoic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Sulphurous^
Carbonic,
Pruflic.
10. Alumina combines with the fixed alkalies. Ofalkt
When they are heated together, an opaque mafs, which
has little coherence, is formed. Fixed alkali diffolved
in water1, with the afliftance of heat, has the property
of diffolving alumina j but from this folution it may be
precipitated by means of an acid, and then it is ob¬
tained in gfeat purity. Liquid ammonia alfo holds a
fmall quantity of alumina in folution, if it has been
recently precipitated. I4<,
II. Alumina enters into combination with many of of ear
the earths, and particularly with lime and filica. Thefe
compounds form the chief bails of all kinds of pottery
and porcelain. Alumina combines with lime, and en¬
ters into fufion with it by means, of heat. A com¬
pound is alfo formed with alumina and barytes, or
ftrontites, by expofing them together in a crucible to
a ftrong heat; or, by boiling them together in water.
Magnefia and alumina alone, do not enter into combi¬
nation by means of the ftrongeftheatj but a porcelain
is obtained from a mixture of lime, magnefia, and alu¬
mina. But in the proportions that are employed, it is
neceffary that the alumina be greateft. The following
table (hews the refults of experiments on thefe earths in
different proportions *.
Alumina, 31
Lime, 2 A porcelain.
Magnefia, I j
Alumina, 31
Magnefia, 2 > A porcelain.
Lime, IJ
Alumina, 3 T
Magnefia, 3 > Porous porcelain.
Lime, 1J
* Kirw
Muieru
i, p. 61J
Alumina,
Magnefia,
Lime,
ll
Porous porcelain.
Alumina,
traces of oxide of iron can be detecled, it has no perceptible fmell. To alumina which was perfecily inodorous,
he communicated this fmell, by triturating it with oxide of iron. Journal de Bhyftque, In. p. 287.
C H E M I
m, Alumina, 31
Lime, 2 >■ Porcelain.
•—J Magnefia, 2j
u
12. This is one of the moft important of the earths,
on account of the variety of purpofes to which it is ap¬
plied. It forms the bafes of all kinds of earthen ware,
from the coarfeft brick to the fineft china. It is alfo
chiefly employed in the pots or crucibles which are ex-
pofed to very ftrong heat, as in glafs manufacture and
call iron. It is employed alfo in dyeing and calico-
printing, and in the cleaning or fcouring of woollen
fluffs. It has been applied to a valuable ufe by the
late Mr Wedgwood, in the conftruftion of an inftru-
ment capable of afcertaining high degrees of tempe¬
rature, to which the common thermometer cannot
u reach.
13. This inftrument is conftruCted on the principle
i; py- of the contraction of pure clay, when it is expofed to
(r* heat. Mr Wedgwood took a very pure clay, and
formed it into fmall fliort cylinders, which were made
exaCtly of the fame fize. They are then baked in a
low red heat, to expel the whole of the air and moi-
fture which adhere to the clay. The cylinders are
thus prepared for the meafurement of ftrong heats.
For this purpofe, one of the cylinders is introduced
between two rulers, to which a fcale is attached, and
its bulk is exaCtly meafured. It is then introduced
into the furnace whofe heat is to be tried, and the
temperature is to be eftimated according to the dimi¬
nution of bulk which the cylinder has fuftained. The
quantity of contraction is meafured by means of two
metallic rulers, which are fixed upon a plate. Thefe
rulers are 24 inches in length, and are divided into
240 parts. The diftance between the rulers at the up¬
per extremity of the fcale is 0.5 of an inch, and at the
lower extremity 0.3 of an inch. The fize of the clay
cylinder, before it is introduced into the furnace,
nearly fits the upper part of the fcale j or at leaft the
degree at which it ftands, before it is introduced into
the furnace, is marked. After being heated, the clay
cylinder is again applied to the fcale, and the diminu¬
tion of bulk is meafured by the diftance at which it
ftands between the rulers from the top of the fcale, or
from the degree at which it flood before it was expofed
^ to the heat.
fit. Mr Wedgwood conneCled the fcale of his pyrome¬
ter with Fahrenheit’s thermometer. The firft degree
of his fcale which marks a red heat, correfponds to
the 9470 Fahrenheit j but to make this inftrument bet¬
ter underftood, we may ftate a few of the correfpond-
ing degrees of the two inftruments.
Wedgwood. Fahrenheit.
Red heat,
Fine lilver melts
Fine gold melts
Welding heat of iron
Caft iron melts
Greateft heat in an air furnace
eight inches fquare
Extremity of the fcale, or higheft
temperature obferved
o = 947
28 4717
32 5237
95 J3427
130 17977
160 21877
240 32277
This inftrument has been of confiderable importance
in fome arts and xnanufa&ures, and it is undoubtedly
s T R Y.
603
fitted to give fmne information concerning thofe hi- Alumina,
tenfe heats which can be meafured by no other inftru-
ment which has yet been contrived. But as the fame
kind of clay cannot always be obtained, and as it is
probable that the contractions of the cylinders are not
proportional to the temperatures, their eftimation by
this inftrument can only be confidered as an approxi¬
mation to certainty.
I. Compounds of Alumina with Acids.
1. Sulphate of Alumina.
1414
1. This is a compound of fillphuric acid and alumi- Prepara-
na. It may be formed by the dir eft combination oftion.
the acid with the earth. But in the preparation of
this fait, the earth and the acid muft be in a ftate of
purity, and muft be faturated with each other. The
iolution is then evaporated to drynafs 5 the fait is
again diflblved in diitilled water, and evaporated ilowly
till it cryftallizes.
2. The cryltals of this fait are in the form of thin Propertieji
plates, foft and pliant, with a brilliant pearly luftre,
and of an aftringent tafte. It is not altered by expo-
fure to the air j it is very foluble in water, but it does ^,5
not cryftallize readily. When it is heated, it is infu- Aftion of
Able j but by long calcination, it dries and falls down heat, &c.
to powder. At a high temperature it is decompofed,
and the acid is driven off.
3. The fulphuric acid readily combines with this
fait, and forms with it an acidulous fulphate of alu¬
mina. This fait has a more acid tafte than the for¬
mer j it cryftallizes with more difficulty, and the cry-
ftals have more brilliancy. It reddens vegetable blues,
and frequently affumes the form of a thick gelatinous
mafs.
4. All the alkaline and earthy bafes, except filica
and zirconia, decompofe either of thefe two lalts.
The faturated fulphate of alumina, according to Berg¬
man, is compofed of
1417
Sulphuric acid, co Compoii-
Alumina, 30 ,'Uyn'
100
2. Acidulous Sulphate of Alumina and Potaffi, or
Alum.
1. The alum of commerce, now of fuch extenfive Hiftorv!
utility in many of the arts and manufaftures, was im¬
ported into Europe from Afia, previous to the 15th
century, during which it was begun to be manufac¬
tured in Italy. Alum works were erefted in Spain
and Germany in the , 16th century ; and towards the
end of it, a manufaftory of this fait was eftabliftied in
Yopkfliire in England. But the true nature of alum
hai^ been only of late underftood. It is to the experi-
mpnts and refearches of Vauquclin, that we are in¬
debted for the knowledge of its component parts.
2. Alum is generally obtained by expoiing to the Prenura-
weather for fome time, aluminous fchiftus, or what are bon,
•called aluminous ores, which are natural productions
fometimes found in the neighbourhood of volcanoes,
and fometimes, as in Britain, dug out of coal mines
which abound with pyrites or fulphuret of iron. When
thefe fubftances, which are alfo mixed with a confidei-
4 G a able
604
CHEMISTRY.
Alumina,
&.C.
1420
Properties.
1421
A&ion of
water and
-ire at.
1422
Varieties.
1423
Compoii-
tion.
able proportion of clay, are expofed to air and moi-
flure, the fulphur combines with the oxygen of the
air, or with that of the water, by decompoiing it, and
is thus converted into fulphuric acid. This combines
with the alumina, and thus there is formed a fulphate
of alumina. The fait, thus formed, is dilfolved in wa¬
ter, and muft be purified by repeated boilings and cry-
ilallizations. This aluminous fchiftus is generally
mixed with a confiderable proportion of fulphate of
iron. From this it is to be feparated during the procefs,
and the potalh or ammonia which is neceffary to coniti-
tute the triple fait, muft be added. Even before the
component parts of alum were difeovered, the addition
of potalh or ammonia was found to be neceffary to com¬
plete the procefs. This was well known to the manu¬
facturers, who fuppofed that it was neceffary to take up
a quantity of acid, which being in excefs, prevented the
granulation, as it was called, or the crystallization of
the alum.
3. Alum cryftallizes in regular oCtahedrons 5 but
this form is fubjeft to confiderable variety, according
to the difference of proportion which is found to take
place among its component parts. I he primitive form
of the cryftal is the regular oftahedron, and the inte¬
grant molecule the regular tetrahedron. It has a very
aftringent, ftyptic, and fomewhat fweetifti tafte. It
ufually reddens vegetable blues. The fpecific gravity
is 1.7109.
4. It is little changed by expofure to the air. By-
long contaft there is a flight efflorefcence on the fur-
face. Alum is foluble in 16 or 20 parts of cold wa¬
ter. Boiling water diffolves a greater proportion.
When expofed to heat, it melts in its water of crystal¬
lization. It then fwells up, enlarges in volume, and
there remains behind a light, porous, dry mafs, which
has a Sharp acid tafte, and reddens more Strongly vege¬
table blues. In this Slate it is called burnt or calcined
alum. When it is expofed to a Stronger heat, the acid
is driven off.
5. According to the experiments of Vauquelin,
there are three kinds or varieties of alum, which, al¬
though they poffefs nearly the fame properties, have
different constituent parts, or different proportions of
the fame constituents. The firft is fulphate of alumina
and potafti with an excefs of acid ; which indeed is ne¬
ceffary to constitute alum. The Second confifts of alu¬
mina and ammonia, alfo with an excefs of acid. The
third variety, which is molt frequently found among
the alum of commerce, is. a mixture of both. It con¬
tains both potath and ammonia. When an additional
quantity of potafti is added, the alum cryftallizes, not
in its ul’ual form, but in the form of cubes, and hence
it has been denominated cubic alum. If a Still greater
quantity of potafti be added, the crystallization is near¬
ly interrupted \ and it then appears in the form of
flakes.
The component parts of alum, are according to
V auquelin.
Sulphate pf alumina,
   potaSh,
Water,
1424
Aft ton oi
charcoal.
49
7
44
100
Kirwan.
Acid, 17.66
Bafe, 12.00
Water, 70.34
100.00
143
6. The three varieties of alum are nearly decompo-
fed in the fame way, by combuftible fubftances. If Alusj
alum be expofed to a moderate heat with charcoal, it &
is converted into the ftate of neutral fait, becaufe the
charcoal asfts on the excefs of acid, before it can eft’ebt
the decomposition of the fait 5 but when it is Strongly
heated, there is formed with the fulphate of alumina
and potaSh, a black fubftance, which fpontaneoufly takes
fire in the air. This Substance has been distinguished
by the name of pyrophorus ; and it is called Homberg's
pyrophorus7 becaufe it was difeovered by that che¬
mist.
Pyrophorus is prepared by mixing together three pyr^
parts of alum, and one of flour or fugar, in an iron
ladle, and expofing the mixture to heat till it ceafes
to fwell, and becomes black. It is then to be redu¬
ced to powder, put into a glafs phial, and again ex¬
pofed to heat, till a blue flame proceeds from the
mouth of the phial. After it burns for a minute, it is
allowed to cool, and muft be kept in a well-clofed
bottle. I4
7. The pyrophorus thus formed, contains a hydro-Prope
genated fulphuret of potaih and alumina, mixed with
charcoal in a ftate of minute divifion. It kindles more
readily in humid than in dry air. The oxygen gas of
the atmofpheric air is abforbed. Part is converted into
carbonic acid, and part combines with the fulphur,
and forms fulphuric acid 5 fo that when the pyropho¬
rus is burnt, it no longer contains the hydrogenated
fulphuret as before, but Sulphate of alumina and pot¬
alh 5 not in the ftate of alum, becaufe it has been de¬
prived of the excefs of acid, which gives alum its pecu¬
liar charadter.
8. Pyrophorus gives out a very fetid odour, when
it is thrown into water, and leaves behind a fulphu¬
ret of potaSh, and of hydrogenated alumina. It is ^ p ,
inflamed by nitrous gas, and by oxymuriatic acid^j p,
gas* . 14’-
9. The ufes of alum are very numerous. It is em-ufesol
ployed in medicine as an aftringent and Styptic, It is alfo alum,
employed in the arts of bleaching, of tanning, dyeing,
calico-printing, and others. It is fometimes ufed in
preferving animal matters from putrefaction, and it
might be employed for the purpofe of fecuring wood
from catching fire. 1411
Sulphate of alumina and potajh.—I. If a folution ofPrepar
cryftallized alum be boiled with a folution of pure a-flon•
lumina, the faturated fulphate of alumina and potaSh
is formed. The excefs of acid, it is obvious, in this
procefs, enters into combination with the alumina. The
alum, as the earth is added, is gradually precipitated in
the folution, in the form of a white powder.
2. This fait, faturated with alumina, never affumesPropei'
any regular form. It has no tafte, is not changed by
expofure to the air, is not foluble in water, and when
it is expofed to heat, it is not altered, except at a very
high temperature. This fait is lefs eafily decompofed
than any of the other varieties of fulphate of alumina.
By the adtion of fome of the acids it is converted into
alum, which is owing to the acid combining with the
additional portion of alumina, that faturated the ex¬
cefs of acid exifting in the alum. This fait has been
applied to no ufe.
3. Sulphite of Alumina. !
1. The compound of fulphurous acid and alumina Prepart
istico-
-sf-kt
£ iuina,
■|-3J
pr |:rues.
432
BU
433
P . vra-
tiir
434
P: jellies.
hil.
'if.
r 1
P i9-
S T R Y,
605
the form of a jelly. It has always an excefs of acid, Alumina,
and an aftringent tafte. It is decompofed by all the, r
earthy and alkaline bafes. With the latter it forms
ih'iple falls.
9. Borate of Alumina.
It is extremely difficult to form a compound of alu¬
mina and boracic acid by direct combination. This
fait may be formed by mixing together a folution of
borate of foda, with a folution of fulphate of alumina.
Its properties have not been examined.
10. Phofphate of Alumina.
This fait is little known. By faturating phofphoric
acid with alumina, a white powdery mafs is obtained,
which has little tafte, except there be an excefs of add,
and then it feems to form an acidulous fait. It melts
under the blow-pipe into a tranfparent globule, without
decompolition. It is decompofed by the alkalies, fome
of the earths, and the acids.
11.
Phofphite of Alumina.
1437
1. This fait is formed by the direfl: combination of
phofphorous acid with alumina. The folution is to be
evaporated to a proper confiftence.
2. The phofphite of alumina does not cryftallize,
but forms a thick, vifeid, gummy mafs, which becomes
dry and folid in the air. It has an aftringent tafte, is
very foluble in water, fwells up when it is heated, and
gives out a phofphoric light. It is decompofed by all
the alkaline and earthy bafes.
12. Carbonate of Alumina.
Little is known of the combination of carbonic acid This com-
and alumina. Bergman had obferved, when alum was pound little
precipitated by an alkaline carbonate, that very little orknown*
no effervefcence took place ; he therefore concluded,
that the carbonic acid, not being driven off, muff have
combined with the alumina which was precipitated.
And befides he found, that the liquid contained a por¬
tion of carbonate of alumina, which is depofited fome
hours or fome days afterwards by the evaporation of the
carbonic acid, tvhich held it in folution.
Common clay, which is a mixture of alumina and
filica, contains a certain portion of carbonic acid, which
is difengaged by the application of ftrong heat. He
obtained from one fpecies of clay, feveraUimes its vo¬
lume of this acid, mixed with a fmall portion of hydro¬
gen gas. It is owing to the fame combination of car¬
bonic acid, that clays, treated with acids, effervefee,
without containing any carbonate of lime. . 1438
According to SauiTure, alumina is dLTolvcd in water,The acid is
which is faturated with carbonic acid j but when theco.m^>med
folution is expofed to the air, it is decompofed.
13. Arfeniate of Alumina.
This fait is formed by diffolving alumina in arfenic
acid, and evaporating the folution to drynefs. A
thick mafs is thus obtained, which is infoluble in wa¬
ter. It is decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric, and
muriatic acids, as well as by the earthy and alkaline
bafes.
C H E M I
is prepared by palling fulphurous acid gas into water in
which pure alumina is mixed or fufpended.
2. The fulphite of alumina, thus formed, is in the
ftate of a white, foft powder, which has at firft an earthy
tafte, and becomes afterwards fulphureous. When it is
expofed to the air, for a long time, it is converted into
the fulphate of alumina, and more rapidly if it be com¬
bined with an excefs of fulphurous acid. It is infoluble
in water. Expofed to heat, the acid is driven off, and
partially decompofed, for there remains behind a fmall
quantity of fulphur. The component parts of this fait,
are
Sulphurous acid 32
Alumina 44
Water 24
100
4. Nitrate of Alumina.
1. This fait was formerly known under the names of
nitre of argil, and nitrous alum. It is formed by the
direct combination of the nitric acid with alumina.
It has been found impoffible to neutralize the acid ;
and it cannot be obtained cryftallized, excepting in
the form of thin plates, and often only in a gelatinous
mafs.
2. This felt has an auftere and acid tafte. The fpe-
cific gravity is 1.645. ^ deliquefeent in the air,
and extremely foluble in water. When it is heated,
the acid is driven off, and the pure earth remains be¬
hind. It is readily decompofed by the fulphuric acid,
which difengages the nitric acid ; and by the muriatic
acid, which is converted into the oxymuriatic acid.
5. Nitrite of Alumina.
This felt is unknown.
6. Muriate of Alumina.
1. This felt, which is a compound of muriatic acid
and alumina, is formed by the direft combination of
the acid with the earth j but is never neutralized.
The acid is always in excefs.
2. This felt is rarely cryftallized, but moft frequently
in the form of white powder, or in that of a gelatinous
mafs. It has an aftringent, acid, and ffiarp tafte. It
reddens the tinfture of turnfole and of violets. It is
extremely deliquefeent in the air, and very foluble in
water. When it is expofed to heat it melts, and is de¬
compofed. The acid is feparated, and the pure alumi¬
na remains behind. It is decompofed in the fame way
as the other muriates.
7. Hype roxymuriate of Alumina.
1. This felt is prepared by paffing oxymuriatic acid
gas through water in which newly precipitated alumina
is fufpended. The alumina difeppears, and when ful¬
phuric acid is poured into the folution, a ftrong fmell
of hyperoxymuriatic acid gas is perceived.
2. This felt is deliquefeent, and it is foluble in alco¬
hol. Mr Chenevix could not afeertain the proportion
of its principles *.
8. Fluate of Alumina.
The combination of fluoric acid and alumina, affords
a felt which cannot be cryftallized, but which is in
14. Tungftate of Alumina.
This felt has not been examined.
15. Molybdate-
oo-5
Alumina,
&c.
CHEMISTRY.
55. Molybdate of Alumina.*!
16. Chromate of Alumina. > Unknown.
17. Columbate of Alumina. J
18. Acetate of Alumina.
The acetic acid enters into combination with alu¬
mina, and forms with it fmall, needle-fhaped cryftals,
which are foft, deliqueicent, and have an aftringent
tafte. The fpecific gravity of this fait is 1.245.
other properties are unknown.
19. Oxalate of Alumina.
Oxalic acid very readily combines with alumina.
When the folution is evaporated, a yellowilh, foft,
tranfparent mafs is obtained, but it does not cryftallize.
Properties. This fait has an aftringent tafte, is deliquefcent, and
reddens the tin&ure of turnfole. When it is heated,
it fwells up, is deprived of its acid, and the alumina
remains behind, flightly coloured. It is decompofed
1440 ky the flronger acids.
Compofi- The component parts of this fait are,
Acid and water 56
Alumina 44
JOO
20. Tartrate of Alumina.
Alumina enters into combination with tartaric acid,
and forms an uncryftallized, gelatinous mafs, which has
an aftringent tafte, is not deliquefcent in the air but is
foluble in water.
21. Citrate of Alumina.
The properties of this fait have not been examined.
22. Malate of Alumina.
When malic acid is added to a folution containing
alumina, a precipitate is formed, which is fcarcely fo¬
luble in water.
23. Gallate of Alumina.
If pure alumina be added to a folution of nut-galls,
an infoluble compound is formed with the tannin and
extra#. The liquid remained clear and white, and it
afforded by evaporation, fmall cryftals, which are gal-
* Phil alumina with excefs of acid *.
3'ranf- 24. Benzoate of Alumina.
p. 344. The compound of benzoic acid and alumina affords a
fait, which cryftallizes in an arborefcent form. It has
a bitter tafte, is deliquefcent in the air, foluble in wa¬
ter, is decompofcd by the aftion of heat, and even by
moft of the vegetable acids.
25. Succinate of Alumina.
The compound of fuccinic acid and alumina affords
falts which cryftallize in the form of prifms, and are
oaftly decompofed by heat.
26. Saccolate of Alumina.
This compound of faclaftic acid and alumina forms
a fait which is infoluble in water.
27. Camphorate of Alumina.
M4t
prepara- 1. The compound of camphoric acid and alumina
non*
is formed by precipitating alumina by means of ammo- Silica, jj
nia, wafhing the precipitate, and diluting it with di- 1"T*
dilled water. Cryftals of camphoric acid are then to
be added. The mixture is to be heated, filtered, and
evaporated.
2. A white powder is then obtained, which has a propct!j
bitter, acid, and aftringent tafte. It reddens vege¬
table blues. This fait is fcarcely altered by expofure
to the air. Water diffolves about part of its
wreight. Boiling water diffolves it more readily ; but
on cooling, a precipitate is formed. When it is ex-
pofed to heat, it fwells up, and the acid is volatilized.
By the a#ion of the blow-pipe, a blue flame is produ¬
ced, the fait is decompofed, and the pure alumina re¬
mains behind. This fait is decompofed by the mineral
acids, and even by fome of the vegetable acids. It
is alio decompofed by the nitrates of lime and ba¬
rytes *. * Ann. a't
28. Suberate of Alumina. p.
The compound of fuberic acid and alumina may be
formed by evaporating the folution with a very mode¬
rate heat, in a large open veffel. This fait does notp ^3
cryftallize ^ but the dried matter which is obtained, is ^ 1{i
tranfparent, of a yellowifti colour, and has a ftyptic*
bitterifti tafte. When too much heat is employed,
the fait melts and blackens. It reddens the tin#ure
of turnfole, and is flightly deliquefcent in the air. Ex-
pofed to the a#ion of the blow'-pipe, the acid is volati¬
lized and decompofed, and the alumina remains behind.
It is decompofed by the mineral acids, the earths, and
the alkalies f. jlbid.nl
29. Mellate of Alumina. P' ^6"
The properties of this fait are unknown.
30. La#ate of Alumina.
This is a deliquefcent fait.
Sect. VI. Of SILICA and its Combinations.
1. Silica has been diftinguiftied by the names of Jili- ^*444
ceous earth, or quarfzy earth, becaufe it is obtained
from flex, or flint, and from the ftone called quarlx.
This earth exifts in great abundance in nature, and it
conftitutes the bafes of fome of the hardeft Itones of
which the nucleus of the globe confifts; and, on account
of its great abundance, it has been regarded as the pri¬
mitive or elementary earth, the bafe of all the other
earths. Silica forms one of the conftituent parts of
moft ftony bodies; but it exifts in greateft abundance irt
agates, jafper, flints, quartz, and rock cryftal; in the
latter it is nearly in a ftate of purity. ^
2. But to obtain it perfectly pure, a quantity ofprfpaKi.
quartz or rock cryftal may be expofed to a red heat. t on.
When it is taken from the fire, and while it is yet hot,
it is fuddenly immerfed in cold water. It is then to be
reduced to powder; and, if tranfparent rock cryfial
has been employed, it is then in a ftate of tolerable
purity. To have it perfeftly pure, mix one part of the
pounded ftone, with three parts of potafh, and expofe
them in a crucible to heat which is fufficient for the
fufion of the mixture. The mafs thus obtained is fo¬
luble in water. Add a fufficient quantity of water
for its folution, and drop in muriatic acid, as long as
there
C H E M I
Let tills be repeatedly wafh-
The fubftance thus obtained
46
ic iities,
147
eii&c.
„ Sic. there is any precipitate,
ed with water, and dried,
is pure filica.
3. It is in the form of a very fine white powder,
which has neither tafte nor fmell. The particles are
rough and harlh to the feel, as when they are rubbed
between the fingers, or touched with the tongue. The
fpecific gravity is 2.66.
4. Light has no action on filica j and it is one of the
peculiar charaflers of this earth, that it refills, un¬
changed, the greateft degree of heat.
5. There is no a£lion between filica and oxygen,
azote or hydrogen, nor is it changed by expofure to
the air. It is not adled upon by carbone, phofphorus,
or fulphur. It is infoluble in water 5 but in a Hate of
minute divifion, it abforbs a confiderable portion, and
forms with this liquid, a tranfparent jelly. When it
is expofed to the air, the whole of the moiilure is eva-
l4S porated. .
> 6. Silica is frequently found m nature in the cryllal-
lized form, and then it is diftinguilhed by the name
of rod crystal. It is moll commonly in hexagonal
prifms, terminated by hexagonal pyramids. Cryftals
of filica have alfo been formed artificially. In a fo-
lution of filica in fluoric acid which had remained
at reft for two years, Bergman found cryftals, fome of
which were cubes, and fome had truncated angles, at
the bottom of the veffel. Cryftals of filica have alfo
been formed, by diluting largely with v'ater, the com¬
bination of filica and potalh, and allowing it to remain
for a long time. Profeffor Seigling of Erfurt obtained
cryftals from a folution which had been kept eight
years in a glafs veflel. A cruft wras formed on the
top, compofed of carbonate of potafti and cryftallized
filica. The cryftals of the latter were in the form of
tetrahedral pyramids, perfectly tranfparent, and fo hard
: 49 as to ftrike fire with fteel.
Wi of 7. Silica is only afled on by a very few of the acids.
lcu Thefe are, the phofphoric and boracic, which combine
with it by fufion, and the fluoric, which diffolves filica
either in the gafeous or liquid ftate. When filica is
held in folution in water by means of an alkali, it is
-0 alfo difiblved by the muriatic acid.
| talies. 8. The alkalies have a very powerful a£lion on this
earth. In the preparation of the pure earth, it was
combined with potafti by means of fufion. This com¬
pound is different in its nature and properties, accord¬
ing to the proportions of the filica and the alkali.
Two or three parts of potafti with one of filica, form
a compound which is deliquefcent in the air, and fo-
luble in water. This was formerly diftinguiftied by the
name liquor Jilicum, or liquor of flints. It is now called
f Heated alkali. When this folution is long expofed to
the air, the earth is depofited in a flaky gelatinous
form. It is decompofed by acids, which combine
'with the alkali, and the pure earth falls to the bottom
in the ftate of fine powder. When the folution is
largely diluted with water, and if a greater quantity
ol the acid be added than is fufficient to faturate the
alkali, the filica remains in folution. This is particu¬
larly the cafe when muriatic acid is employed. When
the filica is in greater proportion than the potaih, a
compound is formed which is poffeffed of very different
properties. The fubftance thus obtained is glafs.
9. This earth alfo enters into combination with
607
S T H Y.
fome of the earths. If to a folution of the liquor of Silica, &c.
flints, lime water be added, a precipitate is formed, *—*—v——'
which is found to be a compound of filica and lime.
Silica alfo combines with lime by means of heat, and
in certain proportions a glafs is formed.
The following table, drawn up by Mr Kirwan, ex¬
hibits the effedts of heat on thefe earths in different
prooortions *. * Miner a!,
i. p. S*-
Proportions.
Wedgw.
JO Lime
50 Silica
80 Silica
20 Lime
80 Lime
20 Silica
150^
is6°
ij6°
Effedt.
Melted into a mafs between
porcelain and enamel, of a white
colour, femitranfparent at the
edges, and which gave feeble
fparks with fteel.
Not melted, but formed a
brittle mafs.
Formed a yellowiih-white loofe
powder.
10. Silica enters into combination with barytes.
The following table will fhew the effedl of different
proportions of theie earths, as they were afeertained
by Mr Kirwan f. f Ibid <j.
Proportions.
80 Silica
20 Barytes
75 Silica
20 Barytes
66 Silica
33 Barytes
50 Silica
50 Barytes
80 Barytes
20 Silica
75 Barytes
25 Silica
66 Barytes
33 Silica
Wedgv
Effed.
155
I50L
150
X480
I480
150^
15°
Formed a white brittle mafs.
A brittle hard mafs, femitranf¬
parent at the edges.
Melted into a hard, fomewhat
porous, porcelain mafs.
A hard mafs not melted.
The edges melted into a pale
greenifti mafs, between a porce¬
lain and an enamel.
Melted into a fomewhat po¬
rous porcelain mafs.
Melted into a yellowifti, and
partly greenifh white, porous por¬
celain.
11. Silica alfo enters into combination with ftron-
tites. Three parts ef ftrontites and one of filica, ftrong-
ly heated in a filver crucible for an hour, afforded a
gray, fonorous, vitreous mals, which has no tafte, and
is infoluble in water.
12. Siliceous earth enters wdth difficulty into com¬
bination with magnefia ; but if equal parts of filica and
magtiefia be expofed to very ftrong heat, they melt in¬
to a white enamel,
*3*
6o8
Silica, Sec.
C H E M I S T R Y.
13. But the fnoft important compounds of all the
. earths are thofe of falica and alumina. Thefe earths
may be combined together, as appears from the expe¬
riments of Guyton, in the humid way. He mixed
together equal parts of alumina difiblved by means of
potalh, and of filica held in lulution by the fame al¬
kali. When the folutions came into contaft, a brown
zone was immediately formed, which fpread by agita¬
tion through the whole mafs, and communicated to it
a yellowifli colour. The mixture was no farther
changed during the fpace of an hour, although it was
occalionally ftirred by a glafs rod ) but at the end of
that time the whole mafs affumed the appearance of a
« Ann. de th;cl^ opaque, white jelly*. When the filica and
Chun. xxxi. ajumjlla are m;xed together, and formed into a paile
P' 24 ’ with water, and expofed to heat, they ftrongly cohere,
Porcelain and affume a confiderable degree of hardnefs. This
compound forms the bafes of all kinds of potteiy and
porcelain.
I. Compounds of Silica with Acids,
t. Muriate of Silica.
When muriatic acid is poured upon a _ folution of
filicated potalh, part of the filica remains in the folu¬
tion combined with the acid. To this compound
FoUrcroy has given the name of muriate of filica. I his
folution, -which is perfectly tranfparent, is always acid.
When it is concentrated by flow evaporation, it af-
fumes the form of a tranfparent jelly. But if the fo¬
lution be boiled, it is decompofed, and the filma is
precipitated in the form of fmall cryftalline particles,
fo that it is totally feparated from the water and the
f Fourcroy, acid
I4S4
Prepara¬
tion.
*45S
Properties.
<li. 213.
I4S6
Prepara¬
tion.
% Hid.
p. 310.
2. Fluate of Silica.
Fluoric acid combines with filica, either in the
gafeous or liquid ftate. When it is difengaged from
lime in the ftate of gas, by means of an acid, if the
procefs be performed in glafs veffels, they are corroded.
The fluoric acid in the ftate of gas combines with the
filica, and retains it, even when it is condenfed by
-water. This earth may be precipitated from the liquid
folution by means of an alkali. When fluoric acid
gas is condenfed by water, part of the filica with
which it was combined, is precipitated •, but this por¬
tion is at laft diffolved by new additions of the acid,
fo that the fait is in the ftate of an acidulous^ fluate. If
this folution be evaporated, a quantity of filica, corre-
fponding to the portion of acid difengaged, is depofited,
and the liquid which remains, contains a portion in
proportion to that of the acid which is left in the folu-
. tk>n
3. Fluate of Potafli and Silica.
This triple fait is formed, when a folution of fluate of
potafli is expofed to heat in glafs veffels -, or, when the
fluoric acid which has been prepared in glafs veffels is
combined with potafti. But the nature of this triple
fait has not been examined.
4. Fluate of Soda and Silica.
This triple fait is formed in the fame way as the
former.
5. Borate of Silica.
Boracic acid and filica combine together by means
of a ftrong heat, and form a tranfparent glafs. To this
Fourcroy "has given the name of borate offilica. This
compound has no tafte, is not altered by the air, nor is
it foluble in water.
6. Phofphate of Silica.
This compound of phofphoric acid and filica is form¬
ed by means of fufion ; and the compound is a hard,
denfe, tranfparent glafs. When it is expofed to ftrong
heat, it combines with the alkalies, and forms a triple
fait. It is not decompofed by any of the acids. This
fubftance is employed in the fabrication of artificial
gems.
Sect. VII. OfTrrRIA and its Combinations.
1. This earth w-as difeovered by Gadolm in 1794 iHiltwj
and the account of his analyfis of the mineral from
which it is obtained, was publiftied in the memoirs of
the Swedifti academy, and in Crell’s Annals for the
year 1796. In 1797 Ekeberg analyzed the fame mi¬
neral, and confirmed the refults of Gadolin. To the
new earth found in this mineral, Ekeberg gave the
name of Jjttria, derived from Ytterby, a place in Sweden
where the ftone is found. The fame mineral w-as af¬
terwards analyzed by Vauquelin and Klaproth, about
the year i8ao. The mineral from which this earth is
obtained, has received the name of gadolinite, is of a
black colour, has a vitreous frafture, and its fpecific
gravity is 4.0497. It is magnetic. When it is heat¬
ed w'ith borax, it melts, and communicates to the fait
a vellowifti colour inclining to violet. The component
parts of this mineral are, \
Yttria, .47
Silica, .25
Oxyde of iron, .18 *
Alumina, .04
•94
2. Yttria is obtained from this mineral, by reducing
it to powder, and adding a mixture of nitric and muri-t;on<
atic acids, till the whole is decompofed. The folution
is then to be filtered, and evaporated to drynefs. If
then it be diluted with water, the filica will remam
behind. The liquid which paffed through the filter is
alfo to be evaporated to drynefs, and what remains is to
be expofed to a red heat in a dole veffel. It is after¬
wards difiblved in water, and filtered. The liquid
which paffes through the filter is tranfparent and colour-
lefs. By adding a folution of ammonia, a precipitate is
formed, which being colleded, is pure yttria. 1451
3. This earth is in the ftate of a white powder. Itpiopeiti
has neither tafte nor fmell. It is not fufible. It is not
foluble in water, or in any of the cauftic fixed alkalies;
but it readily diffolves in carbonate of ammonia. Ihe
fpecific gravity of this earth is 4.842.
4. This earth undergoes no change by the aftion of
light. It is not a£led on by oxygen, azote, or hydro¬
gen* nor does it combine with fulphur. It forms com-
^ * pounds
t< Stc
\.So
re-ra*
u
% >
■5t
to irties.
,61
3r( :a.
»!
CHEMISTRY.
pounds v.ith the acids. Thefe falls have a fweetifti,
auftere tafte, and fome of them have a red colour.
I. Compounds of Yttria with the Acids.
I. Sulphate of Yttria.
1, Sulphuric acid combines readily with yttria, and
during the combination there is an evolution of calo¬
ric } and as the union goes on, the fait which is form¬
ed cryftallizes in fmall brilliant grains.
2. Thefe cryftals are fometinaes irregular, but often
have the form of fix-lided prifms, terminated by four-
fided fummits, and are of an amethyft red colour.
This fait has a fweetifh aftringent tafte, fomething like
the fait of lead. The fpecific gravity is 2.791. It
undergoes no change by expofure to the air. It is fo-
luble in about 50 parts of cold water, but lefs fo where
there is not an excefs of acid. This fait is partially
decompofed when expofed to a red heat.
Unknown.
2. Sulphite of Yttria.
3. Nitrate of Yttria.
Ka.de
:h
as 143.
Nitric acid combines with yttria by diflblving the
earth in the acid. This fait cryftallizes with difficulty.
When it is evaporated by heat, if too much be applied,
in place of becoming folid as other falls, it becomes loft,
and affumes the appearance of a thick, tranfparent
honey. When it cools, it becomes hard and brittle.
It deliquefces in the air. When fulphuric acid is
poured into a folution of nitrate of yttria, a precipi¬
tate is formed which cryftallizes. Thefe are cryftals
of fulphate of yttria *.
4. Muriate of Yttria.
This fait, which is a compound of muriatic acid
and yttria, refembles the nitrate in many of its proper¬
ties. It dries with difficulty, is fufible with a mode¬
rate heat, and is deliquefcent in the air. This fait is
decompofed by ammonia.
Fluate of Yttria.
Borate of Yttria
ia. 7
ia. J
Unknown,
7. Phofphate of Yttria,
Unknown.
B. Phofphite of Yttria.
9. Carbonate of Yttria.
Acid
Yttria
Water
18
55
27
100
to. Arfeniate of Yttria.
11. Tungftate of Yttria
12. Molybdate of Yttria
13. Chromate of Yttria
14. Columbate of Yttria
■J
LJ
Unknown.
18. Citrate of Yttria.
19. Malate of Yttria
20. Gallate of Yttria
21. Benzoate of
ttria. T
ttria. (
ttria. f
Yttria. J
Unknown.
Phofphoric acid does not precipitate yttria from its
combination with the other acids 5 but the phofphate of
foda decompofes the falls of yttria, and forms a phof¬
phate of yttria, which is precipitated in white, gelatin-
'• y8* ous flakes f.
23.
24.
25-
26.
27.
Saccolate of Yttria.
Camphorate of Yttria.
Suberate of Yttria.
Mellate of Yttria.
L aft ate of Yttria.
► Unknown.
28. Pruffiate of Yttria.
609
Giucma,
&c.
This fait is formed by boiling the earth in the acid.
A white powder is precipitated, which is arfeniate of
yttria.
15. Acetate of Yttria,
This fait is formed by the direft combination of
the earth with the acid. By evaporating the folution,
a fait is obtained in cryftals. Thefe cryftals, which
are of a red colour, are in the form of fix-fided plates
obliquely truncated. This fait undergoes no change
by expofure to the air.
16. Oxalate of Yttria.
This fait is formed by adding oxalic acid to the fo¬
lution of yttria in acids. A precipitate is formed in
the ftate of a white powder, which is infoluble in wa¬
ter. It may be obtained alfo by employing the oxa¬
late of ammonia.
17. Tartrate of Yttria.
This compound is formed by precipitating yttria
from its folution in acids by means of tartrate of pot-
afh. This fait is foluble in water.
22. Succinate of Yttria.
If the fuccinate of foda be added to a concentrated
folution of muriate or acetate of yttria, a precipitate is
formed, which is the fuccinate of yttria in the ftate of
cubic cryftals.
The pruffiate of potaftr cryftallized and re-diflolved
in water, caufes a precipitate in the folution of yttria
in acids. This is in the form of a white, gritty mat¬
ter
This compound of carbonic acid and yttria was form¬
ed by Klaproth, by precipitating the earth by means
of an alkaline carbonate, from its folution in acids.
The carbonate of yttria is in the form of an infipid
white powder. It is infoluble in water.
The component parts of this fait are,
Vol. V. Part II.
Sect. VIII. Of GLVCINA and its Combinations.
* Ann. de
Chitn. xxxvi.
p. 158.
M65
I. This earth was difcovered by Vauquelin in the Hjftoiy?
year 1789. He was requefted by Haiiy to analyze
the beryl, to afcertain whether its conftituent parts
4 H were
CHEMISTRY.
1466
Prepara¬
tion.
* Fourcroy,
ii. p. 157.
1467
Properties.
| A’ntal. de
Chim. xliii.
277.
J46S
Hydroful-
phuret.
1469
Aflion of
1470
Of acids.
wese tlie fame vrltli tliofe of the emerald, which the
latter had conje&urcd, in obferving a perfeft corre-
fpondence in ftrufture, hardnefs, and fpecific gravity.
In the courfe of this analyfis, Vauquelin difcovered the
new earth, to which, from its properties, he gave tlfc;
name of glucma, from the Greek word yAv^oj, which
fignifies fweet. The fame experiments were repeated
by Klaproth and Bindheim, and the refults obtained
by Vauquelin were confirmed.
2. This earth is obtained by the following procefs.
One hundred parts of the beryl or emerald, reduced to
a fine powder, are fufed with 300 parts of cauftic pot-
afli. The fufed mafs is then diluted with diftilled wa¬
ter, and dhTolved in muriatic acid. The folution is
to be evaporated to drynefs, taking care to ilir it to¬
wards the end of the evaporation. Dilute the refiduum
with a large quantity of water, and filter it. The
filica is thus 1'eparated by means of the firft procefs.
The filtered folution, which contains the muriates of
alumina and glucma, is precipitated by carbonate of
potafh. The precipitate is to be well walked, and
diffolved in fulphuric acid. Add to this fblution, a
quantity of fulphate of potalh, and evaporate to obtain
cryftallized alum. When by a new addition of ful¬
phate of potafh, and by a new evaporation, the folu¬
tion yields no more alum, add to it a folution of car-
bonate of ammonia in excefs, and agitate it well. The
glucina, after being depofited, is diffolved by means of
the excefs of this fait, and the fmall quantity of alu¬
mina which may remain is precipitated without being
diffolved. After fome hours, when the aluminous
precipitate is not diminifhed in volume by a new addi¬
tion of carbonate of ammonia and agitation, the lolu-
tion is to be filtered, and boiled in a glafs matrafs, and
as the carbonate evaporates, there is precipitated a
white, gritty powder, which is carbonate of glucina.
The carbonic acid may be driven off, by expofing the
powder in a crucible to a red heat *.
3. Glucina prepared by This procefs, is in the form
of a foft powder, or light white fragments, which are
infipid to the tafte, and adhere to the tongue. The
fpecific gravity is 2.qby "f. It is altogether miufible in
the fire, and it neither contracts nor becomes harder,
like alumina. It has no effetd on vegetable colours.
4. There is no aftion between glucina and oxygen,
azotic, or hydrogen gafes. It is not changed by ex-
pofure to the air, nor is it afted on by carbone, phof-
phorus, or fulphur. It combines with fulphurated
hydrogen. When fulphurated hydrogen gas is made
to pafs into water in which this earth is fufpended, it
combines with it, and forms a hydrofulphuret, whofe
properties are fimilar to thofe of the other hydroful-
phurets.
5. Glucina is infoluble in water j but it forms with
this liquid in fmall quantity, a pafte which is flightly
du&ile, but has lefs tenacity than that of alumina.
6. Glucina combines readily with all the acids, and
forms with moft of them foluble falts, which are di-
ftinguifhed by a fweet and (lightly aflringent tafte.
Its affinities are in the following order.
Sulphuric acid,
Nitric,
Muriatic,
Phofphorie,
'Fluoric,
Boracic,
Carbonic.
CRacjjj j
kc.
-yVi
7. This earth is foluble in folutions of the fixed al- of a^J
kalies. It is alfo foluble in carbonate of ammonia, but
it is infoluble in pure ammonia.
8. The chara&eriftie properties of this earth are, ac-Q^q
cording to Vauquelin, the following. teriftic 5
a. It forms with acids fweetifti and {lightly aftrin-perties.i|
gent falts.
£. It is foluble in fulphuric acid when a little in
excefs.
c. It decompofes aluminous falts, by feparating the
earth when it is boiled in their folutions.
d. The falts of glucina are completely precipitated
by ammonia.
e. It is foluble in the liquid carbonate of ammonia.
f. The affinity of this earth for the acids is between
that of magnefia and alumina *. *?awm
b ii. 161,
I. Compounds of Glucina with Acids.
M73
1. Sulphate of Glucina.
X. This fait, which was firfl difcovered by Vauque-Prepara.,
lin, is prepared by the direft combination of ful-tl0n*
phuric acid with the earth, either in the pure ftate, or
in that of carbonate. The folution is to be evaporated
to the confiftence of fyrup, and cryftals are obtained
on cooling. j...
2. This fait cryftallizes with difficulty in the form
of fmall needles ; but their form has not been accurate¬
ly afeertained. It has a fweet, and fomewhat aftrin-
gent tafte. It is not perceptibly altered by expofure to
the air, and is very foluble in water.
3. When it is expofed to heat, it melts, fwells up, Adtionc
•and then dries. With a red heat it is entirely deconi-heat,
pofed, the acid is driven off in the ftate of vapour, and
the pure earth remains behind.
4. This fait is not decompofed by any of the acids, of acid?,
but it is decompofed by the alkaline and moft; of the&c.
earthy bafes. The infufion of nut-galls added to a
folution of this fait produces a yellowiffi white precipi¬
tate, which is char after iff ic of the faltf.
2. Sulphite of Glucina.
This fait is yet unknown.
3. Nitrate of Glucina.
... . • - r
1. The compound of nitric acid and glucma is form-prep»ra-
ed by tlie direct combination of the acid and earth in ation.
ftate of purity. The folution is evaporated by a mo¬
derate heat to drynefs, and then the fait is obtained in
the ftate of powder. > 1478
2. The nitrate of glucina does not eryftallize. It isProperw
either in the form of powder, or in that of a foft duftile
mafs. The tafte is fweetifti and aftringent. r^9
3. It is extremely deliquefeent in the air, and isAftiono
very foluble in water. It readily melts when expofed heat,
to heat, and if the heat be increased it is decompofed ;
the acid is driven off in the galeous form, and the earth
remains behind. It is only decompofed by fulphu¬
ric acid t _ _
4. Nitrite of Glucma.
t Fount
Connaiji
Cbim.
P- 49- i
Unknown.
5. Muriate
CHEMISTRY.
6u
' 5. Muriate of Glucina.
. This fait, according to Vauquelin, by whom only it
has been defcribed, comes very near the nitrate of glu¬
cina in its properties. It feems to cryftallize with more
facility, but the cryftals are fo fmall that the form can¬
not be determined. It does not deliquefce in the air.
When it is diffolved in alcohol, and diluted with water,
it affords a very agreeable fweet liquor.
It is decompofed by heat, by the fulphuric acid, the
nitric, and by the phofphoric by the afliftance of heat.
6. Fluate of Glucina. It-,,
7. Borate of Glucina. j; Unknown.
tS°
■k ra~
bs
.81
’rcirties.
.82
’re a-
tori
s3
?ro':ties.
8. Phofphate of Glucina.
1. Vauquelin procured this fait by adding the phof¬
phate of foda to the folution of the nitrate, the fulphate,
or muriate of glucina. A copious mucilaginous matter
is inftantly precipitated. Or it may be obtained by
heating together the muriate of glucina and phofphoric
acid in the ftate of glafs.
2. This fait does not cryftaliize, but is in the form
of mucilage or of white powder* It has no perceptible
tafte. It is not altered by expofure to the air, and it
is infoluble in water without an excefs of acid. It is
not decompofed by flrong heat. It melts under the
blow-pipe into a tranfparent vitreous globule. It is
decompofed by the fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic
acids.
9. Phofphite of Glucina.
Unknown.
10. Carbonate of Glucina.
1. The compound of carbonic acid and glucina,
which was difeovered by Vauquelin, and only examin¬
ed by him, is prepared by expofing the earth to the air,
from which it attra&s the acid, or by precipitating fome
of the foluble falts of glucina by means of an alkaline
carbonate. The precipitate is to be walhed with water,
and dried in the air.
2. This carbonate is in the Hate of a white powder,
foft and greafy to the touch. It has not the fweet
tafte of the other falts of glucina. It is not changed
by expofure to the air, and is infoluble in water. When
expofed to heat, the acid is driven off, and the pure
earth remains behind. It is decompofed by all the
acids with a brilk effervefcence.
II. Carbonate of Ammonia and Glucina.
This triple fait is formed by adding the earth of
glucina to a folution of carbonate of ammonia. It is
foluble in the fame quantity of water which holds the
carbonate of ammonia in folution. Its other properties
are unknown.
12. Arfeniate of Glucina. *')
13. Tungftate of Glucina. j
14. Molybdate of Glucina. ^ Unknown.
1 5. Chromate of Glucina. |
16. Columbate of Glucina. J
17. Acetate of Glucina.
Glucina readily difiblves in acetic acid. This fait
does not cryitallizej but by evaporation it is reduced to
a gummy fubftance, which becomes flowiy dry and Zircwua,,
brittle. For a long time it retains a kind of du&ility.
The tafte is fweet and ftrongly aftringent.
18. Oxalate of Glucina.
19. Tartrate of Glucina.
20. Citrate of Glucina.
21. Malate of Glucina.
22. Gallate of Glucina.
23. Benzoate of Glucina,
Unknown*
24. Succinate of Gtucina.
Tins fait according to Ekeberg, is formed by preci¬
pitating the earth from its folutions, by means of the
iuccinates. It is therefore nearly infoluble.
25. Saccolate of Glucina. ^
26. Camphorate of Glucina. j
27. Suberate of Glucina.
28. Mellate of Glucina. |> Unknown*'
29. Laftate of Glucina.
30. Prufliate of Glucina.
31. Sebate of Glucina.
Sect. IX. Of ZirconIA and its Combinations,
i ^ S id.
1. The name of this earth is derived from a ftone Hfttory;
called -zircon ov jargon, which is found in the ifland of
Ceylon. It was from this ftone that Klaproth extract¬
ed the earth, fome time before the year 1793. He
foon after found the fame earth in the oriental hyacinth.
By this difeovery, Guyton was led to analyze the
hyacinths of France \ and in thofe which were collected
in the river of Expailly, he deteCted the fame earth.
The experiments of Klaproth and Guyton were repeat¬
ed by Vauquelin, and their refults were confirmed, fo
that the nature and properties of this earth have been
fully developed.
2. Zirconia is extracted from this mineral, in which Prepara-
alone it has been found, by the following procefs. A tion.
quantity of the mineral is to be reduced to fine powder,
and fufed with five or fix times its we,' Ht of pure pot-
alh, in a filver crucible. The fufed n ’fs is then dif-
folved in water, by which means the alkali is feparateeL
The refiduum is then diffolved in muriatic acid, which
is to be heated, to feparate the filica ; and when no
farther precipitate appears by means of heat, add a
cauftic fixed alkali. Another precipitate is formed,
which is to be well waftied and dried. This is pure
zirconia. . I4gg
3. Zirconia, thus prepared, is in the ftate of fine Properties,
white powder, which is nearly foft to the touch, and
without tafte or fmell. When it retains water, it af-
fumes the form of a jelly, and is femitranfparent. The
fpecific gravity is 4.3. . _ . i487
4. Light has no aClion on this earth. When it isAttionof
expofed to the heat of the blow-pipe, it remains infu-heat.
fible, but gives out ayellowilh, phofphoric light. Heat¬
ed in a charcoal crucible, and furrounded with powder¬
ed charcoal, it undergoes a kind of fufion, but without
becoming tranfparent, or affuming a vitreous fotm. It
becomes extremely hard, iirikes fire with fteel, and
feratches glafs.
There is no aCtion between zirconia and oxygen
or azotic gafes, nor is it changed by expofure to the
4 H 2 air.
6i
C H E M I
Zirccr.ia,
&c.
14SS
Of water.
air. It Is not acted on by hydrogen, carbone, phofpho-
rus, or fulphur.
6. This earth is infoluble in water j but it mixes with
a confiderable portion of this fluid, and forms with it a
tranfparent jelly. If in this ftate it be flowly dried, it
retains the water, and affumes a yellowifh colour, and
* Avnai fomething of the tranlparency of gum arabic *. When
Cbim. xxii. *t js dried in a very high temperature, it lofes more than
>'97' one-third of its weight. After having been expofed to
a red heat, it becomes of a gray colour, harfli to the
feel, and lefs foluble in acids.
7. Zirconia combines with the acids, and forms with
them peculiar falls. IVtany of thefe are infoluble in wa»
ter, and are diftinguiflied by an aftringent tafte.
The order of the affinities of this earth, is the fol-
lowing ;
Vegetable acids,
Sulphuric,
Muriatic,
Nitric.
1489
Of acids.
1490
Affinities.
A/J-491 f 8 Zirconia does not combine with the alkalies by
alkalies.0 fufion, and is infoluble it liquid alkalies. It may be
diffolved, however, by the alkaline carbonates.
I, Compounds of Zirconia with Acids.
1. Sulphate of Zirconia.
1492 1. This fait is formed by the dired combination of
Preparation the *earth wjth fuiphuric acid. The folution is to be
and proper. ev ated to drynefs> The fait thus obtained^ is in
the form of a white powder, which is very friable.
Sometimes it is in the form of cryftals like fmall needles.
It has no tafle, is not changed by expofure to the air,
and is infoluble in water.
Afhon^of 2. This fait is readily decompofed by heat, the acid
heat. is driven off, and the earth remains behind. When it
is boiled in water, the earth is precipitated, and the
acid remains in the liquid. At a high temperature it
is decompofed by charcoal, and converted into a ful-
phuret which is foluble m water, and the folution fur-
xiifhes by evaporation cryftals of hydrofulphuret of
f J3fW. 199 zirconia f.
2. Sulphite of Zirconia.
Unknown.
3. Nitrate of Zirconia.
1494 This fait is formed by the direft combination of
Prepara- zjrcj)nja with concentrated nitric acid } and by evapo-
tl0n' ration it is obtained in the form of a yellow, tranfpa¬
rent, vifeid mafs, which dries with difficulty.
Ptn^mes 2. This fait has a ftyptic and aftringent tafte, and
leaves on the tongue a thick matter, which proceeds
from a decompofition of the fait by means of the fa-
\ ion^of 3* When nitrate of zirconia, after being evaporated,
■water and is put into diftMed water, a very fmall quantity only is
heat. diffolved. The greateft part remains under the form
of gelatinous and tranfparent flakes. This fait is veiy
M97 readily decompofed by heat
Of acids, 4. It is alio decompofed by fuiphuric acid, which
forms in the folution a white precipitate, foluble in ex-
cefs of acid-, by carbonate of ammonia, which pro¬
duces a precipitate, foluble in an excefs of this fait}
S T H Y.
and by an infufion of nut galls in alcohol, which af¬
fords a white precipitate, foluble in an excefs of this
infufion. But if the zirconia contains iron, the colour
of the precipitate is bluiffi gray, of which a part re¬
main in the folution, communicating to the liquor a
pure blue colour. When this liquid is mixed with
carbonate of ammonia, it affords a purple matter, by
the refrafted rays, but of a violet colour by refle&ed
light. Cryftallized gallic acid alfo precipitates the
nitrate of zirconia, of a bluiffi gray colour. Moft of
the other vegetable acids alfo decompofe this fait, and
form combinations with the earth which are infoluble
in water *.
4. Nitrite of Zirconia.
Unknown.
5. Muriate of Zirconia.
1. Of all the acids, the muriatic combines moft readi- prepay
ly with zirconia, when the latter is in the ftate of car- tion.
bonate. This fait was firft formed by Klaproth, and its
properties were afterwards more particularly inveftigated
by Vauquelin.. _ m
2. The muriate of zirconia has no colour, but poffeffes Propertt
a very aftringent tafte, is very foluble in water, and alfo
in alcohol. By flow evaporation, it affords fmall, tranf¬
parent, needle-formed cryftals, whofe figure has not
been determined. When muriate of zirconia contains
any portion of filica, the eryftals are cubical, have little
confiftence, and refembh? a jelly. Thefe cryftals, ex¬
pofed to the air, gradually lofe their tranfparency, and
are diminiffied in volume. There are formed, in the
middle of the mafs, white filky cryftals in the lhape of
needles, which arife from the cubes. _ jjJI
3. Muriate of zirconia is decompofed by heat, which Adion
drives off the acid. It is even decompofed in the heat,
mouth by means of the faliva. _ i^oifl
4. a. It is alfo decompofed by fuiphuric acid, which Of acid!
forms a precipitate with the earth in heavy white &c-
flakes, while another part is retained in folution by
the muriatic acid. But by the affiftance of heat, the
latter is diffipated, and the remaining part of the ful-
phate of zirconia is depofited. If the evaporation be
flopped before it is brought to a ftate of drynefs, it af¬
fumes the appearance of a jelly by cooling. The fuj-
phate of zirconia is then foluble in muriatic acid..
b. This fait is alfo decompofed by the phofphoric, ci¬
tric, tartaric, oxalic, and lacla&ic acids, which form¬
ing with its bafe infoluble compounds, precipitate in
the form of white flakes.
c. The gallic acid precipitates the muriate of zirco¬
nia in the form of white matter, if the fait has been
pure, but of a grayiffi green if it contain iron. In
the latter cafe, the precipitate becomes, when dry, of
a ffiining black colour, which has the fame appearance
as china ink. The liquid, in which are formed the
gallates of zirconia and iron, preferves a green colour ;
and although new portions of gallic acid are added,
no farther precipitation is produced. But the carbo¬
nate of ammonia throws down a copious flaky matter,
which has. a purple colour, and nearly refembles that
of lees of wine. Thus, it appears, that the gallic.acid
has a greater affinity for zirconia than the muriatic,
and that the gallates of zirconia and iron are foluble m
muriatic acid. ,
a. Inc
* Ann:
Chim. J
P-iSp.
I: Mia,
Lc.
C H E M
d. The carbonate of potafli, when fully faturated,
decompofes the muriate of zirconia •, and although this
folution is attended with effervefcence, the precipitate
wafhed and dried in the air, retains a large proportion
of carbonic acid j for when this earth is afterwards
diflblved in acids, it produces a brilk effervefcence.
The carbonate of ammonia at firft forms a precipitate
in the folution of muriate of zirconia. This precipi¬
tate is in great part re-diffolved by new additions of
the ammoniacal fait, and there is produced a triple
fait, which may be decompofed by heat.
e. A folution of fulphurated hydrogen gas in water,
mixed with a folution of muriate of zirconia containing
iron, becomes turbid, and produces a reddilh colour;
but there is no real precipitate. Hydrofulphuret of
ammonia inltanlly precipitates this earth of a fine
green colour, which appears black when it is dry.
When this precipitate is placed on burning coals, it
emits the odour of fulphurated hydrogen gas, and be¬
comes of a purple blue colour when reduced to pow¬
der.
f. Pure alumina decompofes the muriate of zirconia,
with the aid of heat. The alumina is diffolved, the
liquid becomes milky, and affumes the form of a jelly
as it cools. It has been remarked, when the muriate
of zirconia contains iron, it remains in folution wdth
the alumina, and the zirconia, which has been precipi¬
tated in this way, contains no perceptible portion of
this metal.
g. The prufliate of mercury produces in the folution
of muriate of zirconia, a copious white precipitate,
which is foluble in muriatic acid.
h. A plate of zinc introduced into a folution of muri¬
ate of zirconia, produces a flight effervefcence. The
liquid becomes milky, and affumes the appearance of a
*»-«.ie white femitranfparent jelly in a few days*.
^XXi*’ 6. Fluate of Zirconia. T
7. Borate of Zirconia. _ (Unknown.
8. Phofphate of Zirconia. I
9. Phofphite of Zirconia. _)
10. Carbonate of Zirconia.
When an alkaline carbonate in folution is added to
a folution of muriate of zirconia, the earth is precipi¬
tated without effervefcence $ and when this preci¬
pitate is expofed to heat in clofe veffels, it gives out
carbonic acid gas. It alfo enters into combination with
the alkaline carbonates, and forms with them triple
falts. This, Vauquelin obferves, is one of the remark¬
able characters of this fait.
tiltpofi The component parts of carbonate of zirconia, ac-
ti, cording to the fame chemift, are,
Acid and water, 44.5
Zirconia, 55-5
100.0
11. Arfeniate of Zirconia. "j
12. Tungftate of Zirconia. j
13. Molybdate of Zirconia. J> Unknown.
14. Chromate of Zirconia. |
re. Columbate of Zirconia. J
I S T R Y. 61.:
with it a fait which does not cryfiallize. When the < Metals,
folution is evaporated to drynefs, the acetate of zirconia i
remains in the ftate of powder. This fait has an aftr^* properties,
gent tafte, is not altered by expofure to the air, and is
very foluble in water and in alcohol. This fait feems
to have lefs tendency to be decompofed by heat than
* A/m. ar-
Ch im. xxii.
p. >1.
16. Acetate of Zirconia.
Acetic acid combines witj| zirconia, and forms
the nitrate of zirconia *.
Oxalate of Zirconia.
17-
18.
19.
20.
Tartrate of Zirconia.
Citrate of Zirconia.
Malate of Zirconia.
}
2C6.
Unknown.
21. Gallate of Zirconia.
Gallic acid added to a folution of muriate of zirconia,,
it has been already mentioned, produces a precipitate
of a white matter, which is the gallate of zirconia. The
properties of this compound have not been examined.
Benzoate of Zirconia.
Succinate of Zirconia.
Saccolate of Zirconia.
Camphorate of Zirconia.
Suberate of Zirconia. Unknown,
Mellate of Zirconia.
Laftate of Zirconia.
Prufliate of Zirconia.
Sebate of Zirconia.
22.
23-
24.
25-
26.
27.
28.
29.
33-
Chap. I. Of METALS.
IS°4
1. The metals, on account of their importance and Importance
utility, have always greatly occupied the attention of ofmetaI^
mankind. Indeed fuch is their importance, that man
could not take a Angle ftep in the improvement even of
the fimpleft of the arts of life, without the afliftance of
fome of the metals. In this view, the origin and im¬
provement of many arts, and the knowledge of metal¬
lic fubftances, may be, in fome meafure, confidered as
coeval. The metals, therefore, became very early,
and were probably the firft objedls of chemical invefti-
gation. In the extraordinary purfuits of the alchemifts,
they were the fubjefts of their eager refearches, in the
difeovery of the means of converting the more abund¬
ant and bafer metals, as they were called, into thofe
which were more valued, on account of their durabi¬
lity and fcarcity. They failed of their purpose 5 but
their labours were not in vain. The fafts which they
difeovered in the progrefs of their inveftigations, were
of no fmall importance to fcience. I505
2. The metals are diftinguilhed from other fub-Charadters,
fiances by a number of chara£leriftic properties. Thefe
are, brilliancy, colour, opacity, denfity, hardnefs,,
elafticity, du&ility, malleability, tenacity, fufibility,
power of condutting caloric and eleftricity. _ I50(j
3. Luftre or brilliancy is one of the moft ftrikingBrilliancy*
charafteriftic properties of metallic fubftances, and
hence it has been denominated metallic lutfre. This is
owing to the reflection ■ of a great proportion of the
rays of light by metallic furfaces. On account of this
property, metals are employed in the conftruftion of
mirrors.. Other fubftances, indeed, exhibit the ap¬
pearance of this brilliancy, which is the cafe with
the mineral called mica ; but in this fubftance, as well
as every other which is not metallic, it is merely
fuperficial, and it entirely difappears when the furface-
iT
IS°7
Colour.
i
150S
Opacity.
iS°9
Denfity.
1510
Hardnefs.
CHEMISTRY.
is broken, or fcratclied trltli a fharp-pointed inftru-
ment. But the metal, treated in the fame way, be¬
comes more brilliant. The following is the order in
which the metals poflefs this luftre ;
Platina,
Steel,
Silver,
Mercury,
Gold,
Copper,
Tin,
Zinc,
Antimony,
Bifmuth,
Lead,
Arfenic,
Cobalt 5 and the other brittle metals.
4. Colour is one of the conflant properties of me¬
tallic fubftances, while it is only accidental and vari¬
able in other minerals. And as the metals are the
moll opaque, and the denfeft bodies in nature, colour
in them is very intenfe, or rather confounded with
their brilliancy. The prevailing colour of metals is white 5
fame however are yellow, and others reddifh. Thofe
of a white colour were formerly diftinguiflied by the
name of lunar metals, becaufe filver, w hich vras called
luna, being placed at the head of thefe metals, has a
white colour. Gold, which was diftinguilhed by the
name of fol, having a yellow' colour, gave the name
of folar metals to fuch is refembled it. The colour of
metals is permanent, while they remain unaltered 5 but
it is often totally loft when they enter into new com¬
binations.
5. It is generally admitted, that all metallic fub¬
ftances are perfectly opaque. Newton indeed obferv-
ed, that gold-leaf when reduced to tyoVoo- of an inch
thick, appeared of a green colour, from w hich he con¬
cluded that it tranfmits the green rays; and he fup-
pofed that other metals might alfo tranfmit light, if
they were fufficiently thin. But no metal has yet
been found fo malleable as to be reduced to that ftate
of thinnefs to permit light to pafs through it. Silver-
leaf, fo thin as to be only x^oVo o Part °f an inch, is
quite opaque.
6. The metals are particularly diftinguifhed from
other fubftances by fheh denfity. Metallic fubftances
have a greater fpecific gravity than any other bodies
in nature j that is, the quantity of matter contained
in a given bulk, is greater in the metals than in other
fubftances. Even the lighteft of the metals poflefs a
greater denfity than the heavieft bodies known of any
other kind of matter. The particles of which they
are compofed muft therefore be in clofer contact than
in any other body. To this greater denfity is owing
their fuperior luftre.
7. The metals differ from each other greatly in de¬
grees of hardnefs. In general, metallic fubftances are
not fo hard as many other natural bodies. The de¬
gree of hardnefs does not depend on the denfity, for
the hardeft metals are by no means the heavieft. this
property, therefore, muft be owing to the nature of
the particles of which the metal is compofed, or to
fome peculiar difpofition or arrangement of thefe par¬
ticles. It is found that fome of the metals can be
hardened by art, merely by hammering, or by hidden Meta-
cooling after being heated. The hardnefs of metals, '"T-
too, is greatly increafed by being combined with each
other, or with other fubftances j as, for inftance, W'hen
copper and tin are combined together, or iron and car-
bone in the formation of fteel, the utility of which lat¬
ter, as it is applied for cutting inftruments, depends on
its hardnefs. Metallic fubftances, in comparing their
different degrees of hardnefs, have been divided into
eight claifes, which are arranged in the following order.
I ft, Iron and manganefe.
2d, Platina and nickel.
3d, Copper and bifmuth.
4th, Silver.
5th, Gold, zinc, and tungften,
6th, Tin and cobalt.
7th, Lead and antimony.
8th, Arfenic.
Mercury being always fluid at the ordinary tempera¬
ture of the atmofphere, cannot be compared with re¬
gard to this property j and the degree of hardnefs
which fome of the other metals poflefs has not been
afeertained.
8. The elafticity of metals feems to follow the fame Elafticitj
order in which they poffefs the property of hardnefs.
The elafticity of fome metals can be increafed in the
fame way as their hardnefs, either by mechanical
means, as by hammering, or by new combinations. j^n
9. One of the moft important phyfical properties of Duftilio
the metals, is du&ility. By this is meant that peculiar
property which fome metals poffefs, of being drawn out
into wire, without deftroying or diminifhing the cohe-
five power of their particles. Some metals poffefs this
property in a great degree, while others are entirely
deprived of it; and fome metals are extremely duftile,
while they pofl'efs in a very fmall degree another pro¬
perty, namely malleability. Iron is one of the moft
duftile metals, but is much lefs malleable than many
others. ^
10. Malleability is alfo one of the moft valuable Malleab;-
properties of metallic fubftances. By this property lity.
they can be reduced to any form or ftiape which may
be wanted, for thofe purpofes to which they are to be
applied. This property of malleability is fuppofed to
depend on the form of the particles, or on the mode
of their aggregation. Thofe metals which poffefs this
property of malleability or laminability, feem to be
compofed of fmall plates, while the duftile metals
feem to have their particles arranged in a fibrous form.
When metallic fubftances are hammered, they be¬
come harder, denfer, and more elaftic, which is
owfing to their particles being brought into clofer corf-
taft. I5r4
it. Tenacity is expreflive of the power of cohefionTenacity-
between the particles of metallic fubftances. Different
metals poflefs this property in very different degrees.
The method which has been adopted to eftimate the
different degrees of tenacity, is by fufpending wires of
the fame diameter of the different metals by one ex¬
tremity, and attaching weights to the other, till the
wires are broken. Iron, which has the greateft tena¬
city of all the metals, w hen formed into w ire, of an
inch in diameter, will fupport a weight of 50c lb. with¬
out breaking, while a wire of lead of the fame diame¬
ter,
tali.
fc#7
Fifilitj'.
:l6
& I udors
of ijloric
ar..lec-
trly-
i1?
ation
mte air.
C H E M I
ter, can only fupport about 29 lbs. The following is
the order of the dufhle metals, according to the degree
of their tenacity.
Iron,
Copper,
Platina,
Silver,
Gold,
Tin,
Lead,
12. Another property of the metals is fufibility.
When they are expofed to a fufficient degree of heat,
they melt, and are reduced to the ftate of liquidity.
One of the metals, namely mercury, is always in the
fluid Hate, at the ordinary temperature of the atmo-
fphere. The different metals which are generally in
the folid ftate, require very different temperatures for
their fufion. Thus lead and tin require comparatively
a lower temperature to be melted 5 while gold and pla¬
tina can only be brought to the ftate of fufion, by the
greateft degree of heat that can be applied.
13. Metallic fubflances are the beft conductors of
caloric, but the comparative degrees of this property
have not been afeertained. They are alfo found to be
the beft conductors of eleClricity.
14. The metals poffefs fome properties in com¬
mon with other fubftances, as taile and fmell, by
which fome of them are peculiarly diftinguifhed j and
in being fufceptible of eryftallization, which is the
cafe with fome., or of being volatilized, as happens to
others.
15. But metallic fubftances are not only of vaft
importance in the arts of civilized life, on account of
the properties which we have now detailed, which be¬
long to them in the metallic ftate ; but many of them
are not lefs valuable in thofe changes which they un¬
dergo by new combinations, and the new properties
they acquire, in confequence of thefe changes. One
of the fir ft and moft ordinary changes to which metal¬
lic fubftances are fubjeCt, is their combination with
oxygen. This is called in chemical language oxidation.
When a metal, as, for inftance, a piece of iron, is ex¬
pofed to the air, when it is moift, it foon undergoes a
remarkable change. It lofes its metallic luftre, and
the furface is covered with a brownifh powder, well
known by the name of rujl. This change is owing to
the combination of oxygen with the metal, and the
ruft of the metal in this ftate is known in chemiftry by
the name of oxide. The procefs by which this com¬
pound of oxygen and d metallic fubftance is formed, is
called oxidation, and the product is denominated an
oxide.
16. But this procefs of oxidation is effefted more ra¬
pidly when metals are expofed to the adftion of heat 5
and indeed many metals require a very high tempera¬
ture to produce the combination, while it cannot be
accomplifhed in others by the greateft degree of heat
that can be produced. This procefs was formerly called
calcination, or calcining the metal j and the product,
now denominated an oxide, was diftinguifhed by the
name of calx or calces, from its being reduced to the
ftate of powder, in the fame way as limeftone, by bnrn-
ing.
S T 11 Y. 6r$
17. Metals differ very much from each other in the Metals,
circumftances in which this oxidation takes place, in “T"~v
the temperature which is neceffary, the facility of the^^
combination, the proportions of oxygen which com-ed in dif-
bine, and the force of affinity between the conftituent ferent cir-
parts ©f the oxide. Some metals are oxidated in thecumhances'
loweft temperature, as, for inftance, iron and man-
ganefe ; while others require the greateft degree of
heat that can be applied. Such are filver, gold, and
platina.   IS20
18. The facility with which oxidation takes place in the aln
in fome metals is fo great, fuch as iron, tin, lead, cop¬
per, and manganefe, that they muft be completely de¬
fended from the aftion of oxygen •, but in gold and pla¬
tina, no perceptible change is obferved, for what¬
ever length of time they are expofed to the atmo-
fphere. 1521
19. This oxidation and the quantity of oxygen ab-Proportion
forbed is proportional to the temperature. There aret°foxySen
however, many metals which combine with a detenni- n.lte>
nate proportion of oxygen at certain temperatures, and
from this may be eftimated the quantity of oxidation
from the degree of heat which has been applied. The
rapidity of the oxidation is almeft always increased by
the elevation of temperature. In this way atftual com-
buftion or inflammation is produced, 'ihus filings of
metals thrown upon a body in the ftate of ignition,
give out brilliant fparks •, and fteel, ftruck upon a flint,
burns with a vivid flame in the air, in confequence of
the great heat which is communicated to it by percuf-
fion.
20. Metallic fubftances combine with very different
proportions of oxygen; and this quantity varies ac¬
cording to the manner in which the prooefs has been
conducted, or the temperature to which the metal has
been expofed. I(.22
21. In thefe different ftates and conditions of oxida-Different
tion, different phenomena are exhibited. Sometimes phenomena-
the metal becomes red-hot and is inflamed ; fometimesox^a"
the oxidation takes place without fufion, or does not
combine with oxygen till after it has been melted ;
fometimes it is covered with a brittle cruft, or with a
fubftance in the form of powder. At other times a pel¬
licle, exhibiting different colours, forms on the fur-
face ; but, in all cafes, the metal is tarnifhed, lofes its
brilliancy and its colour, and affumes another,- which
announces the change that has taken place.
22. Another difference which takes place among Different
metals, is the different degrees of force with which the affinities,
oxygen adheres to the metal. The knowledge of this,
and the different degrees of affinity between oxygen
and metallic fubftanees, is of great importance in many
operations and chemical refults.
23. During the fixation of oxygen in metallic fub-Caloric
fiances, it is abforbed by fome in its folid ftate, andgiv£nout
gives out a great deal of caloric. In others it is com-t|u”nS
bined, without giving out the fame quantity. ThisCa 10n’
proportion of caloric given out correfponds to the faci¬
lity with which oxides part with their oxygen, or are
reduced to the metallic ftate. Thole which have com¬
bined with oxygen with the greater proportion of calo¬
ric, are moft eafily reduced; but thofe, on the contrary,
in which the oxygen has been deprived of its caloric,
are reduced to the. metallic, ftate by a g.rt-at addition of
caloric,.
6i€
Metals.
. *525
Different
oxides.
CHEMISTRY.
1526
Theory of
Stahl.
>527
Overturn¬
ed.
caloric, and the greateft number of oxides require the
addition of fubftances whole affinity for oxygen is greater
than that of the metal.
24. Metallic oxides are extremely different in dif¬
ferent metals, and even in the fame metal, according to
the proportion of oxygen. They are, however, pof-
feffed of fome common properties. They are all in the
form of powder or earthy fubftance, or fo brittle as to
be eafily reduced to this ftate. They exhibit every
ffiade of colour from pure white to brown and deep
red, and they are heavier than the metals from which
they have been obtained. Some oxides are revived,
as it is called, or are reduced to the metallic ftate,
merely by being in contact with light or caloric. Some
require the addition of a combuftible fubftance and a
high temperature 5 while others have fo ftrong an affini¬
ty for oxygen, that they cannot be deprived of it by
the ftrongeft heat, but become fufiblo in the fire, and af¬
ford a glaffy matter more or lefs coloured, and even ferve
as a flux to the earths. Some oxides are volatile, but the
greateft number are fixed. Some have an acrid and
cauftic tafte, are more or lefs foluble in w-ater, and
even poffefs an acid quality; others are infoluble and
infipid.
25. Obferving this remarkable change produced on
metallic fubftances by the a£tion of air or of heat, phi-
lofophers began early to account for it. According
to Beecher and Stahl, the founders of chemical fcience,
metals are compofed of earths and phlogifton, and the
procefs which takes place during the calcination of a
metal, is merely depriving it of its phlogifton. This
do&rine, which had undergone Various modifications,
from the difficulties which it prefented in accounting
for the phenomena of the calcination of metals, was
finally overthrown by the celebrated experiments of
Lavoifier. In one t>f thefe experiments he introduced
eight ounces of tin into a glafs retort, and having her¬
metically fealed it, after previous heating to expel
fome of the air, it was accurately weighed, and ex-
pofed to heat. The tin melted; and a pellicle ap¬
peared on its furface, which was foon converted into a
gray powder. The heat was continued for three hours,
but no farther4 change appeared upon the metal.
When the retort was cooled, it was found to have the
fame weight as before the operation. The point of
the retort was then broken off, and a quantity of air
ruftied in. This was equal to 10 grs. which was the
additional weight acquired by the retort. The whole
of the metallic fubftance in the retort was 10 grains
heavier than when it was introduced, fo that he con¬
cluded, that the 10 grains of air which had difappear-
ed, had combined with the metal, and caufed its in-
creafe of weight. The inference which he drew from
this was, that the calcination of metals is not owing
to their being deprived of any fubftauce, but to their
combination with air, and with the oxygen of the air $
for it was found by future experiments, that the calcina¬
tion or oxidation of metals could not be effected with¬
out oxygen ; and when it took place in a given quan¬
tity of common air, it was only the oxygen which was
abforbed.
26. But as a ftill farther proof, that the calcination
of metals is owing to the abforption of oxygen, they
are redviced by thofe fubftances which have a greater
affinity for oxygen. If charcoal in powder be mixed Metaj
with a metallic calx or oxide, the oxygen combines "■*
with the carbone of the charcoal, forming carbonic
acid, and the oxide is reftored to the metallic ftate. If
this procefs be performed in clofc vcffels, the quantity
of oxygen in the carbonic acid, correfponds to the
quantity which was abforbed by the metal during cal¬
cination.
27. From thefe obfervations, therefore, it appears
that metallic fubftances combine with oxygen j and it
has been obferved, that not only different metals com¬
bine with it in different proportions, but the fame me¬
tal forms compounds of one, two, and fometimes three ,
different portions. No combination takes place be-Metal
tween azote or hydrogen and metallic fubftances j butcombi
fome of them enter into combination with carbone, phof-^^u
phorus, and fulphur, forming carburets, phofphurets, ’ ]
and fulphurets. The metals alfo combine with the
acids, and form falts, fome of which are of the utmoft
importance, not only in chemiftry, but alfo in the arts of
life. They alfo enter into combination with each other,
forming a clafs of bodies which are diftinguifhed by the
name of alloys.
28. Metallic fubftances were formerly divided intoDivite
noble or perfeB, and imperfeB metals. The noble or
perfetl metals were platina, gold, filver, mercury j
and the property on which this chara&er was founded,
was that of their being fufceptible of being reduced by
being expofed to heat. The other metals then known,
were called iviperfeB metals^ becaufe, to reduce them
to the metallic ftate, the addition of fome combuftible
fubftance was found to be neceffary. They were alfo
divided into metals and femimetals. Among the firft
were included thofe metals, which were malleable and
duftile j the femimetals comprehended thofe which pof-
feffed neither of thefe properties, and were therefore
confidered as lefs perfect. Thefe diftin&ions, however,
are now neglected, becaufe they afford no well-found¬
ed or juft marks of diferimination.
29. In the arrangement of the metals which we pro¬
pose to follow, that of Fourcroy is adopted. He has di¬
vided them into five different claffes, according to their
du&ility, and the proportions of oxygen with which
they combine, or the facility with which that combina¬
tion takes place. In the firft: clafs he includes thofe
metals w hich are brittle, and in fome of their combina¬
tions with oxygen have acid properties. Thefe are,
Arfenic,
Tungften,
Molybdena,
Chromium,
Columbium.
The fecond clafis comprehends thofe which are brittle,
and fimply fufceptible of oxidation. Thefe are the
follow ing:
Titanium,
Uranium,
Cobalt,
Nickel,
Manganefe,
Bifmuth,
Antimony,
Tellurium.
The
23
C H E M I
jitnic, The third elafs comprehends thofe metals which have
. ‘ -c- feme degree of duttility, which are only two in num-
her, viz.
Mercury,
Zinc.
The fourth clafs, which confifts of three metals, includes
fuch as are duftile, and ealily oxidated. Thefe are,
Lead,
Iron,
Copper.
The fifth clafs is compofed of three metals, which are
chara&erized by being very duttile, but oxidated with
great difficulty. Thefe are,
Silver,
Gold,
Platina.
Mural hi- 3°* t^e^e preliminary obferVations We have only
jL to add, that metallic fubftances are found, either on
the furface or in the interior of the globe, and either
uncombined, or forming compounds with different fub¬
ftances. Some metals, as gold and platina, are general¬
ly found in fmall grains, mixed with the foil. Thefe,
as well as the matters with which they are accom¬
panied, have proceeded from the decompofition of the
ftiore folid parts of the globe. But metallic fubftan¬
ces, which are met with in greater abundance, exilt in
the interior of the globe, in veins which traverfe the
other ftrata of the earth in different direftions. The
metals moft commonly found in veins are, lead, copper,
filver, zinc, mercury, and antimony. Some exift in
detached maffes.
31. Metals, as they exift: in the earth, are either in a
ftate of purity, or the metallic ftate, when they are
called native or virgin metals ; or combined with each
other, when they are faid to be alloyed. They are
found alfo combined with other fubftances, very fre¬
quently with fulphur 5 when they are faid to be mine¬
ralized : or, they are combined with oxygen, when
they come under the denomination of oxides ; or they
are combined with acids in the ftate offalts.
Sect. I. Of Arsenic and its Cotnbinations.
j 531
li ary. I. It would appear that the ancients were acquaint¬
ed with arfenic in its ftate of combination with fulphur,
which is a reddiih-coloured mineral, and was employ¬
ed by them in painting ; and although Theophraftus
arranged it among metallic ftones, probably on account
of its weight, it was not known to poffefs a metallic
fubftance till the middle of the 17th century. Para-
eelfus, indeed, who lived at an earlier period, is faid
to have known it in the metallic ftate •, but the procefs
of obtaining it from orpiment and arfenic, was only
firft deferibed by Schroeder in 1649. Lemery alio
ublilhed a procefs for extracting this metal in 1675.
t was afterwards fully demonftrated by Brandt in
1733, a°d by Macquer in 1746, that arfenic poffeffed
peculiar properties, and is totally diftinCt from all other
metals. Thefe faCts were farther confirmed by Mon-
net in 1773, anti hy Bergman in 1777.
nd na. v 2. Arfenic is frequently found native, and is then
. m dark-coloured maffes, which have little brilliancy,
Vol. V, Part II.
S T R Y. 617
and exhibit no metallic luftre, except at the fraCture. Arfenic,
It is frequently found combined with other metals. In , ^c‘ ,
this ftate it is combined with iron, and is known by
the name of arfenicalpyrites, or mifpickel. One of the
moft frequent combinations of arfenic is with fulphur,
of which there are two principal varieties j thq one is
of a yellow colour, w'ell known under the name of or¬
piment, and the other red, called realgar. It is alfo
fometimes found in the ftate of white oxide, or arfeni-
ous acid } but this is a rare occurrence. 1533
5. In whatever ftate arfenic is found, it can eafily Method of
be deteded, by throwing a little of it on burning i,rial>rz'J1S
coals. The white fume which arifes, and the garlic 0ie'r
fmell which is exhaled, are fufficiently charaCteriftic of
this metal. To obtain the metal from its oxide, it may
be mixed with three times its weight- of black fiux.
This mixture is put into a crucible, to which another
crucible inverted is'adapted. They are then to be-
luted together, to exclude the air. Apply heat to the
lowrer crucible till it becomes red, defending the upper
one as much as poffible from the heat, by means of a
plate of iron or copper, through which the lower cru¬
cible pafles. When the apparatus has cooled, a cruft
of metallic arfenic is found in the upper crucible, in
the form of cryftals, This being detached and weigh¬
ed, (hows the quantity of pure metal in the mineral
which has been tried.
In the humid way, Bergman recommends to treat
native arfenic by diffolving it in four parts of nitro-
muriatic acid, concentrating the folution by evapora¬
tion, and precipitating the muriate of arfenic which is
formed, by means of w ater. If there is any filver, it
is firft precipitated in the form of an infoluble muriate,
and iron is fometimes found in the folution precipitated
by ■water.
The fulphurets of arfenic are to be treated by muri¬
atic acid, adding a fmall quantity of nitric acid, to fe-
parate the fulphur. The oxide of arfenic may then
be precipitated by water. The pure metal may be ob¬
tained by immerfing a plate of zinc in the folution,
having previoufiy added a quantity of alcohol. 1534
4. Arfenic is in the form of fmall plates of a blaekifh
gray, brilliant, and metallic colour, with confiderable
luftre where there is a freffi frafture. The fpecific
gravity is 8.31. It is extremely brittle, and is there¬
fore eafily reduced to powder. It has neither fmell
nor perceptible tafte when it is cold ; but when it is
heated, and in the ftate of vapour, it is remarkable for
a ftrong fetid odour of garlic. It fublimes before it
melts, fo that its fufing point is not known. It is the .
moft volatile of all the metals. When llowly fublimed,
it cryftallizes in the form of regular tetrahedrons, and
fometimes in that of o£tahedrons. The tetrahedron is
the form of its integrant molecule.
5. When arfenic recently prepared is expofed to the Adtien^of
air, it is foon tarniffied, lofes its luftre, becomes at firft air.
yellowifh, and then paffes to a black colour. It lofes at
the fame time its hardnefs, and becomes extremely fri¬
able. When it is heated in eontsuft with air, or if it
be thrown in the ftate of powder on burning coals,
it burns with a blue flame, and exhaling the ftrong
odour of garlic, is fublimed in. the form of a white,
acrid, foluble mafs, which has been called the %vhite‘
oxide of arfenic, or white arfenic. By this latter name
it is well know n in the ihops. To this oxide of arfe-
4 I nic,
6i8
CHEMISTRY.
Arfenic,
&c.
153*5
Oxide or
arfenious
acid.
1537
Properties
*533
Arfenic
acid.
1539
Phofphuret.
.154°
Sulphiuet.
nic, becaufe it pofieiTes fome acid properties, Fourcroy
has given the name of arfenious acid. This acid bears
the fame relation to arfenic acid as the phofphorous and
fulphuroms acids do to phofphoric and fulphuric acids.
6. This oxide or acid is extremely volatile. When
it is heated in clofe veflels, it is fublimed in tranfparent,
regular tetrahedrons. It is extremely acrid andcauftic,
corroding and deftroying the organs of animals, fo that
it is the moft violent poifon known. The fpecific gra¬
vity is between 4 and 5. It reddens vegetable blues,
and, when expofed to the air, it is covered with a (light
efflorefcence.
. 7. The arfenious acid is decompofed by hydrogen,
carbone, phofphorus, and fulphur. At a red heat, the
hydrogen and carbone combine with the oxygen, and
reduce it to the metallic (late. Phofphorus and ful¬
phur are partly converted into phofphoric and fulphu¬
ric acids, and partly combine with the arfenic, forming
a phofphuret or fulphuret of arfenic.
8. This acid is very foluble in water. It requires
about 15 parts of boiling water for its folution, from
which it may be obtained cryftallized on cooling, or
by (low evaporation. The cryftals are in the form of
regular tetrahedrons. The folution in water is extreme¬
ly acrid, reddens vegetable blues, combines with earthy
bafes, decompofes the alkaline fulphurets, and affords
with them a yellow precipitate in which the arfenic re¬
turns to the metallic (late. The component parts of
arfenious acid are,
Arfenic 75.2
Oxygen 24.8
100.0
9. Arfenic combines with a greater proportion of
oxygen j and in this compound it dill exhibits acid
properties, and is known by the name of arfenic acid.
The method of preparing this acid, and its properties,
have already been defcribed, in the chapter on acids j
and the compounds it forms with the alkalies and
earths, have been particularly detailed in the chapters
which treat of thefe fubftances.
10. Arfenic does not decompofe water. It may be
kept for any length of time under water, without un¬
dergoing any change. There is no aftion between ar¬
fenic and carbone or azote. Arfenic, however, is fo¬
luble in hydrogen gas, to which it communicates a fe¬
tid odour and a poifonous property.
11. Arfenic enters into combination with phofpho¬
rus. When equal parts of phofphorus and arfenic are
diitilled together with a moderate heat, there is fu¬
blimed a dark-coloured brilliant fubftance, which burns
on red-hot coals, with a mixed odour of arfenic and
phofphorus. This is the phofphuret of arfenic, which
muff be preferved under water. This compound may
be formed under water at a boiling temperature in a
matrafs. As the phofphorus melts, it combines with
the arfenic. The properties of this phofphuret of arfe¬
nic have not been examined.
12. Arfenic combines readily with fulphur, either by
fufion or by fublimation. The refult of this combina¬
tion is a yellow or red mafs. This compound of fulphur
and arfenic, which is a fulphuret of arfenic, is found
native. The red is known by the name of realgar, and
the yellow by that of orpiment.
13. Arfenic enters into combination with the acids, Arir
and forms with them peculiar falls. It alfo combines
with the metals, forming alloys. The following is the vv|
order of the affinities of arfenic and of its oxide, as theySalts^v
have been arranged by Bergman. alloys
Arsenic. Oxide of Arsenic. Affinitj;|
Nickel,
Cobalt,
Copper,
Iron,
Silver,
Tin,
Gold,
Platina,
Zinc,
Antimony,
Sulphur,
Phofphorus.
Lime,
Muriatic acid,
Oxalic,
Sulphuric,
Nitric,
Tartaric,
Phofphoric,
Fluoric,
Saclaftic,
Succinic,
Citric,
Ladtic,
Arfenic,
Acetic,
Pruffic.
14. Arfenic, in the metallic (late, is fcarcely applied ufes.
to any ufe, except for chemical purpofes. It is fome-
times alloyed with the metals, by which means they ac¬
quire new properties. In the (late of white oxide, it is
much employed in the arts. It has even been exhibited
as an internal remedy in the difeafes of cancer and inter¬
mittent fevers; but in all cafes this terrible poifon ought
to be adminiftered with the greateft caution. Tocoun-
teradl the effedts of arfenic, when it has been accidental¬
ly taken into the (lomach, one of the bed antidotes is
water impregnated with fulphurated hydrogen gas, or
fome of the alkaline fulphurets diffolved in water *. * fourc
I. Salts of Arfenic.
v. p. 80,
I. Sulphate of Arfenic.
r544
Concentrated fulphuric acid has no adlion on arfenic EfMoi
in the cold •, but when they are boiled together, anfulphuri
effervefcence takes place, fulphurous acid gas is difen-ac^‘
gaged, the arfenic is oxidated, and falls to the bottom
in the (late of white powder. According to Fourcroy,
this powder retains but a fmall portion of fulphuric
acid, the whole of which is nearly carried off by -waffl¬
ing with water j nor are cryftals obtained from the fo¬
lution. By evaporation the white oxide of arfenic is
precipitated, and fulphuric acid remains pure in the fo¬
lution. There is no adlion between fulphurous acid and
arfenic.
2. Nitrate of Arfenic.
Concentrated nitric acid produces a violent adlion of nibk
with arfenic. Nitrous gas is difengaged, and towards
the end of the procefs, azotic gas. The arfenic is
converted at firft into the white oxide, which, with a
newr addition of acid, paffes to the (late of arfenic acid ;
and when a great quantity of nitric acid is employed,
with the aid of heat, the metal is inftantly converted
into arfenic acid. There remains no oxide in the fo¬
lution, and there is no nitrate of arfenic formed. But,
according to Bergman, when the nitric acid is diluted,
it diffolves the oxide, and affords a cryftallized fait like
the white oxide.
3. Muriate
l 3. Muriate of Arfenic.
I. Muriatic acid has no a&ion on arfenic in the
cold j but when they are boiled together, the folution
takes place, and there is difengaged a fetid gas, which
feems to be arfeniated hydrogen gas. From this it
appears, that muriatic acid enables the arfenic to de-
compofe water. A little nitric acid added, promotes
the folution ; and this folution, heated and concentrat¬
ed at firft in clofe veffels, is entirely fublimed in the
form of a thick liquid, which was formerly called butter
of arfenic. This fait is decompofed by water alone,
,arfr(y,which precipitates the metal. The muriate of arfenic,
,73. therefore, can fcarcely be confidered as a permanent
547 ^alt .
:nuria- 2. When arfenic in the Hate of pow-der is thrown
iid* into oxymuriatic acid gas, it inftantly catches fire,
burns with a very brilliant white flame, and is convert¬
ed into white oxide. If arfenic be added to liquid oxy-
muriatic acid, it is converted into arfenic acid, while
the acid returns to the ftate of muriatic acid.
4. Fluate of Arfenic.
Fluoric acid combines with the white oxide of arfe¬
nic, and affords fmall grains, which have a cryilalline
form j but their properties are unknown.
5. Borate of Arfenic.
Boracic acid alfo combines with the white oxide of
arfenic, and affords a fait which is in the ftate of white
powder, or in the form of fmall needles. Their proper¬
ties are alfo unknown.
6. Acetate of Arfenics
Acetic acid enters into combination with the white
oxide of arfenic, and forms cryftals, which are only
known to be difficultly foluble in water.
7. Oxalate of Arfenic.
Oxalic acid, combined with arfenic, affords cryftals
in the form of prifms. Similar cryftals are obtained by
the combination of arfenic with the tartaric acid.
8. Benzoate of Arfenic.
Benzoic acid combines with the white oxide of ar¬
fenic, and by evaporating the folution, plumofe cryftals
are obtained. This fait has an acid and acrid tafte, is
foluble in w'ater, fublimes w ith a moderate heat, but
with a ftronger heat is decompofed, and is not precipi¬
tated from its folutions by alkalies.
Sect. II. Of Tungsten and its Combinations.
I. The name of tungften is derived from a white,
tranfparent mineral, which contains this metal in the
ftate of acid united to lime. This mineral was ana¬
lyzed by Scheele in 1781, and he found that one of
its component parts is lime, and the other an earthy-
like fubftance, to which he gave the name of tungstic
acid. His difeovery was confirmed about the fame
time by Bergman, who conjectured that the bafis of
the acid ipight be a metallic fubftance. This conjec¬
ture was verified by the experiments of Meffieurs
CHEMISTRY. 619
D’Elhuyart, two Spanifh chemifts, who difeovered the Molybdena,
fame metal in the mineral called wo from, and afeer- , ^c'
tained fome of its metallic properties. It has fince been
farther examined by Vauquelin and Hecht, and by
Allen and Aikin in London. 1549
2. This metallic fubftance has been only found in Found na-
the ftate of acid in combination with lime, iron, man-dve-
ganefe and lead. When it is combined with lime, it
is the tungften of the Sw edes, and in combination with
iron it is called wrolfram.
IS5°
, 54s
ilbry.
3. IV obtain this metal from the acid, it is mixed Method of
with charcoal in a crucible, and expofed to a very?^ta,n*n§
ftrong heat. By this procefs the metal was obtained inlt’
the form of a fmall button at the bottom of the cru¬
cible, in the firft experiments which were made upon it
by the German chemifts. This crumbled to pieces
between the fingers 3 and when it was examined with a
magnifying glafs, it was found to confift of a number of
metallic globules, none of w hich w ere larger than a pin
head. 1551
4. The colour of the metal is a fteel gray. The Propertied'
fpecific gravity is 17.6, or, according to others 17.22.
It is one of the hardeft of the metals. It is alfo one
of the moft infufible, requiring a temperature of 1700
Wedgw'ood. It cryftallizes on cooling.
5. When it is heated in the open air, it is readily Action of
converted into a yellow oxide, which afterwards, by a heat,
ftronger heat, becomes of a black colour, and then by
combining with a greater proportion of oxygen, it aft
fumes the charafter of an acid, namely the tungftic
acid, whofe properties and comhinations with alkalies
and earths, have been already deferibed.
6. There is no action between tungften and azote, Of phof-
hydrogen or carbone. Tungften combines with phof-P^orus>
phorus, forming a phofphuret, the properties of which
are unknown. It alfo combines with fulphur, forming
a fulphuret of a bluifti black colour, and which may be
cryftallized. There is no aftion between this metal
and fulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acids. It is only
afted on by nitro-muriatic acid at a boiling tempera¬
ture, and nitrous gas is difengaged. Nothing therefore
is knowm of the combinations of tungften with the other
ac^s’ . ... T554
7. This metal combines w ith the other metals, and Alloys.
forms alloys with them.
8. It is too little known, and has been produced in
too fmall quantity, to be able to afeertain any thing of
its ufes or application.
Sect. III. Of MolTBDENA and its Combinations.
1. The mineral called molybdeno, from which thisHiftoryf*
metal is extracted, was analyzed by Scheele in 1778.
He found that it contained fulphur, and a fubftance
which he difeovered to be poffeffed of acid properties^
Previous to this time, this mineral had been confounded
with plumbago or black lead, which it refembles in
appearance. The acid which Scheele obtained from
this fubftance, Bergman conjeftured was a metallic
oxide. Thefe experiments were repeated by Pelletier 3
and he proved that molybdena was a peculiar metal
combined with fulphur, and that in all the different
proccffes the fulphur was feparated, and the metal oxi¬
dated. The metal has fince been called molybdena^
41 2 and
620
CHEMISTRY.
MoJylylena,
&c.
iSS6
Charnifters.
oT the ore.
*5S7
Properties
of the me¬
tal.
IJS8.
Aflion of
heat.
ISS9
Oxides.
156°
Acids.
* Ph/7.
Jutvf.
1796.
P- 336-
T c6l
Aftion of
phofphorus
156a
jOI acids.
15^3
Of aihaiies
and the mineral from which it is obtained fulphuret of
mohjbdena.
2. Molybdenn has never been found exilling in any
other but in the date of fulphuret, or in that of oxide.
The fulphurct of molybdena, it has been obferved, was
It ng confounded with plumbago, or the carburet of
iron. It has, however, a lefs greafy feel, more brillian¬
cy, and inclining more to a blue colour. It Itains the
fingers lefs than carburet of iron, and leaves a bluiih
trace on paper. It is difficult to reduce it to powder,
on Account of the elafticity of the plates or fcales of
which it is compofed. 'The fulphuret of molybdena,
too, becomes eleftric by fri£tion. When the fulphuret
of molybdena is treated with the blow-pipe, it exhales
fulphur, which is detected by its odour, and a white
vapour which is condenfed on cold bodies in the form
of plates or cryftallized needles, of a yellowiffi colour,
but which become blue by the contact of the interior
flame. Molybdena has only been obtained in black,
friable, agglutinated maffes, which have fome metallic
brilliancy; and when broken, exhibit fmall round
grains, of a grayiffi brilliant appearance. The fpecific
gravity is about 7, and it is extremely infufible j but
iince the experiments of Dr Hielm, which were made
in 1781, this metal has been procured in fuch fmall
quantity, that its chara&eriftic metallic properties
have not been afcertained.
3. When molybdena is expofed to a high tempera¬
ture in contaft with air, it is converted into a white
oxide, which fublimes and cryftallizes in the form of
brilliant needles. This oxide has acid properties.
When it is heated with combuftible bodies, it aflumes
a bluiffi colour, with little brilliancy, as it approaches
to the metallic ftate. According to Mr Hatchet, who
made a let of experiments on the compound of this acid
w ith lead, the molybdate of lead, molybdena, when it
is not in the metallic ftate, appears to fufter four de¬
grees of oxigenation. The firft is the black oxide,
which contains the fmalleft proportion of oxygen. This
oxide is obtained by expoling to heat in a crucible, a
mixture of molybdic acid and charcoal in powder. A
black mafs remains, which is the oxide. The fecond is
the blue oxide, which may be obtained by the fame
procefs, but it mull not be continued fo long. The
third is the green oxide, which feems to be intermedi¬
ate between an oxide and acid. Mr Hatchet propofes
to call it molybdous acid. The fourth degree of oxida¬
tion is the molybdic acid itfelf, which has at firft a
white colour; but wffien it is fufed and fublimed, is
converted into a yellow colour. The properties of this
acid and fome of its combinations have been already
defcribed *.
4. Molybdena combines with phofphorus ; but the
properties of this phofphuret are not known. It alfo
combines readily with fulphur, and returns to the ftate
of fulphuret of molybdena, in which it has only been
found native.
5. Molybdena enters into combination with the
acids, forming with them peculiar falts.
6. The alkalies have the property of diffolving
molybdena, and of promoting its oxidation. With the
affiftance of heat the alkalies form with the fulphuret
of molybdena, an alkaline fulphuret which holds the
metal in folution.
7. Molybdena enters into combination with the me¬
tals, and forms alloys with them.
I. Salts of Molybdena.
1. Sulphite of Molybdena.
Sulphuric acid, with the aftiftance of heat, dilTolves
molybdic acid, and affords a colourlefs folution ; but
when it is cold it becomes of a deep blue. But nei¬
ther this nor any other of the falts of molybdena feem
difpofed to cryftallize.
2. Nitrate of Molybdena.
Nitric acid converts the oxides of molybdena into
molybdic acid, by giving up its oxygen.
3. Muriate of Molybdena.
Muriatic acid, when boiled with the oxide of mo¬
lybdena, affords a folution of a deep blue colour, and
there is formed a blue precipitate.
4. Fluate of Molybdena.
Fluoric acid forms a compound with the oxides of
molybdena. The folution is of a greenilh yellow co¬
lour when it is hot; but when it is evaporated to dry-
nefs, it becomes of a greenilh blue.
5. Phofphate of Molybdena.
The oxide of molybdena is diffolved by phofphoric
acid with the affiftance of heat, and a folution of a blue
colour is obtained.
6. Acetate of Molybdena.
7. Oxalate of Molybdena.
8. Tartrate of Molybdena.
9. Benzoate of Molybdena.
All thefe falts in folution are of a blue colour, and
when evaporated to drynefs, afford a blue powder.
They are formed by digefting the feveral acids with
the oxides of molybdena.
SECT. IV. Of CHROMIUM and its Combinations.
1. This metal was difcovcredby Vauquelin in 1797, Hiftory’
in a mineral called the red lead ore of Siberia. This
ore had been formerly analyzed by feveral chemifts,
and even by Vauquelin himfelfj but their refultsof the
nature of its compofition only agreed, that lead was one
of its conftituent parts. Vauquelin by his laft analyfis *
found that it contained lead, combined with the new
acid, of which the bafis is a metal, ^
2. The procefs which he followed was the following:
He boiled one part of the red lead-orfe of Siberia with the ore.
two of carbonate of potafti, in 200 parts of water. The
potalh combined with the new acid, while the carbo¬
nic acid united to the lead. The carbonate of lead
precipitated to the bottom in the form of a white pow¬
der, and the new fait remained in folution. By adding
nitric acid, the new fait was decompofed, the acid
combining with the potafti. This mineral is complete¬
ly diffolved in muriatic acid. The folution affumes a
deep green colour, and by evaporation affords muriate
of lead. The fine green colour is owing to the oxide
of the new metal having been deprived of part of its
oxygen
&c.
11 of
:;me
me-
63
>ic jrties.
•69
Fo' 1 in
lifl ‘nt
JHllilS.
/
Otis,
70
. '/i
Ad n of
C HEM I
oxygen by the muriatic acid, and being thus converted
from an orange red to a green.
3. The acid which is obtained by the firft procefs,
and the oxide by the fecond, being ftrongly heated
with charcoal in a crucible, afforded a metal different
from any other formerly known. To this metal the
name of chroihium was given, from the Greek word
on account of the remarkable property which it
poffeffes of communicating colour to all its faline com¬
binations.
4. The metal which was obtained, is of a grayilh
white colour, very hard and brittle, and extremely dif¬
ficult of fufion j but the fmall quantity which has been
hitherto obtained, precludes chemifts from afeertaining
its properties.
5. This fubftance has been found in four different
minerals, exiffing in two ftates j in the ftate of green
oxide, combined with the oxide of lead, and in the
fame ftate in the emerald j and in the ftate of acid,
combined with the oxide of lead in the red lead-ore of
Siberia, and alfo in the fpinel ruby. It has alfo been
difeevered in the ftate of chromic acid, combined with
iron, forming a chromate of iron. It has alfo been
difeovered in France.
6. Chromium, therefore, combines w ith oxygen in two
different proportions •, the green oxide, arid the yellow,
or the chromic acid. It is this acid which exiits in
the red lead-ore. When it is feparated from the lead,
it is in the form of powder, of an orange yellow colour,
and is foluble in water. Its other properties have been
already examined. The green oxide is prepared by
expoling the latter to heat in clofe veffels. The chro¬
mic acid is partially decompofed •, part of the oxygen
is driven off, and the green oxide remains behind.
Another oxide alfo, it is faid, which is intermediate
between chromic acid and the green oxide, has been
obtained.
7. Little is known of the a£Hon of acids on this me¬
tal ^ but in the few experiments which have been made,
it appears, that it undergoes no change by means of
fulphuric and muriatic acids. Nitric acid diftilled up¬
on it feveral times fucceflively, changes it into green
oxide, and at laft into chromic acid. The fame effedt
is produced more rapidly by means of the nitromuriatic
acid.
Sect. V. Of ColumBIUM and its Combination,
572
Hi| ry, 1. This metal was difeovered by Mr Hatchet, in the
year 1802, in a mineral which he found in the Britilh
Mufeum. This mineral had been fent along with fpe-
cimens of iron ores from Maffachufets in America, to
Sir Hans Sloane, in whofe catalogue it is deferibed as
a u very heavy black (tone, with golden ftreaks.”
I Thefe ftreaks, Mr Hatchet obferves, proved to be yel-
Bw&ers low mica. This mineral is externally of a dark-brown-
• cre- ifh gray colour j internally the fame, inclining to iron
gray. The longitudinal ffadture is imperfeftly lamel-
lated •, the crofs frafture {hews a fine grain. The
luftre is vitreous, in fome parts inclining to the metal¬
lic. It is moderately hard, but very brittle. 'I he co¬
lour of the powder is dark chocolate brown. The par¬
ticles are not attrafled by the magnet. The fpecific
gravity is 5.9x 8.
s T R Y. 621
2. In the analyfis of this mineral, Mr Hatchet dil- Colurn-^
covered, that it confifts of one part of oxide of iron, »-um>
and three parts of a white-coloured fubftance, which 15m
exhibited the properties of an acid. This acid, under A.nalyfic.
the name of Columbia acid, with its-combinations with
the alkalies and earths, has been already deferibed. Ha¬
ving found that it poffeffed properties different from all
other acids, and alfo, that its bafe is metallic, he gave
to the metal the name of columbium. In the attempts
which Mr Hatchet made to reduce it to the metallic
ftate, even when it was expofed to a very ftreng heat
with charcoal, the oxide was only found in the ftate of
powder, of a black colour. From thefe experiments
it appeared, that this metal combines with oxygen in
different proportions, and thefe oxides are diftinguiftxed
by different colours.
3. When the white oxide of this metal was added to
phofphoric acid in folution, and evaporated to drynefs,
the whole was put into a crucible, lined with charcoal,
and expofed to a ftrong heat for half an hour. The
inclofed matter* had affirmed a dark brown, fpongy ap¬
pearance, which had fome refemblauce to the phol'phu-
ret of titanium.
4. No fulphuret was obtained when it was mixed and
diftilled with fulphur.
5. Columbium combines with fome of the acids,
and forms falts, although few of thefe have been ex¬
amined.
I. Salts of Columbium.
1. Sulphate of Columbium.
Boiling fulphuric acid forms a tranfparent colour-
lefs folution with columbic acid. When water is added
to this folution, it becomes turbid, affuming a milky
appearance ; and a white precipitate is gradually de-
pofited, which cracks as it becomes dry upon the filter,
and, from white, it changes to a lavender blue colour;
and, when completely dry, to a brownifh gray. It is
then infoluble in water, is femitranfparent, and breaks
with a vitreous frafture. This precipitate obtained from
the fulphuric folution, by the addition of water, is a
fulphate of columbium.
2. Nitrate of Columbium.
The oxide of columbium feems to be perfe&ly info¬
luble, and remains unchanged in colour, when digefted
in boiling concentrated nitric acid.
3. Muriate of Columbium.
Columbic acid, when recently feparated from pot-
aflr, is foluble in boiling muriatic acid. This folution
may be confiderably diluted with water, without any
change being produced. When evaporated to drynefs,
it left a pale-yellow fubftance, infoluble in water, and
which is diffolved with great difficulty, when it is again
digefted with muriatic acid.
4. Phofphate of Columbium.
A few drops of phofphoric acid being added to a part
of the folution of columbium in concentrated fulphuric,
acid, at the end of about 12 hours converted the whole
into a white, opaque, ftiff jelly, which was infolubls
in water. When a imall quantity of phofphoric acid
was
622
Titanium,
8tc.
* Thil,
Tranf,
1802.
p. 49.
IS7S
Hiftory of
its difco-
-very.
*576
Natural
hiftory.
*‘577
Analylis of
its ore.
C H E M
was added to the muriatic fdlution of columbium, in
a few hours a white flocculent precipitate was form*
ed * (a).
Sect. VI. Of TITANIUM and its Combinations.
1. This metal was difcovered in 1793 by Klaproth.
He obtained it from a mineral called red fchorl. In
this mineral he found the oxide of a metal different
from any other then known. Previous to this time,
indeed, the fame oxide had been difcovered by Mr
Gregor, in a black fand which is found in Menachan
in Cornwall. To this, from the place, he gave the
name of menachinc, but he had not fucceeded in re¬
ducing it to the metallic date. Klaproth afterwards
analyzed the menachanite of Mr Gregor, and found that
it was precifely the fame as the oxide of the metal
which he difcovered in red fchorl. To this metal
he gave the name of titanium. Ihe experiments
of Klaproth were afterwards repeated by Vauquelin
and Hecht in 1796. His refults were confirmed, and
they alfo fucceeded in reducing a fmall quantity of the
oxide to the metallic ftate.
2. This metal has been found only in the ftate of
oxide. Red fchorl confifts entirely of this oxide. It
has been found in different countries, as in Spain,
France, and Hungary. This oxide is diffeminated in
the fine fpecimens of rock cryftal, which are brought
from Madagafcar, cryftallized in long brilliant needles,
the form of the primitive cryftal being a fix-fided
prifm, with two-fided fummits *, that of the molecule
is a triangular prifm, with right-angled ifofceles bafes.
It is of a red colour of different ftiades. It is brittle,
but the fragments are fo hard as to fcratch glafs. The
fpecific gravity is from 4.180 to 4.246. The other mi¬
neral, to which Klaproth has given the name of titamte,
is compofed of oxide of titanium, filica, and lime, near¬
ly in equal proportions. Its fpecific gravity is 3.510.
3. Titanium was obtained by Vauquelin, by re¬
ducing the native red oxide. He mixed together 100
parts of this oxide with 50 of calcined borax, and 50
of charcoal, formed into a pafte with oil ; and expofed
the whole to the heat of a forge raifed to 1660 Wedg¬
wood. By this procefs he obtained a dark-coloured,
I s T R Y.
agglutinated mafs, having a brilliant appearance on Titanium>
the furface. , ^
4. Titanium obtained in this way is of a reddilh ^
yellow colour, Aiming and brilliant on the furface, and Properties,
equally brilliant in fome of its internal cavities. Its
other properties, as it has been only procured in very
fmall quantity, have not been determined.
5. Titanium feems to be one of the moft infufible A&ion of
metals known. When the red oxide is expofed to heat,
heat in a crucible, it lofes its luftre. By the aftion
of the blow-pipe it is deprived of its tranfparence, and
becomes of a grayilh white colour. On charcoal it
becomes ftill more opaque, and of a flate gray. The
artificial carbonate of titanium, expofed to heat in a
crucible, lofes TVs- °f its weight, becomes yellow’,
and, as it cools, relumes its white colour. Is8o
6. Titanium enters into combination with phofpho-Phofphuret.
rus, and forms with it a phofphuret. This was pre¬
pared by Mr Chenevix, by expofing a mixture of
phofphate of titanium, charcoal, and a little borax, in
a crucible, to a very ftrong heat. The phofphuret
which he obtained was in the form of a metallic but¬
ton, of a pale white colour, brittle and granular, and
infufible by the aftion of the blow-pipe. Titanium
has not been combined with fulphur.
7. This metal enters into combination with theAffinitiea.
acids, and forms falts with them. The affinities of
the oxides of titanium, as they have been afeertained
by Lampadius, are in the following order.
Gallic acid,
Phofphoric,
Arfenic,
Oxalic,
Sulphuric,
Muriatic,
Nitric,
Acetic -f-. f Ann. He
8. In the experiments which were made by Vau-^'j^'
quelin and Hecht, to combine titanium with other 15S2
metals, they did not fucceed with Hirer, copper, lead, Alloys,
or arfenic j but they formed an infufible alloy with
iron, of a gray colour, interfperfed with yellow-co¬
loured, fhining particles.
(a) Another metal has been mere lately announced by Ekeberg, which, in fome of its properties, feems to re¬
ferable columbium. He obtained this metal from two minerals ; to one of which he gave the name of tantalite,
which is of a blackifh gray colour, with fome metallic luftre, and fome appearance of cryftallization. This mi¬
neral is very hard ; the fpecific gravity is 7.953. When reduced to powder, it is of a browniffi gray colour,
and is not attracted by the magnet. To the other mineral he gave the name of yttrotantalite. It was found in
fmall infulated maffes, in veins of feldfpar, and black mica. The fra&ure of this mineral is granular, of a gray
metallic appearance, and may be fcratched, although with difficulty, with a knife. It is not attra&ed by the
magnet. The fpecific gravity is 5.13. From thefe minerals this chemift extracted a fubftance, which he con¬
cluded to be a peculiar metal in the ftate of oxide, having the appearance of a white powder. The following
are the properties which he afeertained.
1. It is not foluble in any of the acids. 2. The alkalies attraft and diffolve a confiderable quantity of this
fubftance, which may afterwards be precipitated by means of the acids. 3. The whole oxide of this metal un¬
dergoes no change of colour by the aftion of heat. 4. Its fpecific gravity when it has been expofed to a red
heat is 6.5.^ 5. It fufes with phofphate of foda, and borax, without communicating to them any colour. 6. The
oxide of this metal, heated with charcoal powder, is reduced to the metallic ftate, exhibits a brilliant fra&ure, of
a dark gray colour. 7. It is again converted into a white powder by the aftion of the acids. The other pro- * Ann-de.
perties of this fubftance have not been detailed *. To this metal Ekeberg has given the name of tantaiium. Chi™(^u
CHEMISTRY.
623
'Titanium,
&c.
I. Salts of Titanium.
I. Sulphate of Titanium.
Halts. J According to the experiments of Klaproth, fulphu-
ric acid has no aftion on the native red oxide of ti¬
tanium from Hungary 5 but this acid found to dif-
folve the carbonate of titanium "with effervefcence ; and
when this folution is evaporated, the red oxide is con¬
verted into a white, opaque, gelatinous mafs. This
was the refult of Klaproth’s experiment. In thofe of
Vauquelin and Hecht, fulphuric acid being boiled
with carbonate of titanium, aflumed a milky appear¬
ance, and there were formed white, light Hakes, which
were diiTolved by a ftronger heat j the fluid became
tranfparent, but did not afford cryffals.
2. Nitrate of Titanium.
Nitric acid has fcarcely any perceptible aftion on
titanium, but it combines with the carbonate, and
forms a tranfparent folution, which affumes an oily ap¬
pearance in the air, and affords tranfparent cryftals in
the form of elongated rhombs, having the oppofite
angles truncated, fo as to reprefent hexagonal tables.
But according to Vauquelin and Hecht, when they
heated a mixture of nitric acid with carbonate of ti¬
tanium, nitrous gas was difengaged, and the liquid re¬
mained milky. Sugar added to the mixture caufes a
precipitate of the oxide, of a whiter colour than the
carbonate ; and if the nitric acid be employed diluted,
the oxide of titanium is diffolved, but the folution be¬
comes turbid by means of heat, and thus the addition
of caloric oppofes the combination of this oxide with
nitric acid, by oxidating it in a higher degree than
what is foluble in this acid.
3. Muriate of Titanium.
The carbonate of titanium is foluble in muriatic
acid j and according to Klaproth, the folution affords a
yeliowilh, tranfparent jelly, which contains numerous
tranfparent, cubic cryftals. Vauquelin and Hecht
found, that the carbonate of titanium is diffolved with
effervefcence in concentrated muriatic acid 5 and the
folution affumes a deep yellow colour, when it is made
without the afliftance of heat. When it was heated,
it was reduced to a flaky mafs, which was neither re-
diffblved by water, nor by new additions of the acid.
A fimilar folution which was not heated remained
tranfparent 5 but when this folution was expofed to a
temperature of about 170°, it was converted into a
yellow, tranfparent jelly, of an acid and very aftrin-
gent tafte, which, by cooling, depofited a great num¬
ber of fmall cryftals which efflorefeed in the air.
When this folution was boiled, oxymuriatic acid gas
was dilengaged, the oxide was precipitated, and is no
longer foluble in muriatic acid, till it is boiled for a
long time with nitric acid; from which it appears,
that the oxide of titanium muft have a great proportion
of oxygen, to combine with muriatic acid, and in this
flate it can only combine with it in the cold, becaufe
when it is expofed to heat, the acid carries off a por¬
tion of its oxygen, which renders it infoluble. The
oxide of titanium, feparated from muriatic acid by the
aftinn of the blow-pipe, affuroes a beautiful orange-
yellow colour.
4. Carbonate of Titanium.-
Uranium,
6cc.
One part of the red oxide of titanium, and five IrS^
parts of carbonate of potafti, expofed to a red heat in Prejfara-
a crucible, were foon fufed, and formed a folid mafstion.
of a whitith gray colour, with fmall needle-form ery-
ftals on the furface. When this was reduced to pow¬
der, and w aflied w ith warm water, there was-depofit¬
ed a light white powder, which was found to be car¬
bonate of titanium. The arfenic and phofphoric acids
caufe a white precipitate of the oxide of titanium from
its folution in acids. A fimilar precipitate is produced
by oxalic and tartaric acids j but it is inftantly re-dif-
folved, and the folution recovers its tranfparency. .
The oxide of titanium is precipitated from its folu- Salts of ti-
tion in acids •, I. By carbonate of potafli, in the form t&nium de-
of a white flaky matter, and by ammonia in the famecompofed'
way. 2. Prufliate of potalh caufes a copious precipi¬
tate of a mixed colour of green and brown. 3. Infu-
fion of nut-galls produces a very voluminous precipi¬
tate, of a reddilh brown colour j and if the lolution
be not too much diluted with water, it coagulates like
blood. A rod of tin introduced into a fmall bottle,
with a folution of this oxide in muriatic acid, eaufed
in a few minutes a pale rofe colour, in that part of the
folution near the rod. This colour foon changed to a
beautiful ruby. A rod of zinc firft produced a violet
colour, and afterwards that of indigo. 4. Sulphuret
of ammonia combined with this folution, produced a
pale green colour, and a precipitate of a bluifh
green.
Sect. VII. 0/ Uranium and its Combinations.
1. This metal wras difeovered by Klaproth in the Difcovery,
year 1789. It was then announced as a metal more
difficult to be reduced than manganefe, externally of
a gray colour, and internally of a clear brown, of con-
fiderable luftre, and middling hardnefs $ that it might
be fcratched and filed, and that its oxide gives a deep
orange colour to porcelain. ^ Q
2. It has been obtained from three different mine- Natural hw
rals. The firft is in the ftate of fulphuret, of a black-ftory.
ifh colour, and of a fhining fradfure, and fometimes
lamellated. This has been called fiitc/i blende. The
fpecific gravity is from 6.37 to 7.50. In this ftate it
is fometimes combined with iron and fulphurated lead.
The uranium is in the metallic ftate. The fecond ore
from which this metal is obtained, is the native oxide
of uranium. It is always in the ftate of yellow pow¬
der, on the furface of the fulphuret. The fpecific
gravity is 3.24. When it is of a pure yellow colour,
it is then a pure oxide. The third ore of the metal is
the native carbonate of uranium. Of this there are
two diftinft varieties, the one of a pale green, and
fometimes of a filvery white colour. This contains
but a fmall quantity of the oxide of copper, and i^
very rare. The other is of a fhining deep green,
which is the green mica or glimmer of mineralogifts.
Klaproth fuppofed that it contained an. oxide of ura¬
nium, mixed with the oxide of copper } but it has
been fince difeovered to have carbonic acid in its
compofition. It is eryftallized in fmall fquare plates,
and fometimos, though rarely, in complete odlahe-
dron=.
3. The.
'624
Uranium,
&c.
iS88
Analyfis of
the ore.
1S89
Properties.
IS9®
Aftion of
heat.
,S9I
Salts.
C H E M I
а. The nrocefs by which Klaproth reduced this me¬
tal, is the following. He mixed the yellow oxide of
uranium, precipitated from its folutions by an alkali,
with linfeed oil, in the form of a part©, and this bem'g;
expofed to a ftrong heat, there remained a black
powder, which had loft rather more than one-fourth
of its weight. It was then expofed to the heat of a
porcelain furnace, in a clofe crucible, and the oxide
was afterwanls found in a coherent mafs, but triable
under the fingers, and reduced to a black ftnning
powder. It decompofed nitric acid with effervelcence.
This black powder covered with calcined borax, was
for the fecond time expofed to a ftill ftronger heat, by
which a metallic mafs was obtained, confifting of very
fmall globules adhering together.
4. The colour of uranium is of a dark, gray, ana
internally of a pale brown. It has little brilliancy, on
account of the fpongy mafs, in which Hate it was ob¬
tained. It may be fcratched with a knife, and is ex¬
tremely infufible. The fpecific gravity is 6.440.
5. When uranium is expofe.d to a red heat in the
open air, or when it is a&ed on by the blow-pipe, it
undergoes no change. 1 he yellow oxide of uranium
does not melt. It acquires a . brownifti gray colour
when it is long heated in the air, but it has not been
afeertained whether it gains or lofes oxygen.
б. The oxide of uranium is reduced by means of
charcoal, when it is expofed to heat. Little is known
of the combination of Uranium with phofphorus; but
when the oxide was treated with blood, and a ftrong
heat applied, an acrid bitter mafs was obtained, which
was fuppofed to owe its fufibility to the phofphorus
which it contained.
7. Uranium has not been artificially combined with
fulphur, but it is not improbable that fuch a combination
might take place, fince it is found native in this ftate.
Of the alloys of uranium with other metals nothing is
yet known.
I. Salts of Uranium.
1. Sulphate of Uranium.
The yellow oxide of uranium is readily difiblved in
diluted fulphuric acid ; aud the folution affords, by
evaporation, a fait of a yellow colour, in the form of
fmall prifms. This fulphate of uranium is different
from all other metallic falts yet known, in colour, form,
and other properties.
2. Nitrate of Uranium.
Nitric acid diffolves with equal facility the oxide of
uranium. The folution being flowly evaporated,
yields large cryftals in regular hexagonal tables, of a
yellowifti green colour. The cryftals of nitrate of
S T R Y.
uranium are the moft beautiful of all the metallic Cobalt, ®
falts. . ^c* J J
3. Muriate of Uranium.
Muriatic acid alfo diffolves the oxide of uranium,
and funiifties fmall yellow cryftals, which are deli-
quefeent in Unfair.
4. Fluate of Uranium.
Fluoric acid combines with the oxide of uranium, and
forms with it a cryllailized fait, which is not altered
by expofure to the air.
5. Phofphate of Uranium. j i
Phofphoric acid enters into combination with the ox¬
ide of uranium, and forms with it yellowilh white flakes,
which are very little foluble in water.
6. Arfeniate of Uranium.
Arfenic acid may be combined with uranium, by
deoompofing the nitrate by means of an alkali. A pre¬
cipitate is obtained of a yellowifti powder, which is the
arfeniate of uranium.
7. Molybdate of Uranium.
In the fame way molybdate of uranium may be
obtained by adding a folution of molybdate of potalh
to the nitrate of uranium. It is obtained in the form
of powder.
8. Acetate of Uranium.
The oxide of uranium is foluble in concentrated ace¬
tic acid, w ith the affiftance of heat j and beautiful yel¬
low cryftals are obtained, in theiorm of long, flender,
tranfparent, four-fided prifms, terminated by four-fided
pyramids. . _ . ^ _ itoi
The folutions of the oxide of uranium in acids are Decj
precipitated by the alkaline fulphurets, of a brownifti tion of the
yellow, and their furface is covered at the fame time falls of u- i
with a gray metallic pellicle. The fixed alkalies pre-ranluro>
cipitate from their folutions an oxide of uranium, of an
orange yellow colour j ammonia occafions a precipitate
of a bright yellow j and the alkaline carbonates throw
down a carbonate of uranium of a whitifh yellow,
w hich is rediffolved in an excefs of alkali. The infufion
of nut-galls throw n into one of tbefe folutions, the ex¬
cefs of whofe acid has been taken up by an alkali, pro¬
duces a chocolate brown precipitate. Zinc, iron, and
tin, introduced into thefe folutions, produce no change
of colour, either in the cold or by heat.
Sect. VIII. Of Cobalt and its Combinations.
I. The mineral called cobalt, or cobolt, (b) feems
have
(b) The following curious information from Beckmann, with regard to the difeovery of this mineral will, we
doubt not, prove interefting to the reader. “ About the end of the 15th century, cobalt appears to have been dug up
in great quantity in the mines on the borders of Saxony and Bohemia, difeovered not long before that period.
As it was not known at firft to what ufe it could be applied, it was thrown afide as a ufelefs mineral. rlhe
miners had an averfion to it, not only beeaufe it gave them much fruitlefs labour, but becaufe it often proved pre¬
judicial to their health by the arfenical particles with which it was combinedand it appears even that the mineralo-
gical name cobalt then firft took its rife. At any rate, I have never met with it before the beginning of the
fixteenth century j and Mathefius and Agricola fisem to have firft ufed it in their writings. Frifch derives it
from
Cobalt,
8tc.
1594
Ores.
1595
I in^ylls of
| he ores.
C H E M I S T R Y.
62
have been firti employed to give a blue colour to glafs
after the middle of the 16th century j but it was not
till about the year 1732, that cobalt was diftinguiihed
as a peculiar metal by Brandt, a Swediih chemift, who
extracted it from its ore, and examined fome of its pro¬
perties. In 1761 Lehman gave a particular account
of the nature and properties of this fubftance ; but his
refearches were chietly limited to the mineral in the
Hate of ore. Bergman afterwards examined this metal,
and pointed out the difference between it and nickel,,
manganefe, and iron. The nature of it has been more
lately inveftigated by Taffaert and Thenard, and fome
other French chemifts.
2. Cobalt has never been found in nature in a Hate
of purity. It is either alloyed vdth arfenic, both me¬
tals being in the metallic Hate j.or it is combined with
fulphur and arfenic, or in the Hate of oxide, or form¬
ing a fait with arfenic acid. 1. In the firft ftate, when
it is alloyed with arfenic, it is of a gray or whitilh ap¬
pearance, w'ith fome degree of brilliancy. The fpeci-
fic gravity is 7.72. It is fometimes cryftallized in cubes,
or oftahedrons. When fmall fragments of this mine¬
ral are expofed to the aftion of the blow-pipe, or even
to the flame of a candle, they give out a garlic fmell.
2. The combination of fulphur and arfenic with cobalt
is denominated gray cobalt ore. The fpecific gravity
is from 6.33 to 6.45. The flru&ure is lamellated, and
when it is heated, it emits no garlic fmell. It cryftal-
lizes in octahedrons, dodecahedrons, and fome other
forms refembling the fulphuret of iron, with which it
is frequently combined. 3. The third fpecies of co¬
balt ore, is the oxide. It is found in black, friable
maffes, or in the ftate of a black efflorefcence, which
toils the fingers. This is a pure oxide of cobalt. 4. The
fourth fpecies is the arfeniate of cobalt, which has been
diftinguifhcd by the names of flowers of cobalt, cobalt
bloom. It is of a peach-bloffom colour, fometimes in
the ftate of efflorefccnce, fometimes in the form of fmall
needles of a deep colour, which remains even after they are
reduced to powder, and fometimes in four-fided prifms
terminated by two-fided fummits. When it is placed
on hot coals, it gives out a ftrong garlic fmell, lofes its
colour, and becomes black.
3. To procure the pure metal from the ores of co¬
balt, the oxide in the ftate of black powder, after be¬
ing roafted, is mixed with three times its own weight
of black flux and a little common fait, put into a cru¬
cible lined with charcoal, and expofed to a forge heat.
VVhen the fufion is completed, the crucible is to be
{lightly agitated, to colled together the metallic glo¬
bules into one mafs. Sometimes two metallic buttons
Vox.. V. Part II.
are found under the vitreous fcorise The cobalt oc¬
cupies the upper part, and the bifmuth being heavieft, (
is loweft. In this ftate the cobalt is almoft always
combined with a fmall portion of arfenic, nickel, or
iron. But if the cryftallized gray oxide of cobalt has
been employed, the metal is obtained very pure, by the
above procefs} and when the ore is rich, it yields from
60 to 80 per cent.
By a different procefs, cobalt may be obtained in
the metallic ftate, which confiits in treating the ore
with nitric acid, which oxidates and diffolves both the
cobalt and the iron. Thefe oxides are precipitated
by carbonate of foda, and well waflied with water.
They may be feparated by means of nitric acid, which
diffolves the oxide of cobalt, without touching that of
the iron.
Cobalt,
&c.
159^
4. Cobalt is of a gray colour, inclining to red, and of Properties
a very fine granulated texture. It is very brittle, fo of cobalt,
that it is eafily reduced to a fine powder, which is of a
gray colour, and with little brilliancy. The fpecific
gravity, according to Bergman, is 7.700 j according to
others, it is from 7.811 to 8.5384.
5. Cobalt is one of the moft inftifible metals, requir- Adlion of
ing a temperature equal to 130° Wedgwood. It be-heat*
comes red before it melts. When it is {lowly cooled,
and by pouring out a part of the fluid when it becomes
folid at the edges, the cavity is found lined with prif-
matic cryftals. The fame cryftallization may be effeft-
ed by inclining the crucible at the moment the furface
becomes folid.
6. When cobalt is expofed to a red heat in an open Oxidation,
veffel, it firft lofes its colour and its brilliancy, becomes
of a deep gray colour, and then paffes to a black, or an
intenfe blue. With a ftill more violent heat, this laft
oxide melts into a bluifti black glafs. It appears, from
the experiments of Thenard, that cobalt combines with
different proportions of oxygen, forming different oxides.
When a folution of cobalt in acids is precipitated by
an alkali, the precipitate which is formed is firft of a
lilach colour ; and with an excefs of bafe it becomes
fucceflively blue and olive, and at laft by drying it
becomes entirely black. Thefe different changes de¬
pend on the different proportions of oxygen with which
it combines.
He precipitated a folution of cobalt by pure potafli.
The oxide collefted on a filter, was blue, and when ex¬
pofed to the air it became of an olive colour 5 and when
waftred with oxymuriatic acid, it changed from green
to brown, and from this (hade to the deepeft black.
The black oxide diffolved with eftervefcence in muria¬
tic acid $ oxymuriatic acid gas was emitted in great
4 K abundance,
from the Bohemian word kow, which fignifies metal ; but the conjecture that it was formed from cobalus, which
was the name of a fpirit that, according to the fuperftitious notion of the times, haunted mines, deftroyed, the la¬
bours of the miners, and often gave them a great deal of unneceffary trouble, is probable 5 and there is reafon
to think that the latter is borrowed from the Greek. The miners, perhaps, gave this name to the mineral out of
joke, becaufe it thwarted them as much as the fuppofed fpirit, by exciting falfe hopes, and rendering their labour
often fruitlefs. It was once cuftomary, therefore, to introduce into the church fervice a prayer that God would
preferve miners and their works from kobolts and fpirits.”
“^Mathefius, in his tenth fermon, p. 501, where he fpeaks of the cadmia fo fills, fays : ‘ Ye miners call it
iobolt; the Germans call the black devil and the old devil’s whores and hags old and black Ca&e/, which by their
witchcraft do injury to people and to their cattle.’—Whether the devil, therefore, and his hags gave this name
tv cobalt, or cobalt gave its name to witches, it is a poifonous and noxious jnetah” J ^
626
Cobalt,
&c.
'$99
Oxides,
four.
* Awnal. de
Chim. xlii.
aic—215.
1600
Phofphu-
ret.
i(5oi
Sulphcuet.
15c 2
Salts.
C H E M I
abundance, and when the muriatic acid 'was concen¬
trated, the folution was of a green colour, which in the
fpace of 24 hours became purple. When the acid was
diluted, it became inftantly red. The oxide is foluble
in fulphuric and nitric acids, and the folution is of a red
colour, accompanied with the evolution of bubbles,
which feem to be oxygen gas.
The brown and coloured oxides produce with ful¬
phuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, fimilar effects with
the black oxide. With muriatic acid they both give
out oxymuriatic acid, and form a folution of a green
colour^ which in time paiTes to a purple 5 or, if the acid
be diluted with water, it becomes inftantly red. dhe
olive-coloured oxide is prepared by pouring potalh into
a folution of cobalt. There is formed a blue precipi¬
tate, ■which expofed to the air becomes green. If this
oxide be treated with diluted muriatic acid, oxymuria¬
tic acid is obtained with a flight degree of heat, and
the folution becomes more and more red, as this acid
is difengaged ; fo that the blue oxide combines with the
oxygen of the air.
The blue oxide of cobalt, Thenard thinks, is moft
conveniently obtained by calcining the black oxide for
half an hour in a cherry-red heat. It affumes a blue
colour, by being deprived of part of its oxygen. I his
oxide diffolves in acids, without the difengagement of
any gas. Its folution in concentrated muriatic acid is
green, but if the acid be diluted with water, it is red.
Thenard concludes from his experiments, that there are
four different oxides of cobalt 5 the blue, the olive, the
brown, and the black *, although he fuppofes that the
brown may be a mixture of the olive and black oxides *.
7. There is no action between azote, hydrogen, or
earbone, and cobalt.
8. Phofphorus enters into combination with cobalt,
by projecting bits of phofphorus on fmall pieces of co¬
balt, red hot, in a crucible. The metal is inftantly
fufed, and it abforbs about tT of its weight of phofpho¬
rus. A cruft is formed at the fame time on the furface,
of a violet-red colour. This phofphuret of cobalt has a
metallic luftre, is of a whiter colour than the metal it-
felf, and is more brittle. It lofes its brilliancy in the
air *, and by the action of the blow-pipe, phofphorus is
difengaged from the metallic globule, and inflames on
the furface. There remains behind a vitreous globule
of a deep blue colour.
9. Sulphur combines with difficulty with cobalt,
but the compound may be formed by the aid of the
alkalies. This metal is foluble in the alkaline fulphu-
rets, and the refult is a fulphuret of cobalt, of a yel-
lowith white colour, which is only decompofed by means
of the acids.
10. Cobalt enters into combination with the acids,
and forms falts. It forms alloys alfo with moft of the
metals. The order of the affinities- of cobalt and its
oxides, according to Bergman, is the following :
s T R Y.
Cobalt.
Cobalt.
Iron,
Nickel,
Arfenic,
Copper,
Gold,
Platina,
Oxide of Cobalt.
Oxalic acid,
Muriatic,
Sulphuric,
Tartaric,
Nitric,
Phofphoric,
Tin,
Antimony,
Zinc,
Phofphorus,
Sulphur,
Oxide of Cobalt.
Fluoric,
Saclaftic,
Succinic,
La6tic,
Acetic
Arfenic,
Boracic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
Cobalt,
&c.
1603
I. Salts of Cobalt.
1. Sulphate of Cobalt.
1. Concentrated and boiling fulphuric acid is decom-prepa^
pofed by cobalt, with the evolution of fulphurous acidtion.
gas. A thick, grayifti mafs, inclining to red, is form¬
ed. Water diffolves the fulphate of cobalt, and affords
a grayiffi- coloured liquid.
2. The fulphate of cobalt cryftallizes in fmall nee¬
dles, or four-ftded rhomboidal prifms, terminated by
two-fided fummits. It is of a reddiffi colour, and is Properties
foluble in 24 parts of water. It is decompofed by
heat, and there remains behind the black oxide of co¬
balt. By the aftion of the blow-pipe it fwells up
with effervefcence. The alkalies alfo decompofe it,
by precipitating a reddifh yellow oxide. One hun¬
dred parts of cobalt furniffi 140 parts of this precipi¬
tate by pure alkalies 5 but when the precipitation is
effefted by means of the alkaline carbonates, 160 parts
are obtained.
2. Nitrate of Cobalt.
1605
T. Nitric acid combines with cobalt, with the af-Prepara-
fiftance of a moderate heat. Nitrous gas is difengaged,tl0n*
the metal is oxidated, and is diffolved in the acid.
The folution is of a flelh-red colour, but when it is
concentrated, of a brown colour. By evaporation it
affords fmall reddifh-coloured prifmatic cryftals, which
are deliquefcent in the air, and which being placed on
red-hot burning coals, fwell up, and are decompofed,
leaving behind a deep red oxide.
2. It is by the precipitation of this felt, that theEnaaie}j,
oxide of cobalt is obtained for the purpofe of enamels,
and for giving a colour to porcelain. When the oxide
is precipitated by means of an alkali, it is re-diffolved
when the alkali is added in excefs.
3. Nitrate of Ammonia and Cobalt.
This triple fait was formed by Thenard by adding
to a folution of cobalt in nitric acid, ammonia in ex¬
cefs. No precipitate is obtained. This folution be¬
ing filtered and evaporated to drynefs, and the refidue
being diffolved in water, and again evaporated, yield¬
ed, on cooling, regular cubic cryftals of a red colour,
and of a pungent tafte. They were not changed by
expofure to atmofpheric air. Being calcined in a cru¬
cible, they burned like nitrate of ammonia, with a vi¬
vid, yellowiffi white flame. The refidue was a black
fubftance, which had all the properties of cobalt.
The folution of this fait in water is not precipitated by
any of the alkalies or earths. It is ftill more readily
decompofed by fulphurated hydrogen, or the hydro-
fulphurets. When it is boiled with potafh, ammonia
Cobalt,
&c.
Ann. de
'Jhitn. xlii.
jiiS-
1607
^epara-
' isn.
160S
feympathe-
;ic ink.
1609
Theories.
leio
Another
irocefs.
CHEMISTRY.
is difengaged j the oxide of cobalt is precipitated, and bines with the oxide, by mixing a Join lion of nitrate
a nitrate of potalh is formed *. of cobalt with a folution of borax.
627
Cobalt,
8tc.
4. Muriate of Cobalt.
1. Muriatic acid has no effeft on cobalt in the cold $
but a fmall quantity is diffolved with the afliftance of
heat. But the black oxide of cobalt is readily diflblv-
ed in muriatic acid. The folution is accompanied with
effervefcenci->i and the difengagement of oxymuriatic
acid gas. When this folution is concentrated by eva¬
poration, it becomes of a fine green colour, which
changes to red when it is diluted with rvater. By
farther evaporation it is cryftallized, and affords fmall
deliquefcent cryftals of muriate of cobalt in the form
of needles.
2. When thefe cryftals are diffolved in water, and
fo diluted that the folution is nearly colourlefs, cha¬
racters marked with it on paper difappear entirely :
but when heated, affume a fine green colour. This
folution was one of the firft known fympathetic inks.
In making experiments with this folution, the charac¬
ters are written on paper, or, that the experiment may
be more amufing, a landfcape is drawn with a pen¬
cil, reprefenting the verdure of fummer on a winter
fcene. Thofe parts of the picture in which the fym¬
pathetic ink has been ufed, are invifible in the cold $
but when it is moderately heated, they become of a
fine green colour, changing from the winter to the
fummer fcene. When it is removed to the cold, the
colour again difappears, and if too much heat be not
applied, the fame change may be frequently repeated.
When too much heated, the blue colour is converted
to a brown, which becomps permanent.
3. Various theories have been prepofed to account
for this remarkable change. According to fome, it
is owing to the moifture of the atmofphere being ab-
forbed that the colour difappears ; and when this is
driven off by heat, it is reftored. But to this opinion
it has been objeCled, that the fame effeCl is produced,
when paper, on which characters have been written
with this folution, is entirely excluded from the at-
mofphere, by being introduced into clofe veffels. Ac¬
cording to others, the fympathetic effeCt of this folu¬
tion depends on the iron which is combined with the
cobalt. Some fuppofe that the concentration of the
folution, which takes place by the aCHon of heat, is
the caufe of the appearance of the colour ; and its di¬
lution, by abforbing moifture from the atmofphere,
the caufe of its difappearance ; while others are of
opinion that it is partially deprived of its oxygen by
being heated, and abforbs it again in the cold, when
the colour vanifhes.
This fympathetic ink may be eafily prepared, by
diffolving the zaffre of commerce in nitro-muriatic
acid.
5. Fluate of Cobalt.
Fluoric acid diffolves the oxide of cobalt, and forms
with it a yellow-coloured gelatinous folution 5 or, by
careful evaporation, it affords cryftals, which are fluate
of cobalt.
6. Borate of Cobalt.
Boracic acid has no aftion on cobalt} but it com-
7. Phofphate of Cobalt.
Phofphoric acid diflblves the oxide of cobalt, and
forms with it a reddifti-coloured turbid folution,
which affords a precipitate when the acid is fatu-
rated.
8. Carbonate of Cobalt.
This fait is formed by precipitating cobalt from it^
folutions in acids, by means of alkaline carbonates.
One hundred parts of cobalt, which afford only 143
of precipitate by means of the pure alkalies, yield
160 parts, when the precipitate is effefted by carbo¬
nate of foda.
9. Arfeniate of Cobalt.
This fait is formed by combining the nitrate of co¬
balt w ith the arfeniate of potafh or of foda. It is fome-
times found native, and it exhibits the deepeft and moft
beautiful red of all the falts of cobalt.
10. Tungftate of Cobalt. '
I t. Molybdate of Cobalt. Tt .
12. Chromate of Cobalt. Unknown.
13. Columbate of Cobalt. 1
14. Acetate of Cobalt.
This fait is readily formed, by diffolving the oxide
of cobalt in acetic acid. It does not yield cryftals by
evaporating, but is deliquefcent in the air. It affumes
a blue colour when it is heated, but is red in the
cold, fo that it forms a fympathetic ink.
15. Oxalate of Cobalt.
This fait may be formed by precipitating the oxide
of cobalt from its folution in acids, by means of oxalic
acid. This precipitate, when it is dried, is in the
form of a red powder, which is infoluble in water, but
may be diffolved in excefs of oxalic acid, and crvftal-
lized.
16. Tartrate of Cobalt.
The oxide of cobalt is foluble in tartaric acid, and
forms a red-coloured folution, which affords cryftals
by evaporation.
II. Aflion of Alkalies, Earths, and Salts.
1. The alkalies have no a&ion whatever on cobalt; alkalies,
but w'hen the oxides are fufpended in water, they fe-
parate them from other matters. ^
2. Some of the earths, but particularly filica, enter Earti1S4
into combination with the oxide of cobalt and the fix¬
ed alkalies, and form a beautiful blue-coloured glafs.
The quantity of oxide mult be fmall, otherwife the
glafs will appear nearly black and opaque, on account
of the intenfity of the colour.
3. Some of the neutral falts expofed to a high tem-Salts,
perature along with csbalt burn with a perceptible
flame. It is by this means that the oxide is prepared
for the purpofe of enamels and colouring porcelain.
The hyperoxymuriate of potalh, with one-third of
its weight of cobalt in powder, detonates by percuf-
fion.
4 K 2
Cobalt
C H E M
Cobalt is fcareCy at ail employed in the metallic
flats. Zqffre is uied for coarfe enamels and pottery
ware. The purer oxides of cobalt are chofcn for the
purpofe of colouring porcelain. Azure. is a vitreous
blue in the ftate of tine powder, which is prepared for
flmilar purpofes. Zaffrc is fufed along v. ith liliea and
an alkali, and thus forms a deep blue glafs, which is
known by the name of frnalt. This is reduced to a
powder, and mixed with a great quantity of water. TL he
firfl; portion which precipitates is called coarfe. a%w e.
Four different quantities are feparated in this way.
The laft, which is the fineft, is called azure of four
tires.
Sect. IX. Of Nickel and its Combinations.
W'ih-frv^ I. The tirft mention which is made of this metal is
by Hierne, a Swedifh ehemift, in a work entitled 2/te
art of difeovenng metals, publilhed in 1694- _ He parti¬
cularly defenbes the mineral from which nickel is ex¬
tracted, and which was firft called kupfernickel, or fa fe
copper, becaufe it was taken for an ore of copper, and
none could be obtained from it. 1 his was the opinion
of Henckel and Cramer, whs fuppofed it to be copper
combined with arfenic or cobalt, ihis mineral was
generally arranged among copper ores, till it was ex¬
amined and analyzed by the celebrated Sweditn mine-
ralogift Cronftedt, in 1751, and 1754.. In thefe expe¬
riments, the account of which w as publilhed in the me¬
moirs of the Swedilh Academy, he proved that this
mineral contains a new metal, different from all thofe
which had been hitherto knowrn, to which he gave the
name of nickel. Tills opinion was generally adopted,
and obje&ed to only by Monet and Sage of France,
who affirmed that this new metal wras merely an alloy
©f cobalt, arfenic, iron, and copper. To remove thefe
differences of opinion with regard to this fubftance,
Bergman undertook an elaborate analyfis of the ores of
nickel, and an accurate examination of its peculiar pro¬
perties in the metallic ftate. His experiments were
detailed in a differtation which was publiflied in 1755,
The objeft of his refearches w'as, to afeertain if nickel
was a peculiar metal; and, from the refult of his expe¬
riments it appeared, that it did not contain the fmalleft:
trace of copper, but that it is generally alloyed with
cobalt, arfenic, and iron, from which indeed it can
fearcely be completely ftparated ; but that it poffeffed
peculiar and diftindl properties from the other metals ;
and thefe properties became more ftriking and charac-
;6i6 teriftic in proportion to its purity.
Ores. 2. Nickel is found in the ftate of fulphuret, when it
is called kupfernickel. It is of a reddifh yellow colour,
with little brilliancy, fomewhat fimilar to tarniihed
copper, with which, from its appearance, it is fre¬
quently confounded. This mineral foon lofes its bril¬
liancy in the air, becomes of a browniih colour, and
is covered at laft with greenifti fpots. It is found
forming veins in the earth, and is ufually combined
with arfenic, cobalt, and iron. Nickel has been
found alloyed w ith iron, when it is of a laminated tex¬
ture, and compofed of rhomboidal plates. The frefh
frafture is of a pale yellow, which becomes black by
expofure to the air. Nickel is alfo found native in
the ftatc of oxide, when it is of a bright green colour.
\6i~l
I S T R Y.
In this ftate it is generally on the furface of 'ulphuret
of nickel. Native nickel has alfo been found, accord¬
ing to Bergman, or at leaft with a very fmall propor¬
tion of fulphur, but combined with iron, cobalt, and
arfenic. He fays, too, that it exifts in combination
with fulphuric acid. _ „
3. To obtain nickel from its ores in the rtate of lul-Separation
phuret, they are firft roafted, by which means the ful-cf the me.
phur and arfenic are driven off. In iMs procefs thet£u-
mineral lofes one-third or one-half of its weight*, and in
proportion to the quantity of pure metal, which exifts
in the ore, it affumes a richer green. The roafted ore
is then mixed with two parts of black flux, put into a
crucible covered with muriate of foda, and expofed to
a forge heat, to bring it to fufion. When the appara¬
tus has cooled, there is found under the brown, black,
or blue fcorite, a metallic button, which amounts to
one-tenth, and fometimes to one-half, of the mineral
employed. . . . 161S
4. Nickel, in the pureft ftate in which it can be ob-properties,
tained, is of a yellowiftr white, or of a reddilh white
colour, with more or lefs luftre, and of a granulated
texture. The fpecific gravity is 9 according to Berg¬
man, but according to Guyton it is only 7.807.
man fpeaks of it as poffefling feme degree of du&ility j
but this, it is fuppofed, is owing to its alloy with iron,
which latter conftitutes | of its weight. It is alfo mag¬
netic, and this property has alfo been fuppofe-d to de¬
pend on the fame alloy. Nickel is a very infufible
metal, requiring a temperature equal to 150° Wedg¬
wood. Its power of conducing caloric has not been
afeertained, nor has its tafte or its fmell been recognized.
It has never been obtained in cryftals. nJt<^
5. When nickel is expofed to heat in an open veffel, A&ionof
it combines with oxygen, and affumes a brown colour jheat>
but this requires a very high temperature. - After long
expofure to the air, w-hen it is moift, and in the cold,
it becomes covered with an efflorefcence of a bright 1620
green colour, of a peculiar and diftinft (hade. It is this Oxide,
efflorefcence which is found on the furface of the native
fulphurets of nickel, the ftrade of which is fo re¬
markable, and fo different from that of copper, that
they can be eafily diftinguiftred. This oxide is com¬
pofed of
Nickel,
Oxygen,
77
23
100
6. There is no a&ion between nickel and azote,
hydrogen, or carbone } nor is it at all a£led upon by
v-ater. # 1621
7. Nickel combines with phofphorus, and forms with phofphur«i
it a phofphuret. This is prepared by decompofing
phofphoric acid in the ftate of glafs, which is done by
mixing phofphoric glafs, charcoal and nickel, and fufing
them together. Or it may be prepared, by projedting
bits of phofphorus on the metal, while it is red-hot, in
a crucible. It acquires an addition of one-fifth part to
its weight *, but it parts with a fmall portion of phof¬
phorus as it cools. The phofphuret of nickel is of a
more brilliant and purer white than the metal itfelt.
The texture relembles a colledtion of imall needles
heaped together. When it is heated under the hlow-
pipe.
CHEMISTRY.
629
Nickel, pipe, the phofphorus burns on its furface, and the me-
tal is oxidated. The component parts -of this phofphu-
Lj'i_0v2," ret, according to Pelletier, are,
ComP°fl- , Nickel, 83.3
^Aan. de Phofphorus, l6.6
Chim. xiii.   
»35-
Su'phuret.
1:624
Alloys.
1625
Salts.
1625
Affinities.
ICO.O *.
8. Nickel combines readily with fulphur, and forms
with it a lulphuret, which is fomewhat different in its
properties from the native fulphuret. It is hard, of a
yellowiih colour, and in fmall brilliant facets. When
it is ftrongly heated in the open air, it gives out lumi¬
nous fparks.
9. Nickel enters into combination with feveral of
the metals, and forms with them alloys *, the proper¬
ties of which are but little known. With cobalt and
arfenic it forms native alloys. The alloy with the lat¬
ter is of a reddilh colour, has no magnetic property,
is confiderably hard, and its fpecific gravity is lefs than
the mean fpecific gravity of the two metals.
10. Nickel enters into combination w ith the acids,
and forms with them falls, which are diftinguiihed by
peculiar properties.
11. The order of the affinities of nickel and its
oxide, as they have been afcertained by Bergman, is
the following :
without effervefcence. The folution lias a blackiffi ^^el»
green colour, which affords rhoraboidal, deliquefcent, i ' .'. .r
cryftals, that are decompofed by heat, and leave, after
being ftrongly calcined, and giving out oxygen gas,
a black oxide. When the nitrate of nickel is expofed
to a warm dry air, it is deprived of its water of cry-
ftallization, and even of its acid, 10 that there remains
behind only an oxide of the metal.
3. Nitrate of Ammonia and Nickel.
This triple fait is formed, by adding ammonia in e\--
cefs to the folution of nitrate of nickel. This fait is
of a green colour. It is obtained in cryftals by eva¬
poration. The folution does not become turbid by the
addition of alkalies, but the metal is precipitated by
hydrofulphurets *. * Ann. de
Chim. xlii.
4. Muriate of Nickel. 2Iy.
Muriatic acid diflblves nickel and its oxide flowly,
except with the afliftance of heat. The folution is
of a green colour, and affords irregular cryftals. The
muriate of nickel is decompofed by heat, and by ex-
pofure to the air.
5. Fluate of Nickel.
Fluoric acid diffolves the oxide of nickel with diffi¬
culty, and affords cryftals of a bright green colour.
1627
Prepara¬
tion.
1628
Propei ties.
Nickel.
Iron,
Cobalt,
Arfenic,
Copper,
Gold,
Tin,
Antimony,
Platina,
Bifmuth,
Lead,
Silver,
Zinc,
Sulphur,
Phofphorus.
Oxide of Nickel.
Oxalic acid,
Muriatic,
Sulphuric,
Tartaric,
Nitric,
Phofphoric,
Fluoric,
Saclaflic,
Succinic,
Citric,
La£lic,
Acetic.
Arfenic,
Boracic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
I. Salts of Nickel.
1. Sulphate of Nickel.
Concentrated fulphuric acid, with the affiftance of
heat, is decernpofed by nickel. Sulphurous acid gas
is difengaged, and there remains behind a gray mafs
foluble in water, to which it communicates a beautiful
green colour. By evaporating this folution, cryftals of
a pale emerald green are obtained, which arc fulphate
of nickel. The oxide of nickel is alfo readily diflolved
by fulphuric acid, from which alfo cryftals are obtained.
It cryftallizes in the form of fquare prifms, or in de¬
cahedrons, which are compofed of two four-fided pyra¬
mids, truncated at the fummits.
2. Nitrate of Nickel.
Nitric acid oxidates and diffolves nickel with the
aflifta&ce of heat. The oxide if diffolved by this acid,
6. Borate of Nickel.
The compound of boracic acid and nickel can only
be formed by double affinity, by adding the borate of
foda, for inftance, to a folution of nickel in acids.
7. Phofphate of Nickel.
Phofphoric acid has not a very ftrong affinity for
the oxide of nickel. The folution which is formed
is fcarcely of a green colour, and does not afford
cryftals.
8. Carbonate of Nickel.
Liquid carbonic acid, expofed to the contaft of nic¬
kel, did not appear, to Bergman, to combine w ith the
metal. But when nickel is precipitated from its folu-
tions by means of alkaline carbonates, the precipitate
acquires a greater weight than when the pure alkali is
employed j from which it is concluded, that part of the
carbonic acid has combined w ith the oxide.
9. Arfeniate of Nickel.
Arfenic acid forms with the oxide of nickel a green
faline mafs, which is obtained by precipitating the
oxide of nickel from its folution in acids, by means of
an alkaline arfeniate. The arfeniate of nickel is in
the form of powder, which is fcarcely foluble in water.
10. Tungftate of Nickel.
11. Molybdate of Nickel.
12. Chromate of Nickel.
13. Columbate of Nickel. _ '
Unknown.
14. Acetate of Nickel.
Acetic acid diffolves the oxide of nickel, and forms
a fait in rhomboidal .cryftals, which are of a deep green
colour.
: 5. Oxalate
*'3°
Manganefe,
See.
CHEMISTRY.
Oxalate of Nickel.
With the affiflance of heat, oxalic acid afls upon
nickel, and a pale green powder precipitates, ihis
fait is fcarcely foluble in water. It may be formed
alfo, by precipitating nickel from its folutions in ful-
phuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, by means of oxa¬
lic acid.
16. Tartrate of Nickel.
This fait, and the combinations of the oxide of nic¬
kel with the other acids, are unknown.
II. A£tion of Alkalies.
lf?2? The fixed alkalies diffolve the oxide of nickel, but
lies.C d ^ i"inaH quantity. They affume a yellow colour j
1630 but this oxide is very foluble in ammonia j the folution
Ammonia. 0f which is of a deep-blue colour, and of a peculiar
fhade. When it is evaporated, it precipitates in the
form of a blackifh brown powder, which pafies from
blue to green. Moft of the metals feparate the nic¬
kel from this folution.
III. A£Hon of the Earths.
1. Many of the earths, as filica and alumina, have
no a&ion on nickel ; but others, as barytes and ftron-
tites, convert the oxide in folution into an orange red.
If it contain arfenic or cobalt, the glafs, which is co¬
loured w ith nickel, becomes of a blue or violet colour.
2. The nitrates and the hyperoxymuriates very
readily decompofe the falts of nickel, and reduce it to
the ftate of oxide. With the boracic and phofphoric
falts it affumes a pale red colour. The nitrate of pot-
alh detonates feebly with nickel, but has the property
of detefting the fmalleft trace of cobalt, which could
not have been difeovered by any other reagent.
Ufes. So far as is known, this'metal has not bees applied
to much ufe. There is, however, little doubt, that it
might be employed for enamels, and for colouring
glafs, porcelain and pottery. Fourcroy obferves, that
it is probably employed in fome of the fecret procefles
of thefe manufaftures, as it is brought in confiderable
quantities from Saxony to Paris.
Sect. X. Of Manganese and its Combinations.
Iliftory.2 1' fubftance was long employed in the manufac¬
ture of glafs, which, on account of its property of de¬
priving glafs of its colour, was known under the name
of g/afsmaker's foa/) ; from its appearance it was called
Hack magnefa, or manganefe. But although it was
long employed in manufa&ures, nothing was known
of its intimate nature or conftituent parts. It was ge¬
nerally confidered as an ore of iron, becaufe it was
found fometimes combined with the oxide of this me¬
tal. By others it was arranged among the ores of zinc,
luppofing that it v’as fome combination of this metal.
To Bergman and Scheele we are indebted for the
firft accurate knowledge of its nature. Bergman,
in a difiertation which he publifhed in 1774, an¬
nounces it as a peculiar metal, on account of its
weight, its property of colouring glafs, and of afford¬
ing a white precipitate with the alkaline pruffiates.
Scheele, in the fame year, prefented to the academy of
Stockholm, a memoir, containing his refearches con¬
cerning the nature and peculiar properties of this mi- Manganefe,
neral. From thefe experiments he concludes that ^c.
this mineral is the oxide of a peculiar metal, totally
diilinft from all others. Gahn, the pupil of Berg¬
man, was the firft who obtained the metal in its pure
ftate, from the native oxide of manganefe. Flis ex¬
periments have been repeated by others, and the refults
of Scheele and of Bergman fully confirmed.
2. Manganefe is molt generally found in the flate of Ores. ^
oxide. Of this there are three principal varieties, the
white, the red, and the black. 1. The firft, or the
w hite ore of manganefe, contains the fmalleft proportion
of iron and of oxygen. Sometimes it is cryftallized.
This ore foon tarniffies in the air by abforbing oxygen.
2. The red ore of manganefe contains more iron than
the former. It is either friable, or hard as it is found
in carbonate of lime, on (hiitus, or accompanying ores
of iron ; or in lamellated maffes, radiated or cryftal¬
lized in pyramids, rhomboids, or in fliort brittle
needles. 3. The black or the brown ore is frequent¬
ly cryftallized like the red. It is alfo found in folid
maffes having a metallic or dull earthy appearance,
mixed with quartz and other ftony bodies. The fpeci-
fic gravity is 4.0. Manganefe has been found native
by Lapeyroufe in fome iron mines in France. It was
in the form of fmall, flattened metallic buttons, of a
lamellated texture. But it has been fuppofed that
the manganefe in this ftate is alloyed with iron. ,
3. Manganefe is procured in the metallic ftate by Separation
the following procefs. The native oxide of manga-of the me-
nefe is reduced to a fine powder, and formed into ata^
pafte with water. Part of it is then made into a
ball, and introduced into a crucible lined with char¬
coal. A thick ftratum of charcoal is placed at the
bottom of the crucible, and the ball of manganefe is
to be furrounded and covered with the fame fubftance,
and the crucible, which is inverted and luted to the
other, is to be filled with it. The whole is then to be
expofed te a very ftrong heat, not lefs than 1600
Wedgwood, for more than an hour. When the appa¬
ratus cools, the metal is found in the bottom of the cru¬
cible, or in the midft of the fcoriaj, in the form of glo¬
bules, w hich amount to nearly one-third of the manga¬
nefe employed. But if the heat has been too low, it
will be found in grains.
4. Manganefe is of a grayifh white colour, with Properties,
confiderable brilliancy, and of a granular texture.
The fpecific gravity is 6.850. It has neither tafte nor
fmell. In hardnefs it is equal to iron. It is one of
the moft brittle of the metals, and at the fame time
one of the moft infufible, requiring a temperature of
l6o° Wedgwood to melt it. When in the ftate of
powder it is often attrafted by the magnet, on account
of the iron, from which it can only be feparated with
great difficulty. _ ... 1636
5. When this metal is expofed to the air, it is foon Action of
tarniihed. It becomes gray, brown, and black, and uir.
at laft falls down into powder, which is found to have
acquired confiderable addition to its weight. But
wffien it is heated in the open air, it paffes more rapid¬
ly through the different changes of colour, in propor¬
tion as it combines with oxygen, to the abforption of
which thefe changes are owing. It appears, therefore,
that manganefe, like fome of the other metals, com¬
bines with different portions of oxygen, forming differ¬
ent
CHEMISTRY.
■639
[led.
1640
KTiite.
ent oxides. The black oxide, which is manganefe, com¬
bined with oxygen in the greateft proportion, is found
native in great abundance. The red oxide is fuppofed
to contain the oxygen in the next proportion. This
alfo exifts native, and it may be found by diftilling
the black oxide made into a pafte with concentrated
fulphuric acid in a retort to drynefs. It is deprived
of a great quantity of oxygen, which is given out in
the ftate of gas. The refiduum is then to be mixed
with wrater, which is to be filtered. This folution,
which is fulphate of manganefe, is of a red colour.
By adding an alkali, a precipitate is formed, which is
the red oxide of manganefe. The vdiite oxide is alfo
prepared by depriving the black oxide of part of its
oxygen. This is effe&ed by pouring nitric acid on
the black oxide of manganefe, with the addition of
fugar, which abforbs the oxygen and converts it into
the white oxide. The latter is then diffolved in the
acid, from which it may be precipitated by potalh.
The precipitate is in the form of a white powder.
The proportion of manganefe and oxygen in the
white and brown oxides of manganefe, according to
Bergman, and in the black, according to Fourcroy,
are.
631
of phofphorus on manganefe heated to rednefs in a cru- Manganefe,
cible. The phofphuret obtained by any of thefe proceffes,, ,
is of a white colour, of a granulated texture and brittle, * '
and much difpofed to cryftallize. It undergoes no
change by expofure to the air. It was covered with
an opaque, vitreous matter of a yellowilh colour. It is
more fufible than the manganefe itfelf. When it is ^
expofed to the action of the blow-pipe, the phofphorus I37.
burns, and the metal is oxidated *. 1643
9. Bergman failed in forming a compound with ful-Sulphvret,
phur and manganefe by direft combination. But he
fucceeded in combining fulphur with oxide of manga¬
nefe. Three parts of fulphur, and eight parts of the
oxide, expofed to heat in a glafs retort, formed a green-
ilh yellow mals, which eftervefced with acids, and emit¬
ted fulphurated hydrogen gas. Seheele has obferved,
that a part of the fulphur is converted into fulphurous
acid during the procefs.
10. Manganefe enters into combination with the Affinities,
acids, and forms falts with them. The order of the
affinities of the oxides of manganefe for the acids, ac¬
cording to Bergman, is the following :
Oxide of Manganese.
I itolphu-
White Oxide.
Manganefe, 80
Oxygen, 20
100
Brown Oxide.
74
26
100
100
1641
'urniihes
xygen.
When thefe oxides are expofed to the air, they abforb
oxygen, and pe again converted into the black oxide
with the greater proportion of oxygen.
6. It is from the black oxide of manganefe that ohe-
mills generally procure oxygen gas. The molt econo¬
mical procefs is that which has been already defcribed
in the chapter on oxygen. This is by expofing it to
a red heat in an iron bottle. The manganefe is redu¬
ced to the ftate of red oxide by being deprived of the
difference of the quantity of oxygen between the black
and the brown oxides. The fame manganefe may be
employed after it has been for fome time expofed to
the air, and occafionally moiftened with water. This
procefs, however, goes on much more flowly than is
generally fuppofed. We have kept feveral quantities of
manganefe, which had furniffied abundance of oxygen,
and had ceafed to give out more in a red heat, expofed
to the air for many months, and frequently moiftened
with water, but when it was again heated to rednefs,
it did not yield above TV part of the original quantity
from the native manganefe.
7. Manganefe does not enter into combination with
azote, hydrogen, or carbone. It is by means of
charcoal that the oxide of manganefe is reduced, by
being deprived of its oxygen; and what has been fup¬
pofed to be a compound of manganefe and carbone,
is a carburet of iron, or carbone combined with the
iron, with which manganefe is almoft always al¬
loyed.
8. Phofphorus combines very readily with manga¬
nefe. Pelletier formed the phofphuret of manganefe by
fufing a mixture of equal parts of manganefe in the
metallic ftate, and phofphoric glafs, with about £ part of
charcoal in powder ; or by fufing equal parts of the two
former without the charcoal 5 or by projecting fmall bits
Oxalic acid,
Citric,
Phofphoric,
Fluoric,
Muriatic,
Sulphuric,
Nitric,
SaclaCtic,
Succinic,
Tartaric,
LaCtic,
Acetic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
I. Salts of Manganefe.
I. Sulphate of Manganefe.
I. Concentrated fulphuric acid a£ts on manganefe,
even in the cold; but the aCtion is mere powerful if
the acid be diluted with two or three parts of water.
Hydrogen gas is given out, and there remains behind
in the liquid, a black, fpongy mafs, which is the car¬
buret of iron. The folution is eolourlefs, and it affords
by evaporation, tranfparent, colourlefs cryftals. Sul¬
phuric acid does not combine with the black oxide of
manganefe, till it is deprived of part of its oxygen, and
reduced to the ftate of red or white oxide ; but the acid
combines with either of the two latter oxides, forming
falts poffeffed of diftinct properties. There, are there-Two ffit-
fore, two fulphates of manganefe, which may be diftin-phates. ~
guiffied, from the colour of the bafe or oxide, by the
names of white and red fulphates.
2. White fulphate ofmanganefe.—This is the compound With the
of fulphuric acid and the white oxide of manganefe. ox“
This oxide combines with the acid without effervelcence ide*
and forms a colourlefs folution, which yields by evapo¬
ration, tranfparent rhomboidal cryftals, which have a
very bitter tafle. This fait is decompofed by heat j
the acid is driven off, and oxygen gas is given out. It
is decompofed alfo by the pure alkalies, and a precipi¬
tate
<5j2
CHEMISTRY.
1647
With the
Ted oxide.
Manganefe, tate is formed, of the white oxide of manganefe, which
8tc- faon becomes brown by expofure to the air, in confe-
quence of the abforption of its oxygen. The alkaline
carbonates precipitate a carbonate of manganefe, which
does not ablorb the oxygen from the air, and does not
become black like the former. It is the white ful*
phate of manganefe, which is obtained by diffolving
the metal in diluted fulphuric acid. In this procefs
the manganefe combines with the oxygen of the water,
tvhich is decompofed, and is converted into the white
oxide, which unites with the fulphuric acid, to form
the fulphate. The hydrogen of. the water is driven
off in the ftate of gas, fo that the fait formed in this
way, occafions an effervefcence. I his fait may alfo
be formed by diflblving the black oxide in fulphuric
acid, but in this cafe it is neceflary, as Scheele dif-
covered, to add fome vegetable matter, as fugar,
honey, or gum, to abforb the fuperabundant quantity
of oxygen, which prevents the folution of the manga¬
nefe in the acid. When, therefore, the black oxide is
reduced to the ftate of white oxide, by depriving it of
part of its oxygen, it combines with the acid, and
forms white fulphate of manganefe, as in the former
procefles.
3. Red Sulphate of Manganefe.—-li the black oxide of
manganefe be diftilled to drynefs with fulphuric acid,
diluted with half its weight of water, and if the refi-
duum be rvaihed with water, a reddiffr or violet-co¬
loured folution, which is the red fulphate of manga¬
nefe, is obtained. By evaporation it affords thin cry-
ftalline maffes, which have no regular form. Thefe
are alfo of a reddifli colour. The alkalies occafion a
red precipitate, which becomes black by expofure to
the air. This fulphate may be alfo formed by the di¬
rect combination of the red oxide with the acid.
Bergman has obferved, that the red oxide of man¬
ganefe is intermediate between the black and the
white 5 that it is more foluble in fulphuric acid than
the former, and lefs foluble than the latter ; that the
red forms a red-coloured fulphate, while the white
affords a colourlefs fulphate.
4. Sulphurous acid afts feebly or fcarcely at all on
manganefe •, but it diffolves the black oxide readily,
and without effervefcence. There is not formed, how¬
ever a fulphite of manganefe \ for the fulphurous acid
deprives the black oxide of a portion of its oxygen,
and thus converts it into a white oxide, while the acid
itfelf is converted into fulphuric acid. The white
oxide is then diffolved in the fulphuric acid, and forms
the white fulphate of manganefe.
2. Nitrate of Manganefe.
White 3 1 acid diffolves manganefe with effervefcence,
oxide. and with the evolution of nitrous gas. There remains
behind a black, fpongy mafs, which is carburet of
iron, and infoluble. The folution thus formed, is of
a dark colour, on account of the iron which it con¬
tains -y for it does not appear that the red oxide of
manganefe combines with nitric acid. The white ox¬
ide of manganefe diffolves very readily in nitric acid,
and without effervefcence, or the emiffion of nitrous
gas. This folution, if the oxide be pure, is colour¬
lefs. It does not afford cryftals, even by flow evapo¬
ration. The black oxide of manganefe cannot be dif¬
folved in nitric acid, but by long digeilion j but by
adding fome vegetable matters, as honey, fugar, oils,
or even fome of the metals,' to deprive the oxide of part gtc-
of its oxygen, the combination is effedted. Carbonic
acid gas, which is formed by the union of the car-
bone of the vegetable matters with the oxygen of the
manganefe, is given out during the procefs.
2. Nitrous acid diffolves the oxide of manganefe
much more readily than the nitric acid. No effervef¬
cence takes place, becaufe the oxygen of the manga¬
nefe combines with the nitrous acid, and forms nitric
acid, which latter combines with the oxide of man¬
ganefe, reduced to the ftate of white oxide ; and
thus there is formed, not a nitrite, but a nitrate of
manganefe.
3. Muriate of Manganefe*
1. Manganefe is diffolved with effervefcence, and with White ox.
the evolution of hydrogen gas, in liquid muriatic acid.^e.
The white oxide combines with the acid, whithout ef¬
fervefcence, and without the feparation of any gas,
becaufe it is fufftcicntly oxidated, to be diffolved in
this acid. The black oxide is diffolved with equal fa¬
cility in muriatic acid as in the other acids. In this
cafe an effervefcence takes place, with the difengage-
ment of oxymuriatic acid gas. The nature of this ac¬
tion is obvious. Part of the muriatic acid combines
with part of the oxygen of the manganefe, and forms
oxymuriatic acid, which is difengaged in the ftate of
gas. The black oxide is deprived of part of its oxy¬
gen, and converted into the white oxide, which lat¬
ter diffolves in the remaining part of the muriatic acid,
and forms a muriate of manganefe. This fait, being
a compound of the white oxide of manganefe and mu¬
riatic acid, may be called the while muriate of manga-
nefe. If any combuftible matter be added, the folu¬
tion of the black oxide of manganefe in this acid goes
on, without the production of oxymuriatic acid.
2. Oxymuriatic acid readily parts with its oxygen to
manganefe, which is thus converted into the white ox¬
ide. It combines alfo with the oxides of manganefe,
and forms folutions of a brown, red, or violet-colour,
which afford cryftals of the fame colour. There is,
therefore, a red muriate of manganefe.
It is from the black oxide of manganefe, that oxy¬
muriatic acid is obtained, either by adding to the
oxide muriatic acid, part of which combines with the
oxygen of the manganefe, and is converted into oxy¬
muriatic acid or, by adding fulphuric acid to a mix¬
ture of the black oxide of manganefe and muriate of
foda. The fulphuric acid decompofes the latter, and
the muriatic acid being difengaged, combines with
part of the oxygen of the manganefe, and forms oxy¬
muriatic acid.
4. Fluate of Manganefe.
Fluoric acid has little aftion on manganefe or its
oxides j but a fluate of manganefe may be formed by
double affinity, by adding an alkaline fluate to the
nitrate or muriate of manganefe. The fluate of man¬
ganefe thus formed, is not very foluble in water. Its
other properties are unknown.
5. Borate of Manganefe.
This fait may be formed in the fame way as the
former.
CHEMISTRY.
Mangasefe, foirner. It Is equally foluble in water, and its other
&c- properties are alfo unknown.
6. Phofphate of Manganefe.
A phofphate of manganefe may be formed in the
(ame way as the two former falts. It is not very fo¬
luble in water, and its other properties have not been
examined.
7. Carbonate of Manganefe.
633
takes place } the acid is partially decompofed, ear- Manganefe,
borne acid gas is evolved, and the folution at laft, ^-c’ ,
becomes colourlefs. 'v
16. Citrate of Manganefe.
Citric acid, in its combination with the black oxide
of manganefe, exhibits the fame phenomena as the
former.
17. Benzoate of Manganefe.
Liquid carbonic acid dilfolves a fmall portion of
inanganefe, as well as of its black oxide. When this
folution is expofed to the air, the oxide is gradually
precipitated, and appears on the furface in the form
of a white pellicle. Bergman has remarked, that dur¬
ing the combination of manganefe with carbonic acid,
there is evolved an odour fomewhat analogous to that
ef burnt fat.
8. Arfeniate of Manganefe.
Arfenic acid combines with the white oxide of man¬
ganefe, and forms an arfeniate. The arfenious acid,
or white oxide of arfenic, deprives the black oxide of
manganefe of part of its oxygen, and palfes to the Hate
of arfenic acid, and then combines with the manga¬
nefe, now reduced to the Hate of white oxide. When
the arfenic acid is nearly faturated with the oxide,
the folution becomes thick, and fmall cryftals make
their appearance. This fait, when heated, does not
melt, nor is the arfenic fublimed, without the addi¬
tion of charcoal.
9. Tungflate of Manganefe. *\
10. Molybdate of Manganefe. f TT ,
11. Chromate of Manganefe. ?U'*noi™.
12. Columbate of Manganefe. J
13. Acetate of Manganefe.
1650
'rocefs for Acetic acid diflblves part of the black oxide of man¬
sparating ganefe, but a&s very feebly on the metal itfelf. This
acid may be employed to feparate manganefe from
iron 5 for when it is added to a folution containing
both thefe metals, the acid combines with the manga¬
nefe, for which it has a ftronger affinity, and leaves
the oxide of iron. Several fucceffive folutions and
evaporations are necelfary to feparate the whole of the
iron, which is known when the folution becomes co¬
lourlefs, and when it affords a white precipitate with
pruffiate of potaffi. The folution of acetate of manga¬
nefe does not cryftallize, and when evaporated to dry-
Ann. de ne^s> ^ ^oon deliquefees *.
Up*1' 14* Opiate of Manganefe*
Oxalic acid forms a fait with the oxide of manga¬
nefe, which, when the folution is faturated, precipitates
in the form of white powder. It may be formed alfo
by adding oxalic acid to the fulphate, nitrate, and mu¬
riate of manganefe in folution.
15. Tartrate of Manganefe.
_ This fait may be formed by double affinity, by ad¬
ding tartrate of potafh to the folution ©f manganefe in
fulphuric or nitric acids. The black oxide of manga¬
nefe is diffolved in tartaric acid, and gives a black co¬
loured folution. When it is heated, an effervefcence
Vol. V. Part II.
Benzoic acid readily combines with the white
oxide of manganefe. By evaporation, cryffals in the
form of fmall feales are obtained, which are little aL
tered by expofure to the air, and are foluble in water.
II. Aftion of Alkalies on Manganefe.
. - . . l^ST
1. The pure alkalies favour the oxidation of man-Pure alka-
ganefe, and the decompofition of wrater, becaufe theylics*
combine readily with this oxide. In the dry way,
the fixed alkalies fufe with manganefe, and form a
mafs of a deep green colour, which is foluble in wft-.
ter, and communicates to it the fame colour. If
this folution be kept in a clofe veffel, there is preci¬
pitated an oxide of manganefe, of a yellowilh colour, and
the green liquid changes to a blue. Water precipi*
tates the alkaline folution, and converts it, firft to a
violet and then to a red colour. As the particles of
the oxide colleft together, the liquid becomes white.
The addition of a few drops of acid, on expofure to
the air, produces the fame precipitation and the fame
ffiades of colour, by oxidating the manganefe. The
white oxide of arfenic, or arfenious acid, added to this
alkaline folution, deprives it of the whole of its colour,
and renders it white, by Combining with the oxygen.
By adding charcoal to the oxide of manganefe which
has been fufed with an alkali, an effervefcence takes
place, with the evolution of carbonic acid, and the co¬
lour of the folution changes to a grayifh white. The
carbonic acid is here formed by the union of the car-
bone of the charcoal with the oxygen of the manganefe,
and this latter paffes to the ft ate of white oxide. On Mineral
account of thefe remarkable changes of colour, and the chameleon,
different {hades which this liquid, treated in various
ways, affumes, this compound has received the name of
mineral chameleon.
2. Scheele had obferved the change w hich ammonia Ammonia,
undergoes by the aftion of oxide of manganefe, in the
diftillation of this oxide with the muriate of ammonia.
He fufpe&ed that the ammonia was partially decom¬
pofed, and to this decompofition he aferibes the forma¬
tion of a gas, which he obtained by this procefs, and
which he found to be different from carbonic acid.
Berthollet has fliewn, that in this procefs, the hvdro-
gpn, leaving the ammonia which is decompofed, com¬
bines with the oxygen of the oxide of manganefe, and
forms water 5 and the azote, the other component part
of ammonia, is let at liberty.
A very intereffing experiment was contrived by Curknufex-
Dr Milner, which illuftrates the reciprocal aflion, and periment.
decompofitions of the oxide of manganefe and ammo¬
nia. He filled a tube with oxide of manganefe, ex¬
pofed it to a red heat, and made a ftream of ammo-
niacal gas pafs through it. The gas was decompofed,
and its azote combining with the oxygen of the oxide
formed nitrous gas,
4 k Some
/
*5j+
faifniuth,
&c.
i^5S
Colours
glafs.
1656
Ufes.
1637
•liftorv.
C H E M
Some of the alkaline falls have peculiar eSefts on
the oxides of manganefe and their compounds. Inc
1 fulphates have the property of deft toying the colour ot
.rials, which has been communicated by manganme }
but for this effeft a high temperature is neceffary. I he
nitrates readily burn this metal, and oxidate it ftrong-
]y. Melted nitre gives a violet or red colour to gla.s,
which has been rendered colourlcfs, hy reftonng to it
the oxygen of which it has been deprived by the funon
of the glafs. With the nitrate, of potalh and the
black oxide of manganefe, heated in a crucible to red-
nefs, a compound is formed, fimilar to that y.Lich. is
the refult of the dirett combination of the oxide with
the alkali.
The alkaline phofphates and borates fufed by means
of the blow-pipe, with the oxide of manganefe, produce
various colours, according to the degree of oxidation,
and the intenfity of the heat. ,
A white precipitate is formed, by adding hydroiul-
phuret of potalh to the falts of .manganefe, and ay el-
lowiih-white precipitate is obtained, by means of the
triple prufliate of potafti.
I S T R Y.
Ores.
1658
III. Aftion of the Earths on Manganefe.
There is no aftion between manganefe and any of
the earths ; but its oxide combines with them, and
forms vitreous matters, which are. of different colours,
according to the degree of oxidation of the manganefe,
and its mixture with iron. In general, thefe colours
are green, brown, black, or yellowilh green.
Manganefe and its oxides are of great importance,
both in chemiftry and in the arts. This muff be ob¬
vious, from the minute detail of its properties and com¬
binations, which has now been given.
Sect. XI. Of Bismuth and its Combinations.
1659
Analyfis
the dry
T. Blfmuth, it would appear, was knowm to the.an¬
cients, to the alchemifts, and fome of the earlieft rome-
ralogifts; but it was confidered merely as a variety of
fome other metal, and generally of tin and lead. Hence
it was diffinguiflied by the name of green tin, gray lead,
and white antimony. It w as not till the year 1753?
when its properties were particularly examined by Pott
and Geoffroy the younger, that it was afeertained to be
a peculiar metal. Darcet and Rouelle afterwards in-
ffituted a fet of experiments on this metal, and difeo-
vered more of its properties. Monnet and Beaume in-
veftigated its principal combinations at ftill greater
length •, and Bergman examined with more accuracy,
fome of its compounds and precipitates.
2. Bifmuth is found native in the ftate of fulphuret,
and in that of oxide. Native bifmuth is eafily diflin-
guifhed by its colour, brittlenefs, and fufibility. The
fulphuret of bifmuth is of a bluilh gray, fometimes with
a yellowiih fhade, and is in irregular maffes, or cryftal-
lized in the form of fmall prifms. It has a brilliant,
lamellated frafture. The native oxide of bifmuth ac¬
companies the metal, or is found on the furface of the
fulphuret. It is of a greenifh yellow colour.
3. Bifmuth is eafily extracted from its ores. The
mineral, after being reduced to powder, and well wafhed,
is mixed with about ^ of its weight of black flux, is put
~  0 7 JL
i:»to a crucible lined with charcoal, and well covered.
It is then expofed to a moderate heat, which muft be Bifmuth,
quickly applied, to prevent the metal from being fub-. _
limed/ By this procefs a metallic button is obtained.
In the humid way, the ore of bifmuth being reduced Humid
to powder, is difiblved in nitric acid, and precipi-way.
tated from this folution by water. If the native bif¬
muth be combined with any other metals, they remain
in the folution. The fulphuret of bifmuth is alfo dif-
folved in the fame acid by boiling. The fulphur is fe-
parated, as the metal, being oxidated,, combines with
the acid. The native oxide is treated in the fame w ay,
and is precipitated by water. . . . 1(:6t
4. Bifmuth is of a white colour, inclining to yellow,Properties,
exhibiting a texture compefed of large brilliant plates.
Its fpecific gravity is 9.822^ It has fcarcely either tafte
or fmell. By a violent ftroke of the hammer it is
broken, and divides into fmall fragments of a lamellated
ftru&ure ; the figure of its particles is the regular
ottahedron. It has confiderable hardnefs j and by ham¬
mering, its denfity may be xncreafed. It has very little
elafticity, and no dvfdtility. Bifmuth is very f'ufible.
When it is expofed to the temperature of 490°, ac¬
cording to Guyton, it melts j and, if after fufion, it be
allowed to cool flowly, it cryftallizes in parallelepipeds
which crofs each other at right angles. I his metal
cryftallizes more eafily and more regularly than any
other yet known. If the heat be long continued after
the fufion, and fufficiently ftrong ; ai d if the procefs be
conducted in clofe veffels, it fublimes, and attaches it-
felf to the upper part of the apparatus, where it cryftal¬
lizes in brilliant plates.
5. Bifmuth is but flightly affbaed by expofure to
the air in the cold. It lofes its brilliancy, and is co¬
vered with a fine powder of a yellowifh gray colour j
but, when it is heated in contabt with air, the furface
is foon covered with an iridefeent pellicle, which, by
agitation and continuing the heat, is converted into a
greenifh gray or brown-coloured oxide. It acquires
about TV of addition to its weight. By continuing
the heat, and occafionally ftirring the fufed metal, it
becomes of an orange-yellow colour, and acquires a
farther addition to its weight. If the metal in fufion
be expofed to a red her.t, it takes fire with a flight ex-
plofion, burns w ith a bluifti flame, and is fublimed in
the form of a yellowifh vapour, which, being condenfed
and collefted, is known under the name of flowers
of bifmuth. It appears then, that bifmuth combines tw0oxides’,
with oxygen in two proportions. I he firft, or the brown aul
fmaller proportion, is that of the brown oxide 5 and yellow,
the fecond is the yellow oxide or flowers of bifmuth.
6. There is no aftion between bifmuth and azote,phofphuret,
hydrogen, or carbone. It combines but in very fmall
proportion with phofphorus, forming a phofphuret.
When phofphorus is dropped into bifmuth in fufion, it
feems to unite with it, according to Pelletier, in the pro¬
portion of four parts in the hundred. But the proper¬
ties of the bifmuth are very little changed. 1664
7. Sulphur unites readily with bifmuth. When equalSulphuret.
parts of bifmuth and fulphur are heated together in a
crucible, the fufion of the metal is greatly retarded.
It requires a higher temperature than when the metal
is alone. 'I his fulphuret of bifmuth is of a fhining
dark gray colour, and cryftallizes by proper cooling
into needle-form prifms, {haded with fplendid blue and
deep-
a
CHEMISTRY.
t>35
Bifmutb,
1665
Alloys and
falts.
1666
Affinities.
deep-red colours: The cryftals are obtained by pier¬
cing the furface when it becomes folid after fufion, and
pouring out the liquid parts j a cavity is thus left in
which they are formed.
Sulphurated hydrogen gas occahons a dark colour
on the furface of bifmuth, and converts the oxides into a
deep black colour, which is the commencement of re¬
duction.
8. Bifmuth combines with many of the metals, and
forms alloys; but its combinations with the metals, al¬
ready defcribed, are little or fcarcely at all known. Bif¬
muth alfo combines with the acids, and forms falts.
9. The affinities of bifmuth and its oxides are arranged
by Bergman in the following order:
Bismuth.
Oxide of Bismuth.
Lead,
Silver,
Gold,
Mercury,
Antimony,
Tin,
Copper,
Platina,
Nickel,
Iron,
Sulphur.
Oxalic acid,
Arfenic,
Tartaric,
Phofphoric,
Sulphuric,
Muriatic,
Nitric,
Fluoric,
Saclaftic,
Succinic,
Citric,
LaCtic,
Acetic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
I. Salts of Bifrauth.
The folutions of bifmuth in the acids, and alfo the
horn other cryftallized falts which are obtained from them, re-
jtk>ns1C f°* ^emb*e each other, but differ from almoft all other me-
) n ' tallic folutions, as well as from all other falts} and
particularly in one circumftance, which is, that water
in fufficient quantity decompofes them, and precipitates
an oxide of bifmuth of a white colour. This (hows
that bifmuth is ftrongly oxidated by the adlion of the
acids, U which it adheres with no great affinity, and
that it Vanns with them compounds which are not
very permanent. It feems at the fame time remarkable,
that this metal ffiould be more oxidated in this way,
than by the ufual procefs of oxidation, by means of
heat, and by the aftion of water; and that it ffiould
have a white colour, while in the ufual way, it is of a
yellowilh gray.
1. Sulphate of Bifmuth.
Concentrated fulphuric aciV; has no adlion on bif¬
muth in the cold j but this metal decompofes the acid
at a boiling temperature. Sulphurous acid gas is dif-
engaged, and the bifmuth is oxidated, and converted
into a white powder If the heat be ftrong, fulphur
is fublimed. When the remaining mafs is waffied with
water, it carries off the remaining acid and a fmall
quantity of the oxide of bifmuth. The fplution by
proper evaporation, affords fmall foft needle-formed
cryftals, which are fulphate of bifmuth. This fulphate
is decompofed by water, which feparates a white
oxide.
1667
1 Different
2. Sulphite of Bifmuth.
Bifmuth,
Stc.
Sulphurous acid has no a£lion on bifmuth j but it
unites with its oxide, and forms a white fulphite which
is infoluble in water, and even in its own acid ; of a
fulphurous taffe j fulible by the blow-pipe into a red-
difli yellow mafs, which is reduced on charcoal into me¬
tallic globules j decompoled with eftervefcence by means
of fulphuric acid j giving out by dirtillation fulphurous
acid, and leaving behind a pure white oxide.
3. Nitrate of Bifmuth.
. 1. Nitric acid exhibits a very violent aftion with Violent
bilmuth. When the acid is a little concentrated, and adhion.
the bifmuth in the ffate of powder, there is a violent
effervefcence, with the evolution of nitrous gas. There
is at the fame time great heat produced. The biftnuth
is converted into white oxide at the expence of the
acid, and when the aftion ceafes, if no more acid be
added than what is neceffary to its oxidation, remains
dry‘
2. The nitric folution, thus prepared, is colourlefs, prepert9ies.
and affords cryftals by evaporation. It cryftallizes in
tetrahedral prifms, compreffed into obtufe three-fided
fummits. It has fometimes been obtained in flattened
rhomboidal parallelepipeds, fimilar to thofe of Iceland
cryftal. When this fait is thrown on red-hot coals,
it melts, boils, and frothes up ; exhales nitrous vapour,
and leaves behind a greenilh yellow oxide. It dries in
the air, and becomes moift when the air is humid.
When it is brought into contaft with water, it becomes
turbid, is decompofed, and a white oxide is precipita¬
ted. This decompofition is effefted with the nitric
acid, which is poured gradually into a large quantity
of water, ihe oxide which is thus obtained, was for¬
merly called magijlery of bifmuth. It is known in the
fliops by the name of pearl white. It becomes of a
deep gray, brown, or even black colour, when it is ex-
pofed to the adfion of fulphurated hydrogen gas.
4. Muriate of Bifmuth.
Muriatic acid has but a feeble a&ion on bifmuth. Prepara-
It is neceffary to affift its action, that the acid be con-tion.
centrated, and long digefted with the metal, or diftil-
led oft' it in the ftate of powder. During the procefs,
a fetid odour is emitted, which is owing to the decom¬
pofition of water, its oxygen combining with the metals,
and the hydrogen being fet at liberty. By evaporat¬
ing this folution, fmall needles of muriate of bifmuth
are obtained 5 but only in very fmall quantity ; for the
greateft part of the oxide of bifmuth is . feparated by
water. The muriate is fublimed by heat into a thick,
folid, fuftble matter, which was formerly called butter
of bifmuth. It is deliquefeent, and may be decompofed
by water, which feparates a very fine white oxide.
Oxymuriatic acid readily diffolves bifmuth, and
forms with the oxide which is previoufly produced, u
fait fimilar to the preceding.
5. Fluate of Bifmuth.
6. Borate of Bifmuth.
Thefe two falts may be formed by adding a fluatri
or borate of . an alkali to a folution of nitrate of bif¬
muth. A white precipitate is formed of the fluate or
, 4 L 2 borate
635 CHEMISTRY.
Bifmutb, borate of blfuiutli j but liltle is known ol their pioper-
Slc- ties.
18. Succinate of Bifmuth.
Aiitrmor.y,
8tc.
y. Phofphate of Bifmuth.
This fait is formed by combining the acid with the
oxide of the metal, when precipitated by an alkali.
The phofphate of bifmuth is in the ftate of an mlolubie
■white powder.
8. Carbonate of Bifmuth.
This fait may be formed by precipitating the oxide
of bifmuth from its folution in acids, by means oi an
alkaline carbonate.
9. Arfeniate of Bifmuth.
Arfenic acid afts upon bifmuth with the affiftance
of heat. A white powder appears on the furface oMhe
metal, and the oxide is precipitated from the folution,
by adding water. The arfeniate of bifmuth may be
formed by adding arfenic acid to a folution of the ni¬
trate of bifmuth. The arfeniate of bifmuth falls to the
bottom in the form of precipitate.
Unknown.
10. Tungftate of Bifmuth.
11. Molybdate of Bifmuth.
Muriate of bifmuth is precipitated, if there be no
excefs of acid, by molybdic acid. The molybdate of
bifmuth, thus formed, is of a white colour.
1 z. Chromate of Bifmuth. 1 unk.noWn.
13. Columbate of Bifmuth. y
14. Acetate of Bifmuth.
This fait may be formed, by adding a folution of ace¬
tate of potalh to a folution of nitrate of bifmuth. A
precipitate of acetate of bifmuth is formed. The addi¬
tion of acetic acid to the nitrate of bifmuth, Guyton
ebferves, prevented the latter from being precipitated
by means of water.
Succinic acid combines with the oxide of oinnutn, at
a boiling heat. By evaporating the folution, cryftals
of fuccinate of bifmuth are obtained, in the form of
plates, and of a yellow colour.
II. A61 ion of Alkalies, Earths, and Salts, on Bif¬
muth.
1671
15. Oxalate of Bifmuth.
Oxalic acid combines with the oxide of bifmuth,
and forms with it a fait in the ftate of white powder,
which is fcarcely foluble in water. Oxalic acid added
to nitrate of bifmuth, occaftons a precipitate in the form
of fmall tranfparent cxyftals, which are oxalate of bif-
muth.
16. Tartrate of Bifmuth.
Tartaric acid added to the folution of bifmuth in any
of the mineral acids, precipitates the oxide in the form
of a white powder, which is the tartrate of bifmuth, and
is infoluble in water.
17. Benzoate of Bifmuth.
Benzoic acid combines readily with the oxide of
bifmuth. The folution, by evaporation, affords cry¬
ftals in the form of needles. They undergo no change
by expefure to the air, are foluble in water, and de-
compofed by fulphuric and muriatic acids. This fait
is alfo decompofed by heat, which drives off its
. acid.
1. Scarcely any thing is known of the a6li0n of the Alkalies,
alkalies on bifmuth. Ammonia, it is faid, communi¬
cates to it a yellow colour, and the oxide of bifmuth is
foluble in ammonia in the liquid ftate. .
2. The oxide of bifmuth combines by fufion, with ft- silica,
lica, to which it communicates a greenifh yellow co-
l°ur' . r 1 r 1
3. Bifmuth is not changed by the a6hon of the lul-Salts.
phates or fulphites. It is oxidated by the nitrates.
When it is ftrongly heated, and thrown into a red-hot
crucible with nitrate of potalh, it detonates feebly,
and without much inflammation. It is reduced to the
ftate of oxide, of which one part combines with the
potafti. Bifmuth has no a&ion on muriate of ammo¬
nia, but its oxide very readily decompofes this fait.
In the cold, it difengages a little ammonia, by Am¬
ple trituration •, but when expofed to heat, it is total¬
ly decompofed, and there remains a muriate of bif-
xnuth‘ ... /■ r.r 1674
4. Bifmuth is applied to a great many ules. It terms ufes>
fome important alloys with the fofter metals, to give
them hardnefs and confiftency. The oxides of bif¬
muth are of ftill more extenftve utility. It is employ¬
ed in this form by the manufa6turers of porcelain, for
the preparation of yellow enamels, and it is mixed
with other oxides, to give variety oi (hade to their co¬
lours. It is fometimes employed in the fabrkation of
coloured glaffes, to communicate a greenifh yellow.
The white oxide, which is moft commonly employed
for thefe different purpofes, is alfo employed as a paint
for the fkin, under the name of pearl white ; but it is
extremely improper for this purpofe, for befides the in¬
jury which it does to the fkin, it becomes black, when
it is expofed to the a6tion of fulphurated hydrogen gas^
It is fometimes ufed alfo, to give a black colour to the
hair.
Sect. XII. Of ANTIMONY and its Combinations.
I<?7£
1. It does not appear that the ancients were ac-Hiflory.
quainted with antimony as a diftin6l metal, although
it is fuppofed that it was employed by them in alloys
of other metals. It is faid, that they, were acquainted
with the oxide of antimony, and that it was employed
as an external remedy in inflammation of the eyes.
As a peculiar metal it was not certainly known till
the time of Baftl Valentine, who lived about the end
of the 15th century. In his work, entitled Currvs
Triumphalis Antimonii, he has detailed all that was
then known of this metallic fubftance, and he has par¬
ticularly deferibed the procefs by which it is extra6led
from its ore.
No fubftance has been more the fubje61 of invefti-
gation than antimony, and on no fubjeft, perhaps,
has there been fo much written. The alchemifts re¬
garded antimony as peculiarly appropriate to the ob-
jedt
.
Antimony,
&c.
1675
Ores.
1677
^nalyfis.
1678
-'ropsfties.
C H E M
jecl of their refearches. Their labours on this fubjeft
were almolt incredible ; and indeed this is fcarcely to
be wondered at, fmce it appears that they were infpired
with the hope of making, by its means, the fortunate
difcovery of the univerial medicine. It was therefore
tortured and tried in every poflible way, to obtain the
objeft of their refearches 5 and on this account it is al-
moft impoflible to reckon up the number of medicinal
preparations which were propofed and employed with
this metal and its ores. It is owing to thefe views and
refearches, concerning antimony, that its nature and
properties are now fo fully known.
2. About the end of the 17th century, Lemery pub-
lifhed a treatife, which was the firft correct and ra¬
tional account of antimony. In this he arranged and
detailed the difcoveries of his predeceffors, and added
fome of his own, with a number of curious experiments
and accurate procefles for many of the preparations ©f
antimony and its fulphuret. Mender afterwards pub-
lifhed a very complete hiitory of all the fadts that were
then known concerning antimony 5 and it has been
fince examined by more modern chemiits} among
whom Bergman, Scheele, Berthollet, Prouft, and The-
nard, are the principal writers on this fubjedt.
3. Antimony exiftsin nature in four different Hates:
In the ftate of native antimony, that of fulphuret, hy-
drofulphuret of the oxide of antimony, and muriate.
Native antimony is eaffly diftinguiffied by its colour
and brilliancy. It has been found in Sweden and in
France. The moft common ore of antimony is the
fulphuret, which is of a grayiffi colour, and ftains the
fingers. It is fometimes cryftallized in fquare prifms,
which are (lightly rhomboidal, and terminated by four-
fided pyramids. The hydrofulphurated oxide of anti¬
mony is in ihining filaments, of a deep red colour, dif-
pofed in rays going from a common centre, adhering
t© the furface or cavities of the fulphuret. The xiuriate
of antimony, which is a rare production, is of a brilliant,
pearly-white colour, in the form of fmall divergent nee¬
dles, fomewhat refembling radiated zeolite.
4. To obtain the pure metal from the fulphuret of
antimony, the ore is firft roafted, to feparate the greateft
part of the fulphur. It is then mixed with its own
weight of black flux, formed into a pafte with oil,
and expofed to a ftrong heat in a crucible, at the bot¬
tom of which the metal is found reduced. By a ftiorter
procefs, eight parts of fulphuret of antimony, fix of
tartar, and three of nitre, reduced to powder, and well
mixed, are projefted in fmall quantities into a red-hot
crucible. At each projeftion there is a ftrong detona¬
tion j the tartar forms, by means of the nitre, a black
flux, and the fulphuret being burnt, the metal is fufed,
but not oxidated, on account of the charcoal of the tar¬
tar with which it is furrounded, and the liquid alkali
which covers it. The whole is then fufed in a conical
iron pot *, and, when it is cool, the metallic antimony
is found at the bottom, marked on its furface with
needle-lhaped cryftals, arranged in the form of a ftar.
5. Antimony, in a ftate of purity, is of a brilliant
white colour, having a good deal of refemblance to
that of filver or of tin. It has a lamellated texture,
compofed of plates which crofs each other in all di¬
rections. It exhibits fometimes perceptible traces of
cryftallization. The form of the cryftals, which was
difeovered with difficulty by Hauy, ou account of its
I s T R Y. 637
complicated ftruCture, is the octahedron, compofed of
a great number of regular tetrahedrons. Antimony, ^ ,
has a verv perceptible tafte and Imell, and particular¬
ly if it is rubbed for fome time on the hands. '1 he
fpecific gravity is 6.70?. It is very brittle, fo that it
can be reduced to powder, which is of a grayiih white
colour. > 1677
6. Antimony undergoes no change by being expo-Aiflion of
fed to the air, nor is there any perceptible aCtion be-water,
tween antimony and water in the cold ; but when
water comes in contaCt with antimony red-hot, it is
inftantaneoufly decompofed, and accompanied with a
violent detonation, and a very brilliant white flame.
Accidents of this kind have happened, attended with x
confiderable danger. 1680
7. When antimony is heated to the temperature of of heat.
8o8°, it melts. If the heat be continued after its fu-
fion, it is fublimed, and if the procefs be performed in
clofe veffels, it is condenfed in ffiining cryftallized
plates. If it be allowed to cool flowly, and part ol it
be poured off when the furface becomes folid, the ca¬
vity is lined with pyramidal cryftals, compofed of fmall
oftahedrons. _ I5gI
8. When antimony is kept in fufion in.the. open oxides,
air, it riles in the form of white vapour, which is pre¬
cipitated on the furface of the metal, or upper part of
the crucible, and cryftallizes in long prifms, or in fmall,
white, brilliant needles. This is an oxide of antimony,
which was formerly called argentine Jlowers, or /now of
regulus of antimony. By this procefs it is found, that
the antimony has acquired an addition of weight of a-
bout 50 per cent. This oxide may be obtained, by ex-
pofing the antimony in a crucible to a white heat, and
then by fuddenly agitating it in contaft with air, it
takes fire with a kind of explofion, and burns with a ■
white light.
Thenard, in his refearches concerning antimony,
diftinguilhes fix different degrees of oxidation of this
metal. But in a memoir on the fame metal by Prouft,
he confiders that the oxides of antimony may be redu¬
ced to two. According to the experiments of this
chemift, too parts of antimony treated with nitric
acid in a retort, uniformly afford 130 of a yellow
oxide in the ftate of powder. It is reduced to 126 by
waffling with water before drying it, becaufc<the nitrie
acid diflolves a fmall proportion. This oxide is not re¬
duced by being expofed to a red heat, but it is fublimed,
and condenfed in clofe veffels, in groups of cryftals.
It is infoluble in water. It is the fame oxide which was
formerly diftinguilhed by the name of argentine flowers.
The component parts of this oxide, according to Prouft,,
are,
Antimony, 77
Oxygen, 23
100 *
The oxide with a fmaller proportion of oxygen, is
formed by diffolving antimony in muriatic acid j and
by adding water to the folution, a white powder is
precipitated, which being w allied, is feparated from
any acid that may adhere to it. To purify it ftill
more, it is to be boiled with carbonate of potalh, and
afterwards waftied, and dried on a filter. This oxide is
of a yellowilh white colour, and has little brilliancy; it
* your, dir
Phyf. Iv.
P- 333*
jnelts>
<53S C H E M
Antimony, melts at a moderate red heat, and when it is allowed
to cool, it cryftallizes on the furface. The cry Hals
* ' v are of a yellowilh white colour, which are thrown to¬
gether in heaps, in a radiated form. This oxide was
formerly known by the name of powder of algaroth.
Its component parts are,
Antimony 81.5
Oxygen 18.5
de I OO.O*.
Phyjique,
Iv.'p. 330. 9. There is no aftion between antimony and azote,
1682 hydrogen, or carbone.
Pbofnhuret. 10. Antimony enters into combination with phof-
phorus, and forms with it a phofphuret. Equal parts
of phofphoric glafs and antimony are fufed together
in a crucible, or with the addition of of charcoal,
or by projedting pieces of phofphorus on the metal in
fufion in a crucible ; and thus a phofphuret of anti¬
mony is obtained. The phofphuret has a metallic
luflre, is brittle, and has a lamellated fradlure. When
it is placed on burning charcoal, it melts, gives out
a fmall green flame, and is converted into the white
oxide of antimony, which is fublimed.
11. Antimony combines very readily with fulphur,
and forms with it an artificial fulphuret, which is ex-
adtly fimilar to the native fulphuret. It is formed by
mixing the antimony and the fulphur together, and
fufing them in a crucible. This fulphuret is of a
brilliant gray colour, is more fufible than the metal
itfelf, and by flow cooling, may be obtained in cryflals.
The component parts of the fulphuret, according to
Prouft, are.
1 S T R Y.
Antimony.
16S3
Sulphuret
Antimony,
Oxygen,
1684
75-1
24.9
100.0
t Ibid. Iv
P- 33°-
168 5
Affinities.
Antimony.
Iron,
Copper,
Tin,
Lead,
Nickel,
Oxide of Antimony.
Muriatic acid,
Oxalic,
Sulphuric,
Nitric,
Tartaric,
Silver,
Bifmuth,
Zinc,
Gold,
Platina,
Mercury,
Arfenic,
Cobalt,
Sulphur.
Oxide of Antimony.
Sacladtic,
Phofphoric,
Citric,
Succinic,
Fluoric,
Arfenic,
Ladlic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
Antimonv
&c.
Oxides writh 12. The yellow oxide of antimony combines with
fulphur. different proportions of fulphur, and forms compounds
of different colours, and which were formerly diftinguiih-
ed by different names. With eight parts of the oxide
and one part of the fulphuret, a red-coloured, femitranf-
parentmafsis obtained, which w as formerly called g/afs
of antimony. When two parts of fulphuret are added
to eight parts of the oxide, a yellowiflr mafs is formed,
which was known by the name of crocus metallorum.
Six parts of oxide and one of fulphur, form a dark red
opaque mafs, with a vitreous fradlure, W'hich is the true
liver of fulphur. In thele combinations, the fulphur
deprives the oxide of part of the antimony, and com¬
bines with it, forming a fulphuret. This fulphuret then
combines with the oxide-f.
13. Antimony enters into combination with the
acids, and forms falts. It alfo forms alloys with many
of the metals. The affinities of antimony and of its
oxides are, according to Bergman, in the following
order: . 6
I. Salts of Antimony.
1. Sulphate of Antimony.
Sulphuric acid has no adlion on antimony in the
cold. At a boiling temperature the acid is decompof-
ed \ fulphurous acid gas is emitted with effervefcence,
and if difiilled in a retort to drynefs, fulphur is fublim¬
ed. There remains a white oxide of antimony. If
this mafs be w affied with water, the acid rvhich adheres
to it is carried off, w ith a fmall portion of the oxide j
and w hat remains is the w hite oxide, which is infoluble.
By adding a large quantity of water to the folution,
the oxide which it had carried oft’ is precipitated ; but
this folution being evaporated yields no cryftals. It is
decompofed by the earths and the alkalies, which pre¬
cipitate a white oxide. Sulphuric acid, therefore, oxi¬
dates antimony, but does not feem to hare the property
of forming a fait.
2. Sulphite of Antimony.
Sulphurous acid, with the affiftance of heat, is de¬
compofed by antimony. The metal is oxidated, and
there is formed a fulphite of antimony. This falt*may
be alfo obtained by adding fulphurous acid to the fo¬
lution of antimony in muriatic acid. A white preci¬
pitate appears, which is infoluble, of an acrid, bitter
tafte, and is decompofed by heat. When it is diftilled
in clofe veffels, it yields a little fulphurous acid, then
fulphuric acid, and the refiduum is a reddilh brown
mafs, which'is foluble in fixed alkali, and may be preci¬
pitated by means of muriatic acid, into a hydrofulphu-
ret of antimony.
3. Nitrate of Antimony.
Nitric acid is rapidly decompofed by antimony, even
in the cold. There is evolved a great quantity of ni-
trous gas, and fometimes the rapidity of the oxidation is
fnch, that it is accompanied with adlual combuftion.
The water alfo is partially decompofed. The anti¬
mony is converted into a w hite oxide. The hydrogen
of the water combines w ith the azote of the acid, and
forms ammonia, which combines with part of the nitric
acid, and the compound is nitrate of ammonia. The fmall
quantity of oxide of antimony which is diffolved in nitric
acid, is precipitated by water, fo that it adheres very
llightly to the acid.
4. Muriate of Antimony.
Muriatic acid afts on antimony very feebly. By di‘-
gefting the metal with the acid for a long time, it 'dif-
folves a fmall quantity, and the folution becomes of a
yellowilh. colour. The white oxide is moie foluble in
this
Antimony, this acid, and forms with it a colourlefs folution. The
k-c‘ firft iolution yields cryftals by evaporation, in the form
^ |'mau nce(]teSj which are deliquefeent, and fublimed
by heat, and are precipitated and decotnpofed by water.
The folution formed with the oxide is fixed in the fire,
and cryftallizes in brilliant plates. It is alfo decom-
pofed by water. Muriatic acid diffolves more readily
the fulphuret of antimony, for it does not require the
aid of heat. There is difengaged a flrong odour of
fulphurated hydrogen gas. When the mixture is heat¬
ed, the whole of the metal is diffolved.
Nitromuriatic acid dilfolves antimony more readily
than any of the acids which have been mentioned.
This folution is colourlefs. The muriate of antimony
which remains after the evaporation, by being diflil-
led, comes over of a thicker confiftence, in proportion
as it is concentrated. The muriate of antimony was
formerly called butter of antirnoru/. It is of a grayilh
white colour, and fometimes cryitallizes in four-fided
prifms. It is deliquefeent in the air, and extremely
cauftic and corrofive. When it is diluted with water,
a white powder is precipitated, which is the powder of
algaroth.
5. Fluate of Antimony.
6. Borate of Antimony.
Fluoric and boracic acids have no aflion on antimo¬
ny, but combine with its oxide, or precipitate it from
its folution in acids, in the form of white powder, form¬
ing a fluate or borate of antimony.
7. Phofphate of Antimony.
Phofphoric acid combines with the oxide of anti¬
mony. The folution, by evaporation, yields a blackilh
green mafs.
8. Phofphate of Lime and Antimony.
.ames's This triple fait is formed by calcining together
owder. equal parts of fulphuret of antimony and the afhes of
bones; or, according to the procefs recommended by
Pvlr Chanevix, by diffolving white oxide of antimony
and phofphite of lime in equal parts in muriatic acid j
and then by adding this folution to a fufficient quanti¬
ty of diftilled water, which contains pure ammonia.
A precipitate is formed in the ftate of white powder.
This powder is nearly infoluble in water. It has been
long known as a diaphoretic and emetic, under the
name of James'ls Powder. According to the analyfis
of Dr Pearfon, it is compofed of
CHEMISTRY.
11. Molybdate of Antimony,
639
Antimony,
&c.
Phofphate of lime,
Oxide of antimony,
43
57
100
9. Carbonate of Antimony.
Unknown.
10. Arfeniate of Antimony.
By digefting together arfenic acid and antimony,
a white powder is obtained, which is arfeniate of anti¬
mony. Muriatic acid diflblves this powder, but it may
be feparated by adding water. This fait may be form¬
ed alfo, by adding an alkaline arfeniate to the folution
of antimony in muriatic, tartaric, or acetic acids.
Muriate of antimony is precipitated by molybdic
acid j and if the acid be not in excefs, the precipitate
is white.
12. Acetate of Antimony.
Acetic acid dilfolves a fmall portion of the oxide of
antimony, and according to fome, yields fmall cryltab.
The acetate of antimony has been employed as an
emetic.
13. Oxalate of Antimony.
Oxalic acid combines with the oxide of antimony,
and the folution affords cryftals in the form of fmall
grains, which are fcarcely foluble in water.
14. Tartrate of Antimony.
Tartaric acid alfo combines with a fmall portion of
the oxide of antimony, and affords a fait which affumes
the form of a jelly.
15. Tartrate of Potafh and Antimony.
This triple fait was formerly prepared by boiling to¬
gether the preparation of what was called cfocus me- 16S7
tallorum, and tartar, in water. But if the white oxide Tartar
be mixed with its own weight of tartar, and the mix- en;ietic'
ture boiled in 10 or 12 parts of water, till the tartar
be faturated, and the folution filtered and evaporated,
cryftals are obtained, which are cryftals of the tartrate
of potalh and antimony, which have been long and bet¬
ter known by the name of tartar emetic. This fait is
of a white colour, and it cryftallizes in regular tetrahe¬
drons. It efflorefees by expofure to the air, and is fo¬
luble in 80 parts of cold, and in half that quantity of
water at the boiling temperature. When it is expofed
to heat, it is decompofed. It is alfo decompofed by
the alkalies and their carbonates.
According to the analyfis of Thenard, this fait is
compofed of
Antimony, 38
Acid, 34
Potalh, 16
Water, 8
96, lofs 4. *
^ AnnaL
Chim.
This fait has been greatly employed as a diaphore-xxxvil-
tic and emetic, from which property it has derived itsP"
name. An account of the mode of preparing a fimilar
powder, which, it is faid, was invented by an earl of
Warwick, and became famous in Italy as a powerful
and effectual medicine, was publiftied in Italy, in the
year 1620. The preparation of tartar emetic itfelf
was firft publiftied in 1631.
16. Benzoate of Antimony.
Benzoic acid combines with the oxide of antimony,
and, by evaporating the folution, cryftals are obtained.
This fait is not altered by expofure to the air, but it is
readily decompofed by heat.
II. Aftion of Alkalies, &c. on Antimony.
1. All the alkalies have a peculiar aftion on the-Alkalies
fulphuret of antimony. Sulphuret of antimony and
pohfti
640
CHEMISTRY.
Antimony, potafli form a preparation wliicli is known by the name
^ r t of leer me s mineral, a name which it derives, from the
red animal called kertnes. 1 his is prepared in the dry
way, by mixing together one part of fulphuret oi anti¬
mony and two of potaih, and in proportion to the
quantity of fulphuret, add a lixtcenth part of fulphur.
Fufe the mixture in a crucible, and pour it into an
iron mortar. When it is cool reduce it to powder,
and boil it in water •, filter the liquid, and as it cools,
a reddilh brown powder is depofited. Wafli the preci¬
pitate, firft with cold, and then with boiling water, till
it comes off infipid. It may be prepared in the humid
way, by boiling 10 or 12 parts of pure liquid alkali
with two of fulphuret of antimony, for half an hour,
and then filtering the liquid j the kermes is depofited
as it cools.
The compound which is firft formed, is a hydroful-
phuret of potafh and antimony. When boiling water
is added in fufficient quantity, the whole is diffolved,
but the folution becomes turbid in cooling, and di¬
vides into two parts j the one, which is depofited
in the form of a reddifh brown powder, is the kertnes
mineral, and the other, which remains in folution,
containing a fmaller proportion of fulphur and oxide
of antimony than the former, has been diftinguifhed
by the name of golden fulphur. The caufe of the re¬
paration is, that the alkali, if it is not in great quanti¬
ty, cannot hold the fulphurated oxide of antimony in
folution while it is cold. What remains in folution af¬
ter the fpontaneous precipitation, contains a greater
proportion of fulphur, and lefs of the oxide of anti¬
mony. When an acid is added to this folution, ano¬
ther precipitate is formed, which is of an orange yel¬
low colour, from the greater proportion of fulphur,
and on this account has been called golden fulphur.
Kermes mineral, or the hydrofulphuret of antimony,
according to Thenard, contains the following propor¬
tions.
Brown oxide of antimony,
Sulphurated hydrogen,
Sulphur,
Water and lofs,.
72.760
20.298
4.156
2.786
100.000
* Ann- de
Chim. xxnii.
p. 277.
1689
Earths
From the analyfis of the fame chemift, the golden
fulphur, or fulphur auratum, is alfo a hydrofulphuret,
having a greater proportion of fulphur, and a fmaller
proportion of the oxide. The component parts are the
following.
Brown oxide of antimony 68.300
Sulphurated hydrogen, 17-§77
Sulphur, 12.000
98.177 *
2. The oxide of antimony has the property of com¬
bining with fome of the earths during their vitrifica¬
tion, and communicating to them different fhades of
colour, more or lefs yellow and orange.
5 3. Moft of the faltg have a peculiar aftion on anti¬
mony or its fulphuret. By fufmg in a crucible two
parts of fulphuret of potalh and one of antimony, the
metal difappears, and a vitreous mafs of a yellow co¬
lour is formed, which has a cauftic property. JMf-Tellurium,
folved in hot water, it affords, on cooling, a hydroful- . ^c.
phuret of antimony. The antimony has carried off the ~’ T
oxygen of the acid, and combined in the ftate of oxide,
with the fulphuret of potafti, which is formed by the
fulphur of the acid uniting with the potaih during the
procefs.
The nitrates have a powerful a£tion on antimony
and its fulphuret. A mixture of two or three parts
of nitrate of potalh and one of antimony in fine pow¬
der, well rubbed together in a mortar, produces a
lively detonation, by throwing it on burning coals, or
projefting it into a red-hot crucible, or heating it to
rednefs in a clofe veffel. This detonation is accom¬
panied with a bright white flame : and the antimony
is ftrongly oxidated by the oxygen of the nitre, which
is decompafed, and reduced to its alkaline bafe. The
refiduum of this detonation is a white fcorified mafs,
which being waftied with v’ater, leaves a portion of
the oxide of antimony united to a fmall quantity of
potalh, and affords befide another compound, with
more of the alkali. The white matter which is firft;
depofited, has been called wafbed diaphoretic antimo¬
ny. The water which remains holds in folution a por¬
tion of metallic oxide, united to the potalh of the
nitre. The oxide in this cafe performs the part of an
acid. This compound has been found fufceptible of
cryftallization. It is decompofed by acids, and the pre¬
cipitate from it, which is an oxide of antimony, has
been diftinguilhed by the names of cerufe of antimony,
magiftery of diaphoretic antimony, and pearly matter of
Kerkringius.
When equal parts of nitre and fulphuret of antimony
are treated in the fame way, a vitrified mafs is obtain¬
ed, fimilar to what has been already deferibed, by the
name of liver of antimony.
III. Alloys.
Antimony enters into combination w ith the metals,
and forms alloys with them, fome of which are of con-
fiderable importance. But the alloys of antimony,
with the metals already deferibed, are either little
known, or have been applied to no ufe. The alloys of
cobalt and nickel, with antimony, have not been ex¬
amined. With manganefe antimony forms but an im-
perfeft alloy, and the compound of antimony and bif-
muth is very brittle. . 1.691
Befides the various preparations of antimony ufed in Ufes of an.
medicine, which are now comparatively but few intimony•
number, it is much employed in many arts. In the
metallic ftate it is of the greateft importance as an al¬
loy with other metals which will be afterwards men¬
tioned. In the ftate of oxide, it is much ufed in the
fabrication of coloured glafs, and of enamels for pot¬
tery and porcelain } particularly in forming different
{hades of brown, orange, and yellow colours. The
oxide is mixed with different other metallic oxides, to
produce various {hades of colour.
Sect. XIII. Of Tellurium and its Combinations.
1692
1. In theyear 1782, Muller of Richeaftein, in exnmi- Hiftory
ning a gold ore, diftinguilhed by the names of aurum
paradoKum and aurum problematicum, conjectured that
it
CHEMISTRY.
64.1
Tellurium, it contained a peculiar metal. Bergman, to whom
&c- this mineralogift had fent a fpecimen of the mineral,
,L_ T could not, from the fmall quantity which he had re¬
ceived, ascertain whether it was really a new metal,
or merely antimony, with which it poffeffes fome com¬
mon properties. He inclined, however, to the former
opinion. This mineral w'as analyzed by Klaproth in
the end of the year 1797, the account of which was
publiihed in 1798. By this analyfis the conjefture of
Muller was verified, and to the new metal Klaproth
gave the name of tellurium..
2. This metal has been found in four different mine¬
rals. Firft, in that in which Klaproth firft detefted it,
which is called white gold ore, a mineral found in the
mountains of Fatzbay in Tranfylvania., In this mi¬
neral the tellurium is combined with iron and gold.
The fecond is what is called graphic gold ore, which
is compofed of tellurium, gold, and filver. The third
is known by the name of yellow gold ore of Nagyag.
This mineral contains, befides tellurium, gold, filver,
and a little fulphur. The fourth is a variety of the
lafl, and is denominated gray gold ore. Befides the
metals in the former, it contains a little copper. To
obtain the metal from the ore, a quantity of it is flight-
ly heated with fix parts of muriatic acid, and having
added three parts of nitric acid, it is then boiled. A
confiderable effervefcence takes place, and the whole
is diffolved. The folution being diluted with diftilled
water, is mixed with a folution of cauflic potafh, to
diffolve the precipitate 5 and there remains only a brown,
flaky matter, formed of the oxides of gold and iron.
The alkaline folution of the oxide of tellurium is mix¬
ed with muriatic acid, to faturate the potafh, and there
is depofited a copious, very heavy, white powder. By
forming this powder into a pafte with oil, and heating it
to rednefs in a fmall glafs retort, the metal is obtained,
partly fufed and cryftallized at the bottom of the retort,
*693 and partly fublimed at the upper part.
I roperties. ^ Tellurium is of a white colour, fomewhat refem-
bling lead, and has a cor fiderable luftre. It is very brit¬
tle, and may be eafily reduced to powder. It has a
lamellated texture, fimilar to antimony. By flow cool¬
ing it affumes a cryftalline form, efpecially on the fur-
face. Its fpecific gravity is 6.115. It is one of the
molt fufible of the metals, and when heated in clofe
veffels, it boils readily, and is fublimed in the form of
brilliant globules, which adhere to the upper part of the
1694 veffels.
•ftion of 5. When tellurium is heated by the a&ion of the!
s*t. blow-pipe on charcoal, it burns, after being melted,
with a lively flame, of a blue colour, and green at the
edges. It is entirely volatilized in the form of a gray-
ifli white fmoke, diffufing a fetid odour, which Klaproth
compares to that of radifhes.
The oxide of tellurium is very fufible. By heating
it in a retort, a yellow, ftraw-coloured mafs is obtained,
which affumes a radiated texture on cooling. When
the oxide is heated on charcoal, and furrounded with it,
it is fo rapidly reduced, that it is accompanied with a
1S95 kind of explofion.
ulphuret. 6. Tellurium enters into combination with fulphur,
and forms with it a fulphuret. This fulphuret is of a
grayilh colour, of a radiated ftru&ure, and is eafily
cryftallized.
Vol. V. Part II.
I. Salts of Tellurium,
I. Sulphate of Tellurium.
One part of tellurium mixed in the cold, in a clofe
veffel, with IOO parts of concentrated fulphuric acid,
communicates to it a beautiful crimfon colour. By ad¬
ding water drop by drop to this folution, the colour va-
nilhes, and the metal is depofited in the form of black
flakes. When the folution is heated, the colour alfo dif-
appears, and the oxide of tellurium is gradually precipi¬
tated in the ftate of white powder $ but, when diluted
fulphuric acid is employed, with the addition of a fmall
quantity of nitric acid, a larger portion of tellurium is
diffolved. The folution is tranfparent and colourlefs,
and is not decompofed by adding water.
Tfclluriuuo
6cc.
2. Nitrate of Tellurium.
Nitric acid readily diffolves tellurium, and forms a
tranfparent, colourlefs folution, which being concen¬
trated, fpontaneoufly affords fmall, light, white, needle-
ftiaped eryftals, difpofed in a dendritical form.
3. Muriate of Tellurium.
Nitromuriatic acid very readily diffolves tellurium,
which is precipitated by adding a confiderable quantity
of water in the form of oxide. This is a white powder,
which is foluble in muriatic acid.
The infulion of nut-galls added to folutions of tellu¬
rium in acids, occafions a flaky precipitate, which is
of a yellow colour.
II. Aftion of Alkalies and Earths.
1. All the pure alkalies precipitate the folutions of tel- Alkalies,
lurium in acids, in the form of white oxide. With an
excefs of alkali the precipitate is re-diffolved. With the
alkaline carbonates a precipitate is obtained, which is
much lefs foluble in excefs of alkali.
2. The alkaline fulphurets added to folutions of tellu¬
rium in acids, produce a brown or black precipitate, as
the metal is more or lefs oxidated. This precipitate
fometimes refembles the hydrofulphurets of antimony.
The hydrofulphuret of tellurium thus formed, expofed
to heat on burning coals, burns with a fmall blue flame,
and is volatilized in white fmoke. No precipitate is
formed by the prufliate of potalh.
3. The aftion of the oxide of tellurium with the earths Earths/
is not known j but from its great fufibility, it has been
fuppofed that it is fufceptible of forming a vitreous
matter with the earths, and communicating to them a
ftraw colour.
III. Aftion of Metals.
The alloys of tellurium are unknown. j(^g
Tellurium is feparated from its folutions in acids, byprecipita-
zinc and iron, in the form of fmall, black flakes, which ted hy zinc
may be reduced to the metallic ftate on burning charcoal,an<* h«n.
or even by Ample friftion. Antimony caufes a fimilar
precipitation in a folution of nitrate and fulphate of tel¬
lurium. Tin produces a fimilar effeft.
Tellurium has hitherto been found in fuch fmall Ufes.
quantity, that it has not yet been applied to any ufe.
Were it found in abundance, it has been fuppofed,
from its eafy fufibility, that it might be'of confider¬
able importance in fome of the arts.
4 M Sect.
- 1 - r •
642
Mercury,
C H E M I
&c. ’ Sy.ct.'XMI. Of MERCURY and its Combinations.
1700
Hiftory.
1701
Ores.
1. Mercury appears to liave been known from tne
earlieft ages. By comparing its properties with filver,
and being in the fluid Bate, it has been called qmck-
Ji/ver. Mercury was long the fubjeft of the refearches
of the alchemifts, with the view of difcovering the me¬
thod of tranfmuting it iijto gold or filver. It was fup-
pofed to approach fo near to thefe metals, particularly
to the latter, in its nature, that all that was wanted for
this tranfmutation, was to fix it, or bring it to the folid
Bate. In confequence of the numerous experiments to
which it was fubje&ed, and the great variety of
forms it affumed, they regarded it as the principle of
all other bodies, and one of the elements of nature.
It was fuppofed to exift in all metals, and alio to form
one of die component parts of many bodies. Hence,
according to this theory, there were two kinds of mer¬
cury ; the one the principle of a great number of
bodies, and the other common mercury, or the metal
known by that name. Hence, according to Beecher,
it was called the mercurial principle, or the mercurial
earth. But however extravagant the refearches of the
alchemifts may now be coniidered to have been, it is to
their labours that chemiftry is indebted for the know¬
ledge of many important properties and combinations of
this metal.
2. Mercury is found in four different Hates. In
the metallic ftate, alloyed with other metals, combined
with fulphur, and with muriatic acid. 1. Native or
virgin mercury is found in the cavities or clefts of
rocks, in ftrata of clay, or of chalk, in the form of
liquid globules, which are eafily diftinguilhed by their
brilliancy. 2. It is found more frequently alloyed with
other metals, or, as it is called when mercury is com¬
bined with a metal, amalgamated, and moil frequently
w'ith filver. 3. A frequent ore of mercury is the red
fulphuret, which is known by the name of cinnabar.
The fulphuret of mercury is of various colours, from
vermilion red to brown. Sometimes it efflorefces on
the furface of the om, when it is called flowers of cin¬
nabar, or native vermilion. 4. The fourth ore of this
metal is the muriate. This fait is white and brilliant,
and of a lamellated ffnuffure.
3. Native mercury is frequently alloyed with other
metals 5 it is therefore of importance to be able to af-
certain the proportions. For this purpofe it is to be
diffolved in nitric acid. If it contain gold, this metal
remains in a ftate of powder at the bottom of the veffel.
If alloyed with bifmuth, it may be precipitated with
water, which does not feparate the oxide of mercury.
Silver is detected by precipitating the folution by means
of muriate of foda. The muriate of filver and the mu¬
riate of mercury fall down together •, but the latter be¬
ing more foluble in water than the former, may be eafi¬
ly feparated.
The fulphuret of mercury may be decompofed by
boiling it with eight times its weight, of a mixture of
three parts of nitric, and one of muriatic acid j the me¬
tallic part is diffolved, and the fulphur remains in the
1703 ftate of powder.
To difeaver It may be known whether mercury has been a-
its purity, dulterated with other metals, by its dull and lefs
brilliant luftre, and by its foiling the hands, or white
1702
Analyfis.
S T R Y.
bodies on which it is rubbed, and by its dividing with Mercury,
more difficulty into round globules, which appear flat, ^
and uneven, adhere to the veflels in which they are
agitated, and when poured along a fmooth furface, by
their dragging a tail. Mercury is alfo impure, when
the globules do not readily run together, and when it
is agitated with water, feparating from it a black pow¬
der. _ 1704
To procure mercury in a ftate. of purity, or to re- Purifica-
vive it, as it is called, two parts of. cinnabar and onetlon*
of filings of iron are well triturated together, and di-
ftilled in an iron retort, introducing the beak of the re¬
tort into a receiver, with w'ater. The iron has a great¬
er affinity for the oxygen and the fulphur of the
mercury than the latter. The mercury, therefore,
rifes in vapour, and is condenfed by the water. There
remains in the retort a fulphuret of iron, in which the
metal is a little oxidated. The mercury thus obtain¬
ed, being dried and paffed through a (kin, is very pure
and brilliant.
4. Mercury is of a white colour, is one of the moft properties,
brilliant of the metals, and when its furface is clean
and not tarniffied, makes a good mirror. Next to gold,
platina, and tungften, it is the heavieft of the metals ;
its fpecific gravity is 13.568. It has no perceptible
tafte or fmell.
5. At the ordinary temperature of the atmofphere
mercury is always in the liquid ftate j but when it is
expofed to a degree of cold equal to -—39° ^ becomes
folid. This was firft difeovered in the year 1759 by
the academicians of Peterlburgh. Similar experiments
have fince been frequently repeated. In X772» PaUas
fucceeded in the congelation of mercury at Krafnojark,
by a natural cold equal to —554-° Fahrenheit. Mer¬
cury was alfo congealed by a natural cold in *775
Hudfon’s bay. The freezing of mercury is now a com¬
mon experiment by means of artificial cold, and the
method of producing this has been already deferibed,
in treating of freezing mixtures. In fome experiments
which have been made on the congelation of mercury,
it was remarked, that a flight fhock was communicated
to the perfon who held the tube containing the metal,
by its fudden contradlion at the moment it became
folid. Mercury cryftallizes in very fmall odlahe-
drons. It appears to be malleable, for by ftriking it
with a hammer in the folid ftate, it was flattened and
extended.
6. At the temperature of 66o° mercury boils, andA<ffi°n0^
is then converted into vapour. This vapour, like com-^eat‘
mon air, is invifible and elaftic. When mercury is
expofed to the air, the furface becomes tarniihed, and 1707
is covered with a black powder. This change is owing Oxides,
to the abforption of the oxygen of the air, and the conver-
fion of the mercury into an oxide. This procefs is greatly
promoted by applying heat to the mercury, or by (bak¬
ing it, fo that it may be brought in contaft with the
air. To this black powder, which is the firft degree of
the oxidation of the metal, the name of ethiops per fe
was formerly given, bccaufe it is obtained without the
affiftance of any other fubftance. According to Four- BlacS*
croy, this oxide contains
Mercury, 96
Oxygen, 4
Bv
1706
170S
100
Action qf
hydrogen.
C H E i\l
Mercury, By a flrong heat the oxygen is driven off, and the
mercury is reduced to the metallic ftate: but when
the oxide is expofed to a more moderate degree of
heat, it combines with more oxygen, and is converted
into the red oxide, lb called from its colour. This
oxide may alfo be obtained, by expofing a quantity of
mercury for fome length of time in a veffel provided
with a long narrow neck, by which means the vapours
of the mercury are prevented from efcaping, while the
air is admitted. By this procefs the mercury is alfo
converted into the red oxide j and, obtained in this way,
it was formerly called precipitate per fe, or red precipi¬
tate. This oxide may alfo be obtained by diffolving
mercury in nitric acid, evaporating to drynefs, and ex-
poling the mafs to a very ftrong heat, to drive off the
acid. What remains being reduced to powder, is the
red oxide of mercury, or red precipitate. This oxide,
according to Fourcroy, contains one-tenth of its weight
of oxygen. It is of an acrid difagreeable tafte, and has
fo powerful an effect upon animal matters, that it
may be conlidered as a poifon. It corrodes the Ikin
with which it comes in contadt. When this oxide is
expofed to heat, it is decompofed ; part of its oxygen is
given out, and it is converted into the black oxide.
Even by expofure to the light of the fun, this change
is effedted, as it paffes through different lhades of co¬
lour.
7. Mercury does not enter into combination with
azote, hydrogen, or carbone $ but if hydrogen gas be
kept in contadl with the red oxide, it is gradually con¬
verted into the black oxide. If hydrogen gas be made
to pafs through a tube heated to rednefs, containing red
oxide of mercury, a detonation takes place. The oxy¬
gen and hydrogen combine together to form water,
while the mercury is reduced t» the metallic ftate.
This oxide may be alfo reduced by means of charcoal,
with the afl'iftance of heat. The oxygen of the oxide
combines with carbone, and forms carbonic acid, and
171! the mercury is revived.
Phofphuret. 8. Phofphorus combines writh mercury with diffi¬
culty. Pelletier took equal parts of phofphorus and
red oxide of mercury, and introduced them into a ma-
trais, to which he added a little water, to cover the
mixture. It was expofed to the heat of a fand bath,
and agitated from time to time. The oxide foon became
black, and united to the phofphorus. The water re¬
tained phofphoric acid \ fo that it appears to be a com¬
pound of phofphorus and the black oxide of mercury.
The phofphuret of mercury, thus formed, becomes foft
in boiling water, and acquires fome confiftence in the
cold. When it is heated, it is decompofed. The phof¬
phorus and the mercury are feparately emitted. Ex¬
pofed to a dry air, it diffufes white vapours, which have
1712 the odour of phofphorus.
Sulphuret. Mercury combines readily with fulphur, either
by limple trituration in the cold, or by the action of
heat. One part of mercury and two of fulphur, tritu¬
rated together in a mortar, the mercury foon difappear-
ing, form a black powder, which was formerly dif-
tinguillied by the name of ethiops mineral. Fourcroy
is of opinion, that in this procefs the mercury is oxi¬
dated, and the fulphur is combined with the black
oxide} in fupport of which, he ftates that the ful¬
phur cannot be feparated from the mercury, but bv
fome chemical action. Bertbollet fuppofes that this
&c.
-y-
17*3
I S T R Y. 643
fubftance contains fulphurated hydrogen j and hence Mercury,
it is concluded that ethiops mineral is a hydrogenous
fulphuret of mercury, compofed of mercury, fulphur,
and fulphurated hydrogen.
When this compound is heated in an open veffel, the
fulphur, which is in a ftate of minute divifion, takes
fire, and is fooli reduced to lulphurous acid gas. The
mercury is at the fame time more ftrongly oxidated ;
is converted to a deep violet-coloured powder j and if
in this ftate it be heated in a matrafs, it is fublimed in
the form of a deep red cake, of a brilliant, cryftalline
appearance^ This fubftance was formerly called arti¬
ficial cinnabar^ or, in the prefent language of che-
miftry, red fulphurated* oxide of mercury. Various pro- Cinnabar,
ceffes have been given for the preparation of this fub¬
ftance. Seven parts of mercury fqueezed through
leather to purify it, are to be fufed with one part of
fulphur in an earthen veffel, agitating the mixture till
it is completely reduced to the black fulphurated
oxide. Introduce this into a matrafs, placed in a
crucible furniftied with fand, and expofe it gradually
to the heat of a furnace, which is to be increafed till
the matter is fublimed, and colledled, at the top of
the veffel. It is then removed, and when the Veffel is
broken, a red mafs is obtained, with a degree of beauty
and brilliancy in proportion to the temperature which
has been employed, and the fmall quantity of fulphur
which it retains. Fourcroy confiders this as a com¬
pound of fulphur and the red oxide of mercury : but
according to Prouft, it is a fulphuret of mercury j that
is, a compound of fulphur and metallic mercury. Its
component parts are,
Mercury, 85
Sulphur, 15
100
*7*4
This fulphuret is of a fine fcarlet colour. It is not Properties,
altered by expofure to the air, and is infoluble in wa¬
ter. The fpecific gravity is 10. When a fufficient
degree of heat is applied to it, it takes fire, and
burns with a blue flame. When reduced to powder, Vermilion,
it is then called vermilion, which is well known as a
paint. j
10. The order of the affinities of mercury is the Affinities,
following:
Mercury. Oxide of Mercury.
Gold, Muriatic acid,
Silver, Oxalic,
Tin, Succinic*
Lead, Arfenic,
Bifmuth, Phofphoric,
Platina, Sulphuric,
Zinc, Saclaftic,
Copper, Tartaric,
Antimony, Citric,
Arfenic, Sulphurous,
Iron. Nitric, , ,
Fluoric,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
4 M 2 I. Salts
644
C H E M I
Mercury,
See.
I, Salts of Mercury.
I. Sulphate of Mercury.
Different i. Sulphuric acid forms falts with the different oxides
fulphates. 0f mercury, and with different proportions of thefe
oxides, fo that there is a confiderable variety of the
fulphates of mercury. This feems to depend on the
nature of the aftion between fulphuric acid and
mercury, according to the temperature in which the
combination is made, and the quantity of acid em¬
ployed. .
2. Sulphuric acid has no effea on mercury m the
cold; but if two payts of mercury and three of ful¬
phuric acid be introduced into a retort, and expofed
to heat, an effervefcence takes place, with the evolu-
Prepara- tion of fulphurous acid gas.v If the procefs be ftop-
tion. ped, when the mercury is converted into a white mafs,
and there yet remains part of the liquid, it is found
to be acrid and corrofive, and it reddens vegetable
blues. This is the fulphate of mercury with excefs of
acid. This acidulous fulphate of mercury contains
\(jiy different proportions of fulphuric acid, according
to the original quantity employed. If this fulphate be
■waffled with a fmaller quantity of water than is neceffary
Tor its complete folution, and if this be repeated till the
•water no longer changes vegetable blues, there remains
a white fait without acidity, and which is much lefs
acrid and corrofive than the faline mafs from which it
is obtained. This may be confidered as a neutral ful¬
phate of mercury.
Prc^trf - 3' ^ a wl”te col°ur> cryftallizes in plates, and
8 ’ in fine, needle-ftiaped prifms. The tafte is not acrid.
It is foluble in 500 parts of cold water, and in one half
that quantity of boiling water. When cryftallized, it
is compofed of
Mercury,
Oxygen,
Sulphuric acid
Water
75
8
12
100
It is foluble both in cold and hot water, without
being decompofed. The pure alkalies and lime wa¬
ter, occafion a precipitate of a grayifti-black powder.
When fulphuric acid is added, it is then reduced to the
ffate of acidulous fulphate, and its folubility increafes
in proportion to the additional quantity of acid. A
twelfth part of acid renders it foluble in 157 parts of
cold water, and in 33 of boiling water. But if -J- of
this quantity of cold water be added, it combines with
the whole excefs of acid, and forming a liquid of
greater denfity than when it is diluted with 157 parts
of water neceffary for its complete folution, it diffolves
much more of the fulphate of mercury, and brings the
fait to a ftate of greater acidity. It then requires 500
1720 parts of water for its folution.
A different Zj_. But if the fame proportions of fulphurie acid and
thriiif mercury> namely, three parts of acid, and two of mer-
jjgat cury, be expofed for a longer time to the aft ion of heat,
a greater proportion of fulphuric acid is decompofed,
and the mercury combines with a greater proportion of
s T R Y.
oxygen. The fait thus obtained, poffeffes different pro- Mercury,
perties from the former. It cryftallizes in fmall prifms,, &LC-
and v'hen it is neutralized, it is of a dirty-white colour:
but if it be obtained in the dry ftate, it is pure white,
and in this ftate it is combined with an excefs of acid.
It is then deliquefeent in the airj but, in the neutral
ftate, it undergoes no change. When hot water is ad¬
ded to this fait, it is converted into a yellow powder,
which has been long diftinguiftied by the name of tur-
peth mineral.
5. It was formerly fuppofed that turpeth mineral,
which is obtained by the addition of warm water to
this fait, was a Ample oxide of mercury, without any
portion of fulphuric acid. Fourcroy mentions, that
Rouelle firft conjeftured, that it was combined with
a certain portion of the acid, and that his experiments
have verified and confirmed this conjefture: for in
treating turpeth mineral, after being well waftied with
muriatic acid, this folution precipitates by means of
muriate of barytes, a fulphate of barytes from this
bafe. Fourcroy denominates this fait fulphate of mer¬
cury with excefs of acid, or yellow fulphate of mercu¬
ry. It is foluble in 600 parts of boiling water j but
another fulphate of mercury remains in the folution.
This contains an excefs of acid, and is therefore more
foluble in water. 1721
6. From a feries of experiments which Fourcroy made Three fill,
on this fubjeft, he concludes, that there are three di-Phates*
ftinft fulphates of mercury. 1. The firft is the neutral
fulphate of mercury, which cryftallizes, is foluble in
500 parts of cold water, and forms a copious precipi¬
tate with the alkalies, which is not decompofed by
nitric acid, but forms a mild muriate of mercury with
the addition of muriatic acid. 2. The acidulous ful-
phate of mercury, which is more foluble than the for-
mer, is precipitated of an orange colour by means of
the alkalies. The excefs of acid is removed, and alfo
a portion of the fait, w ith £ of the water neceffary for
its complete folution. The neutral fulphate of mercury
remains behind, and is not decompofed by means of
nitric acid. 3. The thi^d fulphate of mercury con-
tains an excefs of bafe, or of the oxide of mercu-Subful-
ry. It is of a yellow colour, foluble in 200 parts of phate.
water, and is precipitated of a gray colour by the
alkalies. It is decompofed by nitric acid j and mu¬
riatic acid converts it into a hyperoxymuriate of mer¬
cury.
2. Sulphate of Ammonia and Mercury.
1724
This triple fait is formed by adding ammonia to aprepara-
folution of neutral fulphate of mercury. A copious tion.
gray precipitate is thrown down, which, being expofed
to the light of the fun, is partly reduced to the metal¬
lic ftate, and partly to that of a gray powder. This
laft is the fulphate of ammonia and mercury. It is folu¬
ble in ammonia *, and by evaporation, brilliant polygonal
cryftals are formed. Or, if a large quantity of water
be added to the folution, it becomes white and milky,
and there is precipitated the fame fait, but without any PropertieSi
regular form. This fait has a pungent, auftere tafte.
When it is heated, it gives out ammonia, azotic gas, a
fmall quantity of metallic mercury, and a little fulphite
of ammonia. There remains in the retort yellow ful- 1726
phate of mercury. According to the analyfis of Four- Compofi-
eroy, this triple fait is compofed of t‘on’
^Sulphuric
C H E M
Mercury,
&c.
1777
Prepara¬
tion.
1718
Three ni¬
trates.
Sulphuric acid
Mercury
Ammonia
Water
18
39
33
10
TOO
3. Nitrate of Mercury.
I. Nitric acid is rapidly decompofed by mercury. It
is accompanied with effervefcence, and the evolution
of nitrous gas. The mercury combines with part of
the oxygen of the acid 5 it is thus oxidated, and is
then diffolved in the remaining portion of the acid.
This folution of mercury in nitric acid, when it ’#s
made in the cold, is colourlefs, very heavy, and fo
extremely cauftic, that it has been employed as an ef-
charotic, under the name of mercurial water. It
produces an indelible browniih black fpot on all ani¬
mal and vegetable fubftances. By fpontaneous evapo¬
ration it affords regular tranfparent cryiials, compofed
of two four-fided pyramids, truncated near their bafes,
and on the four angles which refult from the union of
the pyramids. But different cryftals are formed, ac¬
cording to the nature of the folution, and the evapo¬
ration, whether it has been more {lowly or more rapid¬
ly condufted. When this folution of mercury in nitric
acid is made in the cold, the compound formed is a
nitrate of mercury without excefs of the oxide or bafej
but if mercury be added to this folution, and the ac¬
tion be aided by heat, a new portion of the oxide is
diffolved. It is then a nitrate of mercury with excefs
of bafe. Fourcroy diftinguifhes three nitrates of mer¬
cury. 1. Nitrate of mercury neutralized. From this
regular cryftals are obtained, and it is not precipitated
by water. 2. The acidulous nitrate of mercury, or
with excefs of acid. This is obtained by diffolving
the firft in water containing nitric acid, or by adding
this acid to the other nitrates. 3. The nitrate of
mercury with excefs of oxide. This exifts in the fo¬
lution precipitated by water, or by expofing the other
nitrates to the action of heat. In this way is produced
what was formerly called nitrous turpeth.
1. Thefe different nitrates of mercury poffefs many
common properties, but are fufftciently diftinguifhed
by others, and particularly by their decompofition.
When the nitrate of mercury is placed upon burning
eoals, it detonates feebly, although with a vivid white
flame, when it has been fufficiently dried; but when
it is moift it melts, blackens, extinguilhes that part of
the coal which it touches, and throws out fmall red
fparks, with a flight decrepitation about the dried
edges of the mafs. The nitrate of mercury with ex¬
cefs of oxide poffeffes a ftill more feeble detonating
property. The nitrate of mercury with excefs of acid
boils up, melts very rapidly, fwells greatly, and ex¬
hales red vapours, with very little detonation. If the
nitrate of mercury, neutralized, be heated in a cruci¬
ble without any combuftible matter, it melts, exhales
nitrous gas, becomes of a deep yellow colour, then
paffes to an orange, and at lart is converted into a
deep red. In this ftate it was formerly called red pre¬
cipitate. It is the red oxide of mercury, which is ob¬
tained by the decompofttion of the nitrate.
3. The pure nitrate of mercury expofed to the air in
1 s T R Y. 645
the ftate of cryftals, is foon changed. It gradually Mercury,
abforbs oxygen from the atmofphere, and paffes from , ^,c' t
a white to a yellow colour. This is the nitrous tur¬
peth. It is a yellow oxide of mercury combined with
a fmall portion of nitric acid, or a nitrate of mercury
with excefs of bafe. The yellow colour becomes
deeper with the addition of boiling water. The ni¬
trous turpeth, it has been obferved, contains a greater
quantity of oxygen than that which is prepared by
fulphuric acid, and from this circumftance it is more
readily converted into red oxide by the action of
heat. 1729
4. The nitrate of mercury is decompofed by all the Decompofi-
alkalies, but with different phenomena, according totI0n*
the ftate of the combination, and particularly the de¬
gree of oxidation of the bafe. Bergman has diftin-
guiftifed the two folutions of mercury, that which is
not precipitated by water, from that which is precipi¬
tated by the different produ&s which are, obtained
by means of alkalies. The nitrate of mercury affords
with potalh, a yellowiftr white oxide \ with carbonate
of potafti, a white exide j and with ammonia, an oxide
of a dark gray colour. Sulphuric acid and the ful-
phates occaflon a precipitate in form of a white pow¬
der. Muriatic acid and the muriates give a thick ^
mafs refembling curd. But the folution which is
precipitated by water, and which is more acrid, and
lefs difpofed to cryftallize, affords precipitates by
means of the fixed alkalies, of a deeper yellow or brown
colour. By means of ammonia, a white precipitate is
formed j by means of the fulphuric acid and the ful-
phates, a yellow precipitate, and by the muriatic acid,
a more copious, curdled matter. Fourcroy has ob¬
ferved in the decompofition of nitrate of mercury
with excefs of acid, that a precipitate in the ftate
of black powder is formed, with a great addition of
the alkali j but if it be added in fmall quantity, the
precipitate is white or gray. A copious precipitate is
obtained, from the clear fupernatant folution, by di¬
luting it with water. The fame white precipitate is
obtained, by mixing together nitrate of mercury and
nitrite of ammonia. By evaporating the liquid, which
is rendered turbid by the addition of water, fix-fided
prifmatic cryftals are depofited, as the ammonia is vo¬
latilized. The white precipitate is a brittle fait,
which has very little folubility, having an excefs of 1730
oxide, of mercury, and ammonia. The component Compofi-
parts of this fait, according to Fourcroy are, fton*
Acid and water, 15-80
Oxide of mercury, 68.20
Ammonia, 16.00
100.00
5. From a folution of mercury in nitric acid, Mr Howard’s
Howard prepared a fulminating powder poffeffed offulminat-
peculiar properties; the procefs which he found to ing powder?
anfwer belt, is the following :
“ One hundred grains, or a greater proportional quan- prepara-
tity, of quickfilver (not exceeding 50c grains) are to be tion.
diffolved, with heat, in a meafured ounce and a half of
nitric acid. This lolution being poured cold upon two
meafured ounces of alcohol, previoufly introduced into «
any convenient glafs veffel, a moderate heat is to be
applied until an effcrvefcence is excited. A white
fume.
6*6
CHE M I
Mercury,
&c.
t733
Properties,
1734
Decompofi
lion.
1735
Compoii-
tion.
fame then begins to undulate on the furface of the li¬
quor ; and the powder will be gradually precipitated
upon the ceffntion of a£Hon and re-action. The preci¬
pitate is to be immediately collefted on a filter, well
walhed with diftilled water, and carefully dried in a
heat not much exceeding that of a water bath. The
immediate edulcoration of the powder is material, _be-
caufe it is liable to the re-a£tion of the nitric acid j
and, whilft any of that acid adheres to it, it is very
fubject to the influence of light. Let it alfo be cau-
tioufly remembered, that the mercurial folution is to be
poured upon the alcohol.
“I have recommended quicksilver to be ufed in pre¬
ference to an oxide, becaufe it feems to anfwer equally,
and is lefs expenfive ; otherwife, not only the pure red
oxide, but the red nitrous oxide and turpeth may be
fubftituted *, neither does it feem effential to attend to
the precife fpecific gravity of the acid or the alcohol.
The re&ified fpirit of wine and the nitrous acid of
commerce never failed, with me, to produce a fulmi¬
nating mercury. It is indeed true, that the powder
prepared without attention, is produced in different
quantities, varies in colour, and probably in ftrength.
From analogy, I am difpofed to think the whiteft is the
ilrongeft for it is well knowrn, that black precipitates
of mercury approach the nearert to the metallic ftate.
The variation in quantity is remarkable ; the fmalleft
quantity I ever obtained from 100 grains of quickfilver
being 120 grains, and the largeft 132 grains. Much
depends on very minute circumffances. The greateft
produd feeras to be obtained, when a veffel is ufed
which condenfes and caufes moft ether to return into
the mother liquor 5 befides which, care is to be had in
applying the requifite heat, that a fpeedy and not a
violent adion be effeded. One hundred grains of an
oxide are not fo produdive as 100 grains of quick¬
filver.
This powder, ftruck on an anvil with a hammer, ex¬
plodes with a ftunning difagreeable noife, and with
fuch force, as to indent both the hammer and the
anvil. Half a grain or a grain, if quite dry, is as
much as ought to be ufed on fuch an occafion. The
fliock of an eledric battery, fent through five or fix
i- grains, produces a very fimilar effed. The powder
explodes at the 368th degree of Fahrenheit’s thermo¬
meter. A quantity of it, fufficient to difcharge a bul¬
let from a gun, w ith a greater force than an ordinary
charge of gunpowder, always burfts the piece. Ten
grains of the powder, exploded in a glafs globe, pro¬
duce only four cubic inches of air, confifting of carbo¬
nic acid gas and nitrogene, or azotic gas.
This powder is decompofed by fulphuric, nitric,
and muriatic acids. When concentrated fulphuric
acid is poured upon it, an immediate explofion takes
place. According to the experiments of Mr Howard,
this powder confifts of oxalate of mercury, and nitrous
etherifed gas. But it appears that the nature of the
component parts varies with the different modes which
are followed in its preparation. When it is prepared
with little heat, it confifts of nitric acid, oxide of mer¬
cury, and a peculiar vegetable fubftance ; but by con¬
tinuing the heat during the fermentation, a g-eenilh
colour is communicated to the powder. It is then
found to be compofed of ammonia, oxide of mercury,
and a greater proportion of the vegetable matter. Its
S T R Y.
detonating power is more feeble, and it gives out a blue Mercury,
flame when placed on hot coals/ By boiling the mix-. ^
ture for half an hour, it is compofed of oxalate of mer- *
cury, and a fmall proportion of vegetable matter ; does
not detonate, but decrepitates when it is heated *.
7 1 Tranf.
4. Muriate of Mercury. 1800. |
I73<*
1. Muriatic acid has no aftion whatever on mer-Tins com-i
cury j but it combines readily with its oxides, and pound:
forms falls which have been the fubjeft of refearchkn0W1
among chemifts, almoft in every age. The muriates
of mercury were known to the Arabians in the 10th
and 1 ith centuries. They were the firft obje&s of
ft tidy and examination with the alchemifts, in their
fearch after the philofophers ftone ; and finee chemiftry
affumed the form of a fcience, they have greatly occu¬
pied the attention of philofophers, in difeovering their
nature and properties. .
2. There are two compounds of muriatic acid and Two mu-
the oxides of mercury, which poffefs very different viates.
properties, according to the degree of oxidation of the
mercury. jy-g
3. Muriatic acid precipitates the oxides of mercury Prepara-
from their folutions in fulphuric and nitric acids. Iftion.
muriatic acid be added to the yellow fulphate of mer¬
cury, or t© the nitrate of mercury which is precipi-
table by water, a muriate of mercury is obtained,
which is foluble in water, and which, on account of
its properties, was formerly called corrofive fubhmatey
or corrojive muriate of mercury. But if muriatic acid
be added to the acidulous fulphate of mercury, or to
the nitrate of mercury which affords no precipitate
with water, a white, infoluble, infipid precipitate is
obtained, which was formerly called fwcet mercury or
calomel, and is now known by the name of fubtnuriate,
and fometimes fweet muriate of mercury. T„;^
4. The muriate of mercury, or corrofive fublimate, of the ma
may be prepared by the following procefs. Boil tworiate.
parts of mercury with two and a half of fulphuric acid
in a matrafs, with the heat of a fand bath, to drynefs.
Let this dry mafs be mixed wbth four parts of dried
muriate of foda, and let the whole be fublimed in a
glafs veffel, by gradually increaftng the heat. In the
firft part of this procefs, part of the fulphuric acid is
decompofed ; the mercury combines with the oxygen
and forms an oxide, which is diffolved in the unde-
compofed part of the fulphuric acid, and a fulphate of
mercury is thus obtained. The muriate of foda being
mixed with this fait, produces another decompofition.
The muriatic acid combines with the mercury, form¬
ing the muriate of mercury, which is fublimed ^ and
the fulphuric acid of the fulphate of mercury combines
with the foda, forming a fulphate of fbda, w hich re¬
mains behind.
5. The muriate of mercury, thus obtained, forms a Properties!
beautiful white, femitranfparent mafs, which is found
to be compofed of fmall prifmatic cryftals in the form
of needles. It may be obtained by evaporation, in the
form of cubes or rhomboidal prifms, or four-fided
prifms, having the alternate fides narrovrer, and termi¬
nated by two-fided fummits. The tafte is extremely
acrid and cauftic, and the metallic impreffion remains
long on the tongue. The fpecific gravity is 5.1398. It
is foluble in 20 parts of cold water, and in lefs weight
of boikng water. This fait is not altered by expofure
to
1740
■ Mercury,
H „
i. Couipoii-
tion.
3?
m-a.
38
,ra.
174a
Prepara-
tiun.
'3?
.eint-
1743
Compoii-
tion.
40
jti*
I744
Properties.
CHEMISTRY.
647
to the air j and, when It is fublimed by heat, it remains
unchanged. It is foluble in fulphuric, nitric, and muri¬
atic acids, and, when thefe folutions are evaporated, the
muriate of mercury is obtained unaltered. It is preci¬
pitated by all the alkalies and earths, of an orange-
yellow colour, which gradually changes to a brick-
red. The carbonates of the fixed alkalies afford a per¬
manent yellow colour. Ammonia forms with it a tri¬
ple fait. The component parts of this fait, according
to Mr Chenevix, are,
Oxide of mercury 82
Acid 18
100
Muriate of mercury is one of the moft violent poifons
known. When taken internally, it produces naufea
and vomiting, with fevere pain, and, in a Ihort time,
corrodes the ftomach and bowels. Externally, it is
employed as an efcharotic for deftroying fungous flelh.
It fublimes readily when heated, and is extremely in¬
jurious in the ftate of vapour, to thofe who breathe
it.
Submuriate of Mcrcwry.—This fait is prepared by
triturating together in a glafs mortar, four parts of
muriate of mercury or corrofive fublimate, with three
of mercury, till the latter difappear. When this is
formed into an uniform mafs, it is put into a matrafs,
of which it Ihould fill y, and it is to be fublimed with
the heat of a fand bath. When the procefs is finilhed,
the phial is broken j and the white matter at the upper
part of the veffel, and the red matter at the bottom,
are to be feparated, and the remaining part of the mafs
is to be fublimed, and afterwards reduced to a fine pow¬
der, which is to be well walked with boiling water.
In this procefs, it is obvious, that the mercury which
is added, combines with part of the oxygen of the
oxide of mercury, formerly combined with the muria¬
tic acid ; and the whole of the oxide of mercury having
now a fmaller proportion of oxygen, is combined with
a fmaller proportion of muriatic acid. This will ap¬
pear from the proportions of its component parts, as
they have been afeertained by Mr Chenevix.
Oxide of mercury in calomel contains,
Mercury 89.3
Oxygen 10.7
100.0
Calomel is compofed of
Oxide of mercury 88.5
Muriatic acid 11.5
100.0
Submuriate of mercury, or calomel, is generally in
the form of a white, folid mafs •, but it is fufceptible of
cryftallization in four-fided prifms, terminated by pyra¬
mids. It has fcarcely any tafte, has no poifonous pro¬
perty, and is very little foluble in water. The fpeci-
fic gravity is 7.1758. It becomes dark coloured by
expofure to light, is phofphorefcent when rubbed in the
dark, and requires a higher temperature for its fublima-
tion than the muriate of mercury. It is converted Mercury,
into muriate or corrolive fublimate, by the nitric and
oxymuriatic acids.
This fait, which is now generally known in the Different
{hops, by the name of calomel or fweet mercury y was names,
formerly deferibed under a great variety of names, de¬
rived from its effefls, or the mode of its preparation.
In the beginning of the 17th century, it was regarded
as an important fecret. But, in the year 1608, Be-
guin deferibed it very accurately, in his tyrocimum che-
micum, under the name of the dragon tamed, on ac¬
count of the corrofive fublimate from which it was
prepared, being deprived of its poifonous and deitruc-
tive qualities. At different periods it was diftinguilhed
by other names, as aquila alba, aquila mitigata, manna
metallorum, panchymagogus quercitanus, &c. The ufe
of this fait as a purgative, and indeed in -all cafes
where mercurial preparations are required, is well
known.
5. Muriate of Ammonia and Mercury.
1746
If ammonia be added to a folution of muriate ofprepara-
mercury, or corrofive fublimate, a white precipitate istion.
obtained, which is a triple fait, formed by the combi¬
nation of the ammonia with the muriate of mercury.
This white precipitate has at firft an earthy tafte,
which becomes afterwards metallic and difagreeable.
It feems to be infoluble in water. Sulphuric acid
forms with this triple fait, corrofive fublimate, and ful-
phate of ammonia and mercury. Nitric acid converts
it into corrofive fublimate and nitrate of ammonia and
mercury. It is completely foluble in muriatic acid,
and there is formed a muriate of mercury and ammonia.
This preparation was known to the alchemifts, and
diftinguifhed by the names of fal alembroth, and fait of
wifdom. The component parts of this fait, according
to Fourcroy, are
Acid, 16
Oxide of mercury, 81
Ammonia, 3
100
6. Hyperoxymuriate of Mercury.
* Fourcroy^
v. 309—
342*
1747
The fait was formed by Mr Chenevix, by pafTmg aprepaia-
current of oxymuriatic acid gas through water, in bon.
which there was red oxide of mercury. The oxide
became of a dark brown colour, and a folution appear¬
ed to have taken place. The liquor was evaporated
to drynefs, and a fait was obtained which confifted
partly of corrofive fublimate, and partly of hyperoxy-
muriate of mercury. By feparating the latter, and Properties,
cryltallizing it again, it was obtained nearly pure.
‘ This fait is more foluble than corrofive fublimate, four
parts of w ater retaining it in folution. Hyperoxymuri-
atic acid is given out by the addition of fulphuric, or
even weaker acids, and the liquid affumes an orange
colour f. t Pl/t.
Tranf.
7. Fluate of Mercury. xsoz, p-1
Fluoric acid combines only with the oxide of mer-2<S°‘
cury } or the foluble fluates mixed with a folution of
nitrate of mercury, produce a precipitate of a white
colour, which is the fluate of mercury, of which the
properties are little known.
8, Borate
648
Mercury,
See.
CHEMISTRY.
8. Borate of Mercury.
Boracic acid has no dir eft aft ion on mercury, but
by mixing together a folution of borate of foda with
a folution of nitrate of mercury, a yellowilh preci¬
pitate is obtained, which is the borate of mercury.
This fait acquires a greenilh colour by expofure to the
air. Lime water forms a precipitate of a red powder.
9. Phofphate of Mercury.
Phofphoric acid has no aftion on mercury, but it com¬
bines with its oxide. This fait may be prepared by
precipitating the nitrate of mercury in folution, by
means of phofphate of foda. A white precipitate is
formed, which is phofphate of mercury. I his fait is
infoluble in water, phofphorefces when rubbed in the
dark, and is decompofed by heat, giving out phofphoi
rus.
10. Carbonate of Mercury.
By precipitating the folutions of mercury in the
other acids by means of the alkaline carbonates, a
white precipitate is obtained, which is a carbonate of
mercury.
11. Arfeniate of Mercury.
When arfenic acid is diftilled in a retort with mer¬
cury, it is partially decompofed. Arfenious acid is
fublimed, with a portion of metallic mercury and a
fmall quantity of yellow oxide. There remains be¬
hind a yellow mafs, which is arfeniate of mercury. It
is infoluble in water, and in fulphuric and nitric acids.
It is foluble in muriatic acid, and affords by evapora¬
tion and fublimation, the muriate of mercury, or cor-
rofive fublimate. Arfenic acid precipitates the fulphate
and nitrate of mercury in the form of a white powder,
which is alfo arfeniate of mercury.
which enters into the combination. With the red-ox¬
ide of mercury it forms a fait which does not cryftal-
lize ; but when the liquid is concentrated, and evapo¬
rated to drynefs, it affords a yellow deliquefcent mafs.
When this fait is diffolved in water, it divides into
two parts j the one falls down in the ftate of yellow
powder, which is acetate of mercury with excefs of
bafe ; and the other part remains in folution, becaufe
it contains an excefs of acid.
2. But when nitrate of mercury is precipitated
by means of alkalies, and the precipitate is diffolved
in acetic acid, the folution yields by evaporation and
cooling, acetate of mercury, in thin brilliant flakes.
This fait may alfo be formed by mixing together folu¬
tions of acetate of potafh and nitrate of mercury.
The acetate of mercury appears in the form of large
flat cryftals, which have an acrid tafte, and are fcarce-
ly foluble in water. This latter fait is a compound of
acetic acid and the oxide of mercury, with a fmaller
proportion of oxygen. It is employed in medicine,
and forms the principal ingredient of Keyfer's pills.
17. Oxalate of Mercury.
Oxalic acid combines with the oxide of mercury,
and forms an oxalate in the ftate of white powder,
which is fcarcely foluble in water. It becomes black
by expofure to the light. When it is heated it detonates.
This fait may alfo be obtained, by adding oxalie
acid to a folution of the nitrate or fulphate of mer¬
cury.
18. Tartrate of Mercury.
Tartaric acid forms an infoluble fait of a white co¬
lour, with the oxide 'of mercury, which becomes yel¬
low' by expofure to the light.
19. Tartrate of Potalh and Mercury.
Mercury,
&c.
12. Tungftate of Mercury.
This fait is formed by adding to a folution of nitrate
»f mercury, an alkaline tungftate. This fait is decom¬
pofed, and the tungftate of mercury is precipitated in
the form of a white infoluble powder.
This triple fait may be prepared by boiling together
in water, one part of oxide of mercury, and fix of tar¬
tar. Cryftals of the triple fait are obtained by evapo¬
rating the liquid.
20. Citrate of Mercury.
13. Molybdate of Mercury.
Molybdic acid precipitates mercury from its folution
in nitric acid, in the form of a white flaky powder. It
is alfo infoluble in water.
Citric acid produces an effervefcence with the red
oxide of mercury, changes into a white colour, and
then unites it in one mafs. This fait is fcarcely folu¬
ble in water. It has a metallic tafte, and is decompo¬
fed by nitric acid.
14. Chromate of Mercury.
An alkaline chromate in folution, added to a folu¬
tion of nitrate of mercury, forms a precipitate of a
fine reddifh purple colour. This is the chromate of
mercury, which is infoluble in water, and which Vau-
quelin, who difeovered it, fuggefts to be employed as
a pigment.
15. Celumbate of Mercury.
Unknown.
16. Acetate of Mercury.
1)49 . . .
Cembines i. Acetic acid combines with^the oxides of mercu-
with two ry} and forms different (alts-, according to the oxide
21. Malate of Mercury.
When malic acid is added to a folution of nitrate of
mercury, a white precipitate is formed, which is ma¬
late of mercury.
22. Benzoate of Mercury.
Benzoic acid forms with the oxide of mercury, a
fait in the ftate of white powder, which is infoluble in
water, and is fcarcely altered by expofure to the air.
It is decompofed by heat.
23. Succinate of Mercury.
Succinic acid combines with the oxide of mercury
with the afliftance of heat, and forms with it an irre¬
gular mafs in which fome cryftals are obferved.
24. Saccolate
CHEMISTRY.
6+9
Zinc, &c. Saccolate of Mercury.
By adding facla&ic acid to a folution of nitrate of
mercury, a white precipitate is formed, which is fac-
colate of mercury.
25. Mellate of Mercury.
Mellitic acid added to a folution of nitrate of mer-
cury, produces a copious precipitate, which is re-dil-
Klaproth f°lve^ by the addition of nitric acid*.
myr n'„n 26. Prufliate of Mercury.
i'j2. Tranjl. _
This fait is obtained by boiling the red oxide ot
mercury with Pruflian blue. It forms cryftals in four-
tided prifms, terminated by four-fided pyramids. T he
fpecific gravity is 2.7612. It forms triple falts with
fulphuric and muriatic acids, the properties of which
are not known.
II. A£tion of Alkalies, &c.
There is no attion between mercury and the alkalies
or alkaline earths ; but the alkalies combine with the
oxides of mercury, and form with them compounds in
which the latter feem to aft the' part of acids. Some
of thefe compounds have been already treated of, in
fpeaking of the aftion of ammonia on fome of the mer¬
curial falts.
Salts formed with the alkalies and earths, have no
aftion on mercury or its oxides, if we except the mu¬
riates. By diffolving the muriate of mercury in a fo-
Jution of muriate of ammonia, a triple fait, which is
muriate of ammonia and mercury, and which has been
j-.q already defcribed, is obtained,
jfej. ° Mercury is one of the metals of the molt exteniive
utility. In the metallic ftate it is applied to the con-
ilruction of meteorological inftruments, as the baro¬
meter and thermometer. Mercury is alfo applied to a
great variety of purpofes in the arts ; in gilding with
filver and gold •, in forming an amalgam with tin for
covering the back of mirrors 5 and in metallurgy for
the purpofe of feparating gold and filver from their
ores. Mercury is alfo of confiderable importance for
the purpofes of chemiftry. Many of its preparations
form fome of the moft effe&ual and moft certain reme¬
dies in different difeafes.
Sect. XV. Of Zinc and its Combinations.
Hi ft or y! i • Paracelfus is the fir ft who fpeaks of zinc under
its prefent name. It is fuppofed that the Greeks were
acquainted with this metal in the ftate of compound
with copper, which formed the famous Corinthian
brafs ; but it does not appear that they made any di-
ftin&ion between it and other metals. It is particu¬
larly mentioned by Albertus Magnus, who died in
1280, and he feems to have known that it inflamed,
and communicated a colour to metals with which it
was combined. The method of obtaining zinc from
the ore called calamine, is mentioned by Henckel in his
Pyrotology in 1721. Swab extracted it by diftillatiun
in 1742, and Margraaf was occupied with this procefs
in 1746. Zinc was fuppofed by the earlier chemifts
to be a variety or compound of fome of the other me¬
tals. Lemery thought it was a kind of bifmuth, and
Vol. V. Part II.
Homberg took it for a mixture of iron and tin \ while Zinc, &.c. ^
others fuppofed that it was tin rendered brittle by ful- v r'J
phur, or that it was a coagulated mercury.
2. Zinc is found in four different ftates: In the ftate Ores,
of oxide, in the ftate of fulphuret, in that of fulphate,
and in that of carbonate. 1. In the ftate of oxide it is
known by the name of calamine, or lapis calaminaris, de-
pofited in a regular form, or in that of incruftations and
ftalaftites, in the cavities of metallic veins. 2. The ful¬
phuret of zinc, known by the name of blende, is fome-
times difpofed in fcales, and fometimes cryftallized in
tetrahedrons, or octahedrons. It is frequently found in
lead mines, accompanying the ores of lead. 3. The ful¬
phate of zinc, which is found native, is readily
known by its white colour and tranfparency, its ftrong
acrid taftc, and folubility in water. It is generally
found in a ftaladtitical form, or in fine filky cryftals,
like thofe of amianthus. 4. The native carbonate of
zinc, which is fometimes confounded with the oxide
or calamine, forms another ore of zinc. It is tranfpa-
rent, white, or yellowifli. It is infipid and infoluble
in water, and diffolves with effervefcence in nitric and
muriatic acids. 1753
3. To reduce oxides of zinc to the metallic ftate, the Analyfis.
ore is pulverized and mixed with charcoal, and the mix¬
ture is heated in a crucible covered with a plate of Cop¬
per. The zinc is fublimed in the metallic ftate, and
combines with the copper, which it converts into brafs 3
and in this rude procefs the richnefs of the ore is af-
certained by the intenfity of the colour. The fulphu-
rets of zinc are reduced by roafting, by which procefs
the fulphur is feparated, and the refiduum is then
treated in the fame way as the oxides. In the humid
■way Bergman has propofed to analyze the oxides of
zinc by means of fulphuric acid, and then by precipi¬
tating the oxide by carbonate of foda, he has afcer-
tained that 193 parts of this precipitate give ico parts
of the metal. 1754
4. Zinc is of a brilliant white colour with a bluifh Properties,
{hade, which is very perceptible in its metallic ftate,
and of a diftindt l^mellated texture 3 but the plates of
which it is compofed are fmaller than thofe of bifmuth
and antimony. The fpecific gravity is 7.190. Zinc
is not quite fo brittle as the preceding metals. It re¬
quires a fmart and hidden blow to feparate its frag¬
ments. It is fufceptible of a flight degree of malleabi¬
lity, for, by gradual and cautious preffkre, it may be
formed into thin plates, which have fome degree of
elafticity. It has a flight odour, and a peculiar tafte,
which is communicated to the fingers when they are
rubbed on this metal.
5. When zinc is expofed to a heat of about
rOCT
1.7*5
it A&ion of
melts, and by increafing the heat it evaporates, fo thatlieat>
in clofe veffels it may be diftilled. When allowed to
cool flowly after being in fufion, it cryftallizes in fine
needles. When zinc is expofed to the air, it under¬
goes very little alteration in the cold. Its brilliancy
is flightly tarnilhed, and it becomes at length covered
with a thin gray oxide. When zinc is fufed in clofe Oxidation,
veffels and expofed to heated air, at the moment it be¬
comes folid on the fur face, it exhibits a great variety
of fhades of colour, which is the commencement of oxi¬
dation. When it is kept in fufion, in the open air,
the furface becomes covered with a gray pellicle, which
being removed, is fucceeded by another, till the whole
4 N of
650
Zinc, 8tc.
1757
Oxides
I758
Action of
hydrogen.
1759
Of carbone.
1760
Photphuret
1761
Phofphora
ted oxide.
1762
Sulphuret.
of tlte is converted into this gray-coloured matter,
which is an oxide of zinc. This procefs may be pro-
moted by agitating the veffel, fo that the metal in fu-
fion may be expofed to the air. By heating together
the gray pellicles which have been colle&ed in an open
veffel, the whole is converted into a uniform gray pow¬
der, which at laft affumes a yellowiih colour. The
yellow oxide, thus formed, has acquired an additional
weight of about 17 per cent, of the metallic zinc.
When this metal is heated to rednefs in an open
veffel, by agitating the veffel, it fuddenly takes fire,
and burns with a very brilliant white and fomewhat
greenifh flame. Zinc is at the fame time reduced to a
Hate of vapour, which is condenfed in the air, in light,
filamentous, white flakes, of a very delicate texture.
This is an oxide of zinc. It has been diainguifhed
by different names, as flowers of <zinc, nihil album or
white nothings lana plulofoghica^ or philofophic wool.
Thus, there are two oxides of zinc *, the gray oxide,
which confilts of about 88 parts of zinc, and 12 of
oxygen, and the white oxide, which, according to
Prouft, is compofed of 80 parts of zinc, and 20 of
oxygen.
6. There is no aftion between azote and this metal.
Hydrogen gas, it is fuppofed, diffolves a fmall quantity
of zinc; for by diflblving zinc in diluted fulphuric acid,
the hydrogen gas which is obtained by the decompofi-
tion of the water, has been found to hold a little zinc
in folution, which is depofited on the fides of the jars
.containing the gas. It it fuppofed too, that zinc is
fometimes combined with carbone, becaufe hydrogen
gas obtained by the above procefs, is fometimes conta¬
minated with carbonated hydrogen gas.
7. Zinc combines with phofphorus, and forms a phof-
phuret. This may be prepared by adding fmall bits
of phofphorus to zinc in fufion, but previoufly throwing
in a little refinous matter, to prevent the oxidation of
the zinc. This was the procefs by which Pelletier
formed the phofphuret of zinc. This phofphuret is
of a white colour and metallic luftre. It has fome de¬
gree of malleability. When it is hammered, it emits
the odour of phofphorus, and when expofed to a ftrong
heat, it burns like zinc. Phofphorus alfo enters into
combination with the oxide of zinc, and forms with it
a phofphorated oxide. This is formed by diftilling in
an earthen-ware retort, equal parts of oxide of zinc, and
phofphoric glafs, with one-fixth of charcoal powder.
A ftrong heat is applied, and a metallic fubftance of a
filvery white colour is fublimed, which has a vitreous
frafture. When it is heated by the blow-pipe, the
phofphorus burns, and there remains behind a vitreous
matter, which is tranfparent while in fufion, but be¬
comes opaque when it is cold.
8. Zinc has not been combined direftly with ful-
phur. When they are heated together in a crucible,
the fulphur feparates without producing any other
change on the zinc than that of being a little more in-
fufible ; but it has been obferved that fulphur and zinc,
when fufed together in a crucible, enter into combina¬
tion, as the zinc is oxidated. This compound affumes
a brownilh gray colour. Guyton afterwards difcover-
ed that fulphur and the oxide of zinc readily unite to¬
gether by fufion, and that the compound is of a gray
colour, fimilar to the native fulphuret of zinc, as it has
been called, or the fulphur ate d oxide of zinc, accord-
CHEMISTRY.
ing to this experiment; but according to Proud, the Zinc, &Cj
ore of zinc, which is known by the name of blende, is a
fulphuret, that is, fulphur combined with zinc in the
metallic Hate. ^
9. The order of the affinities of zinc, and its oxide is
the following:
Oxide of Zinc.
Zinc.
Copper,
Antimony,
Tin,
Mercury,
Silver,
Gold,
Cobalt,
Arfenic,
Platina,
Bifmuth,
Lead,
Nickel,
Iron.
Oxalic acid,
Sulphuric,
Muriatic,
Saclaflic,
Nitric,
Tartaric,
Phofphoric,
Citric,
Succinic,
Fluoric,
Arfenic,
Ladlic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
I. Salts of Zinc.
Sulphate of Zinc.
1. —r     
1. Sulphuric acid diluted with water, adls very Prepafa-
powerfully on zinc. A violent effervefcence takestion-
place *, the mixture is ftrongly heated, and a great
quantity of hydrogen gas is evolved. In this procefs,
which is ufually followed for obtaining the purefi: hy-
drogen gas for chemical purpofes, the water is decom-
pnffid •, its oxygen combines with the metal and forms
an oxide, which is then diffolved in the fulphuric acid,
and forms a fulphate of zinc, while the hydrogen, the
other component part of the water, efcapes in the
form of gas. A black powder is fometimes obferved
floating in the folution, which is carburet of iron,
with which the zinc is frequently contaminated. As
the effervefcence ceafes, a white powder is formed,
which gradually difappears towards the end of the
procefs, and with the addition of water forms a tranf¬
parent folution. By evaporation and cooling, the ful¬
phate of zinc is obtained cryftallized.
_ 2. The fulphate of zinc is frequently contaminated Properties,
with other metals, as with lead, iron, and copper j
but when it is pure, it cryftallizes in four-lided prifms,
terminated by pyramids with four faces. This fait
has an acrid, aftringent, and ftrongly metallic tafte.
When it is expofed to the air it effiorefees. It is
foluble in lefs than two and a half parts of cold wa¬
ter, and more foluble in boiling water. The fpecific
gravity of the cryftallized fait is 1.912^ but as it is
generally met with in the (hops, it is only 1.3275. -
When heated in a retort, it melts, lofes its water of
eryftallization, and part of its acid in the ftate of ful-
phurous acid, and a little wrater. It is decompofed
and precipitated in the ftate of white oxide by all the
alkalies ; and if the precipitate is formed by means of
the carbonates, a white pigment is obtained. The
fulphate of zinc is alfo decompofed with the affiftance
of heat, by means of nitre. The alkaline fulphurets
and hydrofulphurets alfo precipitate the fulphate of
w:
C H E M I
Ziftc, &t-c. line, of a cleep orange or brown colour. The com-
Ponent of this fait are, according to
ionapofi-
bite vi-
I7<53
Prepara-
1769
?roperties.
1770
.ambines
OTth ful-
hur.
1771
toperties.
Acid
Oxide
Water
Bergman,
40
20
40
100
Kir wan.
20.5
40.0
39*5
100.0
3. The fait, known in commerce by the name of
white vitriol, is a fulphate of zinc, and is fuppofed to
contain an excefs of acid. It is in the form of white
granular maffes, refembling fugar, and often marked
with yellow fpots. This fait is ufually prepared by
roafting the fulphuret of zinc or blende, by which
means the fulphuret is converted into fulphuric acid. It
is then dilTolved in water, which is purified and evapo¬
rated, and the fait is cryftallized by hidden cooling.
Part of its water of cryftallization is afterwards driven
off by heat, fo that it is obtained in a regular, folid,
and granulated mafs. It is generally contaminated
with iron and other metals ; but it may be purified
from thefe, by adding filings of zinc, which preci¬
pitate the other metals, and leave a pure fulphate of
zinc.
2. Sulphite of Zinc.
Concentrated fulphurous acid readily combines with
the white oxide of zinc, without any effervefeence,
but with the evolution of heat, and the acid being de¬
prived of its odour. When the faturation is complet¬
ed, white cryftals appear on the furface of the liquid.
This fait has a pungent, aftringent tafte. It cryftal-
lizes readily. It is decompofed by the acids, with
effervefcence. It is infoluble in alcohol. It forms
white precipitates with the alkalies, and when expofed
to the air, it is readily converted into fulphate ef
zinc.
Sulphurated fulphite of Zinc.—When fulphurous acid
is added to zinc in the ftate of powder or filings, a
great degree of heat is produced j fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas is difengaged 7 the liquid becomes at firft
brown, fometimes muddy, and afliimes a yellow co¬
lour, and towards the end of the procefs it becomes
tranfparent. The folution has ati acrid, aftringent,
and fulphureous tafte. Sulphuric and muriatic acids
difengage with eftervefcence, fulphurous acid gas, and
precipitate a yellowifti white powder. Nitric acid at
firft feparates fulphurous acid gas, and afterwards a
flaky precipitate, which is pure fulphur. When this
iolution is expofed to the air, it becomes thick like ho¬
ney, and affords cryftals in the form of needles or fine
four-fided prifms, terminated by four-fided pyramids.
Thefe are cryftals of fulphurated fulphite of zinc,
which become white by expofure to the air, and form
a white powder infoluble in water. When this fait
is heated by the blow-pipe, it fwells up, gives out a
bright light like burning zinc, and forms dendritical
ramifications. This fait is partly foluble in alcohol.
The part not diflolved, only gives out fulphurous acid
£as by means of fulphuric acid, whilft the part which
is diffolyed affords, befides fulphurous acid gas, a copi¬
ous precipitate of fulphur. When it is diftilled in a
s T R Y. 651
retort, it gives out water, fulphurous acid, fulphu3*!; acid, Zincy&c.
and fulphur fubiimed. There remains behind oxide of H"r" ^ —^
zinc, mixed with a little of the fulphate.
In the folution of zinc in liquid fulphurous acid, wa-Theory of
ter, and part of the fulphurous acid itfelf, are decom- the procefs.
pofed j for fulphurated hydrogen gas is difengaged,
which is compofed of the hydrogen of the water and
part of the fulphur of the fulphurous acid. There is no
precipitation of fulphur during the folution, for it com¬
bines with the fulphite of zinc, as it is formed j but
this is not completely faturated, fince alcohol dilTolves
only the portion of fulphurated fulphite which it con¬
tains, and feparates the fulphite *. * Fourcroy,
1 1 v. p. 380.
3. Nitrate of Zinc.
1773
1. Concentrated nitric acid produces a violent a&ion Prepara-
with zinc, and fometimes even inflames it. To effecttitm*
this folution, with a moderate aftion, the acid ftiould
be diluted with water. Great heat is produced, with
violent effervefcence and the evolution of nitrous gas.
The acid is decompoied ; its oxygen combining with
the metal, forms an oxide, which combines with the
acid as it is formed. X774
2. This folution is of a greeniih-yellow colour, and Properties,
extremely cauftic. By evaporation it affords cryftals,
in the form of four-fided, compreffed, and ftriated
prifms, terminated by four-fided pyramids. The fpeci-
fic gravity is 2.096. This fait is deliquefeent in the
air. When it is heated on burning coals, it melts, and
detonates with a fmall red flame. When heated in a
crucible, it gives out red vapour, and affumes a deep
colour and gelatinous confiftence. When cooled in this
ftate, it retains its foftnefs for fome time. By continu¬
ing the heat, it dries, gives out nitrous and oxygen
gaffes, and leaves behind a yellow oxide.
4. Muriate of Zmc.
Muriatic acid produces a rapid asftion on zinc. Itp repara-
xs diffolved with effervefcence, and with the evolution tion.
of pure hydrogen gas. The folution of zinc in muria¬
tic acid is colourlefs ; it does not cryftallize, but af¬
fumes the form of a tranfparent jelly. It affords by
diftillation a fmall quantity of fuming acid, and a folid
muriate of zinc, which is fufible with a moderate heat,
and was formerly known by the name of butter of ’zinc.
When this muriate of zinc is fubiimed by heat, it be¬
comes of a fine white colour, compofing a mafs of cry¬
ftals in the form of fmall prifms. It is decompofed by
fulphuric acid, and is precipitated by the alkalies. BproneJtle*
is foluble in water, attracts moifture from the atmo- P ‘ ‘
fphere, and is foon converted into a ti-anfparent jelly.
The fpecific gravity is 1.377.
5. Muriate of Ammonia and Zinc.
This triple fait is formed by boiling white oxide of
zinc in a folution of muriate of ammonia. The oxide
of zinc is diffolved 7 part of which is afterwards depo-
fited, when the folution cools, but what remains in the
folution is not precipitated by the alkalies or the alka¬
line carbonates. 1
6. Fluate of Zinc.
Fluoric acid produces a violent action with zinc $
there is confiderable effervefcence, with the evolution
4 N 2 of
6-2 CHEMISTRY.
Zihc, 8tc. ^)f hycfcbgen gas. Tlie metal is oxidated, and then
t~*~v   diffolves in the acid j but the properties of this fait are
little known.
15. Acetate of Zinc.
Zinc, &c.
1777
Prepara¬
tion.
7. Borate of Zinc.
Boracic acid combines with the oxide of zinc, by
adding the borate of potafh or foda to the folution of
zinc in nitric or muriatic acid. Xhis fait is infoluble
in water.
8.
Phofphate of Zinc.
Phofphorie acid diluted with water, a£ls upon zinc
with the evolution of hydrogen gas, owing to the de-
compofition of water. A white powder is depofited,
which is phofphate of zinc. By expoling phofphoric
glafs and zinc to a ftrong heat, a phofphuret of zinc
is formed, by the decompofition of the acid.
Acetic acid diffolves zinc, and the folution by eva-prep'^_
poration cryftallizes in the form of rhomboidal ortionand
hexagonal plates. This fait has a bitter metallic properties,
tafte, is not altered by expofure to the air, and is fo-
luble in water. It burns with a blue flame when
thrown on burning coals. When diftilled, it yields
water, an inflammable liquid, and fome oil. At the
end of the procefs, when the fait is completely de-
compofed, the oxide of zinc is fublimed, which being
brought in contaft with a candle, burns with a fine
blue flame. The refiduum is in the ftate of pyropho-
rus, but it has little combuftibility.
16. Oxalate of Zinci
1778
Prepara¬
tion.
9. Carbonate of Zinc.
Zinc reduced to a fine powder, and added, to liquid
carbonic acid, is oxidated and copioufly diffolved in
the acid, at the end of 24 hours. This folution, ex-
pofed to the air, is covered with a pellicle of car¬
bonate of zinc of different colours. The carbonate of
zinc is found native, and has been diftinguiftred by the
name of calamine^ thus confounding it with the oxide
of zinc. Carbonate of zinc, according to the analyfis
of Bergman, is compofed of
Oxalic acid a£hs upon zinc with effervefcence, and
the evolution of hydrogen gas. Water is decompof-
ed, and as the zinc is oxidated, it combines with the
acid, forming an oxalate of zinc. It is in the ftate of
white powder, of an acrid tafte, and but little foluble
in water.
17. Tartrate of Zinc.
Tartaric acid combines with zinc with effervefcence,
and the evolution of hydrogen gas. The properties of
this fait have not been examined.
18. Citrate of Zinc.
Acid 28
Oxide 66
Water 6
100
10. Arfeniate of Zinc.
When arfenic acid is added to zinc, it produces an
effervefcence, with the evolution of hydrogen gas,
holding arfenic in folution. A black powder is de¬
pofited, which is metallic arfenic. In this procefs,
the zinc decompofes part of the water, and combines
with its oxygen, and at the fame time deprives the
arfenic acid of its oxygen, by which it is reduced to
the metallic ftate. The arfeniate of zinc may be ob¬
tained by adding a folution of an alkaline arfeniate
to a folution of the fulphate of zinc. A white pre¬
cipitate is formed, which is the arfeniate of zinc. It
is infoluble in water.
XI. Tungftate of Zinc.
12. Molybdate of Zinc.
Thefe falls may be formed by a fimilar procefs. A
white powder is obtained, which is infoluble in water.
13. Chromate of Zinc.
This fait is obtained by combining an alkaline chro¬
mate with a folution of zinc in nitric acid. A precipi-
tate is formed of an orange red colour, which is chro¬
mate of zinc.
14. Coiumbate of Zinc.
Unknown.
Citric acid a£ts upon zinc with effervefcence and
the evolution of hydrogen gas. At the end of 24
hours the aftion ceafes, and the liquid depofits on the
fides of the veffel and on its furface, fmall, brilliant
cryftals in the form of plates, which are infoluble in
water. The citrate of zinc has an aftringent, metallic
tafte. It is compofed of equal parts of acid and of ‘
oxide of zinc.
19. Malate of Zinc.
Malic acid diffblves zinc, and, by evaporating the
folution, cryftals may be obtained.
20. Benzoate of Zinc.
Benzoic acid readily diffolves zinc, and by evapo¬
ration the folution affords needle-ftiaped cryftals. The
benzoate of zinc is foluble in water and alcohol. When
it is expofed to heat, the acid is fublimed.
21. Succinate of Zinc.
Zinc is diffolved in fuccinic acid with effervefcenee.
By evaporation the folution affords flender, foliated
cryftals.
22. La&ate of Zinc.
Zinc is foluble in laftic acid with effervefcence, and
by evaporating the folution, the fait may be obtained
cryftallized.
II. Adlion of Alkalies, &c. on Zinc.
1786
I. When zinc is immerfed in a folution of potafh Fixed alfca-
or foda, it is tarnifhed, and becomes black, and when lies,
it is boiled in the folution, hydrogen gas is evolved.
The folution affumes a dirty-yellow colour, from which
an oxide of zinc may be precipitated by acids.
2. Ammonia'
Tin, Stc.
1781
1782
Sulphates.
I783
Nitrates.
1784
Muriates.
I78S
Phofphates,
&c-
1786
Ufes.
1787
Hiflory.
C H E M
2. Ammonia has a ftill more powerful a&ion on
zinc. Hydrogen gas is more copioufly evolved, and
the oxide which is formed is more abundantly diffolved
in the liquid, and at the end of feme time a confiderable
quantity of white oxide is depofited. 'Ihefe alkaline
folutions become turbid by expofure to the air 5 its oxy¬
gen and carbonic acid, a6ling at the fame time, preci¬
pitate the oxide.
3. The alkaline and earthy fulphates are readily de-
compofed by zinc, with the afliftance of heat. It at¬
tracts the oxygen of the fulphuric acid, and thus de-
compolxng it, feparates the fulphur, which combines
with the bafes of the fulphates. Alum boiled in fo-
lution with zinc, is decompofed, and there is formed
a triple fait, which is fulphate of zinc and alumina.
4. The nitrates produce a vivid inflammation with
zinc at a red heat. The acid is decompofed, its oxy¬
gen combines with the metal, and by this rapid com¬
bination, a violent detonation is produced. The azo¬
tic gas is difengaged, and the zinc is fully oxidated.
Three parts of nitre well dried, and one of zinc in fine
powder, well mixed together and projected into a red-
hot crucible, produce a very brilliant inflammation.
The burning matter is fometimes thrown out to a confi¬
derable diftance 5 fo that the experiment fliould be
made with caution. Ihis compound is fometimes em¬
ployed in fire-works.
5. Zinc has a confiderable aCtion on the muriates.
Triturated with the muriate of ammonia, the fait is
decompofed, and ammonia is difengaged. By diftill-
ing this fait with zinc, ammoniacal and hydrogen gafes
are obtained *, the latter is obvioufly owing to the de-
compofition of the water contained in the fait, by
means of the zinc, which combines with the oxygen,
and then forms a muriate of zinc with the muriatic
acid.
6. The phofphates and borates combine by fufion
with the oxide of zinc, which communicates to the
glafs thus formed a greeniftr-yellow colour.
7. Zinc decompofes the greateft number of the me¬
tallic falts from their folutions, by its ftrong affinity for
oxygen. They are precipitated in the metallic form, or
in the date of oxide, but deprived of a portion of oxy-
gen.
8. Zinc is employed in many of the arts. It forms
ufeful alloys with fome of the other metals, fome of
which will be mentioned afterwards. It is alfo em¬
ployed in medicine. The fulphate of zinc is fome¬
times exhibited as an emetic, and frequently ufed in
folution as an eye-wafli. The oxide of zinc, or the
flowers of zinc, have been preferibed as an antifpaf-
modic, and particularly in cafes of epilepfy.
Sect. XVI. Of Tin and its Combinations.
1. Tin has been known from the earlieft ages. It
W'as much employed by the Egyptians in the arts, and
by the Greeks as an alloy with other metals. Pliny
fpeaks of it under the name of white lead, as a metal
well known in the arts, and even applied in the. fa¬
brication of many ornaments of luxury. He afenbes
to the Gauls the invention of the art of tinning, or
covering other metals with a thin coat of tin. The
alchemilts were much employed in their refearches
concerning tin. They gave it the name of Jupiter,
1788
I S T R Y.
from which the falts or preparations of tin were called
jovial. Since their time, the nature and properties of
tin have been particularly inveftigated by many che-
mifts, and it has proved the fubjeft of fome important
difeoveries in chemical fcience. So early as the year
1630, John Key threw out a conjefture, that the air
was fixed in this metal during its calcination. Boyle,
towards the end of the fame century, attempted to ac¬
count for the increafe of weight which this metal ac¬
quired during this procefs; but this was only fully af-
certained by Lavoifier, who repeated the experiment
of Boyle, and calcined the metal in clofe veflels; but
the method of conducing this experiment and the re-
fult of it, have been already detailed.
2. Tin exifts in nature in three different ftates. It Ores,
is found native, in the ftate of oxide, and in that of
fulphurated oxide. Native tin is in brilliant plates,
or regularly cryftallized. The native oxide of tin,
which is the molt common ore of this metal, exifts
under a variety of forms. It is generally found cry¬
ftallized. The fulphuret of tin is of a pale or dark
gray colour, and when pure, has fome reiemblanee to
an ore of filver. 1789
3. To obtain the metal from its ores, they are firft Anaiytis.
roafted, and then treated with a flux, to reduce the
metal. It has been recommended by fome, to mix a
fmall quantity of pitch with the fufed mafs, to prevent
the oxidation of the tin. After the ore is roafted, it
fufes readily with three times its weight of black flux,
and a little decrepitated muriate of foda.
In the humid way, native tin may be diffolved in
nitric acid, which readily oxidates, and reduces it to
the ftate of white powder, which is an oxide of tin j
and if it contain iron and copper, thefe two metals re¬
main in the folution.
4. Tin is of a white colour, nearly as brilliant as pr0perties.
filver. The fpecific gravity of tin is 7.291. It is
one of the fofteft of the metals. It may be fcratched
with the nail, and eafily cut with a knife. It is ex¬
tremely flexible, and produces a peculiar noife when
it is bent or folded. It is fo malleable, that it can be
eafily beaten out to t^Vo Part an inch, which is
the thicknefs of tinfoil. It has little elafticity or te¬
nacity. A wire of this metal about of an inch
in diameter fupports a weight of about 30 lbs. without
breaking. 17QT
5. Tin is fufceptible of very confiderable expanfion Adtion of
by means of caloric, and on this account it has been *ieat*
propofed to employ it as a pyrometer. Tin is one of
the moft fufible of the metals, and melts at the tem¬
perature of 442°, but it requires a very high tempera¬
ture to raife it in vapour. If it be allowed to cool
flowly, and when the furface becomes folid, by pouring
out part of the liquid metal, cryftals- are formed, in
large rhomboids, compofed of a great number of fmall
needles. . . . 1-92
6. Tin is a good conductor of eleftricity. It Odour, See.
poffeffes a peculiar odour, which is communicated
to the hands by friction. It has alfo a perceptibie-
tafte.
7. When this metal is expofed to the air4 it is foon Oxidation,
tarnifhed, and affumes a grayiih white colour j but it
undergoes no farther change. When it is melted in
an open veffel, it is foon covered with a grayilh pel¬
licle, which is the commencement of the oxidation of
« > the
65+
CHEMISTRY.
1794
Two ox¬
ides.
Tin, &c. the metal. When this pellicle is removed, another
forms, and fo on fucceflively till the whole is oxidated.
By continuing the heat, and by agitation, the procefs
goes on more rapidly, and the metal is converted into
a whitilh powder. This oxide contains about 20 parts
of oxygen in 100 of the metal. With the addition of
lead to promote the oxidation, this oxide is the putty
of tin. It contains about two parts of oxide of lead,
and one part of oxide of tin. But when tin is ftrongly
heated, it is converted into a fine white oxide, which
during the procefs gives out a vivid white flame. This
oxide is condenfed in the cold, and cryftallizes in Alin¬
ing tranfparent needles.
According to Prouft, tin combines with two pro¬
portions of oxygen, thus forming two oxides. The
yellow oxide, which has the fmaller proportion of oxy¬
gen, may be prepared by diflblving tin in nitric acid
diluted with water, without the aid of heat. By preci -
pitating the oxide with pure potalh, it is obtained in
the form of a yellowifh powder. Its component parts
are thofe already ftated, namely,
20 oxygen,
80 tin,
100
By diflblving tin in concentrated nitric acid, with the
afliftance of heat, the whole is converted with eflfer-
vefcence into a white powder, which falls to the bot¬
tom of the vefiel. The component parts of this oxide
are, 28 oxygen, and 72 of tin.
8. There is no action between tin and azote, hy¬
drogen, or carbone, nor is there any perceptible aftion
1-95 between'tin or its ©xides and water.
Phofphuret. 9. Phofphorus combines very readily with tin, by
projecting bits of phofphorus on melted tin in a cruci¬
ble. A phofphuret of tin is thus obtained, which
cryftallizes on cooling. This compound is of a filvery
white colour, may be cut with a knife, and extended
under the hammer, but foon feparates into plates.
The filings of this phofphuret are like thofe of lead,
and when they are thrown on red-hot coals, they take
fire, and burn w ith the fmell and flame of phofphorus.
By the aCtion of the blow-pipe, the phofphorus only
burns, and the fmall metallic button which remains is
iurrounded wdth a tranfparent glafs. Pelletier diftil-
led this phofphuret often with hyperoxy muriate of
mercury, and obtained a fuming muriate of tin, vdth
the mercury reduced to the metallic ftate, and phof-
phorated hydrogen gas, which exploded as it came in
ccntaft with the air. There remained in the retort a
fpongy inflammable matter, which he fuppofed to be a
compound of tin and phofphorus.
10. Sulphur combines very readily with tin, by
adding the fulphur to the metal while in a ftate of fu-
fion. This compound forms a grayilh or bluifli mat¬
ter, which has a metallic luftre, a lamellated ftruCture,
and cryftallizes in cubes, or in oCtahedrons. It is de-
compofed by acids with effervefcence. The component
parts are, according to
Bergman. Pelletier.
1796
SulpKuret.
1797
Compoii-
tion.
Tin,
Sulphur,
80
20
100
85
100
11. If equal parts of oxide of tin and fulphur be Tin, &e,
fufed together in a retort, fulphurous acid and fome v-—.
fulphur are difengaged, and there remains in the veflel^ /j793
a compound of a brilliant golden colour. It cryftal-uU(jP0I^’
lizes in fix-fided plates. It is not aCted on by the
acids. When it is ftrongly heated, it gives out ful¬
phurous acid and fulphur, and there remains behind a
black mafs which is fulphuret of tin. This compound,
wrhich is a lulphurated oxide of tin, was formerly di-
ftinguiihed by the name of aurum mujivum, mujicum,
or mofaicum. The component parts of this fulphurat-
ed oxide of tin are,
Oxide of tin,
Sulphur,
60
40
100
12. Tin enters into combination with many of the
metals, and forms alloys with them, fome of which
are of great importance. It alfo combines with acids, I?
and forms falts. The affinities of tin and its oxides Affinities*
are in the following order.
Tin.
Zinc,
Mercury,
Copper,
Antimony,
Gold,
Silver,
Lead,
Iron,
Manganefe,
Nickel,
Arfenic,
Platina,
Bifmuth,
Cobalt,
Sulphur.
Oxide of Tin.
Tartaric acid,
Muriatic,
Sulphuric,
Oxalic,
Arfenic,
Phofphoric,
Nitric,
Succinic,
Fluoric,
Sacladlic,
Citric,
La6Iic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Pruflic.
I. Salts of Tin.
Sulphate of Tin.
1.
1. Sulphuric acid a&s very feebly on tin in the cold. Twcfful.
The acid, however, is at laft decompofed j its oxygen phates.
combines with the metal, fulphurous acid gas is emit¬
ted, and the oxide falls to the bottom in the ftate of
white powder. In this cafe, the oxide has the fmaller
proportion of oxygen, and then the folution is more
permanent. There is no precipitation by water.
2. But when the folution of tin in fulphuric acid
is promoted by the a&ion of heat, the acid is ftill far¬
ther decompofed ; a greater quantity of fulphurous acid
is given put, and fulphur is depofitcd. In this cafe the
wffiite oxide of tin is formed. This compound, when
evaporated, aflumes the form of a jelly, and does not
cryftallize by the addition of water. It is precipitated
in the form of white powder. The firft might be call¬
ed the yellow fulphate of tin, and the fecond the white
fulphate of tin.
2. Sulphite of Tin.
When tin is immerfed in liquid fulphurous acid, it
aflumes a yellow colour. At the end of fome days it
becomes
* Yourcroy
Connaifs.
Chim. iv.
p. 30.
1S01
Hiftoiy.
1802
Prepara¬
tion.
Tin, See. becomes black like charcoal, and there is depofited in
the liquid a black powder. In this procefs part of the
falphurous acid is decompofed j its oxygen combining
with the metal, forms an oxide, which enters into
combination with another part of the acid, and forms
the fulphite of tin. A portion of fulphur is depofited
along with a white fulphite, which is not very folu-
ble, and another portion remains in folution with part
of the fulphite, forming a fulphurated fulphite. A
third portion of the fulphur combines with part of the
metallic tin, and forms a black fulphuret, on which the
acid has no action *.
3. Nitrate of Tin.
r. Nitric acid produces a very violent aftion with
tin. It is accompanied with great heat, and the evo¬
lution of nitrous gas. The metal is converted into a
white oxide, which gives to the liquid the appearance
of coagulated milk. It had been long obferved by
chemifts, that the folution of tin in nitric acid was
not permanent, for by evaporating or concentrating
the folution, the oxide is always precipitated. This
difficulty has been folved by the difeoveries of modern
chemiftry.
2. If tin be diflblved in nitric acid, diluted with wa¬
ter, and the great increafe of temperature moderated
by the application of cold, as by immerfing the veffel
in cold water, a folution of a fmall quantity of the
oxide of tin is effedted. The folution is of a yellow
colour, and contains the oxide of tin, with a fmaller
proportion of oxygen, which is the yellow oxide. In
this procefs the tin is chiefly oxidated by the decompo-
fition of the water. In this procefs too, ammonia is
formed from the azote of the acid combining with the
hydrogen of the water. This becomes perceptible
by adding potaffi to the liquid. When the folution
is heated, the oxide of tin is feparated in great abund¬
ance.
3. But when nitric acid is more concentrated, a more
•violent aftion takes place between this acid and tin.
The metal is oxidated, and the whole of it feparates
from the liquid. To one part of pure nitric acid Guy¬
ton added of tin in a retort, when a violent effer-
vefcence took place, but no gas was given out. In this
experiment a quantity of ammonia equal to of the
weight of the acid and tin employed, was formed. The
acid and the water are decompofed, and the oxygen
of both combines with the tin, and forms an oxide,
while the azote of the acid and the hydrogen of the
water combine together and form ammonia. In this
ftate of oxidation, the tin does not combine with the
acid.
4. Muriate of Tin.
I. Concentrated muriatic acid diffolves tin, either
in the cold or with the affiftance of a gentle heat. The
acid is foon deprived of its fuming property, and of
its yellow colour. A flight effervefcence takes place,
which is owing to the decompofition of water, and the
evolution of a fetid hydrogen gas. This peculiar
odour is fuppofed to be occafioned by the hydrogen gas
holding in folution a portion of the metal. Mdriatic
acid diffolves more than \ its weight of tin. No pre¬
cipitate is formed, as with the other acids. When it is
C B E M I S T R Y. 655
needle-fhaped prifms, which are deliquefeent in the Tin, See.
air.
2. This muriate of tin is precipitated by the alkalies DccIoi^
in the form of a copious white oxide, which is re-dif- tion.
folved with an exccfs of alkali/ The alkaline folution
is of a browniffi yellow colour. The fulphuret of am¬
monia precipitates this fait in the form of powder, which
becomes black as it dries, and by diltillation yields am¬
monia and durum mujivum. The fulphuret of potafli
produces a yellow precipitate, which, by diftillation
furniffies fulphurous acid and fulphur, and what remains
is converted into aurum mujivum, or the fulphurated
oxide of tin. This oxide precipitated by means of fo-
da, and diftilled with its weight of fulphur, yields fur-
phurous acid gas, fulphur, and the reliduum is aurum
mujivum.' . . lSo7
3. This folution of tin abforbs oxygen, with the evo-Abforbs
lution of heat, from oxymuriatic acid, which is deprived oxygen*
of its odour. With nitric acid, a violent effer.vefcence
takes place. Nitrous gas is difengaged, and in both
thefe cafes, the oxide of tin combines with an additional
portion of oxygen. With the addition of fulphurous
acid, this folution of tin depolits the yellow fulphurated j§0g
oxide of a fine bright colour. This folution converts Forms an
arfenic acid into the metallic ftate, and it produces theoxymuri-
fame effect on the molybdic and tungftic acids, byate"
combining with their oxygen. The red oxide of mer¬
cury, the hyperoxymuriate of mercury, the white
oxide of antimony, the oxides of zinc and filver, are
all reduced to the metallic ftate by being deprived
of their oxygen by the muriate of tin. This muriate
alfo precipitates from the folution of gold, the purple
powder oj CaJJius, by attracting that portion of'oxygen
which renders the oxide of gold foluble. In all thefe
proceffes, the refults of which were afeertained by Pel¬
letier, the muriate of tin is converted into an oxy-
muriate.. _ . _ _ jgop
4. I his oxymuriate of tin is formed by making a Formed ty
ftream of oxymuriatic acid gas pafs into a folution of another
muriate of tin. It is alfo prepared by triturating equal Proce^s*
parts of an amalgam, confifting of two parts of tin, and
one of mercury, and muriate of mercury, or corrofive
fublimate, and diftilling this mixture in a glafs retort,
with a very moderate heat. A colourlefs liquor firft
paffes over, which is followed with the hidden evolu¬
tion of a white vapour, which lines the infide of the re¬
ceiver. This vapour is condenfed into a tranfparent
liquid, which, in the air, exhales a copious, heavy,
white vapour, from which this liquid has been called
the fmoking liquor of Libavius, or the oxymuriate of
tin. When this liquor is included in a veffel, it no
longer gives out any vifible vapour, but it depofits at
the top of the veffel ncedle-ffiaped cryftals, while fimi-
lar cryflals are precipitated to the bottom. Water does
not precipitate the fuming muriate of tin. When it is
thrown into the water, it produces a noife fimilar to that
which is occafioned by concentrated fulphuric acid. A
number of tranfparent bubbles of air being evolved
from the mixture, colled on the furface, and be¬
come white by the contaCI of air. By agitating the
water, they are more readily diffipated, and the liquid
fumes no longer. ig
5. Nitromuriatic acid, which is compofed of oncinnitro-
part of nitric acid, and two or three of muriatic acid, muriatie.
very readily diffolvcs tin. A ftrong heat is produced,
which
1803
ta different
proportions.
1S04
frepara-
:ion.
1805
Properties, evaporated, it furniffies cryftals in the form of brilliant
/
6s6
CHEMISTRY.
Tin, &c. which may be raoderalad by immerfing the yeffel, in
which the folution is made, in cold water. I he metal
(hould be added in fmall portions, and one part fhouW
be diffolved before the addition of another.. In this
way the acid will diflolve half its weight of tin. It is
by this procefs that the muriate of tin is obtained for
the purpofe of dyeing fcarlet *, but it is found to vary
confiderably in its effe£Is, which, no doubt, depends on
the ftrength of the acids employed, and the different
proportions in the mixture. This folution is almoft ai¬
rways coloured. Sometimes it affords a gelatinous mafs
on cooling, which becomes in time more folid. Some¬
times it is of a white colour like milk, .this folution
has not the fetid odour of the Ample folution of tin in
muriatic acid. It often happens, that it does not aflume
the vifcid or folid form, without the addition of 4 it®
weight of water. It is then (lightly opaque, which is
owing to the precipitation of part of its oxide. When
this folution is heated, an effervefcence takes place-,
the tin is more ftrongly oxidated, and it is generally
after this procefs that it affumes the form of a tranfpa-
rent jelly.
5. Fluate of Tin.
Fluoric acid has very little aflion on tin, but it dif-
folves its oxide, and forms with it a folution which af¬
fumes a gelatinous form. The fluate of tin may be
alfo obtained by adding a folution of an alkaline fluate
to a folution of tin in muriatic acid.
6. Borate of Tin.
By a fimilar procefs boracic acid combines with the
oxide of tin, and forms a borate of tin, which is info-
luble.
7. Phofphate of Tin.
This fait may be formed by precipitating the oxide
of tin from its folution in muriatic acid, by means of an
alkaline phofphate. A phofphate of tin is thus obtain¬
ed, which is infoluble in water.
8. Carbonate of Tin.
This fait is prepared by precipitating the oxide of
tin from its folution in muriatic acid, by means of the
carbonates of the alkalies. When this carbonate of
tin is diffolved in an acid, it effervefces ; but, accord¬
ing to Bergman, the oxide of tin, precipitated by an
alkaline carbonate, is not found to have received any
fenfible addition of weight, fo that the effervefcence oc-
cafioned by the adlion of an acid, on what is fuppofed
to be a carbonate of tin, probably depends on the de-
compofition of the acid itfelf.
9. Arfeniate of Tin.
Arfenic acid, with a moderate heat, diffolves a fmall
quantity of tin, and the folution affumes the form of a
jelly. Arfeniate of tin is formed, by adding to a folu¬
tion of tin in muriatic acid, an alkaline arfeniate. A
precipitate is formed, which is arfeniate of tin in the
Hate of infoluble powder.
All the metallic acids are decompofed by means ©f
tin. They alfo combine with the oxide of tin, and
form ialts in the ftate of powder, which has little folu-
hilif.y.
10. Acetate of Tin.
Tin, See,
Acetic acid diffolves only a fmall portion of tin'j but
when the acid is boiled on tin, the aftion is more power¬
ful, and the folution, which is of a whitilh colour, af¬
fords by evaporation fmall cryftals. The folution of
tin in acetic acid fometimes does not cryftallize, but
affords only a gelatinous mafs j fo that, by the aftion of
acetic acid on tin, the metal is either in different de¬
grees of oxidation, or there are different proportions of
the acid and bafe.
11. Oxalate of Tin.
Oxalic acid added to tin in thin plates or filings, firft
blackens the furface, which is afterwards covered with
a white powder. The oxalate of tin, which is foluble
in water, has an auftere metallic tafte. By flow eva¬
poration it furnifhes needle-thaped or prifmatic cryftals.
When it is more rapidly evaporated, it affords a tranf-
parent mafs like horn.
12. Tartrate of Tin.
Tartaric acid diffolves the oxide of tin, but the na¬
ture of this fait has not been examined.
13. Tartrate of Potafli and Tin.
This triple fait may be obtained by boiling together
the oxide of tin and tartar, in water. It is a foluble
fait, and cryftallizes with difficulty. It is not precipi- 1
tated by the alkalies or the alkaline carbonates.
14. Benzoate of Tin.
This fait is formed by adding to a folution of tin in
muriatic acid, benzoate of potafh. The benzoate of
tin is precipitated, which is foluble in water, with the
afliftance of heat,
15. Succinate of Tin.
The oxide of tin is diffolved by fuccinic acid with
the afliftance of heat. When the folution is evaporat¬
ed, it affords thin tranfpajent cryftals of fuccinate of
tin.
II. Action of Alkalies, &c. on Tin.
1. Tin in the metallic ftate is little changed by theAlkaiics.|
aflion of the alkalies j but the oxides of tin readily com¬
bine w'ith thefe bodies. The combination of the oxide
of tin with the fixed alkalies is effected, either in the
dry or humid way j and w ith the afliftance of heat the
oxide of tin combines with liquid ammonia. This
combination takes place moft readily when the oxide is
recently precipitated, when it is in the ftatc of minute
divifion.
2. The oxide of tin combines with the earths by fu-Earths,
fion } and with the addition of a fixed alkali, forms an
opaque vitreous mafs, which is employed for the pur-
pofes of enamel. i8i3
3. Moft of the falts are decompofed by means of tin, Salts,
in confequence of the ftrong affinity of this metal for
oxygen. All the fulphates, when heated with this
metal are more or lefs rapidly converted into fulphu- gj/
rets. Equal parts of fulphate of potaffi and tin, heated Sulphate?,
together in a crucible, afford a greeniJh coloured mafs,
which has no metallic appearance, and which feems to xgi_
be a fulphuret of potafli and tin. The nitrates pro- NiwateV.
duce
frlii, &c duce deflagration with this metal, with the afliftance of
-v ' heat. If the tin be melted in a crucible, and brought
to a red heat, and dried nitre in powder be projected
into it, a white brilliant flame is produced, and when
the detonation has entirely ceafed, the tin is found to
be oxidated. This experiment may be alfo made, by
mixing together tin filings with three parts of nitre in
1816 powder, and projecting the mixture into a red-hot cru-
luriates. cible. Muriate of ammonia is deeompofed by tin;
and by adding fulphur, the fulphurated oxide of tin, or
ourum mujivum, is obtained. Eight parts of tin united
to eight parts of mercury, with fix of fulphur, and four
of muriate of ammonia, afford, according to the procefs
of Pelletier, a very beautiful aurum mujivum.
It was obferved by this philofopher, that during the
procefs, fulphurated hydrogen gas, fulphurct of ammo¬
nia, and muriate of tin, were produced; that the tin
oxidated and united to the fulphur, formed aurum mu-
livum } and that a part of this matter, compofed of the
different fubftances, in a Hate of vapour, was depofited in
lamellated, hexangular cryftals, in the upper part and
in the neck of the retort.
The alkaline hyperoxymuriates, but efpecially that
of potalh, produce a violent detonation with this metal.
Three parts of this fait mixed with one of tin in fine
powder, rapidly deflagrates when brought into contaCl
with a burning body. During this combuftion, there
is a brilliant and fudden flame, and the metal is redu¬
ced to the Hate of vapour. The fame mixture by per-
cuflion produces a violent detonation with a confidera-
ble^flame in the dark.
Many of the metallic folutions and metallic falts are
decompofed by means of tin, and are either reduced to
the metallic date, or deprived of a confiderable portion
of their oxygen.
III. Alloys.
1. Tin and arfenic form an alloy by fufion. The com¬
pound, when the proportion of arfenic is confiderable, is
white, brittle, more fonorous and harder than tin. In
the proportion of 1 parts of tin and one of arfenic, the
alloy cryftallizes in large plates, is more infufible than
tin, and more brittle than zinc. By expofure to the
air, and with the afliftance of heat, the arfenic is dri¬
ven off.
2. With cobalt tin forms an alloy which is in fmall
grains, and of a light violet colour.
3. Tin combines with bifmuth. The tin is then
harder, more fonorous and brighter. The compound
in certain proportions becomes more fufible than either
of the two metals. The alloy of equal parts of tin and
bifmuth melts at 28D°. Eight parts of tin and two of"
bifmuth melt at 390°, and two of tin and one of bif¬
muth at 330°.
4. Tin combines with antimony, and forms an aUoy
which is white and brittle, and has a fpecific gravity lefs
than that of the two metals taken feparately. The an¬
timony gives hardnefs to the tin, and changes its tex¬
ture. This alloy is employed in many arts, and parti¬
cularly for the plates on which mufic is engraved.
5. Tin combines very readily with mercury, and in
all proportions. The tin is even diffolved when the
quantity of mercury is confiderable. This union takes
place in the cold, but it is greatly promoted by means
of heat. The heated mercury is poured upon the tin
Vol. V. Part II.
CHEMISTRY.
in fufion. The amalgam of tin is fufceptible of cryt-
6S7
Lead, See.
iS[7
rfenic.
I8t8
obalt.
1819
ifmuth.
1820
ntimony.
1S21
tercury.
tallization in the form of cubes. Sage obferved the
cryftals of this amalgam in gray brilliant plates, thin
towards the edges, and leaving between them polygo¬
nal cavities.
This amalgam is employed for covering mirrors.
In applying it, tinfoil is fpread on a fmooth flat
ftone or table, and mercury, in which a certain pro¬
portion of tin has been already diffolved, is poured up- #
on it. It is then fpread equally over the whole with
a feather or a piece of cloth. .1 he plate of glafs, one
fide of which is to be covered, is then applied to the
edge of the table, and cautioufly moved along the tin-
foil, fo that the redundant part of the mercury may be
carried before it. What remains enters into union
with the tin. The glafs is then to be equally loaded
with weights, to prefs out any part of the mercury
which may yet remain uncombined with the tin. In
the courfe of a few hours the amalgam of the two me¬
tals adheres fo firmly to the glafs, that the weights may
be removed. x8zz
6. Zinc readily forms an alloy with tin by fufion. Zinc.
The compound affords a hard metal with fmall grains,
the ductility of which correfponds to the quantity of tin.
The alloy of tin and zinc forms part of the compound
which is known by the name of pewter. lS2^
Tin is applied to a great many important purpofes. ufes.
In the arts and domeftic economy, it is formed into a
great variety of veffels and inftruments. The alloys of
tin with other metals are not lefs important. It forms
a component part of type metal, and bell metal. The ox¬
ides of tin are employed for the purpofe of polilhing glafs
and metallic fubftances, and combined with the earths
and alkalies for the fabrication of enamels. The falts
of tin are employed for the preparation of colours in
dyeing, or as a valuable mordant for fixing certain co¬
lours. Tin in the metallic ftate has been exhibited as
a remedy againft worms. It is then granulated by con-
ftant agitation while it cools after fufion j but it is fup-
pofed, if it produces any effect as a vermifuge medicine,
that it is merely by its mechanical action.
Sect. XVII. Of Lead and its Combinations.
1824
1. Lead has been known from the earlieft ages. Hiftory.
Pliny fpeaks of it under the name of black lead, pro¬
bably to diftinguifti it from tin, with the properties of
which he was alfo acquainted, for he obferves that it
was fometimes the pra&ice to contaminate tin with
lead. 1825
2. Lead is found in great abundance in many parts Ores,
of the world, and in a great variety of forms and com¬
binations. Lead has rarely, if ever, been found native,
and it is doubted whether it has yet been difeovered in
the ftate of oxide. The moft common form of lead is
in the ftatc of fulphuret, when it is combined with ful¬
phur. In this ftate it is of a gray, brilliant colour, of
a lamellated texture, very brittle, and breaks into cubes.
This is the moll frequent combination of lead, and it is
generally found in this ftate in veins. Lead is alfo
frequently met with combined with feveral of the acids.
The carbonate, phofphate, and arfeniate of lead are not
uncommon produdlions in the cavities of the veins of
fulphuret of lead. The chromate, molybdate, and ful-
phate of lead, are more rare
4 O
The
658
Lead, &.C.
i8a6
Analyfis.
1827
'Properties.
1828
Action of
heat.
1829
Oxidation.
C H E M I
1830
Gray oxide
1831
Yellow.
1832
Red.
3. The fulphuret of lead, which is the molt common
ore, is reduced by roafting, and then fufing with black
flux. The other ore? of lead are to be analyzed ac¬
cording to the nature of the acid with which they are
combined. To obtain lead in a ftate of purity, it may
be diflblved in nitric acid, and precipitated by means
of fulphate of foda. The precipitate, which is fulphate
of lead, is well w-alhed, and reduced in a crucible, by
fufing it with three times its weight of black flux.
4. Lead is of a grayifli or bluifli white colour. It
has confiderable brilliancy, but it foon tarniihes when
expofed to the air. The fpecific gravity of lead is
11.352. It gives out a peculiar odour when it is rub¬
bed ; it has at firfl: fcarcely any perceptible tafte j but
a difagreeable impreffion after fome time remains on
the tongue. When it is taken internally, it produces
violent effe&s on the animal economy, even in very
finall quantity. The colica piftonum or dry belly-
ach of the Weft Indies, or, as it is called in this coun¬
try, mill-reek, which is a violent affection of the
borvcls, is occafioned by this metal being taken inter¬
nally, either combined with fome liquid, or in the
ftate of vapour. This terrible difeafe often termi¬
nates in palfy. Lead ftains the finger or paper of a
bluifh colour. It is one of the fofteft of the metals.
It may be fcratched with the nail or cut with a knife.
It poffeffes confiderable malleability, and may be re¬
duced to plates thinner than paper. It has no great
duftility, and its tenacity is lefs than that of the other
metals. A lead wire of about of an inch in dia¬
meter can fupport only a weight of about 18 lb.
5. Lead is very fufible. It melts at the tempera¬
ture of 540°, or, according to the eftimation of Guy¬
ton, at 5940. When it is kept a long time melted,
and at a red heat, it fublimes, and evaporates in the
air. By flow cooling it cryftallizes in quadrangular
pyramids compofed of oftahedrons.
6. When lead is expofed to the air, it foon tar-
nifties, is deprived of its luftre, and becomes firft of a
deep gray, and afterwards of a grayifh rvhite colour *,
but this procefs is extremely flow, for the white cruft
which is formed on the furface defends the metal from
the aftion of the air, and its farther oxidation by ab-
forption of oxygen.
When lead is melted in the open air, and heat con-
tinued, an iridefeent pellicle is formed on the furface,
which afterw ards affumes a uniform gray colour. When
this is removed, another pellicle is formed, and in this
.way the whole may be converted into an oxide. When
thefe pellicles are heated and agitated together, the
whole is converted into a grayifh powder, mixed with
yellowiih or greenifh fpots. This is the gray oxide of
lead, which is the firft ftate of its oxidation.
When the gray oxide of lead is more ftrongly heat¬
ed in contaft with air, it abforbs a greater quantity of
oxygen, and is converted into a yellow oxide, which
is known in the arts by the name of majficot. It
contains about nine parts of oxygen in the hundred.
This oxide, which is much employed in fome of the
arts, is. prepared in the large way, by conftantly agi¬
tating it while heated, in contaft with air, without ap¬
plying fo great a heat as to reduce the metal to the
ftate of the next oxide.
If this oxide of lead be reduced to a fine powder.
S T R Y.
and expofed to a ftrong heal in a furnace for about head,
50 or 60 hours, it is converted into a red powder, "v*—
which is w'ell known by the name of minium, or red
lead. The heat neceflary for this converfion is that of
a cherry-red, in a reverberatory furnace. i833
Lead is fufceptible of combining with another por- Brown,
tion of oxygen, and of forming another oxide. If a
quantity of red oxide of lead, according to the pro¬
cefs of Prouft and Vauquelin, be put into a veflel with
water, and oxymuriatic acid gas be palled through it,
the oxide aflumes a deeper colour, and is diffolved.
By adding potaih to the folution, the lead is precipi¬
tated of a brown colour, which is the brown oxide of
lead. It is of a Ihining brown colour, and is com¬
pofed of
Lead
Oxygen
79
21
IOO
l834
By the action of the blow-pipe it becomes yellow, anti
melts. On burning coals it is reduced, and when
heated in a retort, gives out pure oxygen gas, and is
converted into a vitreous matter. It inflames fulphur
by triturating it with the oxidb, and gives out a bright
flame.
7. When lead has been converted into an oxide, Litharge,
and when this oxide is expofed to a more violent heat,
it melts into a kind of glafs, or femivitrified matter.
In this ftate it is knowm by the name of litharge. It
confifts of fmall reddilh brilliant feales, which from the
colour is called litharge of gold. When it has been
expofed to a greater degree of heat, and is more vitri¬
fied, it is diftinguilhed by the name of litharge of fiver.
8. There is no action between lead and azote, hy¬
drogen or carbone. Water has no adlion on lead, but
it feems to promote the oxidation of this metal, when
it is in contact with air. Leaden veflels which are
frequently moiftened with water, are covered with a
white cruft when expofed to the air.
9. Lead combines with phofphorus, and forms Phofphuret.
with it a phofphuret. This may be prepared by
projecting phofphorus on lead melted in a crucible,
or by diftilling phofphorus with lead in a retort. The
phofphuret of lead is of a filvery white colour, with
a little of a bluifh (hade. It is of a lamellated ftruc-
ture, and may be feparated in plates by hammering.
It is fo foft that it may be cut with a knife. It is
fomewhat lefs fufible than the component parts. Du¬
ring its fufion, a fmall quantity of phofphorus fepa-
rates, and takes fire on the furface. The component CompoC*
parts of this phofphuret are, b00-
Lead
Phofphorus
88
12
100
13 ^ ^
10. Sulphur combines readily with lead, either bygulphuret.
melting fulphur and lead together in a crucible, or by
throwing fulphur on melted lead. A black matter is
thus obtained, of a brilliant appearance, fibrous texture,
and lefs fufible than lead. This compound is brittle,
and refembles the native fulphuret of lead, or galena.
The component parts of this fulphuret are,
Lead
C H E M
Lead 36.8
Sulphur 13.2
100.0
11. Lead enters into combination with the metals,
and forms alloys, and with the acids, and forms falts.
affinities. The order of the affinities of lead and of its oxide is the
following :
Lead.
Oxide of Lead.
Gold,
Silver,
Copper,
Mercury,
Bifmuth,
Tin,
Antimony,
Platina,
Arfenic,
Zinc,
Nickel,
iron,
Sulphur.
Sulphuric acid,
Saclaftic,
•Oxalic,
Arfenic,
Tartaric,
Muriatic,
Phofphoric,
Sulphurous,
Suberic,
Nitric,
Fluoric,
Citric,
Laftic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic,
I S T R Y. 659
to liquid fulphurous acid, foon becomes white 5 the Lead, Scc.^
acid is dep.ived of its colour, and there is formed a ~'rrri
faline ma s of fulphate and fulphite of lead. The ful-
phite of lead cannot be obtained feparately, but by
treating the white oxide of lead feparated from the
nitrate by means of fulphurous acid. The fulphite of Ig^a
lead is tafrclefs and infoluble. By the a&ion of the A&ion of
blow-pipe on charcoal, it melts, gives out a phofphoric heat,
flame, and becomes of a pale yellow colour on cooling.
When it is heated for a longer time, it fwells up, and
is entirely reduced to the metallic flate. When diftilled
in clofe veffels, it gives out water, ftilphurous acid, and
fulphur, and there remains behind, fulphate of lead of
a greenifh yellow colour. It is decompofed with ef-
fervefcence and the evolution of fulphurous acid, by
means of fulphuric and muriatic acid. It is not de-Decompofi-
compofed by nitric acid, but is converted into a ful-tl0n*
phate, and red fumes of nitrous gas are given out. If,
in place of treating the red oxide with fulphurous acid,
this oxide be expofed to a red heat, along with fulphite
of foda, the oxide is reduced, and the fulphite of foda
is converted into a fulphate, but with excefs of foda,
becaufe the fulphuric acid formed, cannot faturate the
fame quantity of foda. Hence it appears, that the
red oxide of lead gives up part of its oxygen to the
fulphurous acid when it is uncombined, and the whole
of its oxygen to the acid, when it is in combination
with potafli or foda *. * Fourcroy%
■ viii. 85.
I. Salts of Lead.
x839
Prepara¬
tion.
1840
Compofi-
tion.
I. Sulphate of Lead.
Sulphuric acid has no aftion on lead in the cold $
but when lead is boiled with the acid concentrated, it
decompofes it, and fulphurous acid gas is difengaged
with effervefcence. The lead is converted into a white
thick mafs, which remains at the bottom of the veffel.
Sulphate of lead may alfo be obtained by adding ful¬
phuric acid or an alkaline fulphate to acetate of lead.
This fait is precipitated in the Hate of a white powder.
The white mafs obtained by the firfl procefs, being
walhed with water, feparates into two portions, one of
which is oxide of lead containing a little fulphuric acid,
and the other portion, which is fulphate of lead, is folu-
ble in water, and may be obtained cryftallized in nee¬
dles. The fpecific gravity of this fait is 1.8742. It
has fcarcely any tafte. It is found native, and cryftal¬
lized in regular octahedrons, or four-fided pyramids, or
tranfparent tables. The component parts of native ful¬
phate of lead are, according to
Kirwan. Klaproth.
Oxide 7 5.00
Acid 23.37 25.75
Water 1.63 2.25
100.00
98*5°f
* Min.
Wfa.p.374.
t EJays, This fait is deprived of great part of its acid by
*'13'■ means of the alkalies.
iranjl.
1841
Prepara¬
tion.
2. Sulphite of Lead.
Sulphurous acid has no aCtion on lead ; but it com¬
bines readily with the oxide of lead, v’ith a fmaller
proportion of oxygen. The red oxide of lead added
3. Nitrate of Lead.
,844
1. Nitric acid, a little diluted with wrater, ads upon Prepara-
lead, oxidates it, and diflblves it with effervefcence. tlon*
If the acid be too ftrong, there remains behind a dry
oxide. This oxide is equally foluble in nitric acid.
No precipitate is formed in the folution by the ad¬
dition of water. It has at firft a fweetifti, then an af-
tringent, acid tafte. By evaporating the folution, it
affords on cooling, regular cryftals in the form of fiat
triangles *, and by flowq fpontaneous evaporation, the i84J.
angles are truncated. Sometimes fix-fided truncated Properties,
pyramids are obtained, w'ith the faces alternately broad
and narrow. Thefe cryftals decrepitate ftrongly on
burning coals, and give out brilliant fparks. The
fait is decompofed, and a yellow or red oxide of lead
remains behind. Nitrate of lead is decompofed by the
alkalies, and precipitated in the form of white oxide.
It is precipitated of a black colour, by means of the
fulphurets and hydrofulphurets j it is alfo decompofed
by fulphuric acid and the fulphates, w'hich form a thick,
white, foluble precipitate of fulphate of lead. Sulphur¬
ous acid alfo precipitates this fait in the form of fulphate
of lead. . ^ 4 xs4<5
2. The former fait is a compound of nitric acid and With the-
the yellow oxide 5 but when nitric acid combines w ith white ox-
the w'hite oxide, the fait cryftallizes in yellow colour-lC,e*
ed brilliant feales, which are very foluble in water.
This fait may alfo be prepared by boiling together a
quantity of nitrate of lead with the yellow oxide, along
with lead in the metallic ftate. The lead deprives the
yellow oxide of part of its oxygen, and the whole is
converted into the white oxide, and combines with the
acid. ^ _ *847
3. But if nitric acid be poured on the red oxide of Adtior, on.
lead, heat is produced, the oxide becomes white, part red oxide.,
is diffolved, and part falls to the bottom in the form of
4 0a a-
<16©
G H E M I
Lead, See. a black powder. Tills powder is tbe brown oxide of
' lead, with the greateft proportion of oxygen, part of
which it has derived from the red oxide, which is then
Converted into the white. About ® of the red oxide
are dilfolved in the acid, but are previoufly reduced to
the date of white oxide, and the oxygen which has
been given out? combines with the remaining and
converts it to the date of brown oxide. I'hus it ap¬
pears, that the red and the brown oxides of lead do not
form compounds with nitric acid. I hey muft be de¬
prived of a portion of their oxygen, and converted in¬
to the white or yellow oxides, before they are loluble
in this acid.
1847
Prepara¬
tion.
184S
Compoli-
fcion. '
4. Muriate of Lead.
1. Muriatic acid a£ts feebly on lead or its oxide $ but
when it is heated with the latter, part of the oxide
combines with the acid, becomes foluble with ex-
cefs of acid, and affords cryftals in the form of fliimng
filky needles, which are not deliquefeent in the air, but
are foluble in water, and have an aftringent tafte.
This fait may be formed by adding an alkaline muriate
to a folution of nitrate of lead. A white thick precipi¬
tate is immediately formed. The muriate of lead thus
obtained, has a fweetifh tafte, and is loluble in about 30
times its weight of water; 'When heated, it readily
melts, and gives out a white vapour, which .condenfes
into a cryftalline powder. When this fait is melted,
it affumes the appearance of a femivitreous, fhining,
grayilh mafs, which has been called plumbum corneum,
or horny lead. This fait is decompofed by fulphuric
acid. Its component parts are, according to
Klaproth. Kirwan.
Acid, 13.5 18.23
Oxide of lead, 86.5 81.77
100.0 100.00
S T IV Y.
infoluble in nitric acid. The addition of fugar, honey, Leaa, &c,
or fome vegetable matter, by depriving it of part of its J
oxygen, renders it loluble in this acid.
6. Fluate of Lead.
This fait may be formed by pouring a folution of an
alkaline lluate into a folution of nitrate of lead. An
infoluble infipid fait is thus formed, which is decom¬
pofed by fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids.
7. Borate of Lead.
This fait is formed in the fame way as the laft, and
is in the ftate of white powder. It melts before the
blow-pipe, into a colourlefs glafs.
8. Phofphate of Lead.
1. Liquid phofphoric acid a els very (lowly upon prf-para,
lead, and converts it into a white, inlbluble phofphate. tion.
It may be formed, however, by adding an alkaline
phofphate to the nitrate of lead. With an excefs of
acid this fait becomes fulible by heat, and when it
cools, affumes the form of regular polyhedrons. It is
decompofed by red-hot charcoal, which converts it in¬
to phofphorus and lead, while the carbone of the char¬
coal is converted into carbonic acid. It is decompof¬
ed by fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, and by the
alkaline carbonates; , .
2. This fait is frequently found native, cryftallized Native?
in fix-fided prifms, of a green or yellow colour. It is
foluble in pure foda, but infoluble in v^ater. The
component parts of a phofphate of lead from Wanlock-
head in Scotland, according to the analyfts of Kla¬
proth, are the following.
Oxide of lead, 80.00
Phofphoric acid, 18.00
Muriatic, 1.62
1849
With red
oxide.
2. When muriatic acid is (lightly heated with the
red oxide of lead, the acid is converted into oxymuri-
atic acid j while the oxide, deprived of part of its oxy¬
gen, unites to another portion of the acid, and forms
muriate of lead in the ftate of white powder.
5. Hyperoxymuriate of Lead.
When oxymuriatic acid gas is made to pafs through
water, having a white, yellow, or red oxide of lead, it is
■p l8^e abforbed. The oxide becomes at firft black or brown,
iion, and is then diffolved. The hyperoxymuriate which is
formed, remains in folution of a yellowr colour. This
folution being precipitated with potalh or foda, the
oxide of lead is depofited, of a reddifli brown colour.
This fait may be obtained by pouring oxymuriatic acid
on nitrate of lead. No precipitate is at firft formed, but
in the end a brtnvnifti red powder appears. This fait
is more foluble than muriate of lead, and is readily de¬
compofed. The brown oxide of lead, which is ob-
tained by decompofing this fait, according to the experi-
Froperties. ments of Vauquelin, poffeffes very different properties
from thofe of the other oxides of this metal. It is of
a deep {hining, velvet-brown colour. Heated with the
blow-pipe, it becomes yellow, and melts. On red-hot
coals it is reduced j it gives out pure hydrogen gas,
when it is heated in a retort, and there remains behind
a litharge of lead. It diffolves in nitrous acid, but is
99.62 *;
9. Carbonate of Lead.
* Elm
H. I25.
Tranjl.
I; Carbonic acid vdiich has no adlion on lead, com-Prepara-
bines wfith its oxide, which is converted into the car-tion.
bonate of lead $ or this fait may be prepared by the de-
compofition of a foluble fait of lead by an alkaline car¬
bonate. Thus precipitated, it is in the ftate of white
powder, which has neither tafte nor fmell, and is in¬
fo] uble in water, but it is foluble in pure potafti. *555
2. This fait is frequently found native, of a whitifti Native,
colour, and cryftallized in tables, in fix-fided prifms,
or in regular oftahedrons. The fpecific gravity is
7.2357. It is infoluble in water. By the aftxon of
the blow-pipe on charcoal, the acid is didven oft', and
the lead is revived. The component parts of carbo¬
nate of lead, are, according to
Bergman. Klaproth.
Acid, 16 16.33
Yellow oxide, 84 83.67
IOO 103.00
l8ii<5
3* Cerufe or white lead, which is employed as a white
paint, is a carbonate of lead, combined with a certain
proportion
CHEMISTRY.
661
tea!?, fee. ■proportion of oxide. It is prepared by expofing thin
plates of lead to the vapour of vinegar. A range of
pots are placed on tanners bark or horfe dung, that
they may receive a moderate heat. Thefe are cover¬
ed with plates of lead, ..which are full of holes. An¬
other range of pots is placed above thefe, covered in
like manner with plates of lead, and fo on, till the
whole chamber is filled. The acid is decompofed •, part
bf the lead remains in the Hate of oxide, while the
greateft proportion is converted into a carbonate, which
is the white lead of commerce.
io. Arfeniate of Lead.
When lead is digefted in a folution of arfenic acid,
the furface is blackened, and becomes covered with
a white powder. When lead filings are diftilled with
double their weight of folid arfenic acid, the mixture
melts into a tranfparent mafs. A fmall quantity of
arfenious acid is fepafated, and there remains behind a
whitifh glafs, which being diluted with water, lets
fall a white powder, whilft part of the arfenic acid is
diffolVed. The lead in this cafe has deprived the ar¬
fenic acid of part of its oxygen, and in the date of
white oxide has combined with another portion of the
acid* The arfeniate of lead is not foluble in water.
By heat it fufes into a white glafs. This fait is found
1857 native, and by the analyfis of Mr Chenevix it is com-
Compofi- p0fed of
tion. 1
Acid, . 33
White oxide, 63
Water, 4
100
11. Tungftate of Lead.
Tungftic acid feparates the oxide of lead from its fo¬
lution in nitric acid, and forms a tungftate of lead, in
the form of a white powder.
12. Molybdate of Lead.
When molybdic acid is added to the folution of lead
in nitric acid, it forms a copious white precipitate,
which is molybdate of lead. This fait is found native,
and cryftallized in cubes or rhomboidal plates. It is of
a yellow colour, infoluble in water, but foluble in fixed
alkalies and nitric acid. It is decompofed by muriatic
acid. The component parts, as afeertained by Kla¬
proth, are,
Acid, 34.7
Oxide, 65.3
100.0
13. Chromate of Lead.
An alkaline chromate mixed with the folution of
nitrate of lead, forms a precipitate in the ftate of red
powder, which is chromate of lead. This fait is
found native, of a reddilh yellow colour, and cryftal¬
lized in four-fided prifms, terminated by four-fided
pyramids. The fpecific gravity is about 6. It is folu¬
ble in the fixed alkalies, but infoluble in water. It
is decompofed by muriatic and fulphuric acids, but
diiToSces without decompofition in nitric acid. Ac¬
cording to the antdyfis of Vauquelin, it ia compo- Lead 6u:
fed of
Acid, 34.9
Oxide, 65.1
100.0
14. Acetate of Lead. ^
. - . 1S58
1. The combination of acetic acid and lead was tor-i4amei.
meriy known by the names of extraci oj Saturn, fait of
Saturn, fugar of Saturn, or fugar of lead. This acid
oxidates lead, and dilfolves the oxides with great faci- Ig59
lity. It is formed by diffolving carbonate of lead or Prepara-
cerufe in acetic acid, or by expofing thin plates of leadb°n-
to the aftion of acetic acid in earthen veffels. After the
acid has been fufficiently faturated, and the folution
concentrated by evaporation, the acetate of lead is de-
pofited in fmall cryftals. jg^
2. This fait is in the form of fmall cryftals, which Properties,
are flat, four-fided prifms, terminated by two-fided fum-
mits. It has an aftringent fweetifh tafte. The fpeci¬
fic gravity is 2.345. It is not very foluble in water,
without an excefs of acid. It undergoes no change by
expofure to the air. By its folution in water, a fmall
quantity is depofited in the form of white powder, which
is a carbonate of lead, formed by the carbonic acid
which exifts in the water.
3. Acetate of lead is decompofed by fulphuric, mu-Decompofi-
riatic, fluoric, and phofphoric acids. It is decompo-tion.
fed by heat. By diftillation it affords, according to
the experiments of Prouft, from 160 parts of the fait
12 parts of flightly acidulated water j with a greater
heat, 72 parts of a yellow liquid, having the odour
of alcohol, which had fomething of an empyreumatic
fmell. Ammonia was difengaged, by adding lime to
the liquid ; and when the liquid was faturated with
potafti, and remained at reft for 24 hours, a third part
of oil feparated, and floated on the furface. This oil,
which had a ftrong odour, was removed, and the li¬
quid diftilled with a moderate heat. The firft part
that came over mixed with water like alcohol, and
was almoft' as volatile as ether. When it jvas brought
into contafl with a burning body, it gave out a white
flame.
15. Oxalate of Lead.
Oxalic acid very readily tarnifhes lead, and at laft
corrodes it. It readily dilfolves the oxide $ and when
it is faturated, the folution becomes thick, and depo-
fits fmall ftiining cryftals, which become readily opaque
by expofure to the air. This fait may be formed by
pouring oxalic acid into the folutions of nitrate, mu¬
riate, or acetate of lead. It is fcarcely foluble in wa¬
ter, without an excefs of acid. The component parts
are,
Acid, 41.2
Oxide, 58.8 , ’
100.0 4.
16. Tartrate of Lead.
Tartaric acid combines with the oxide of lead, op
forms a precipitate in the ftate of an infoluble white
powder,
'K'si-
662
Lead, &c.
* Annul de
Chim.
xxxviii. 3^1.
28(Sz
Promote
its oxida¬
tion.
1863
Combine
with the
oxide.
CHEMISTRY.
powder, from the folution ot lead in nitric and muriatic
acids. It is compofed of
Acid, _ ^ 34
White oxide, 66
too *.
17. Tartrate of Potafh and Lead.
This triple fait is obtained by boiling the oxide of
lead in tartar with water. It is infoluble, and is not
decompofed by the alkalies.
18. Nitrate of Lead.
By adding citric acid to a folution of acetate of lead,
a citrate of lead precipitates in the form of powder,
which is fcarcely foluble in water.
19. Malate of Lead.
This fait is obtained by adding malic acid to a folu¬
tion of the nitrate or acetate of lead. The malate of
lead precipitates in the form of fine light flakes. It is
Ibluble in acetic and diluted nitric acids.
20. Benzoate of Lead.
Benzoic acid has but a feeble action on lead. By
evaporating the folution, cryftals of a brilliant-white
colour are obtained, which are benzoate of lead. This
fait undergoes no change by expofure to the air, is fo¬
luble in water and alcohol, is decompofed by heat, and
by the fulphuric and muriatic acids.
21. Succinate of Lead.
Succinic acid combines with the yellow oxide of
lead, and yields flender foliated cryftals, which are nearly
infoluble in water, but foluble in nitric acid.
22. Saccolate of Lead.
When facla&ic acid is added to folution of nitrate of
lead, a white precipitate is obtained, which is facco-
late of lead.
23. Suberate of Lead.
Suberic acid forms a precipitate when added to the
folution of lead in acetic and nitric acids.
24. Laftate of Lead.
La&ic acid, after it has been digefted upon lead
for fome days, difiblves a portion of it. The folu¬
tion has a fweet, aftringent tafte, but it does not cry-
llallize.
II. A&ion of the Alkalies, &c. on Lead.
1. The alkalies and earths have no aiftion whatever
on lead. The alkalies, however, promote its oxidation
by the air, on account of the attraction which they pof-
fefs for the oxide of lead.
2. The alkalies and alkaline earths unite readily
with the oxide of lead. Lime water digefted fome time
with oxide of lead in the ftate of litharge, diffolves this
oxide better than the red. When the folution is eva¬
porated, it affords fmall, tranfparent, iridefeent cry.
ftals, not more foluble than lime. The alkaline ful-
phates deeompofe this compound of oxide of lead and
lime. It is alfo decompofed by fulphurated hydrogen Lead, See.
gas, and by fulphuric and muriatic acids, which latter '
convert the lead into a fulphate and muriate. This
folution blackens wool, the nails, hair, the white of an
egg but has no adlion, and produces no change, on
filk, on the flein, or the yolk of an egg. It has been
obferved, that the Ample mixture of red oxide of lead
and of lime, which latter converts it to white, produ¬
ces a black colour on animal matters. It is fometimes
employed for dyeing the hair. It had formerly been
obferved by Bergman, that the cauftic fixed alkalies
diflblve the oxide of lead, which takes place when thefe
bodies are added in excefs to the precipitate of this me¬
tal from its folution.
3. The earths, but efpecially alumina and filica, tea-Earths.**
dily combine w ith the red oxide of lead, by the aClion
of heat 5 and, when the proportion of oxide is confider-
able, the compound is a heavy, uniform, vitreous mafs,
which has been called glafs of lead. It is on account
of the ftrong tendency of the oxide of lead to vitrifi¬
cation, and which it communicates to earthy matters,
that it is employed in the compofition of glafs in the
proportion of from j- to This oxide was only em¬
ployed formerly, for the preparation of enamels, and
for glazing pottery and ftone ware; but it is now ge¬
nerally ufed after the example of the Englifli manufac¬
turers, in the fabrication of glafs, in moft countries of
Europe. _
4. Lead has no aftion on the fulphates. It burns Sulphate?,
(lowly with the afliftance of the nitrates. When nitre,
in the ftate of fine powder, is thrown into melted lead,
railed to a red heat, there is fcarcely any perceptible
flame j and, when the aftion has ceafed, the oxide is
found in fmall yellowifli femivitrified feales, fimilar to
thofe of litharge. xt66
5. There is a perceptible aflion between lead and Muriates,
the muriates, fome of which have given rife to feveral
important procefles in chemiftry, and in the arts. It
had been long obferved, that a plate of lead immerfed
in water, faturated with muriate of foda, was foon co¬
vered with a cruft of white oxide. It was alfo known,
that the red oxide of mercury and litharge became
white when kept in contaft with muriate of foda dif-
folved in water. This procefs, which is promoted by
agitation, is one of the great defiderata of modern che¬
miftry, to be able to decompofe common fait for the
purpofe of obtaining the foda. It was at firft fuppofed,
that this was a partial decompofition, from which a
fmall quantity of muriate of lead only was obtained ;
that the decompofition was aided by heat 5 and that it
was by this procefs that a brilliant yellow muriate of
lead, much employed in painting under the name of
Englijh yellow, was prepared. 1867
This fubjedl has been greatly elucidated by the ex-Decompofi-
periments and refearches of Vauquelin. He took feven t'.on
parts of litharge reduced to powder, and one of mu- ^t;e 0 ^
riate of foda mixed togeter, and moiftened w ith a fuf-
ficient quantity of water, to reduce them to the liquid
ftate, and then agitated the mixture for feveral hours to
promote the reciprocal action. The oxide became
white, and increafed in volume, and the mixture ad-
forbing the water, became of a more folid confidence..
Having added new quantities of water during four
days, and diluted the whole in feven or eight parts of
this
C H E M
jjtad, 8cc. tliis liquid, it was filtefed. ^ The liquid, which was
-V*—'' now fenfibly alkaline, contained a little muriate of
lead, but no trace of muriate of foda. When it was
evaporated to of its bulk, it yielded cryftals of car¬
bonate of foda, \iTiich were opaque, by being contami¬
nated with muriate of lead. The oxide of lead which
remained, had increafed about £ of the weight j it be¬
came of a fine citron-yellow colour, with a moderate
heat, and loft 0.025 ^ts weight. It was infoluble in
water. Soda diffolved a portion of this oxide, as did
alfo diluted nitric acid. By this means the muriate of
lead was feparated pure and cryftallized j and the mafs
which remained after the a£tion of muriate of foda and
lead, exhibited the chara&ers of a muriate of lead con¬
taining an excefs of oxide.
From thefe experiments Vauquelin concludes, that
the litharge which has been employed in the decompo-
fition of lea fait, is a muriate of lead with excefs of
exide *, that the cauftic alkalies diffolve this fait, but
do not decompofe if, that the affinity of muriate of
lead for an excefs of the oxide of this metal, is the
caufe of the decompofition of muriate of foda by means
of litharge j that the excefs of oxide gives to the muri¬
ate of lead the property of affuming a brilliant yellow
colour by heat, a property which the fimple muriate of
lead does not poffefs ; that the fame excefs of lead ren¬
ders it infoluble in water, and that this excefs may be
taken up by the nitric acid, which reduces it to the
ftate of ordinary muriate of lead. The fame philofo-
pher has confirmed thefe inferences, by (hewing that
cauftic foda decompofes the common muriate of lead,
only by bringing it to the ftate of muriate with excefs
of oxide, which is characterized by being in the form of
powder, and the yellow colour, which is communica¬
ted by heat, and its decompofition by nitric acid, which
converts it into nitrate of lead, and fimple muriate of
lead. Thus, it appears, that the oxide of lead decom¬
pofes the muriate of foda, by double affinity ; namely,
by the affinity of the oxide for muriatic acid, and that
of the muriate of lead for an excefs of oxide. A con-
fiderable quantity of the latter, therefore, is neceflary
for the complete decompofition. Five-fixths, at leaft,
are required to form the muriate with excefs of oxide.
Muriate of litharge then decompofes fea fait completely, when in
uamonia. fufficient quantity, while foda only decompofes the mu¬
riate of lead partially, and reduces it to the ftate of mu¬
riate with excefs of oxide ; but the carbonate of foda
effeCts the entire decompofition of this fait.
6. The decompofition of muriate of ammonia by
lead, and efpecially by its oxide, has been long
known. The oxides of lead triturated with this fait
in a mortar in the cold, difengage ammonia, which is
very perceptible by its fmell. By diftilling a mixture
of one part of red oxide of lead and twTo of muriate of
ammonia in a retort, very pure cauftic ammonia is
obtained. If the red oxide has remained for any
length of time expofed to the air, it gives out, during
the procefs, a little carbonate of ammonia. The hy-
peroxymuriate of potafti produces a detonation with
lead. A mixture of three parts of this fait with one
of lead, gives out a vivid flame by percuffion. The
other falls, as the phofphates, fluates, &e. have no ef-
feCt on lead. By the aCtion of the blow-pipe, they
combine with its oxides, and form yellowiffi, or gray,
opaque, or tranfparent glaffes.
III. Alloys.
I S T R r, 663
Lead, &c.
1. Lead combines with arfenic by fufioh, and thearfe-
compound is a brittle lamellated alloy. When the ox- nic.
ides of thefe metals are combined together by means of
heat, a vitreous mafs of a red colour is formed.
2. The alloys of lead with tungften, molybdena, and
the newly difcovered metals, are not known.
3. Cobalt feems to have little affinity for l<;ad.Cobak
Equal parts of the two metals being fufed together,
were found, when the mafs cooled, to be in feparate
maffes. The heaviefl: metal occupied the inferior part
of the veffel, and the lighter the upper part. An alloy
of lead and cobalt has been formed by introducing co¬
balt in powder within plates of lead, and covering them
with charcoal, to exclude the air. A brittle mafs,
which affumed a better poliffi than lead, was obtain¬
ed from equal parts of the two metals, by the applica¬
tion of heat. The twb metals in different proportions
afforded an alloy which differed in hardnefs, fpecific
gravity and malleability, according as the one or the
other metal predominated. , .
4. Lead forms with bifmuth an alloy of a clofe grain, Bifmuth.
and a dark gray colour. This alloy, when the bifmuth
is not in great proportion, poffeffes eonliderable duc¬
tility. Bifmuth has the property of increaling the tena¬
city of lead. The fpecific gravity of the alloy of lead
and bifmuth is greater than the mean. tSy2
5. When lead is combined with one-eighth of its Antimony,
weight of antimony, it forms an alloy which pofleffes
great tenacity. When they are combined in equal
parts, the alloy is very brittle. Two parts of lead
with one of antimony, give a brittle alloy in fmall
grains fimilar to thofe of iron. Four parts of lead
■with one of antimony, afford an alloy of greater duc¬
tility, and in larger grains. Four parts of lead with
one-haL of antimony, give a Very foft metal in fine
grains like fteel, and having the fame colour. The
alloy of 16 parts of lead and one of antimony, differs
only from lead in hardnefs. This alloy has a greater
fpecific gravity than the mean, and poffeffes confider-
able tenacity. It is employed in the fabrication of
printing types. 1873
6. Mercury combines with lead very readily, and Mercury,
in all proportions. An amalgam of lead and mercury
may be formed by triturating the former in filings
with the latter $ or, by adding heated mercury to
lead in fufion. This amalgam varies in folidity, ac¬
cording to the proportion of the two metals. It is of
a white colour, is altered by expofure to the air, and
affords cryftals by cooling. The mercury is driven
off by ftrong heat, and when it is triturated with wa¬
ter, a black powder, which is oxide of lead, feparates.
The amalgam of lead and mercury becomes very li¬
quid, when it is triturated with the amalgam of bif- lS^/l
muth. To equal parts of lead and bifmuth melted in and bif¬
an iron vcffel, half the quantity of the whole mafs of muth.
hot fluid mercury was added, and the mixture was
agitated till it cooled. A fluid amalgam was thus ob¬
tained, which does not become folid by reft, or expo¬
fure to the air, and which almoft entirely paffes
through leather like mercury itfelf. This liquidity of
lead and bifmuth is afcribed to their increafed capacity
for caloric in a ftate of combination. When mercury
is thus fophifticated, it may be detected by obferving
the
IS76
Tin.
i877
Solder.
1878
Tin and
bifmuth.
1879
Ufes of
lead, &c.
1880
Hiftory.'
C H E M I
the (mailer fpeclfic gravity, and fubjeamg it to the
tell formerly mentioned, of pouring it along a imooth
furfaee, when it is found to drag a tail. #
7. An alloy of zinc and lead in equal parts is Hard¬
er and whiter than lead, and is malleable. The lead
is rendered volatile by the zinc, while the latter is m
the proportion of 10 or 12 parts to one of the former •,
but if the zinc be in fmaller proportion, it feparates
from the lead. The fpecific gravities of the alloys of
zinc and lead are faid to be greater than the mean ot
the two metals.
8. Lead combines with tin in all proportions.
Lead in general, is found to increafe in denfity and
hardnefs, when alloyed with tin. Three or four parts
of tin with one of lead, according to Mufchenbroek
form an alloy which poffeffes twice the hardnefs of
pure tin. The alloy of three parts of tin and one of
lead poffeffes the greateft tenacity of any proportion
of thefe metals. Two parts of lead and one of tin,
compofe an alloy which is more fufible than either of
the metals. This is the compofition of common folder.
Tinfoil is a compound of tin and lead ; and the (lieet
lead employed for lining the boxes in which tea is
brought from China to Europe, contains a _ certain
portion of tin, which gives it hardnefs. _ This, how¬
ever, is alfo found to be alloyed witb zinc and bif-
mutb. .
One of tbe mod Angular alloys of lead is that witn
bifmuth and tin, wmch has been called, from its eafy
fufibility, the fufible alloy. Eight parts of bifmuth,
five of lead, and three of tin, are the proportions pro-
pofed by Darcet for this alloy, which is fo fufible,
that it remains liquid at the temperature of boiling
water. This alloy cryftallizes by flow cooling._
Lead and its various preparations are applied to a
great variety of purpofes in the arts. In the metallic
date it is employed in the conftruclion of numerous
veffels. In the ftate of oxide it is ufed as a paint, and
in the fabrication of enamels for porcelain and pottery,
and in the preparation of coloured glafs and artificial
precious flones. Some of its falts are of great impor¬
tance in the arts, as the acetate in dyeing, and the
carbonate or cerufe in painting.
The greateft caution ought to be obferved, how¬
ever, in the ufe of leaden veffels in domeftic economy,
in which fubftances are preferved which are. to be
taken internally, particularly thofe which contain acids
that are apt to diffolve the lead •, and as the effefts of
lead are fo deleterious to the animal economy when
taken internally, this caution cannot be too ftritlly ob¬
ferved.
Sect. XVIII. Of IRON and its Combinations.
S T R 1.
1S81
Very abun¬
dant.
T. Iron is one of tbe moft important and moft ufe-
ful of tbe metals, and it is fortunately one of the moft
abundant. It is fuppofed that it was not fo early
known as fume of the other metals, which, on ac¬
count of their fcarcity and durability, have been held
in higher eftimation, and dignified with the name of
precious metals. But perhaps the difficulty of extract¬
ing and working iron prevented it from being fo gene¬
rally applied to thofe purpofes to which, on account of
its valuable properties, it is peculiarly appropriated.
2. Iron, as it is the moft. ufeful of the metals, fo,
as it lias been obferved, it is the moft abundant, and Ircr,
at the fame time the moft univerfally diffufed. Iron
exifts in fivg different ftates, but in thefe it exhibits
the greateft variety of any other of the metals. It is
found in the metallic ftate, in that of alloy w ith other
metals •, in the ftate of fulphuret, in the ftate of ox¬
ide, and combined with the acids forming falts. lSgj
1. Iron lias only been found native in infulated maffes,Ores.
one of which, difeovered by Pallas in Siberia, and
another, which was found in South America, long
occupied the attention of philofophers in fpecuhtions
and difeuftions concerning their origin. This point
remained unfettled till the difeovery of numerous other
fads with regard to fimilar produClions, which have
proved, whatever may have been their origin or mode
of formation, that thefe metallic maffes have fallen from
the atmofphere. 2. Iron is frequently found in the
ftate of alloy with other metals •, but in this ftate it is
generally in very fmall proportion. 3. Combined
with fulphur. This compound, or fulphuret of iron,
w hich is known to mineralogifts by the name of pyrites,
is a frequent production among the ores of iron. Sulphu-
ret of iron is found cryftallized in a great variety of forms.
Iron is alfo frequently found combined with carbone.
This compound, mnv diftinguiftied by the name of car¬
buret of iron, was formerly known by the name of
black lead, or plumbago. 4. But the moft ordinary
ftate of iron is that of oxide, and in this ftate it ex¬
hibits a great variety of forms. It is fometimes in ir¬
regular and infulated maffes •, fometimes regularly
cryftallized, and difpofed in veins. 5. The native falts,
of iron are very numerous. It has been found in the
ftate of fulphate, phofphate, carbonate, tungftate, and
prufliate, and there is reafon to believe, that it exifts in
combination w ith many other acids.
3. The method of affaying iron ores, or of extracting Analyfis.
the metal from thefe fubftances with which it is com¬
bined, varies according to the nature of the ore. It is
firft reduced into powder, and expofed to heat, to fe-
parate the moifture or fulphur, or other volatile mat¬
ters. Four parts of the ore are then to be mixed with
an equal quantity of decrepitated muriate of foda, and
the fame quantity of a mixture of equal parts of fluor
fpar and lime, with one-half part of charcoal. This
mixture is expofed to a red heat in a crucible nearly
an hour, after which the iron is found in the metallic
ftate at the bottom of the crucible. In the humid
way, a given quantity of iron ore may be reduced to
powder, and digefted with fix parts of muriatic acid,
which combines w ith tbe iron, and other fubftances folu-
ble in that acid, but leaves the fulphur and filiceouS
earth behind. The folution is then to be faturated
with potafti, by which the iron is precipitated in the
ftate of oxide, along with the earths with which it had
combined. The precipitate is to be well dried, and
fubjedled to a red-beat. It is then to be reduced to
powder, and digefted with diluted nitric acid. 'Ihe
acid combines with the earths, but leaves the iron, be-
caufe it is too highly oxidated to be foluble in this acid.
The oxide, after being well wafticd, is mixed with
charcoal, and expofed to a ftrong beat in a crucible, by
which the oxygen is driven oft", and the iron remains
behind in the metallic ftate. jSg^
4. Iron has a peculiar metallic brilliancy. It is ofpropertie3,
a grayifti or bluilh-white colour. The fpecific gravity
of
CHEMISTRY.
Attion of
[teat.
Iron, 8tc. of iron is from 7.6 to 7.89, and according to feme,
 even 8.16. It has an aitringent tafte, and when it is
rubbed, gives out a peculiar fmell. One of the lingu¬
lar properties of iron, is that of pofiefling the magne¬
tic virtue, or of being attrailed by the magnet. Iron
poffelTes a confiderable degree of malleability, but in
this property it is inferior to gold or lilver. It is ex¬
tremely duftile. It may be drawn out into wire al-
moft as fine as hair. The tenacity of iron is very
great. A wire .078 of an inch in diameter will fupport
a weight, without breaking, equal to more than ’500 lb.
* Ann- de avoirdupois*. The texture of iron leems to be fibrous,
Chm* as- 9- and to this, it is fuppofed, are owing its great dufti-
l8Sc lity and tenacity.
5. Iron is one of the molt infufible of the metals.
It is faid that it requires a temperature equal to more
than 150° Wedgwood for its fulion. It becomes red
long before it melts, and different degrees of tempera¬
ture are difllngulfhed by the different (hades of red which
it exhibits. The firft is called a dull red, the fecond a
cherry red, the third a bright red, and the fourth a
white heat, or incandefcence.
6. When iron is expofed to the air, the furface foon
becomes tarnilhed, and is covered with a brown pow¬
der, which is called rufl. This procefs is greatly pro¬
moted by the moifture of the atmofphere. This is the
oxidation of the metal, and its converfion into an oxide,
by combining with the oxygen of the atmofphere.
The procefs of rufting, then, is the oxidation of the
iron, and it is owing to the (Irong affinity which ex-
ifts between iron and oxygen. But ruft is not merely
a compound of oxygen and iron. It has combined with
a certain proportion of carbonic acid. This was for¬
merly called faffron of tnars.
7. There are two oxides of iron j the firft, or that
which contains the greateft proportion of oxygen, is
18SS common ruft, or, as it is denominated from its colour,
fed oxide, brown or red oxide of iron. This oxide may be for¬
med by expofing iron filings in an open veffel to a red
heat, and agitating them till they are converted into
a red powder. This oxide confifts of
665
1886
Dxidation.
1887
kides two.
Oxygen,
Iron,
48
52
ICO
The red oxide of iron cannot be decompofed by heat-,
but when it is expofed to heat, with its own weight of
iron filings, there is no evolution of any gas, but the
bSSp *ron fdings are converted into a black powder, and the
lack. red oxide is converted into a fimilar powder. This is
the black oxide of irojn, which contains the fmaller
proportion of oxygen. This oxide is compofed of
Oxygen,
Iron,
28
73
100
This oxide may alfo be obtained by heating iron fil¬
ings for fome time in water at a temperature not un¬
der 70°, or by making the vapour of water pafs through
a red-hot tube containing iron wire, or fmall fragments
of iron. The water in thefe cafes is decompofed, the
hydrogen cfcapes in the form of gas, and the oxygen
combines with the iron. This oxide was formerly cal-
Vol. V. Part II.
led fnartial elhiopx. It is this oxide which is obtained Iron, &'
by burning iron wire in oxygen gas. v——y—
8. There is no aftion between iron and azote. Hy¬
drogen gas, which is obtained from the deeompofition
of water by means of iron filings and fulphuric acid,
holds a fmall quantity of iron in folution. . When hy¬
drogen gas is brought into contact with the red oxide
of iron, it deprives it of that proportion of oxygen
which it contains above the black oxide, and converts
it into this oxide. jSpc.
9. Iron combines very readily w ith carbone, and Carburet,
forms a carburet. When the charcoal combines with
one-tenth of its weight of iron, it conftitutes a carburet,
which is found native, and diftinguilhed by the name
of plumbago, or black lead. This compound has a me¬
tallic luftre, is of a bluiffi or dark-gray colour, has a
greafy feel, and ftains the fingers. It is well known as
the fubftance of which black-lead pencils are compofed.
But there is another combination of iron with carbone,
which forms one of the moft important compounds, on
account of its valuable properties, and the numerous
ufes to which it is applied. This is fteel. The dif¬
ferent dates of iron are owing to its being perfe611y
free from contamination with other fubftances, or to its
combination with carbone in different proportions. In
thefe different dates it is diftinguiftied by the names of
cajl or crude iron, wrought iron, and Jleel. i89T
Crude or cajl iron.—When iron is firft extracted Proceis for
from its ores, it is in the ftate of what is called crude obtaining
iron. Iron is generally obtained from ores in the ftate
of oxide, and this is frequently mixed with clay. It
muft therefore be feparated from thefe fubftances.
This is accomplifhed by reducing the ore to fmall pieces,
and mixing it with a flux compofed of limeftone and
charcoal. It is then expofed to a very ftrong heat.
For this procefs, furnaces are conftru&ed in fuch a way,
that the heat can be raifed to a very high temperature.
The nature of the procefs muft be obvious. The ear-
bone of the charcoal combines with the oxygen of the
iron, and forms carbonic acid, which is driven off in
the ftate of gas. By the ftrong heat to which the lime
and the clay are fubjeCled, they are fufed together,
and form a vitreous matter, which being lighter than
the iron, rifes to the furface. The iron alio is in a
ftate of fufion at the bottom of the furnace. When
the procefs is finiflied, a hole is opened, through which
the fluid iron flows, and is received into moulds. This
is crude or call iron, or, in the language of the work¬
men, pig iron. In this ftate it is extremely brittle and
hard, and poffeffes fcarcely any malleability. It ftill
contains a confiderable proportion of carbone, and it is
not entirely free from oxygen.
Wrought Iron.—The next procefs in the manu-Scft iron,
fafture of iron, is to deprive it of thofe fubftances
which alter its properties, and prevent its application
to the purpofes of pure or malleable iron. The crude
iron is again introduced into a furnace, where it is
melted by the flame of combuftible fubftances, which
is direfted to its furface; and while it is in the ftate of
fufion, it is conftantly ftirred, that the whole of it
may be uniformly brought into contaft with the air.
At laft it fwells, and gives out a blue flame, and when
this is continued for about an hour, the iron begins to
acquire fome confiftency, and at laft becomes folid.
While it is hot, it is removed from the furnace, and
4 P hammered
18*5
Natural
lit el.
1894
Of cemen¬
tation.
Call
189-5
666 C H E M I
Iron, £ic. hammered by the action of machinery. It is then in
the ft ate of wrought or foft iron.
Steel.—Tins is foft iron or wrought iron combined
with a certain portion of carbone. 'Ihere aie dit'
ferent proceffes for the preparation of fteel 5 and the
fteel prepared by thefe proceffes has received differ¬
ent names. What is called natural fteol, is prepared
by ex poling caft iron to a ftrong heat in a furnace,
while its furface is covered with fcoriae. In this pro-
cefs, part of the carbone of the crude iron combines
with the oxygen, from which it is not entirely free,
and is driven off in the ftate. of carbonic acid gas.
The iron remains combined with a finall proportion of
carbone. The fteel prepared in this way is of an in¬
ferior quality.
Steel of cementation is prepared by arranging bars
of pure iron and charcoal in powder in alternate lay¬
ers, in large troughs or crucibles, which are carefully
clofed up with clay. Thefe are expofed to heat in a
furnace for the fpace of eight or ten dajs, when the
bars of iron are found converted into fteel. Tins is
fometimes called hlijleredJleel^ from blifters which ap¬
pear on the furface, or tilted fteel, when it is drawn
out into fmaller bars by the hammer. By breaking
it into pieces, and repeated welding in a furnace, and
afterwards drawing it out into bars, it is converted in¬
to what is called German or Jheerfleet. Steel formed
in this way is generally of a fuperior quality to natural
fteel.
Cafl fleet is prepared by fufing natural fteel with
charcoal powder, and pounded glafs, in a clofe cru¬
cible 5 or by melting together 30 parts of iron, one of
pounded glafs, and one of charcoal. By this procefs
the beft kind of fteel is obtained, and it is this which
is generally ufed for the finer kinds of cutting inftru-
ments. Different opinions have been entertained con¬
cerning the proportions of iron and carbone in the
compofition of fteel. According to fome, the propor¬
tion of carbone amounts to -j-V part, though, according
to others, it does not exceed Tto part.
Steel poffeffes very different properties from iron.
It is extremely hard and brittle, does not yield to the
file, and retains the magnetic virtue for any length of
time. When it is hammered, its fpecifie gravity is
greater than that of iron. It is not malleable when cold,
but it has this property when red-hot, and it may be
reduced to thinner plates than iron.
There is a very eafy teft by which fteel may be
diftinguiihed from iron. If a drop of diluted nitric
acid be let fall on fteel, and allowed to remain for a
few minutes, it leaves behind, after it is waihed off,
a black fpot, which is owing ta the converfion of the
carbone of the fteel into charcoal, by combining wdth
the oxygen of the acid. But if nitric acid is dropt on
iron, a whitilh gray fpot remains.
Phoiphuret. 10. Iron combines with phofphorus, and forms with
it a phofphuret. It may be formed by melting in a
crucible 16 parts of phofphoric glafs with 16 parts of
iron, and one-half part of charcoal in powder. The
phofphuret of iron is of a white colour when it is
broken, and it is obferved cryftallized in fome points
in rhomboidal prifms. It is of a ftriated and granu¬
lated texture, and is magnetic. This phofphuret may
be formed alfo, by dropping fmall bits of phofphorus
189$
Properties
of Heel.
1897
Diftm-
guifhsd
Uom iron.
S T R Y.
into iron filings heated red-hot. Ihis is 'Ctieflderite or < lion, &te.^
Bergman, in which he fuppofed he had dilcovered a ,8go
new metal, to which he gave the name of Jiderum. Co,d ^
What is called coldJhort iron, from its being brittle ii0n.
when cold, but malleable when it is heated, contains
a certain portion of phofphate of iron, to which this
property is owing. It was in the inveftigation of the
nature of this iron, that Bergman obtained, by means
of fulphuric acid, a white powder, which was convert¬
ed into a brittle metal of a dark-gray colour. By the
experiments of Klaproth and Scheele it was proved,
that cold ftiort iron is a compound of phofphoric acid
and iron. I^00
u. iron combines with lulphur by different pro-Sulphuret.
ceffes. A fulphuret of iron may be prepared by fuf¬
ing together in a crucible, equal parts of powdered
fulphur and iron filings. This is a mafc which is re¬
markably brittle and hard, and of a deep-gray colour.
If this mafs be reduced to powder,. and moiftened
with water, the water is decompofed, its oxygen com¬
bines with the fulphur, which is converted into ful¬
phuric acid, and the iron is oxidated. If equal parts
of fulphur and iron-filings be well mixed together by
trituration, and a fufficient quantity of water be added,
to form the whole into a pafte, and if this mixture be
expofed to the air, it foon becomes hot, fwelk up and
.cracks, exhaling the vapours of fulphurated hydrogen
gas, and fometimes is fpontaneoufly inflamed. During
this aftion the water is decompofed, the iron is oxi¬
dated, and the fulphur is converted into fulphuric
acid, while the hydrogen of the water combines with
a portion of fulphur, and forms fulphurated hydrogen
gas. By obferving the phenomena of this procefs,
which alfo takes place, it is faid, when the mixture is
buried under ground, Lemery luppofed that he could
explain the nature and caufe of volcanic eruptions.
If a mixture of three parts by weight of iron filings,
and one of powdered fulphur, be put into a glafs veffel
on burning coals, a fulphuret of iron is obtained, with
fome remarkable phenomena. It firft melts, and then
all at once becomes red-hot, and fometimes, when
the quantity is confiderable, is accompanied with an
explofion, at the moment when the combination takes
place. According to the experiments of Prouft, the
component parts of fulphuret of iron are,
Sulphur
Iron
60
40
100
1901
According to tho experiments of the fame chemift, pyrjt#!,,
pyrites, which is found in great abundance in nature,
and ufually cryftallized in cubes, is fulphuret of iron
combined with an additional portion of fulphur. The
component parts of pyrites are,
Sulphuret of iron 80
Sulphur 20
100
12. Iron enters into combination with the acids,
and forms falls, and with the metals, and forms alloys.
The affinities of iron and its oxides are, according to Affinities.
Bergman, in the following order*
Iron.
Iron, Stc<
Iron,
Nickel,
Cobalt,
Manganefe,
Arfenic,
Copper,
Gold,
Silver,
Tin,
Antimony,
Platina,
Bifmuth,
Lead,
Mercury.
I.
CHEMISTRY.
667
Oxide of Iron.
Oxalic acid,
Tartaric,
Camphoric,
Sulphuric,
Saclaftic,
Muriatic,
Nitric,
Phofphoric,
Arfenic,
Fluoric,
Succinic,
Citric,
Ladlic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
iron in this cafe is alfo converted into the red oxide, Iron,
with the greater proportion of oxygen. This change,
it is obvious, depends on the Itrong affinity of iron for
oxygen ; for by the adtion of heat, the fulphate of iron,
of which the green oxide forms the bafe, is decompo-
fed; the oxygen of tiie acid combines with the iron,
and converts it into the red oxide 5 part of which, as it
is formed, unites with the acid, before the whole of it
is decompofed j and in this way the produdt of this
procefs is the red oxide of iron mixed with red ful-
phate.
The component parts of this fait are, according to Compofl-
Bergman, tiQn.
Acid, 39
Oxide, 23
Water, 38
100
Salts of Iron.
Thefe properties vary, according to the eftimation of
Mr Kirwan, who makes this fait to be com^ofed of
I. Sulphate of Iron.
*903 r
Prepara- I. Concentrated fulphuric acid has fcarcely any ac¬
tion. tion on iron. When it is heated, the acid is decompo¬
fed, part of its oxygen combines with the iron, and
fulphurous acid gas is evolved. But when diluted ful¬
phuric acid is added to iron filings, a violent effervef-
cence takes place, and hydrogen gas is difengaged. In
this procefs, the water, with which the acid is diluted,
is decompofed, the oxygen of which combines with
1904 the iron, and converts it into an oxide, while the hy-
Properties. drogen efcapes in the Hate of gas. The folution is of
a green colour, and, by evaporation, it afford cryftals
of fulphate of iron, which are tranfparent, of a fine
green colour, in the form of rhomboidal prifms, and
having an acrid aftringent tafte. This fait almoft al¬
ways reddens vegetable blues. It is very foluble : two
parts of cold water, and lefs than its weight of boiling
Tp05 water, are fufficient for its folution.
Pound na- 2. This fait is, in many places of the world, a na-
;ive* tural produ&ion. It is obtained from the decompofi-
1906 tion of pyrites, which it is fometimes found neceffary
Manufac- to promote by art. This is done by throwing them
together into heaps, and watering them occafionally.
Sometimes previous roaffing is neceffary, either to ren¬
der them more brittle, and to feparate the additional
portion of fulphur above what is neceffary to conftitute
a fulphuret. After a certain time an efflorefcence
takes place, and the furface is covered with the ful¬
phate of iron, which is diffolved in water, concentrated
by boiling, and evaporated, and then allowed to cool
l5o7 and cryftallize. This fait, which was known to the an-
'Tames. cients, was denominated mi/}/, sonj, and calchantum. It
is diltinguilhed in commerce by a great variety of names,
as martial vitriol, roman vitriol, and mod; commonly by
I9o8 the names of green copperas or green vitriol.
Action of 3- When fulphate of iron is ffrongly heated, it melts,
!£at. and is deprived of its water of cryftallization. Sul¬
phurous acid gas is then given out, it a'ffumes a red
colour, and is reduced to the ftate of powder. This
was formerly called colcothar, and co/cothar of vitriol.
It is the fait almoft entirely decompofed. Part of the
iron is ftrongly oxidated, and to this the red colour is
owing. It is alfo mixed with fulphate of iron j but the
Acid, - 26
Oxide, - 28
Water of compofition, 8
of cryftallization, 38
IOO
This diftin&ion made by Mr Kirwan between the wa¬
ter of compofition and that of cryftallization is, that the
former is cbmbined with the oxide, and the latter with
the fait.
4. When this fait is expofed to the air, it becomes Adtion of
of a yellotf iffi colour, opaque, and a powder forms on air*
the furface.^ The fame thing takes place* if the fait
in folution in water be expofed to the air. From a
fine tranfparent green colour, it becomes turbid, and is
converted into a yellowiffi-red liquid, and there is pre¬
cipitated a powder of the fame colour, 'this change is
owing to the abforption of oxygen, and the converlion
of the green oxide with the fmaller proportion of oxy¬
gen, into the red oxide with the greater proportion.
This procefs is greatly promoted by the direct combi¬
nation of oxygen, or by the addition of thofe fubftances
which are readily decompofed, and give out their oxy¬
gen. When oxymuriatic acid is added to the folutioW,
it becomes inftantly yellow, and there is formed a red
precipitate. The fame change takes place when the
fait is diffolved in water impregnated with carbonic
acid.. The iron decompofes the acid, and combines
with its oxygen. Thus it appears, that the decompo-
fition of the fulphate of iron is owing, in all thefe cafes
to the abforption of oxygen, and to the higher degree
of oxidation of the metal.
5. The fulphate of iron is converted into the red DecomnoIU
fulphate by means of nitric acid. It is decompofed tion.
by the alkaline earths and the alkalies, which precim-
tate it in the form of oxide. The pure fixed alkalies
and lime feparate an oxide of a deep green colour
which, being expofed to the air, is converted into the
red oxide. Ammonia affords a precipitate of a deeper
green colour. The fulphurets and hydrofulphurets pre¬
cipitate from the folution of green fulphate of iron, a
black fulpburated or hydrofulphurated oxide. Moft’of
the falts decompofe the fulphate of iron. When equal
4 P 2 parts
668
CHEMISTRY.
191a
Prepara¬
tion.
Iron, See. parts of nitrate of potafli and fulphate of iron are difiill-
v ed together in a retort, a weak nitric acid at firft panes
over, then a citrous acid, and at laft a very fmall quan¬
tity e» fulpjmrous acid. The muriate ot foda is de-
compofed by the fulphate of iron, in confequence of
the difengagement of fulphuric acid, which feparates
the muriatic acid from its bafe. Sulphate of foda, com¬
bined with the oxide of iron in the itate of a vitreous
mafs, remains in the retort. The hyperoxymunate of
potafh converts the green fulphate of iron into the red.
This fait is alfo decompofed by the alkaline phofphates,
borates, and carbonates. < .
Red fulphate of iron.—In the detail which has been
given of the properties of the green fulphate of iron,
it appears, that it has a itrong affinity for oxygen. The
oxide of the green fulphate contains^ 27 parts of oxy¬
gen •, but by abforbing another portion of oxygen, it
is converted into the red oxide, which contains 48 parts
of oxygen. This fait may be obtained by the direft
combination of the red oxide of iron with concen¬
trated fulphuric acid, with the affillance of heat. 1 he
fait remains in the folution from which the green ful¬
phate of iron has been cry flail ized. This folution has
been called the mother water of vitriol, hhe red ful¬
phate of iron is very different in its properties from the
green fulphate. It does not afford cryftals 5 it is di-
llinguifhed by its red colour, and it depefits the oxide
of iron, when brought in contact with the air, or by
Properties, the action of heat. It deliquefees in the air, and at
laft becomes liquid. It is more foluble in water than
the green fulphate j and alfo foluble in alcohol, by
which it may be feparated from the green fulphate,
which is not affecled by the alcohol. When iron
filings are added to a folution of red fulphate of iron,
part of the oxide is feparated, another part gives up a
portion of its oxygen to the iron, and is converted into
the green fulphate. The fame effedl is produced, as
M. Prouft, by whom this fubjeft has been greatly elu¬
cidated, obferves, by means of other metals, as mercury,
zinc, and tin. The two fulphates' of iron are diftin-
guifhed by other properties. The infufion of nut-galls
produces no change in the green fulphate of iron,
but gives a fine black precipitate with the red ful¬
phate.
Prufliate of potafti occafions no change of colour on
I5H3
1914
,A£tion of
prufliate of the green fulphate of iron, but produces a deep blue
potalh. precipitate with the red fulphate j from w-hich it appears
that there are two pruffiates of iron, correfponding to
the two oxides. The white pruffiate contains the
green oxide with the fmaller proportion of oxygen ; the
blue pruffiate, the red oxide with the greater propor¬
tion. Another charafteriftic property is, that the
green fulphate of iron abforbs nitrous gas in confider-
able quantity, and aflumes a yellowiffi colour j but no
fuch abforption is effected by the red fulphate.
2. Sulphite of Iron.
Prepara- I. Sulphurous acid is decompofed by iron, and the
ticn. portion of fulphur which is feparated, remains in com¬
bination with the fait as it is formed. When liquid
fulphurous acid is added to iron filings, it affumes a
deep yellow colour •, feme hydrogen gas is evolved,
with a production of heat, and the yellow colour foon
changes to q greenith (hade. Sulphuric or muriatic
acid, added to this folution, produces an effervcfcence,
but without any precipitation. It is fteceiTary to add Iron, &«■.
the acid in confiderable quantity to obtain a precipi- ‘ ^
tate of fulphur in white powder. Fuming nitrous
acid feparates the fulphur of a yellow colour, and in
the form of a duClile mafs. From thefe fa&s it ap¬
pears, that the firft portion of acids afts only on the
fimple fulphite of iron ; but when a greater quantity is
added, the fulphurated fulphite is decompofed, and the
fulphur is depofited.
2. The folution of iron in fulphurous acid, expofed Properties,
to the air, depofits a reddiffi-yellow powder, and af¬
fords cryftals which are furrounded with this reddifti
powder. By adding water to this mafs, it diffolves
the cryftallized part, and leaves the red powder, which
being diffolved in muriatic acid* gives up its iron, and
depofits fulphur, which is ftill mixed with a little iron. i9I7
This precipitate diffolved in water, affords a fulphurated Sulphura.
fulphite of iron, with a fmaller quantity of fulphur than
the firft folution. Expofed to the air after the firft pre-p 11 e*
cipitate is formed, the furface is foon covered with a
red pellicle. A red powder is depofited, and after¬
wards cryftals of fulphite of iron. ^ 1918
3. The fulphurated fulphite of iron remains perma-pr0perties.
nent by expofure to the air. Its fimple fulphite ab¬
forbs oxygen. The fulphurated fulphite depofits ful¬
phur by the ad ion of the acids. The fulphite gives
out fulphurous acid. The fulphurated fulphite is fo¬
luble in alcohol j the fulphite is infoluble.
4. The red fulphate of iron with the greater propor¬
tion of oxygen, does not produce the fame effect on ful¬
phurous acid, by converting it into fulphuric acid, and
thus to form a fulphate of iron, as the oxide of man-
ganefe, becaufe iron has a ftronger affinity for oxygen Ipip
than fulphurous acid. Thus we have feen, in confe- strong affi-
quence of the fame affinity of iron for oxygen, that nity of iror 1
it decompofes fulphuric acid, and converts part of it f°r oxygen, |
into fulphurous acid, and that it even decompofes ful¬
phurous acid, by feparating its fulphur, which combines
with the oxide as it is formed, and conftitutes the ful¬
phurated fulphite of iron. Neither of thefe fulphites
of iron give a black colour tvith the infufion of nut
galls, nor a blue colour with the pruffiate of petaffi^
from which it is inferred that the iron is in its mini¬
mum Hate of oxidation, or in that of a green fulphat®
of iron.
3. Nitrate of Iron.
1920
Nitric acid ads with great violence on iron j a great Prepara-
quantity of nitrous gas is difengaged, efpecially when tion.
the acid is a little diluted with water. When diluted I92t
acid has been employed, the folution is of a yellowiffi Properties,
green colour, and when it is expoled to the air, it af-
fumes a pale colour, in confequence of the nitrous gas
which it holds in folution, combiuing with oxygen,
and being converted into nitric acid. When it is ex¬
pofed to the air, or concentrated by evaporation, a pre¬
cipitate of the red oxide of iron is formed, becaufe it
combines with another portion of oxygen, and is con¬
verted from the green to the red oxide. By means
of the alkalies, the green oxide is precipitated from this
folution.
Red nitrate of iron.—This is the fait formed with prepara-
nitric acid and the red oxide of iron. It is prepared tion.
by expofing the green nitrate of iron to the air, which
abforbing oxygen, is converted into the red nitrate.
I ' C H E M
Iron, &c. If iron be diffolved in concentrated nitric acid, the, iron
-v is converted into the red oxide, and this combining
I9z3 with the undecompofed acid, alfo forms the red nitrate
Praperties. 0f iron. The foliation of this fait, which is of a brown
colour, does not cryftallize ; when it is evaporated, it
affumes the form of a jelly, or depofits a red powder.
When this fait is heated, the acid is driven off, and the
Aftion of red oxide remains behind. The red nitrate of iron gives
nut galls, a black colour with the infufion of galls, and a. blue
^c* precipitate with prulliate of potaih, from which it ap¬
pears, that the iron is in its higheft degree of oxidation.
This lias been fully demonftrated by an experiment
made by Vaucpaelin. Concentrated nitric acid was kept
for fome months on black oxide of iron, without any ap¬
parent change. The nitric acid, however, loft its acidi¬
ty, and acquired a neutral tafte. J.he liquid had af-
fumed a brown colour ; and lafge cryftals, tranfparent
and white, with a flight tinge of violet by looking
through them, were formed. The cryftals were in
fquare prifms, terminated by two-fided ridges. This
fait was extremely deliquefcent, and had a pungent
inky tafte. The folution in water becomes red, as is
alfo the precipitate, by means of ammonia and potafli.
Prufliate of potafli gives a fine blue precipitate.
4. Muriate of Iron.
I91S I# When iron filings are expofed to muriatic acid
muriatic gas they foon become black, and are converted into
acid in the the ftate of red oxide. "1 his is owing to the decom-
ftate of gas. p0fition of the water which the gas holds in folution.
The bulk of the gas is increafed by the addition of hy-
droo-en gas, from this decompofition of water. When
the'whole of the muriatic acid is abforbed by the iron
in the ftate of oxide, hydrogen gas only- remains in
the veffel in which the procefs has been conduced.
When a little water is added, it affumes a green co¬
lour, having combined with the muriate of iron in the
liquid ftate,
I 2. Liquid muriatic acid a&s upon iron in propor-
^idftate t^on t0 ^ts degree of concentration, and the aftion is
qU1 d e" the more violent as it is lefs concentrated. An effer-
vefcence takes place, with the difengagement of hydro¬
gen gas. As the iron is oxidated by the decompofition
of the water, it is diffolved in the acid. This folution
is of a pale yellowifh colour, and of a ftrong ftyptic
tafte. When it is evaporated to the confiftence of fy-
rup, it forms on cooling, a vifcid mafs, in which are
found needle-fliaped, deliquefcent eryftals. When this
folution is expoled to the air, or ftrongly heated, it af¬
fumes a brown colour, and depofits oxide of iron.
Red muriate of iron.—When the red oxide of iron is
treated with muriatic acid, the acid diffolves the iron,
and forms a folution of a deep brown colour. Luring
the folution, oxymuriatic acid is formed and given out,
which is owing to the combination of a portion of the
oxygen of the oxide with the muriatic acid. d. he
oxide thus deprived of a portion of its oxygen, com¬
bines with the muriatic acid, and forms red muriate of
iron. When this folution is evaporated to drynefs, it
affords a yellow coloured mafs, which is deliquefcent in
the air. This fait does not abforb nitrous gas, and it
is converted into muriate of iron by the action of ful-
phuratcd hydrogen gas. When it is precipitated by
the alkalies, the oxide is not farther changed by ex-
I S T R Y. 669
pofure. to the air. The infufion of nut galls gives a Iron,
black colour, and the prufliate of potafli a blue. " v
5. Hyperoxymuriate of Iron.
This fait was formed by Mr Chenevix, by dire&ing
a ftream of oxymuriatic acid gas into water, having
red oxide of iron diffufed in it j but its properties
have not been afcertained.
6. Fluate of Iron.
Fluoric acid has a very powerful aflion on iron,
which is owing to the evolution of hydrogen gas, and
the decompofition of water. The iron is oxidated,
and diffolves in the acid, forming a fluate of iron.
The folution has a ftyptic, metallic ftate, does not
afford cryftals by evaporation, but affumes a gelatinous
form. Evaporated to drynefs, it becomes hard and
folid; and when ftrongly heated, the acid is driven
off, and there remains behind the red oxide of iron,
fo that this fait is the red fluate of iron. The red
oxide of iron is alfo foluble in fluoric acid, and com¬
municates to it, according to Scheele, an aluminous
tarte. The fluate of iron is decompofed by fulphuric
acid, and is precipitated by the alkalies and the
earths.
7. Borate of Iron.
Boracic acid promotes the oxidation of iron by wa¬
ter very flewly. The borate of iron may be obtained
by precipitating the fulphate of iron by means of the
borate of foda, or borax. The borate of foda is pre¬
cipitated in the form of a whitifti powder. It is infolu-
ble in water, but its other properties have not been af¬
certained.
8. Phofphate of Iron.
Ip27
Phofphoric acid combines very flowly with iron, Prepava-
but after the oxidation of the metal has taken place, don.
it forms with its oxide an infoluble fait. The phof¬
phate of iron may be prepared by adding a folution of
an alkaline phofphate to a folution of fulphate or nitrate
of iron. The alkali leaves the phofphoric acid, and com¬
bines with the fulphuric or nitric; while the phofphoric
acid combines with the iron, and forms a phofphate of
iron, which is in the ftate of white precipitate. Phof¬
phoric acid combines with both oxides of iron, and
conftitutes either a green or a red phofphate.. The
red phofphate of iron may be obtained by precipitate
ing the red muriate of iron in folution, by-means of
phofphate of potafti or foda j and when this latter fait
is treated with pure fixed alkalies, a brownifh red
powder is precipitated, which is the red phofphate of
iron, with excels of bafe. It is nearly infoluble in.
acids and in water, but is foluble in the ferum oP
blood, and the white of an egg, communicating to
them a brown colour. This fait exifts in the blood .
animals, and to it the red colour of the blood is blood,
owing.
9. Carbonate of Iron.
Carbonic acid combines readily with the oxide of
iron. This is the cafe when iron rufts in the air j for
in proportion as the oxidation of the iron is effeifted,
it combines with the carbonic acid of the atmofphere,
and.
CHEMISTRY.
Iron, &c. and forms a carbonate of iron. This acid diffolved in
^ v—^ water, when brought in contadb with iron, adts upon it
flowly j and there is difengaged, but without eftervef-
cence, a perceptible odour of hydrogen gas, and the
water acquires in the courfe of a few hours, an aftrin-
gent talle. When this (blution is expofed to the air,
as Bergman obferved, it becomes covered with an iri-
defcent pellicle, and is decompofed by lime and the al¬
kalies. But the alkaline carbonates have no fuch ef-
fett. This folution of the carbonate of iron converts
the fyrup of violets to a green colour. When it is
evaporated, it depofits the fait in the form of a reddilh
ochre. It is this carbonate of iron which exifts in mi-
1929 neral waters, to which, for this reafon, the name of cha-
Ruft. lybeate has been given to waters. Ruft is a carbonate
of iron, mixed with the oxide. Fourcroy found by di-
ftilling it, that it yielded carbonic acid gas, and a little
water, and there remained black oxide of iron ; and
diftilled with muriate of ammonia, it afforded carbonate
of ammonia. The component parts of this carbonate,
according to Bergman, are
Acid, 24
Oxide, 76
100
10. Arfeniate of Iron.
Red Arfeniate of /row.—This fait is prepared, either Iron, See.
by boiling arfeniate of iron in nitric acid, or by adding
arfeniate of ammonia to a folution of red fulphate of
iron. It is compofed of
Acid, 42.4
Oxide, 37.2
Water, 20.4
100.0
Both thefe falls have been found native.
11. Tungftate of Iron.
Tungftic acid has no great effeft on iron in the
cold. Iron immerfed in a folution of this acid in mu¬
riatic acid, communicates to it a beautiful blue co¬
lour, which is owing to the decompofition of the tung¬
ftic acid, and to its redudtion to the metallic ftate by
means of the iron. Tungftic acid precipitates from
the folution of iron in fulphuric acid, tungftate of iron.
Tungftate of iron exifts native under the name of
wolfram.
12. Molybdate of Iron.
The alkaline molybdates which are foluble, preci¬
pitate iron from its folution in acids, of a brown co¬
lour.
1930
Prepara¬
tion.
Oreen ar¬
feniate.
1. When iron is digefted with arfenic acid, it is
diffolved, and towards the end of theprocefs the folution
affumes the form of a jelly. But it it be conduced in
a clofe veffel, no coagulation takes place. By expofing
it to the open air for fome hours, the furface becomes
fo folid, that the veffel may be inverted without any
part of it dropping out. The folution which has not
been expofed to the air, affords a precipitate with pot-
alh, of a greenilh-gray colour, from which there is dif-
engaged by heat, arfenious acid, and there remains be¬
hind a red oxide of iron. One part of iron-filings
diftilled with four of concrete arfenic acid, fwell up and
intlame j the metallic acid is fublimed, and brown fpots
appear on the fides of the retort. From this experi¬
ment it appears, that the iron has carried off the oxy¬
gen from the acid.
2. Arfenic acid does not precipitate iron from its
folutions, but the arfeniates or arfenites form a very fo-
luble precipitate, which becomes yellow' or red in con¬
tact with the air. This precipitate, which is fufible at
a high temperature, exhales the odour of arfenic when
it is melted, is converted into black fcorise when it is
treated with charcoal, gives out a confiderable quantity
of arfenic, and is reduced to the ftate of black oxide of
iron.
3. Arfenic acid combines with both the oxides of
iron. The green arfeniate of iron may be obtained
by adding a folution of arfeniate of ammonia to a fo¬
lution of fulphite of iron. The arfeniate precipitates in
the form of powder which is infoluble in water. The
component parts of this fait, according to Chenevix
are
Acid, 38
Oxide, 43
Water, 19
100
13. Chromate of Iron.
If chromic acid, combined with an alkali, be added
to a folution of the red fulphate of iron, a precipitate is
immediately formed, of a brown colour ; but if an al¬
kaline chromate be added to the green fulphate of iron,
the precipitate is green, becaufe the chromic acid is
deprived of a portion of its oxygen, and is converted to
the ftate of green oxide *. * Tour my
14. Columbate of Iron. Connaifs.
^ Chinu vi.
Tire columbate of iron is found native, !and from theP- 2I7-
only fpecimen which has yet been difeovered, Mr
Hatchet extracted a new metal, which has been de-
feribed under the name of columbium. It is of a dark-
brownifh gray colour, has a vitreous luftre, and a lamel-
lated ftrudture, According to Mr Hatchet, it is com¬
pofed of
Columbic acid, 77.5
Oxide of iron, 21.0
98o
15. Acetate of Iron.
1. Acetic acid diffolves iron with effervefcence, prepU7^
with the evolution of hydrogen gas. The liquid af-tion.
fumes a reddith-brown colour, and by evaporation be¬
comes a gelatinous mafs, in which are found long
brown cryftals. This fait has a fwoetith ftyptic tafte.
It is decompofed by heat, and is deliquefeent in the
air. When it is heated till it no longer gives out the
odour of vinegar, it lets fall a yellowifh oxide, which is
eafily reduced, and is attrafted by the magnet. The
alkalies feparate the iron nearly in the ftate of black
oxide. This folution affords a black precipitate with
fche infufion of nut-galls, and a blue with the alkaline
pruffiates#-
2. The
X
S T R Y.
Iren, See.
ip33
In the large
* Joirr.
Roy. bijlit.
\ p. 308.
1934
Prepara¬
tion.
1935
Compoli-
tion.
C H E M I
2. The folution of this fait is prepared in the large
way with old iron, and vinegar obtained from grain
or molafles. They are expofed to the air in large vef-
fels, and as the fermentation of the liquid goes on, it
is converted into acetic acid, the iron is oxidated, and
diflblved by the acid. This folution is employed in
dyeing and calico-printing.
Green acetate of iron.—This fait has been formed
by diffolving fulphuret of iron in acetic acid. It af¬
fords cryflals by evaporation, in the form of prifms,
and of a green colour. The tafte is ttyptic and fweet-
ilh. It gives a white precipitate with the alkaline
pruffiates, and no change is effected by the infufion of
galls. When the folution of this fait is expofed to the
air, it very readily abforbs oxygen, and is converted
into red acetate of iron *.
16 Oxalate of Iron.
Oxalic acid produces a violent action on iron, with
the evolution of hydrogen gas. This folution has a very
ftyptic tafte, and forms by evaporation prifmatic cry-
ftals of a greenifti yellow colour. When this folution
is expofed to the air, or, when it is heated, it affumes a
red colour, which is owing to the abforption of oxygen,
and its converlion into red oxalate. The oxalate of
iron is compofed of
Acid,
Oxide,
JS
45
100
Red oxalate of iron.—Oxalic acid precipitates the
red oxide of iron from the folution in fulphuric acid,
and forms an oxalate of iron of a fine red colour.
The red oxalate of iron does not cryftallize, and has
little folubility in water. This has been propofed to
be employed as a pigment. None of the acids diffolve
the oxides of iron more readily than oxalic acid, and
efpecially the gallate of iron. On this account it an-
fwers well for removing fpots of ink, for which pur-
pofe alfo the acidulous oxalate of potalh, or fait of for-
rel, is alfo employed.
17. Tartrate of Iron.
x. Tartaric acid diffolves iron with efFervefcence,
and the evolution of hydrogen gas. The folution be¬
comes of a red colour, and affumes the form of a gela¬
tinous mafs, but does not cryftallize. This is the red
tartrate of iron.
2. But when tartaric acid is added to the folution
of fulphate of iron, and heat applied, a prscipitate is
formed, which is not very foluble, but affords lamel-
latcd cryftals. This is the compound of tartaric' acid
with the green oxide of iron, for it does not form a
precipitate with the alkaline pruffiates, without the ad¬
dition of nitric acid.
18. Tartrate of Potafti and Iron.
This triple fait, which was formerly called chaly-
beated tartar, and tartarifed tinBure of Mars, is pre¬
pared by forming into a pafte with water, fix parts of
iron filings with 16 of tartar in powder. The mix¬
ture is left at reft for 24 hours j and being diluted
with 192 parts of water, is boiled for two hours, when
cryftals are depofited of tartrate of potafti and iron.
19. Citrate of Iron.
Citric acid a<fts upon iron with effervefcence, occa-
fioned by the emiffion of hydrogen gas. The folution
becomes of a brown colour; it depofits, by fpontane-
ous evaporation, fmall cryftals of citrate of iron. By
evaporating with heat, it becomes black as ink, and
duftile while it is hot, but falls to powder, and be¬
comes very black when it is cold. This fait has a ve¬
ry aftringent tafte, and is very foluble in water. It is
compofed of
67I
Iron, &c.
Acid, 69.62
Oxide, 30.38
100.00
The cryftals which were obtained by fpontaneous eva •
poration, were probably the green citrate j and the
black mafs, by the aftion of heat, is probably convert¬
ed into the red citrate of iron.
20. Malate of Iron.
Malic acid gives a brown folution by its aftion on
iron, but it does not cryftallize.
21. Gallate of Iron.
..... l^6
It has frequently been mentioned, in defcribing the Gallic acid
falls of iron, that the infufion of nut-galls, or gallic ^|ve^a
acid, produces no precipitate or change of colour, jour on!"
when it is added to falls of iron in folution, of which with th?
the black or green oxide conftitutes the bafe j but red oxide,
when the acid is added to a folution of a fait of iron,
having the red oxide for its bafe, a black precipitate
is immediately formed. From this it appears, that the
black precipitate can only be obtained from the red
oxide of iron, or it is the gallate of iron in the higheft r
degree of oxidation. Writing ink is a compound of the inh. J "
folution of gallate of iron and the tanning principle.
The important qualities of good ink are, that it fiiall
be durable, and have a black colour. On this fubjefl
Profeflbr Robifon obferve^, in his Notes on Dr Black’s
Leftures, that “ the great art in ink-making is to have
a fuperabundance of aftringent matter to counteraft the
difpofition of the iron to a farther calcination, which
renders the ink brown. It would be a great improve¬
ment in the manufadlure of writing paper, if fome
aftringent matter could be introduced. A little ar¬
dent fpirits effectually prevents the fpoiling of ink by
keeping, but makes it fink and fpread.
A good Proportion for Writing-Ink.
Rafped logwood, 10 ounces j
Belt gall-nuts in coarfe powder, 3 ounces j
Gum arabic in powder, 2 ounces j
Green vitriol, 1 ounce ;
Rain water, 2 quarts $
Cloves in coarfe powder, 1 drachm.
Boil the water with the logwood and gum to one
half; ftrain the hot deco&ion into a glazed veffel j
add the galls and cloves *, mix and cover it up.
When nearly cold, add the green vitriol, and ftir
it repeatedly. After fome days, decant or ftrain
the ink into a bottle, to be kept clofe corked in a.*Black’s
dark place Led. v.
Ink P-4^-
Ink is fometimes of a very pale colour when flrft
1 ufod, but becomes black by expofure to the air. Ihis
Reafon of ow^ng to t^ie abforption of oxygen. The green
'the pale vitriol or fulphate of iron, which is employed in making
colour. ink, has not its bale fully faturated with oxygen, or is
not in the itjfte of red oxide. It is the converfion of
the green into the red oxide, which takes place when
it is expofed to the air. The ufe oi gum in the com-
pofition of ink is to prevent the precipitation of the
black particles, and alfo, it is fuppofed, to aft. as a
varnilh, to defend it from the air, which might give it
a brown colour by farther oxidation.
22. Benzoate of Iron.
Benzoic acid readily diffolves the oxide of iron, and
forms with it yellowifh cry Hals, which are fweet to the
tafte, efHorefce in the air, and are foluble in water and
in alcohol. Gallic acid produces a black precipitate,
and the prufliates give a blue. It is decompofed by
the alkalies, and .by the carbonates of lime and barytes.
* Ann. de The acid is driven off by heat *.
Chun, ix* p, • /• t
23* Succinate ot Iron*
Succinic acid combines with the oxide of iron ; and
the folution, by evaporation, affords fmall radiated cry-
ftals, which are tranfparent and of a brown colour.
This fait is infoluble in water. It may be formed by
adding an alkaline fuccinate to the folutions of iron in
acids.
24. Suberate of Iron.
Suberic acid decompofes the fulphate of iron, and
| Ibid, xxiii. produces a deep yellow colour f.
IJ‘48’ 25. Mellate of Iron.
Mellitic acid produces a copious precipitate of an
Ifabella-yellow colour, in the folution of iron in ni¬
tric acid. This precipitate is readily diffolved in mu-
i Klaproth, riatic acid •
EJays, ii. ^ t o r t
p. 102. 26. JL&ctcitc 01 Iron.
Laftic acid combines with iron, and forms with it a
fait which does not cryftallize. The folution is of a
brown colour.
27. Prufliate of Iron.
1. Pruffic acid combines with both the oxides of
iron. When the prufliate of potafh is added to a fo¬
lution of the green fulphate or muriate of iron, a white
precipitate is obtained. This fliews, as has been al¬
ready obferved, that the bafe of thefe falts is in its
loweft degree of oxidation. It is in the ftate of green
or black oxide. But if the pruffiate of potalh be pour¬
ed into a folutxon of the red fulphate of iron, a fine blue
precipitate is formed, which is Pruffian blue, or a pruf¬
fiate of iron in the ftate of red oxide.
2. When the white precipitate of iron i,s expofed to
the air, it gradually abforbs oxygen, and is converted
into the blue pruffiate, or Pruflian blue. On the other
hand, the blue prufliate may be converted into the
white, by preferving it in a clofe veffel, with plates of
iron or tin. The metallic fubftance deprives the iron
of part of its oxygen, and makes it pafs to the ftate of
green oxide ; in which ftate, combined with pruffic
acid, it is colourlefs. Sulphurated hydrogen gas pro-
C H E M I S T R Y.
duces a fimilar effeft, by depriving the iron of its Iron, ftcr.
oxygen. Nitric and oxymuriatic acids convert the “•■v—
white pruffiate into blue, by giving up their oxygen,
which combines with the iron, and forms the red
oxide.
II. Aftion of the Alkalies, &c. on Iron.
1940
1939
Pruflian
blue.
1. Iron, in the metallic date, has a very feeble ac-Alkafie?.
tion on the alkalies and earths. The alkalies, in'their
pure and concentrated ftate, promote the decompofi-
tion of water by means of iron. Hydrogen gas is dif-
engaged, and the metal is converted into the ftate of
black oxide, or martial ethiops ; but there Teems to be
no perceptible folution of the oxide of iron, which is
thus formed in the liquid alkalies.
2. The brown oxides of iron readily combine with £atI^4t
the earths fufpended in water., This combination has
been long employed on account of its properties of af-
fuming a great degree of folidity and hardnefs, as a
cement, and efpecially as a cement or mortar to be
employed under water. Hence volcanic productions,
as pou%%olava earths, which contain a confiderable pro¬
portion of oxide of iron, are often employed for this
purpofe. The oxide of iron combines alfo with the
earths by means of fuffon, and communicates to them
various (hades of colour, according to the degree of
oxidation, and the proportion of oxide employed. In
this ftate it is ufed in the fabrication of enamels and
coloured glafs.
3. The alkaline fulphates are decompofed by iron Sul^4jeg<
at a high temperature. The iron deprives the fulphu-
ric acid of its oxygen, and reduces it to the ftate of
fulphur. Fourcroy heated for an hour in a covered
crucible, one part of fulphate of potalh, with two of
iron filings. He obtained a kind of granulated fcoria,
which had fwelled up, and was of a deep green on the
furface. It was extremely hard, and exhibited in feme
of the internal cavities, (hining fix-fided plates of black
oxide of iron. It had a hot, acrid tafte. When redu¬
ced to powder, it exhaled the fetid odour of fulphura-
ted hydrogen gas. It was not deliquefcent in the air ;
and diluted with 10 parts of water, it was of a deep
green colour. This was a folution of hydrofulphuret
of potafti, holding a fmall quantity of iron in folu¬
tion. Sulphur was precipitated by the addition of
acids, with the evolution of fulphurated hydrogen
gaS' • • 1943
4. The nitrates are alio decompofed by means of iron jsqtrates.
heated to rednefs. Two or three parts of nitre, with
one of clean iron filings, w'ell triturated together, and
projefted into a red-hot crucible, give out at each pro-
jeftion a great number of vivid fparks. After the de-
tonatiorl, a half-fufed mafs remains, of a reddifh yellow'
colour, which, by waftiing with water, affords pure pot-
afh, and there remains an oxide of iron in its higheft
degree of oxidation. Steel alfo detonates with nitre,
and gives out a very brilliant red flame. Thtfe mix¬
tures are employed in artificial fireworks.
5. Some of the muriates are alfo deeompofed by jvjUifates.
iron. The experiment of Scheele, in which the muri¬
ate of foda w as decempofed by means of iron, has al¬
ready been mentioned. The muriate of ammonia is
readily decompofed by iron with the affiftance of heat.
Hydrogen and ammoniacal gafes are difengaged. A
preparation formerly known by the name of martial
ammoniacal
C H E M I S T R Y.
Iron, See. ammomacalflowers, was made with 16 parts of muriate
v—-V*—' of ammonia and one of iron filings. This mixture is
fublimed in two earthen veffels, the one being inverted
over the other. A fmall quantity of the muriate of am¬
monia only is decompofed, and the fait aflumes a yel-
lowilh colour, with a fmall portion of muriate of iron.
The muriate of ammonia is alfo decompofed by tritu¬
rating the red oxide of iron with this fait. Am¬
monia is difengaged, and the oxide combines with the
acid.
6. Hyperoxymuriate of potalh produces a violent de¬
tonation with iron. Two parts of this fait with one of
iron filings, detonate ftrongly^ and with a vivid red flame,
by percuflion, or even by hidden prefiure, or by being
brought in contaft with a burning body.
7. There is no action between the fluates, borates,
phofphates, or the carbonates, and iron, in the cold.
III. Alloys.
1. Iron combines with arfenic by fufion, forming a
brittle alloy of a white colour, analogous to the native
compound of arfenic and iron, known by the name of
mifpickel. It is more fulible than iron, and is therefore
employed, on account of its luftre and fine polilh, for
different purpofes to which iron is not applicable.
2. The alloys of iron with tungften, molybdena,
chromium, columbium, titanium, and uranium, are
fcarcely known. With titanium iron affords an alloy
of a gray colour, which is extremely infuiible.
3. The alloy of iron and cobalt poffeffes fome of
the properties of Heel. It is extremely hard, its
texture is fine-grained, and it is attrafted by the
magnet.
4. Iron combines with nickel, and the affinity be¬
tween thefe metals is fo ftrong, that it is extremely
difficult to deprive nickel entirely of iron.
5. Manganefe is frequently found in combination
with iron, to which it communicates a white colour,
and renders it brittle.
6. Bifmuth forms a brittle alloy with iron. It is
attrafled by the magnet, even when the proportion of
bifmuth amounts to three-fourths of the whole. Twenty
parts of iron and one of bifmuth, were broken by a
weight of 151 lb. 5 but four parts of iron and three of
bifmuth only fupported 351b. Thefe were the ex¬
periments of Mufchenbroeck. Gellert has obferved,
that the alloy of iron and bifmuth has an inferior fpe-
cific gravity to the mean.
7. Iron combines readily with antimony by fufion.
An alloy of equal parts of thefe metals is not attra&ed
by the magnet, has no du£Hlity, and fcarcely any mal¬
leability. This alloy was formerly called martial re-
gulus. It is brittle and hard, and has a lefs fpecific
gravity than the mean. Iron has a ftronger affinity for
fulphur than for antimony, for when the fulphuret of
antimony is heated with iron, it is decompofed, and the
iron combines with the fulphur.
8. Iron, it has been long fuppofed, has no a£lion on
mercury ; but by triturating together the amalgam of
zinc and mercury with iron filings, and by adding to
the mixture a folution of iron in muriatic acid, and af¬
terwards by kneading this mixture and heating it, Mr
Aiken obtained an amalgam of iron and mercury,
having the metallic luftre *.
9. Zinc forms an alloy with iron, but combines with
VOL. V. Part II.
*945
Arlenic.
1946
Tungften.
1947
Cobalt.
1948
Nickel.
1949
Manganefe
. I9S°
Bifmuth.
Antimony,
, J9S2
Mercury.
* Phil.
Mug. xiii.
406.
7. ^
zmc.
67S
it in very fmall proportion. It has been obferved that Iron, &-c-
zinc may be applied to the furfacc of iron by fufion, rJ
fo as to defend it from the addon of the air, and thus to
prevent it from rufting. ^4
10. Iron combines with difficulty with tin. Eerg-Tift.
man made a number of experiments on the alloy of iron
and tin. He put a quantity of tin into a crucible, and
covered it with iron filings. The crucible was then filled
with charcoal, and clofely covered. He expofed thq
apparatus to the heat of a forge for half an hour, and
he always obtained two diftind alloys, correfpond-
ing to the weight of the metals which he had em¬
ployed.
The one was iron combined with a fmall quantity
of tin, and the other tin united to a fmall portion of
iron. Tin alloyed with of iron was very malleable,
might be cut with a knife, had loft a little of its luftre,
and was a little harder. With the fufible phofphates
it gave a brown glafs, which was lefs fufible j and by
the addition of nitric acid, it became black, and there-
was feparated an infoluble powder. Iron combined
with half its weight of tin, exhibits fome of the pro¬
perties of the latter. It is {lightly malleable, cannot
be cut with a knife, unites with difficulty with mer¬
cury and with the phofphates, and in fufion with the
latter, gives out brilliant fparks, which do not appear1
from the iron or tin alone. This inflammation is ftill
more brilliant when the quantity of tin is increafed
tn 11
lu ... . 1955
Tin combines with iron, and adheres ftrongly to its Tinplate.
furface, forming a thin covering. This is one of the
moft ufeful combinations of tin, for it rends* s the iron
fit for a great many valuable purpofes, for which,
otherwife, on account of its ftrong tendency to oxida¬
tion or rufting, it would be totally inapplicable. This
is well known by the name of tinplate, or white iron.
The procefs of tinning iron is the following : The pr0CeI of
plates of iron being reduced to the proper thicknefs, tinning,
are cleaned by means of a weak acid. For this pur-
pofe the furface is firft cleaned with fand, to remove any
ruft that may have formed. They are then immerfed
in water acidulated with a fmall quantity of fulphuric
acid, in which they are kept for 24 hours, and oc-
cafionally agitated. They are then well rubbed with
cloths, that the furface may be perfectly clean. The
tin is fufed in a pot, the furface of which is covered
with an oily or refinous matter, to prevent its oxidation.
The plates of iron are then immerfed in the melted
tin, and are either moved about in the liquid metal, or
are dipped feveral different times. They are then
taken out, and rubbed with faw-duft or bran, to remove
the impurities from the furface.
It is faid by fome chemical writers, that the tin not
only covers the furface, but penetrates the iron complete¬
ly, fo as to give the w'hole a white colour. This feems
to be quite a miftake, which may be very eafily proved
by the teft of experiment. If the furface of a piece
of tin-plate be feraped with a knife, the metallic par¬
ticles which are at firft feparated, are not attrafted by
the magnet. As the procefs is continued, fome of the
particles are magnetic, which {hews that they are par¬
ticles of iron, leraped off, after the coating of tin is’
feparated, and this coating may be fo completely-re¬
moved, that the whole of the particles are attrafled by
the magnet. This, perhaps, it may be faid, would
4 Q. take
*957
Lead.
674 C H E M
Copper, &c. take place, even through the iron were alloyed with
a certain proportion of tin $ but when the coating oi
tin is entirely removed, and the iron is moiftened, it
is foon covered with ruft, in the fame way as if it
never had been combined with a particle of tin.
ii. Guyton has {hewn, that an alloy may be form¬
ed of iron and lead, which it was formerly fuppofed
could not be efifeaed. By melting together equal
parts of lead and filings of iron, he obtained two Se¬
parate metallic buttons, of which the lead occupied
the lower part of the crucible, and the iron the upper
part. When thefe were fubjeaed to the teft of ex¬
periment, it appeared that the lead contained a final 1
proportion of iron, and the iron a fmall proportion of
lead *.
The ufes of iron are extremely numerous^ and im¬
portant, but they are fo well known, that it is alto¬
gether unneceffary to enumerate them.
Sect. XIX. Of Copper and its Combinations.
* Ann. de
Chim.
xiiii. 48.
195s
Hiftory.
*959
Ores.
i960
Anaiyfis.
1. Copper feems to have been known in the re-
moteft periods of antiquity. It is among the firft me¬
tals which were employed by the early nations of the
world j and indeed this might have been expe&ed, as
it is not one of the fcarce metals, is eafily ex trac¬
ed from its ores, and not difficult to work. The
Egyptians applied it to a great variety of ufes, as it
appears, from the earlieft period of their hiftory. The
Greeks were acquainted with the mode of working
copper, and employed it in many of the arts. It was
the bafis < i the celebrated Corinthian metal. The Ro¬
mans knew the ufes of this metal, and it is generally
fuppofed that of it they fabricated the greateft number
of their utenfils. The alloys which they made with
copper, after the example of the Egyptians and Greeks,
were very numerous, and applied to a great variety of
ufes.
2. Copper exifts in confiderable abundance in na¬
ture *, it is found native, alloyed with other metals,
combined with fulphur, in the ftate of oxide, and in that
of fait. It is not unfrequently met with in the native
ftate, fometimes cryftallized in an arborefcent form,
and ('metimes in more regular figures. Copper exifts
nati\e, alloyed with gold and filver. The moft abun-
ant ores of copper are the fulphurels, and of thefe
there is a confiderable variety, exhibiting various co¬
lours, and various forms of cryftals. In the ftate of ox¬
ide, it has been found in Peru, of a greenilh colour,
mixed with white fand. In the ftate of fait, copper is
combined with the fulphuric and carbonic acids, form¬
ing native fulphates and carbonates of copper. The
latter prefent many varieties, but may chiefly be re¬
ferred to the blue and green carbonates.
3. The extraction of the ores of copper is to be
conducted acbording to the nature of the combination
in which they exift. The following procefs is recom¬
mended for the treatment of the fulphurets of copper.
The ore is firft reduced to powder, and then boiled
with five parts of concentrated fulphuric acid. The
folution is evaporated to drynefs, and the refiduum well
wafhed with warm water, to remove all foluble mat¬
ters. The folution being fufficiently diluted, a plate
of copper is immerfed in it, which precipitates the
filver, and afterwards a plate of iron to precipitate the
I S T R Y.
copper. It is boiled with the plate of iron, till rao Copper,
farther precipitate takes place. The copper which is
thus obtained, is dried with a gentle heat, fo that it
may not undergo oxidation. It is fuppofed that the
copper is mixed with iron, the whole may be diffolved
in nitric acid, and the procefs is again repeated by in¬
troducing the plate of iron. In this way it is eafy to
difeover the quantity of copper in the iulphurets of this
metal.
4. Copper is a very brilliant metal, of a fine red p I
colour, different from every other metallic fubftance. 11
The fpecific gravity of copper is 8.584. When it is
hammered, it acquires a greater denfity. It poffeffes
a confiderable degree of hardnefs, and fome elafticity.
It is extremely malleable, and may be reduced to
leaves fo fine that they may be carried about by the
wind. It has alfo a confiderable degree of ductility,
intermediate, according to Guyton, between tin and
lead. The tenacity of copper is alfo very great. A
wire .078 of an inch in diameter, will fupport a weight
without breaking equal to more than 30clbs. avoirdu¬
pois. Copper has a peculiarly aftringent and dif-
agreeable tafte. It is extremely deleterious, when
taken internally, to the animal economy, and indeed
may be confidered as a poifon. It is diftinguiftied by
a peculia.ly difagreeable odour, which it communi¬
cates to the hands by the (Ughteft fridlion.
5. Copper does not melt till the temperature is ele- Atftion of
vated to a red heat, which is about 270 Wedgwood, heat.
or by eftimation 1450° Fahrenheit. When it is rapid¬
ly cooled after fufion, it affumes a granulated and po¬
rous texture, but if it be cooled flowly, it affords cryftals
in quadrangular pyramids, or in oftahedrons, which
proceed from the cube, its primitive form. When the
temperature is raifed beyond what is neceffary for its
fufion, it is fublimed in the form of vifible fumes.
6. When copper is expofed to the air, efpecially if Oxidation,
it be humid, it is foon deprived of its luftre. It tar-
nilhes, becomes of a dull brown colour, which gradu¬
ally deepens, till it is converted into that of the an¬
tique bronze, and at laft is covered with a (hining
green cruft, which is well known under the name of
verdigris. This procefe is the oxidation of the metal
by the abforption of oxygen from the atmofphere 5 and
it is promoted and accelerated, either by being moiften-
ed with water, or by the water which exifts in the at¬
mofphere. As this oxide is formed, the carbonic acid of
the atmofphere combines with it, fo that it is to be con¬
fidered as a mixture of oxide and carbonate of copper.
7. But when copper is fubjedfted to a ftrong heat,
the oxidation proceeds more rapidly. If a plate of
copper be made red-hot in the open air, it lofes its
brilliancy, becomes of a deep brown colour, and the
external layer, which is of this colour, may be de¬
tached from the metal. This is the brown oxide of
copper. This oxide may be obtained by immerfing a
plate of red-hot copper into cold water. The feales
which are formed on t'he furface fall off by the hidden
contraction of the heated copper. This may be re¬
peated till the whole is converted into this oxide.
The copper in this'ftate is in the higheft degree of
oxidation. Sometimes it affumes a black, and fome¬
times a green colour, w hich, according to Prouft, are
owing to the combination of carbonic acid writh the
oxide, This oxide of copper may alfo be obtained by
diffolving
CHEMISTRY.
Copper, See. diffolving copper in nitric or fulphuric acid, and then
by precipitating with chi alkali, which precipitate is to
be dried, to feparate the water. The component parts
of this oxide are,
675
Black
oxide.
Oxygen
Copper
25
75
100
1965
Yellow.
* Phil.
Tranf.
1801,
?■ 23S*
ip65
Phofphuret
But copper combines, w ith a fmaller proportion of
oxygen, forming an oxide of an orange colour. If
the black oxide of copper be mixed with Id’s than an
equal proportion of metallic copper in fine powder,
triturated in a mortar, and introduced into a clofe
veffel with muriatic acid, the whole of the copper is
diflblved with the emiffion of heat, and the oxide is
precipitated of an orange colour, by means of potaih.
This is the oxide of copper with the fmaller propor¬
tion of oxygen. The component parts of this oxide,
according to Mr Chenevix, are
Oxygen
Copper
11-5
88. s
100.0
1967
ilphuret.
196S
Singular
pxperi-
ment.
This oxide changes colour the moment it is expofed to
the air, by the abforption of oxygen, for which it has
a very ftrong affinity.
8. There is no aclion between azote, hydrogen, or
carbone, and copper.
9. Phofphorus readily combines with Copper, and
forms with it a phofphuret, which is prepared by fu-
fing equal parts of copper and phofphoric glafs, with
£ of the whole of charcoal in powder. Or, it may be
formed by projecting phofphorus on red-hot copper in a
crucible. The phofphuret of copper is of a whitiffi
gray colour, with a metallic lultre, and of a clofe
texture. It is much more fufible than copper j it
melts by the aftion of the blow-pipe *, the phofphorus
burns with deflagration on the furface, and the copper
remains behind in the ftate of black fcoria. Expofed
to the air, it lofes its brilliancy, blackens, and is con¬
verted into a kind of efflorelcence, which is phofphate
of copper. It is compofed of 20 parts of phofphorus,
and 80 of copper.
10. Copper combines with fulphur by different procef-
fes. If fulphur in powder and filings of copper are mixed
together, and formed into a palte with a little water,
when they are expofed to the air, the mafs fwells up,
becomes hot, and is converted into a brown matter,
which efflorefees ilowly in the air, and is converted in¬
to fulphate of copper. This fulphuret may be alfo
formed by heating together in a crucible, equal parts
of fulphur and copper filings. A deep coloured mafs
is thus obtained, which is brittle, and more fufible than
copper. This fubilance, which is employed in dyeing,
is prepared by ftratifying in a crucible plates of copper
and fulphur. When the whole is melted, it is after¬
wards reduced to powder, and was formerly known by
the name of ces veneris.
A lingular and fplcndid experiment was firft made
by the fociety of Dutch chemifts at Amfterdam, in the
formation of fulphuret of copper. If three parts of
flowers of fulphur, by weight, and eight parts of
copper filings, be mixed together, introduced into a
glafs matraff, and then placed upon red-hot coals, the
mixture melts, and afterwards, with a kind of explo-Copper, &c.
lion, becomes almoft inftantaneoufly red-hot. If it be '-~v—^
then removed from the fire, it continues red-hot for
fome time, and is converted into a fulphuret of copper.
The lingular part of this experiment is, that it fucceeds
equally well without the accefs of oxygen j or even it
may be performed, when the mixture is under water.
It feems, therefore, at firll: fight, to be a cafe of com-
bullion, or apparent eombuftion, without oxygen. Va-Of difficult
rious opinions have been entertained concerning theexP*an*-
nature of this procefs, and different theories have been“on'
propofed to account for the phenomena, which are
leemingly irreconcileable with the prefent theory of
combultion. Indeed it was at firlt held up as anobje&ion
to the Lavoifierean theory. It has been explained by
fome, by fuppofing that a fmall quantity of air may have
remained within the apparatus, or mixed with the ma¬
terials 5 or that the quantity of air neceffary might be
fupplied from the moilture, from which the materials
and the apparatus may not have been fufficiently freed.
But this affords no fatisfaftory explanation ; for the
quantity of air or water which could remain when the
experiment has been carefully performed, is not fuffi-
cient to furniih the neceilary portion of air for the fup-
port of fuch a vivid combultion. Fourcroy confiders
it as a cafe of fimple phofphorefcence, a change or hid¬
den increafe of capacity for caloric, or as merely the
feparation of light, or the converfion of caloric into
light 5 and in fupport of this opinion he Hates* that
the compound is always fulphuret of copper, which
would not have been the cafe, had real combultion been
effected, for then it would have been a fulphate of cop¬
per. But it is explained by others according to the
principles of the theory of combultion, which has been
given by Gren, and which we have already detailed,
in treating of heat. According to this theory, the
light exilts in combination with the combultible, which
in this cafe is the copper. When heat is applied to
the mixture, the lulphur melts, and therefore combines
with a great quantity of caloric \ but, when the ful¬
phur combines with the copper, it returns to the folid
Hate, and therefore gives out a quantity of caloric.
The light from the metal at the fame time combines
with the caloric, and both appear in the form of fire.
It is at the inftant of combination that the mafs be¬
comes red-hot, in confequence of the fudden extrica¬
tion of heat and light from the two fubffances which
form the compound.
Copper combined with fulphur, is one of the moft Copper py-
common ores of this metal. According to the expe-rites-
riments of Prouft, the natural production, known by
the name of copper pyrites, is a fulphuret cf copper,
combined with an additional portion of fulphur. It is
diltinguifhed by its brittlenefs, metallic lultre, and yel¬
low colour.
11. The order of the affinities of copper and its Affinities,
oxide, is according to Bergman the following :
Copper.
Gold,
Silver,
Arfenic,
Iron,
Manganefe,
Zinc,
Oxide of Copper,
Oxalic acid,
Tartaric,
Muriatic,
Sulphuric,
SaclaCtic,
Nitric,
0.2
Copper,
6y6
Copper, &lc,
Copper.
Antimony,
Platina,
Tin,
Lead,
Nickel,
Bifmuth,
Cobalt,
Mercury,
Sulphur,
Phofphorus.
CHE
Oxide of Copper.
M I S T R Y.
Arfenic,
Phofphoric,
Succinic,
Fluoric,
Citric,
Laftic,
Acetic,
Boracic,
Pruflic,
Carbonic.
1972
Prepara-
lion.
I. Salts of Copper.
1. Sulphate of Copper.
1. Sulphuric acid has no a£lion on copper in the
cold ; but when it is concentrated, and at a boiling
temperature, it is decompofed by the copper, with the
difengagement of fulphurous acid gas. By evaporating
the liquid, and by flow cooling, cryftals of a fine blue
colour are obtained. This fait, which is a fulphate of
copper with excefs of acid, reddens vegetable blues,
has a ftrong ftyptic, metallic tafte, and is at the fame
time extremely acrid and cauftic. Its fpecific gravity
Properties, is 2.1943. It is foluble in 4 parts of cold, and in 2
of boiling water. It efflorefces flightly in the air, lofes
its water of cryftallization when it is heated, and is
converted into a bluilh white powder. By increafing
the heat the acid is driven off, and the oxide remains
behind. The component parts of this fait are, accord¬
ing to Proud,
*973
*974
Com por¬
tion.
Acid,
Oxide,
Water,
33
32
35
100
T975
L ative.
2. This fait is generally found in great abundance
in nature, and is obtained either by evaporating the
water which holds it in folulion, or by expofing the
fulphuret of copper to air and moifture, by which it is
converted into fulphate of copper. This fait is known
in commerce by the names of 6/ue vitriol, blue copperas,
and vitriol of copper.
3. None of the acids have any a£tien on the fulphate
of copper. It is decompofed by the alkalies and earths,
and precipitated in the form of a bluith-gray oxide,
which becomes green when expofed to the air, by ab-
forbing carbonic acid from the atmofphere. Ammonia
decompofes and precipitates the fulphate of copper, and,
with an excefs of alkali, diffolves the oxide, which af-
fumes a rich, brilliant blue colour. It is alfo partially
decompofed by muriate of ammonia. Equal parts of
‘•this fait and fulphate of copper in a heated folution, ap-
i97<)
Sympathe¬
tic fuh.
Acid,
Oxide,
Water,
18
68
100
Copper, See.'
*977
Csmpoh-
tion of.
1978
>pear of a yellow colour, but when the folution cools, it
is converted into green. This folution has been em¬
ployed as a fympathetic ink. Paper moiftened with
it, appears of a yellow colour rvhen it is heated, but, in
the cold, the colour entirely difappears.
4. When a fmall quantity of cauflic potafti is added
to a folution of fulphate of copper, a greenilh-colour-
ed precipitate is formed, which is diffufed in the folu¬
tion. This is a fulphate of copper with excefs of bafe,
and, according to Prouft, is cempofed of
Copper is reduced to the metallic ftate from its fo-
lutions in acids, by feveral metallic fubffances, as
iron, zinc, tin. If a plate of iron be introduced into
a folution of copper in an acid, the iron is in a ftiort
time covered with metallic copper. It is in this way
that copper is obtained from its natural folutions in
water.
2. Sulphite of Copper.
Sulphurous acid has no attion whatever on copper j-Prepara-
but the oxide of copper readily combines with thistion.
acid. Or, the fulphite of copper may be formed by
adding a folution of fulphite of foda, to a folution of
fulphate of copper. An orange-yellow precipitate is
formed, and fmall cryftals of a greenilh white are de-
pofited. Thefe become deeper coloured by expofure
to the air. Both the yellow precipitate and the green-
ifti white fait have been proved by experiment to be
fulphites of copper. The firft contains a greater pro¬
portion of copper, and therefore has an excef* of bafe,
to which its colour and infolubility are owing. The
fecond is a faturated fulphite, w hich is foluble and cryf-
tallizes. When thefe falts are heated by the blow-pipe,
they melt, blacken, affume a grayifli colour, and are at
laft reduced to the metallic ftate. By the addition of
nitric acid they are converted into fulphate of copper.
By the fulphuric acid the fulphurous acid is driven off,
and there remains behind a brownilh-coloured matter
in the ftate of powder, which is the oxide of cop¬
per mixed with a portion of that metal in the metallic
ftate.
3. Nitrate of Copper.
1. Nitric acid is decompofed by copper with greatPrepara-
rapidity. Nitrous gas is given out in great abun-tion.
dance, the metal is oxidated, and diffolved in the acid.
The folution, which is at firft of a pale blue, affumes
a deep colour, and by flow evaporation yields cryftals
in the form of long parallelepipeds. This fait has an
acrid ftyptic tafte, is extremely cauftic, and corrodes
the fkin. It is deliquefeent, and very foluble in wa-
ter. This fait expofed to a heat, even under loo0,Properties,
melts } by increafing the heat, the water of cryftalli¬
zation is driven off; it detonates flightly on red-hot
coals, and when mixed with phofphorus, by percuf-
fion. jpg,.
2. If a quantity of this dried fait, reduced to pow-yi0ient
der, be fpread on a (beet of tinfoil, it remains without adion on
any aftion ; but if it be moiftened a little with w'ater,fin>
and wrapped up, a violent aftion takes place. The
fait is decompofed, and nitrous gas is difengaged with
a great degree of heat. The tinfoil is burft to pieces,
and fometimes it is even inflamed. In this procefs,
the nitric acid of the nitrate of copper is decompofed,
in confequence of the ftrong affinity of the tin for the,
oxygen of the acid. The tin is oxidated, nitrous gas
is given out, and the copper is partly reduced to the
metallic ftate. jpS*
3. The alkalies and earths precipitate the folution Decompofi*
oftion.
CHEMISTRY.
Copper, Stc. of nitrate of copper in the form of a bluifti-white ox-
ide, which becomes green by expofure to the air.
When it is precipitated by means of potaih, if the pot-
afti predominate, a bulky precipitate is formed, of a
fine blue colour. The precipitate is compofed of the
oxide of copper and water, from which Prouft, who
particularly examined it, has denominated it hydrate
of copper. Lime thrown into this folution, has the pro¬
perty of giving it a deeper {hade of blue. It is by this
procefs that the blue pigment known in commerce by
the name ef verditer, and which is employed for paint¬
ing paper, is prepared.
4. If nitrate of copper be diftilled in a retort, the
fait becomes thick, and forms a green cruft on the
retort. It is then in the ftate of nitrate with ex-
cefs of bafe, or fubnitrate, which is infoluble in wa¬
ter.
5. The component parts of this fait are, according
to Prouft,
19S3
Com poii'
tion.
Acid,
Oxide,
Water,
16
67
100
19S4
Prepara¬
tion.
1985
Properties.
1986
Competi¬
tion,
1987
Submuri-
ate.
Acid,
Oxide,
Water,
12.5
79.O
8-5
100.0
677-
Copper, &c*
1988
Compoii-
tion.
4. Muriate of Copper.
1. Concentrated muriatic acid, with the aid of
heat, acts on copper and diffolves it. It produces a
flight effervefcence, with the evolution of hydrogen
gas. The folution is of a fine green colour, by which
it is diftinguilhed from the fulphate and nitrate of
copper. This fait may be formed by the dirett com¬
bination of the green oxide of copper with muriatic
acid, a little diluted with water. By evaporation
and flow cooling, cryftals may be obtained in the form
of long fmall needles, or rectangular parallelelopipeds,
which are of a fine grafs-green colour. This fait is
extremely acrid and cauftic; it melts with a moderate
heat y it is deliquefeent in the air, and is foon converted
into a thick liquid like oil. The fait fufes at a mo-
derate heat, and becomes of a uniform mafs by cool¬
ing. It is not decompofed by fulphuric or nitric acids.
The alkalies precipitate a bluilh white oxide, which be¬
comes green in the air •, the copper is precipitated by
zinc and iron. The cemponent parts of this fait, ac¬
cording to Prouft, are,
Acid, 24
Black oxide, 40
Water, 36
100
This fait is therefore the muriate of copper with the
oxide in the higheft degree of oxidation.
2. This fait, according to the experiments of Prouft,
may be diftilled to drynefs without any change 5 but
by increafing the beat, a part of its acid is driven off
in the ftate of oxymuriatic acid, and the copper re¬
mains behind in its loweft ftate of oxidation, and
forms a muriate of copper of a white colour. I his
muriate may alfo be obtained by diffolving copper in
nitro-muriatic acid. A greenifti powder appears, which
is a muriate of copper ■with exccfs of bafe. 1 he com¬
ponent parts of this ialt are,
49*9
3. Muriatic acid alfo forms a fait with the oxide ofWlth^he
copper in its loweft degree of oxidation. _ Prouft ob-°^^e
tained this fait by mixing falts of copper with muriate
of tin, which latter deprived tire copper of a portion
of its oxygen, and afforded a fait of a white colour;
It may be formed alfo by introducing a plate of cop¬
per into a bottle filled with muriatic acid. This fait
cryftallizes in tetrahedrons. It may be precipitated in
the ftate of white powder j by diluting the folution
with water, and by repeated waftrings, the orange oxide
of copper is obtained. When it is expofed to the air,
it foon combines with oxygen, and is converted into
muriate of copper with the oxide in its maximum ftate
of oxidation. This fait is foluble in ammonia, and
forms with it a colourlefs folution, which, after being
for fome time expofed to the air, affumes a fine blue
colour by the abforption of oxygen.
5. Hyperoxymuriate of Copper.
The oxide of copper diffufed in water, is diffolved
when a ftream of oxymuriatic acid gas is directed
through it. But the properties of this fait were not
examined by Mr Chenevix, who formed it.
6. Fluate of Copper.
Fluoric acid readily oxidates and diffolves copper;
but the properties of this fait are little known. It
forms a gelatinous folution, and affords by evaporation
cubical cryftals.
7. Borate of Copper.
This fait is moft readily formed by adding a folutiom
of an alkaline borate to the folution of nitrate or ful¬
phate of copper. A greeniih precipitate is formed,,
which has very little folubility in water.
8. Phofpbate of Copper.
Phofphoric acid is not decompofed by copper*, butPrepara-
when it remains for fome time in contact with thetlon*
metal, it promotes the oxidation, and there is thus for¬
med a phofphate of copper, which has little folubility.
Or it may be obtained by pouring an alkaline phof¬
phate into a folution of fulphate or nitrate of copper.
The phofphate of copper is formed, which is almoft in¬
foluble. When it is heated with charcoal in a crucible
it affords a gray phofphuret of copper, which has fome
brilliancy. The component parts of phofphate of cop¬
per, as they have been afeertained by Mr Chenevix, CompoL
are, tion.
Acid, 35.O
Oxide, 61.5
Water, 3.5
100.0
The above oxide is compof«d of 49.5 brown oxide, and
12 of water.
9- Carbonate
G H E M I
opp.r, 8cc, ^ Carbonate o£ Copper.
1992
Prepara-
tion.
1993
Competi¬
tion.
Carbonic acid has no aftion on^copper, either in the
gafeous or liquid ftate 5 but it is very readily ablorbed
by the blue or green oxides of this metal. It may be
formed by adding an alkaline carbonate to any of the
folutions of copper in the other acids. 1 o prepare this
fait of the molt brilliant and uniform colour, it fhould
be precipitated with boiling water, Avafhc.d carefully,
and the veflel which contains it placed in the fun.
The carbonate of copper is found native, and is known
by the name of malachite, it contains the fame pro¬
portions as the artificial carbonate. Its component
parts are,
Acid, 25.C
Brown oxide, 69.5
Water, 5.5
100.0
10. Arfeniate of Copper.
1994
Scheeie’s
green.
This fait may be formed by adding a folution of an
alkaline arfeniate to nitrate of copper} or, by digeft-
xng arfenic acid on copper. A green folution is ob¬
tained, and the arfeniate of copper is precipitated in
the form of a bluilh-white powder. Ihe arieniate of
potafh added to a folution of fulphate of copper forms
a precipitate of a very rich green, which was propofed
by Scheele as a paint, becaufe it is unaltered by the
air, and hence it obtained the name of Scheele's green.
It is the arfenite of copper. This fait may be formed
by the following procefs :
DilTolve a quantity of potalh in water, and add
white oxide of arfenic, till the potafh is faturated. Fil¬
ter the liquor, and add gradually a folution of fulphate
of copper while it is hot, ftirring the mixture during
the addition. It is then left at reft for feme time, af¬
ter which the arfenite of copper precipitates in the
form of a beautiful green powder. The precipitate is
to be repeatedly wrafhed with v'ater, and dried. Several
varieties of the arfeniates of copper have been deferibed,
and analyzed by the Count de Bournon and Mr Che-
nevix, and an account of them publifhed in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaftions for 1801.
11. Tungftate of Copper.
Tungftic acid combines with oxide of copper, or
forms a precipitate when added to a folution of ful¬
phate of copper.
12. Molybdate of Copper.
Molybdic acid added to a folution of nitrate of cop¬
per, produces a green precipitate.
13. Chromate of Copper.
This is formed by adding chromic acid to a folu¬
tion of nitrate of copper. A red precipitate is ob¬
tained.
14. Acetate of Copper.
1995 .
Prepara- Copper is readily oxidated and diflolved in acetic
Uon* acid. The folution is aided by heat, and gradually af-
fumes a green colour. The oxide of copper, which is
thus formed, is the verdegris of commerce. It is ufu-
s t it y.
ally prepared by expofing plates of copper to the aftron Copper, See,
of vinegar. The furface of the plates is covered with »
this bluifti-green poxvder, which being diflblved in ace¬
tic acid affords a folution of a fine grecnilh blue co¬
lour. This folution by evaporation and cooling gives
cryftals of a deep blue colour, and in the form of qua¬
drangular, truncated pyramids* Ihe Ipecifie gravity is
1.779. This fait has a lining difagreeable tafte, and is rp95
poifonous. It efflorefees in the air, and is very foluble Properties. (
in water. It is decompofed by all the alkalies •, and by
means of heat, or by diftillation, it is decompofed, and
gives out acetic acid. 1 his fait, according to the ana-
lyfis of Prouft, is compofed of
Acid and water, 61
Oxide, 39
15. Oxalate of Copper.
Oxalic acid readily afts upon copper, and forms w-ith
it needle-ftiaped cryftals of a green colour. It readily
combines with the oxide of copper, and is then in the
ftate of a bluifh green powder, which is little folu¬
ble in water. Oxalic acid precipitates the fulphate,
nitrate, and muriate of copper, in the form of a bluifti
gray powder.
16. Tartrate of Copper.
Tartaric acid diffolves copper, when expofed to the
air, and at laft converts it into an oxide. It combines
readily with the oxides of copper, and forms with them a
fait of little folubility, and of a green colour. When
this acid is added to the folution of fulphate or muriate
of copper, it forms a tartrate of copper, which appears
after fome time in irregular greenilh cryftals.
17. Tartrate of Potalh and Copper.
This triple fait may be prepared by boiling together
oxide of copper and tartar in water. By evaporating
the folution blue cryftals are obtained, which have a
fweetilh tafte. If the fame folution be evaporated, to
drynefs, a bluifti green pow der remains behind, which
is employed as a paint, by the name of Brun/wick
green. green.
18. Citrate of Copper.
Citric acid diflblves the oxide of copper at the boil¬
ing temperature. The folution affords by evaporation
greenilh coloured cryftals.
19. Benzoate of Copper.
Benzoic acid readily diffolves the oxide of copper.
The folution yields fmall cryftals of a deep green colour,
which have little folubility in w'ater. It is decompofed
by the alkalies, the carbonates of lime, and barytes, and
the acid is driven off by beat.
20. Succinate of Copper.
When fuccinic acid is long digefted with copper, it
diffolves a fmall portion, and the folution affords green
cryftals.
21. Suberate of Copper.
When fuberic acid
is added to a folution of ni¬
trate
199S
Prepara¬
tion.
Copper, &c. trate of copper, it produces a green colour 5 but there
is no precipitate.
22. Mediate of Copper.
When mellitic acid is added to a folution of acetate
of copper, it aftbrds a precipitate, and the colour of
verdigris, but it produces no change on muriate of
copper.
23. La61ate of Copper.
Laftic acid, after digeftion with copper, firft affumes
a blue colour, then changes to a green, and is afterwards
converted into a dark brown. The folution does not
yield cryilals.
24. Pruffiate of Copper. f
The prufliates of potafli precipitate the falts of cop¬
per of different colours. The prufliates obtained from
fulphate, nitrate, and muriate of copper, Mr Hatchet
obferves, are very beautiful •, but the fineft and deepeft
colour he obtained from the muriate. He has pro-
pofed the pruffiate of copper as a paint ; and on trial
with oil and water, it has been found to anfwer the
purpofe. The method which he recommends for the
preparation of this pigment, is to take green muriate
of copper with 10 parts of diftilled or rain water, and
to add prufliate of lime, which he thinks is preferable
to prufliate of potafli, until the whole is precipitated.
The prufliate of copper is then to be well waflied with
cold water, and to be dried without Keat *.
II. A&ion of Alkalies, &c. on Copper.
1. The fixed alkalies in folution in water, digefted
with copper filings, and allowed to cool, promote the
oxidation of the metal. The liquid aflirmes a flight
blue colour, as well as the copper, but the a£tion of the
air is neceffary for this procefs. It fcarcely fucceeds in
clofe veffels.
Liquid ammonia, treated in the fame way, becomes
of a brilliant blue colour, but it diffolves only a very
fmall quantity of the oxide. By the flow evaporation
of this folution, the greateft part of the ammonia is fe-
parated in the form of gas ; a very fmall quantity on¬
ly remains combined with the oxide of copper. This
folution, it has been faid, yields tranfparent cryftals of
a fine blue colour. The dried mafs affumes a green co¬
lour when it is expofed to the air, as the ammonia is
diflipated, and the oxide abforbs carbonic acid. The
green oxide of copper is inftantly converted to a blue.
This aftion is promoted by heat, and when the heat is
increafed, azotic gas is difengaged ; the hydrogen of
the ammonia combines with part of the oxygen of the
oxide and forms water ; the oxide becomes of a brown
colour, and the metal is at laft revived.
2. There is no aftion between the earths and copper,
excepting by fufion. With the vitrifiable earths and
the oxides of this metal, a glafs is formed, which is
moft commonly of a fine green colour, with different
fhades of brown or red, according to the degree of
oxidation. The oxides of copper are frequently em¬
ployed to colour glafs, porcelain, and pottery.
3. Copper feems to have but a feeble action on moft
of the falts. The fulphates are not decompofed by this
metal, even with the afliftance of heat. When cop¬
per is boiled with the folution of alum, it is oxidated
CHEMISTRY.
679
* Jour.
Roy. Injl.
i. 307.
1999
Fixed aika
lies.
2000
Ammonia.
2001
Glafs co-
oured.
2002
Mphates.
2003
2004
and partially diflblved, by the excels of fulphuric acid Copper, &C'
which this fait contains. The fulphate of copper thus ^ 1
formed, feems to combine in the ftate of triple lalt with
the fulphate of alumina and potalh. It has been ob-
ferved that alumina precipitated from alum, the folu¬
tion of which has been kept for fome time in copper
veffels, is (lightly tinged with a blue colour. The ni- Nitrates,
trates, efpecially the nitrate of potalh, when fufed to¬
gether, give out fparks, but without inflammation or
detonation. A brown oxide of copper is thus formed,
mixed with potafli. When it is walhed with water,
the alkali is diffolved, and there remains the pure oxide
of copper, which is often prepared in this way for the
fabrication of enamels.
Muriate of ammonia is decompofed by copper wdth Muriatesi
the afliftance of heat. Hydrogen gas and ammoniacal
gas are difengaged, and there remains behind a muri¬
ate of copper. The folution of muriate of ammonia
alfo a£ls upon copper, and becomes of a blue colour,
when it is kept in veffels of this metal. When muri¬
ate of ammonia is fublimed with about of its weight
of green oxide of copper, a fmall quantity of the muri¬
ate of ammonia is decompofed, and the muriate of cop¬
per which is formed, combines with the undecompofed
fait. This was formerly called cupreous Jiowers of fal
ammoniac, or ens veneris. If a quantity of lime water,
with about Tr7 of its weight of muriate of ammonia, be
kept in a copper veffel for 10 or 12 hours, the liquid
affumes a fine blue colour. This was formerly called
celefial water. In this procefs a fmall quantity of am¬
monia is difengaged by the lime, and it diffolves fome
portion of the copper, which communicates a blue co¬
lour to the whole folution. This compound may alfo
be formed, by adding a fmall quantity of copper filings
to a mixture of the folution of muriate of ammonia and
lime water.
4. The phofphates, fluates, borates, and carbonates,
have no other aftion on copper than by means of the
water in which they are diffolved. This a<ftion is great¬
ly promoted by expofure to the air.
III. Alloys.
1. Copper readily combines with almoft all other
metals, by means of fufion ; and many of the alloys
which are thus formed, are of great importance in the
arts.
2. When copper is combined with arfenic, by melt-
ing them together in a clofe crucible, and covering
the furface with muriate of foda, to prevent oxidation,
a white brittle alloy is formed, which has been called
white tombac. With a certain proportion of zinc and
tin, this alloy is employed in the fabrication of various
uterifils.
3. The alloys of copper with tungften, molybdena,
chromium, columbium, titanium, and uranium, are
either altogether unknown, or have not been exa¬
mined.
4. Little is known of the alloy of copper and co-
bait. It is faid that it refembles cobalt itfelf in tex¬
ture and brittlenefs.
5. Copper forms with nickel a white hard alloy,
which has no duftility, and which is foon altered by"
expofure to the air.
6. Copper unites with manganefe, and gives an al- „ 2003 ,
loy cf a red colour, which is very malleable. angane,-,
7. Equal
6$o
■ Copper, See.
C H E M I S T R Y.
2009
Biunuth.
2010
Antimony.
20X1
Mercury.
20X2
Zinc.
2013
Brafs.
7. Equal parts of copper and blfmuth, melted toge¬
ther, form a brittle alloy of a pale red colour. With
one-eighth of bifmuth, the alloy is extremely brittle, of
a very pale red colour, and exhibiting in its texture
nearly cubical fragments. The fpecific gravity of this
alloy is exactly the mean of that of the two metals $ and,
as the proportion of bifmuth is increafed, the, tenacity
of the alloy is diminithed.
8. Copper combines readily with antimony by fu-
fion. Equal parts of the two metals conftitute an al¬
loy of a beautiful violet colour, and of a greater fpeci-
fic gravity than the mean. This alloy is remarkable
for its lamellated and fibrous texture. The alchemifts
gave it the name of regulus of Venus. A compound
formed of equal parts of martial regulus and regulus of
Venus, according to an alchemical prefeription, the
furface of which exhibits the appearance of mefhes or
cavities, was called Vulcan's net, becaufe it feemed to
to envelope iron and copper, which were denominated
Mars and Venus.
9. Copper enters into combination with mercury
with forne difficulty. This alloy may be formed by
triturating very thin plates of copper which have been
rubbed with vinegar or common fait, with mercury j
or, by triturating copper filings with the folution of
mercury in nitric acid. It is alio formed by other
procefies; but whatever be the procefs, this amalgam
is of a reddifh colour, and fufficiently foft to receive the
molt delicate impreffions when it is a little heated. It
becomes hard by expofure to the air. It is decompofed
by heat, and the mercury is feparated.
10. The compound of copper and zinc conftitutes
one of the moll important and ufeful alloys, of all the
combinations of the metals. Mufchenbroeck has giv¬
en a particular defeription of feveral of thefe alloys.
Equal parts of copper and zinc afforded a metal of a
fine golden yellow, whofe fpecific gravity was 8.047 j
one part of copper and half a part of zinc, formed a
compound of a pale golden colour *, one part of copper
and three-fourths of zinc, compofed an alloy of a golden
colour, which yielded to the file j one part of copper
and one-fourth of zinc, gave a compound of a finer co¬
lour than that of brafs. According to the proportions'
of the metals which are employed, the alloys have re¬
ceived different names. The ufual procefs for combin¬
ing them, is either by fufing copper with a mixture of
calamine, or native carbonate of zinc and charcoal; or
by flratifying plates of copper with the fame mixture,
and expofing them to heat.
The well known compound, diftinguifhed by the
name of brafs, is an alloy of copper and zinc. The
proportion of the zinc is about one-fourth of the cop¬
per. This alloy is of a fine yellow colour, lefs liable Copper,
to tarnifh, and more fufible than the copper. The v—<
denfity of this alloy is one-tenth more than the mean.
It is malleable, and poffeffes confiderable duftility.
A compound applied to a great variety of ornamental
purpofes, and known by the names of Prince Rupert's ^
metal, prince's metal or pinchbeck, is an alloy of zinc pinchbeck,
and copper in the proportion of three parts of the for¬
mer to four of the latter. This alloy is lefs malleable
than brafs j but has a fine golden colour, which is
pretty permanent, and little affe&ed by expofure to
The compound of zinc and copper, called brafs, it
is fuppofed, was well known to the ancients. An ore
of zinc was employed in the fabrication of it, although
it does not appear that they were at all acquainted
with zinc as a diftinft metal. “ It is probable,” Pro-
fefior Beckman obferves, after Pliny, <£ that ore con¬
taining zinc, acquired the name of cadmia, becaufe it
firft produced brafs.” “ Ipfe lapis e quo fit ses, cad¬
mia vocata.” “ When it was afterwards remarked,
that calamine gave to copper a yellow colour, the
fame name was conferred on it alfo. It appears,
however, that it was feldom found by the ancients,
and we mull confider cadmia in general as fignifying
ore that contains zinc. Gold-coloured copper or brafs
was long preferred to pure or common copper, and
thought to be more beautiful the nearer it approached
to the bell aurichalchum (c). Brafs, therefore, was
fuppofed to be a more valuable kind of copper; and
on this account Pliny fays that cadmia was neceffary
for procuring copper, that is, brafs. Copper as xvell
as brafs was for a great length of time called ces, and
it was not till a late period, that mineralogifts, in order
to diftinguilh them, gave the name of cuprum to the
former. Pliny fays, that it was good ■when a large
quantity of cadmia had been added to it, becaufe it not * of
only rendered the colour more beautiful, but increafed . *
the weight (d) *.” U ’
To difeover the proportions of the two metals in this Bra|'s0a1,fa«
ahoy, Vauquelin diffolved a quantity of brafs in nitric iyZed,
acid. When the folution is completed, he precipitates
the two metals by means of potalh, which is added in
large quantity, to diffolve the whole of the oxide of
zinc ; and as the oxide of copper is not foluble by this
alkali, it remains in the form of black powder, which
is feparated, walhed, and dried. A fiftieth part of
the weight of this precipitate is dedufted for the oxy¬
gen with which it is combined ; the remainder gives
the weight of copper in the alloy. What is deficient
of the whole weight of the alloy, is the weight of the
zinc f. f Fourcroy
11. Copper Con naif.
Chim. vi.
[ I
(c) According to Biihop Watfon, the aurichalcum, or orichalcum, of the ancients, is to be confidered as the
fame with our brafs. MancheJ}. Tranf. ii. 47.
(d) Mr Beckmann farther adds, “At firft it was called ces cypnum ; but in courfe of time arAy cyprium, from
which at length was formed cuprum. It cannot, however, be afeertained at what periods thefe appellations were
common. I he epithet cupreus occurs in manuferipts of Pliny and Palladius, but we cannot fay whether later
tranferibers may not have changed cypnus into cupreus, with which they were perhaps better acquainted. The
oldeft writer who ufes the wrord cuprum, is Spartian, who fays in the life of Caracalla, cancelli ex cere, vel cupro;
but may not the laft word have been added to the text as a glofs ? Pliny, book xxxvi. 26. fays, addito cypreo ei
nitro, which Ifidore, xvi. 15. p. 363, exprefled by the words adjcclo cupro et nitro." Piijl, of Invent, iii. 75.
'59-
CHEMISTRY.
6S1
Oopper, &c.
•zoi6
Tin.
2017
for can¬
nons.
4018
Bell-metal*
2019
Tinning
copper.
II. Copper combines very readily with tin. This
is a very important alloy in the arts. It is with this
alloy that bronze, metals for calling llatues and cannons,
bell-metal, and metallic mirrors, are formed. Tin di*
minilhes the ductility of copper, and increafes its tena¬
city, hardnefs, and fonorous quality. According to
Mufchenbroeck, copper acquires the greateil folidity
with the addition of one part of tin to five or fix of this
metal. By increafing the quantity of tin, the alloy be¬
comes hard and brittle.
To form the alloy employed for cannons, 12 parts of
tin are united to 100 of copper. In fufing the two me¬
tals for this- alloy, it is neceflary to ftir or agitate the
mixture, otherwife they remain uncombined. Bronze,
or the metal which is ufed for llatues, is not different
from that of which cannons are made, excepting in the
proportion of tin being either more or lefs, to vary the
colour.
The component parts of bell-metal are ufually 75
of copper and 25 of tin, or three of copper and one
of tin. A fmall quantity of other metals is fometimes
detefted by analyfis, in fragments of bells that have
been examined, fuch as zinc, antimony, bifmuth, and
even filver. But thefe metals are not confidered as
effential to the alloy. Bell-metal is of a grayilh white
colour, of a clofe grain, and fo hard as to be fcarcely
touched with the file. It is alfo elaltic and fonorous.
The fpecific gravity is confiderably more than the
mean, and it is more fufible than copper. A mixture
of three parts of tin and one of copper, fufed with a
little arfenious acid, and black flux, gives an alloy of
the colour of Heel, very hard, and fufceptible of a fine
polith, which is employed in the fabrication of mirrors
for telefcopes. But other proportions, with the addition
of other metals, are employed by different opticians.
Bifmuth, antimony, and filver, are added, to increafe
the refledling property of the mirror.
Copper veflels which are employed for the purpofes
of domeftic economy are apt to be corroded or oxi¬
dated by the fubftances which are boiled or preferved
in them. To defend them from the adtion of thefe
fubftances, and to prevent the terrible accidents which
would otherwife happen to .thofe who employ any of
thefe matters as food, the infide of fuch veflels is co¬
vered with a thin coating of tin. This is performed
by the following procefs. The furface to be covered
■with tin, is feraped very clean with an iron inftrument,
or it is fcoured with wine lees, or weak nitric acid
and fand. The tin is then applied in two Ways 5 in
the firft way, the tin is in a ftat'e of fufion, and the
furface is covered with fome refinous or oily matter,
to prevent oxidation, in the fame way as in tinning
iron. The furface to be tinned is firft immerfed in a
folution of muriate of ammonia, and dried, and then
dipped into the melted tin. Another method is, to
heat the copper veffel on charcoal, and then to apply
to the infide of it a quantity of tin, which is then
melted •, a little muriate of ammonia being thrown in
at the fame time in powder. The furface is then rub¬
bed with tow. The muriate of ammonia is employed,
both to clean the furface of the copper, and alfo to
prevent the tin from being oxidated. The coating of
tin which can be applied to copper is extremely thin •,
and it cannot by any means be increafed, to bear a
heat greater than that which melts tin. Bayen in his
Vol. V. Part II.
rcfearches concerning tin, found, that a venel nine in- Silver,
ches in diameter, and three lines in depth, acquired, y' w*'
by having its furface covered with tin, only 21 grains
of additional weight.
In ufing veflels thus tinned, care ftiotild be taken
not to allow acid fubftances to remain for any length
of time in contaft with them, becaufe the tin would
be corroded, and part of the copper afterwards dif-
folved, which would inevitably aft as a poifon. Pure
tin ought only to be employed, at leaft without any
mixture of lead. Ioto
12. Copper combines very readily with lead by Lead,
fufion. With an excefs of lead, the alloy is of a gray
colour, is duftile, but brittle when it is hot, on account
of tile great difference of fufibility of the lead and cop¬
per. This alloy is employed in the fabrication of
printing types for large letters. According to Savary,
the proportion for this purpofe is 100 of lead and 20 or
25 of copper. ... . 232t
13. Copper combines with iron, but with much Iron,
greater difficulty than with the other metals. As the
proportion of iron is increafed, the alloy becomes of a
darker gray, lofes its duftility, and is more infufible.
The alloy of copper with iron has been fuppofed to
conftitute that variety called hot fhort iron, which pof-
fefles greater tenacity than other kinds of iron, and on
account of fome peculiar properties is more applicable
to a variety of purpofes.
Next to iron, copper is of the greateft importance, ufes,
and moft extenfive utility, of all the metals. In the
metallic ftate it is employed for a great variety of in-
ftruments and utenfils $ fome of its oxides and lalts are
much ufed in painting, dyeing, and enamelling j and
the alloys vffth other metals, efpecially with zinc and
tin, are applied to many valuable purpofes in the arts,
and in domeftic economy. But the ufes of copper in
its different ftates, and in its various combinations, are
fo familiar and w'ell known, that it mull appear quite
unneceflary to enumerate them.
Sect. XX. 0/Silver.
1. Silver has been reckoned among the noble or per- Hiftory,'
feft metals, and has been known from the earlieft ages
of the world. Its fcarcity, beauty, and utility, have
always rendered it an objeft of refeqrch among man¬
kind, fo that the nature and properties of this metal
have been long ftudied and minutely inveftigated. In
the midft of the rage for the tranfmutation of metals
which for centuries fired the imaginations of the alche-
mifts, filyer occupied a great fhare off their attention and
labour, wfith the hope of difeovering the means of con¬
verting the bafer and more abundant metals into this,
which is more highly valued on account of its fcarcity
and durability. When the dawn of feienee commen¬
ced, and its light had diftipated the follies and extra¬
vagancies of thefe purfuits, the earlier chemifts w'ere
much employed in examining the properties and com¬
binations of filver •, nor has it been overlooked or ne-
gl-efted by the moderns.
2. Silver which is neither in fuch abundance nor fc Or-«
universally diffufed as many other metals, exifts in na¬
ture in five different ftates j in the native ftate j in that
of alloy w ith other metals, efpecially with antimony ;
in that of fulphuret, fulphurated oxide, muriate, and
4 R carbonate.
682
CHEMISTRY.
i. Native filver, 'which is characterized by
2025
Anal/fis.
Silver, &e. carbonate. 1.    
' ^ 1 its ductility and Ipecific gravity, is frequently tarmfhed
on the furface, of a gray or blackifh colour, and ap¬
pears under a great variety of forms. In this-it ate it
fs not perfectly pure. It is ufually alloyed witii a lit¬
tle gold or copper. 2. The alloy of filver and anti¬
mony, which is the molt frequent, is diftmguifhed by
its brittlenefs and lamellated itruture from native hl-
ver, which it refembles in luftre and colour. It cryi-
tallizes in prifms which are lix-fided and pretty regu¬
lar. 3. The fulphuret of filver which is known to
mineralogifts by the name of vitreous filyer ore, is of a
dark gray colour, and has fome metallic luftre. It is
ufually cryftallized in the form of cubes, otahedrons
with angular facets, or fometimes in the form of the
dodecahedron. 4. The fulphurated oxide oHilvcr and
antimony. In this ore of iilver the fulphur is combin¬
ed with the metal in the ftate of oxide j m the former,
in the metallic ftate. This ore is called red filver ore
It is of a deep red colour, fometimes tranfparent, and
fometimes nearly opaque, frequently having the luftre
of fteel on the furface. The primitive form of its
cryftals is the rhomboidal dodecahedron. 5. T he muri¬
ate of lilver, which has been long known to mineralo-
gifts by the name of corneous fiver, is found in irregu¬
lar maffes of a grayifh colour, frequently opaque, but
fometimes femitranfparent. It is foft and very fuli-
ble.
3. The analyfis of filver ore varies according to its
nature and combinations« Native filver, after be¬
ing broken down and waflied, is rubbed with liquid
mercury, which by ftrong trituration diffolves, and
combines with the filver. I his amalgam is fubjecfled
to prefiure, to feparate the excefs of mercury. It is then
diftilled, and afterwards heated in a crucible, to volati¬
lize the mercury, and the filver remains pure. When
filver is combined with antimony and fulphur, the ore
is to be ftrongly roafted, to feparate the antimony or
fulphur. It is then melted with a proper quantity of
alkaline flux. The fulphurated oxide of filver and an-
timdny may be treated in the fame way.
But by thefe proceffes the filver is not in a ftate of
lied'bycu- 'perfect purity. To obtain it pure, by the reparation of
peliatien. other metals, as copper or iron, it is fubjefted to the pro-
cefs called cupellation. This depends on the peculiar
property of lead, when it is oxidated and afterwards
vitrified, of combining with the metals, and leaving the
filver in a ftate of purity. A fmall flat cup made of
the powder of burnt bones, which has received the
name of cupel, is employed for this purpofe. The fil¬
ver to be purified is included in a plate of lead, ufual¬
ly double the weight of the filver. The cupel is in¬
troduced under a muffle in the middle of the furnace.
The ufe of the muffle is to increafe the heat, by allow¬
ing the metal to be furrounded on all fides with coals,
and at the fame time preventing the admixture of any
part of the fuel with the fufed matter. The heat is
them to be applied fufficiently great, that every part of
the metal may be in fufion, but not fuch as to fublime
the lead too rapidly. As the procefs advances, the
lead is oxidated and vitrified, and having combined
with all the other metals except the filver, finks into
the porous cupel, and leaves the filver pure. The lead,
which is now in the ftate of litharge, is extracted from
the cupel, and applied to the ufual purpofes.
2026
Silver puri
4. Silver is of a fine white colour, and great bril- Silver, &c.
liancy. The fpecific gravity is 10.474, and according
to fome, when it is hammered, 10.535, and fometimes prnpcrtip%
nearly 11. The hardnefs of filver is intermediate be¬
tween iron and gold. A he elafticity of filver is confi-
derable, and it is one of the moft fonorous of the metals.
It poffeifes very great duftility and malleability.^ It may
be beaten out into leaves ttoW’o °f an inch thick, and
a grain of filver may be fo extended as to be formed
into a hemifpherical veffel of fufficient capacity to hold
an ounce of water, or to be drawn out into a wire 400
feet in length. The tenacity of filver is very great.
A. wire .078 of an inch in diameter, will lupport a
weight of 187 lbs. avoirdupois. _ g
5. Silver is a good conductor of caloric. Its ex- ^^-on ^
panfive power is lefs than that of lead and tin, and
greater than that of iron. When it is expofed to a
white heat it melts. The temperature neceffary to
bring it to fufion has been calculated at the icoo° of
Fahrenheit 5 but, according to Kirwan, it requires a
higher temperature than 28° Wedgwood to melt it,
although at that temperature it continues in a ftate of
fufion. When it is cooled flowly after fufion, it ex¬
hibits fome marks of cryftallization. It a flumes the
form of four-fided pyramids, or of oftahedrons. If
the heat be increafed after the filver is melted, it boils,
and may be reduced to vapour. ’Ihe furface of melt¬
ed filver is lo extremely brilliant, that it feems to
throw out fparks, which is called corufcation by the
workmen. . 202.
6. Silver is a good conduftor of eleancity. It has EleclriJ-ty
no perceptible tafte or fmell. _ Stc.
7. Silver is not altered by exposure to the air, al- 2030
though it is foon tarnilhed, which is owing, as Prouft a^r‘
afeertained, to a thin covering of fulphuret of filyer,
which is formed by fulphureous vapours to which it is
expofed; but when it is fubjebted to a ftrong heat for
a long time, in an open veffel, it combines with the
oxygen of the atmolphere, and is converted into an
oxide. In the experiments of Macquer, the oxidation Oxidation,
©f filver was effefted by expofing it for 20 times fuc-
cefiively in a crucible, to the ftrong heat of a porce¬
lain furnace. At laft perceptible traces of oxidation
were obferved, and vitreous matter of an olive co¬
lour was obtained. In other experiments filver being
afted on by the heat of a burning glafs, w as covered
with a white powder, which was afterwards convert¬
ed into a cruft of a green colour. Van Marum
paffed eleftric (hocks through filver wire, which was
inftantly reduced to a kind oi powder, with a greenifh
white flame, and the oxide which w^as formed was dif-
fipated in vapour. The oxide of filver, which is form¬
ed by thefe proceffes, is of a greenifh or yellow colour.
It is compofed of about ten parts of oxygen, and 90
of filver. The oxide of filver is very eafily reduced,
for the affinity of oxygen for this metal is very feeble.
It is decompofed by the application of heat, and even
when it is expofed to the light. By heating it in clofe
veffels, pure oxygen gas is obtained, and the metal is
converted to the metallic ftate, by melting it in a cru¬
cible.
8. Azote, hydrogen, or carbone, have no aftion
whatever on filver. _ 23^2
9. Silver combines with phofphorus, forming a pi10fphurtt.
phofphuret, One part of filver in filings, with two of
X 1 1 phofphoric
OxiDF. at Silver,
CHEMISTR Y.
! 2033
Sulphuret,
Silver, 5tc. pliofphorlc glafs, and hair a part of charcoal, expofcd
to heat in a crucible, yielded a phofphuret of iilver
which had acquired one-fourth of its primitive weight
of filver. This phofphuret is of a white colour, brit¬
tle, of a granulated texture, and may be cut with a
knife. By throwing pieces of phofphorus on filver
red hot in a crucible, the metal is inftantly melted,
and the phofphuret which is formed remains at the
bottom. At the moment when the furface becomes
folid, a quantity of phofphorus is thrown out with a
kind of explofion, and the furface of the metal then
exhibits a lamellated appearance. Pelletier, who
firft made this experiment, concludes from it, that fil¬
ver is fufceptible of retaining a greater proportion of
phofphorus in combination with it, when it is in
fulion than in the folid Hate, and that the feparation
of the phofphorus is owing to the fudden contraction
of the lilver. A hundred parts of lilver in fufion re¬
tain 25 of phofphorus, but only 15 when it becomes
folid. Phofphorus has the property of reducing the
oxides of filver, and of precipitating them from this
folution in acids, in the metallic form.
9. Sulphur combines readily with lilver, both in
the dry and humid way. By ftratifying in a crucible
plates of lilver alternately with fulphur, and melting
them rapidly, a deep violet-coloured mafs is obtained,
which is more fulible than lilver, brittle, cryllallized,
and has a metallic luftre. It may be cut with a knife,
and has a good deal of refemblance to vitreous ore of
filver. When this fulphuret of filver is expofed to heat
for a coaliderable time, the fulphur is gradually dith-
pated, and the lilver remains pure and duftile. Silver
combines very readily with fulphur, when it is long
expofed to thole matters which gradually depolit this
fubllance. This effeft is immediately produced, when
filver is brought into contaCl with fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas, or when it is immerfed in water impregnated
with this gas, as in natural fulphureous waters. It is
owing to the fame caufe that a lilver fpoon is tarnilhed
by a boiled egg, and particularly if the egg has begun
to fpoil. Sulphurated hydrogen gas which is exhaled
by the egg, is decompofed, the fulphur combines with
the lilver, and forms a thin layer of fulphuret of filver,
which is of a dark or violet colour. The fame thing
happens, when lilver is expofed in places that are much
frequented, as in churches and theatres.
10. Silver forms alloys with moll of the metals,
and falts with the acids. The order of the affinities of
lilver and its oxide, as they have been arranged by
Bergman, is the following.
2034
Affinities.
Silver.
Lead,
Copper,
Mercury,
Bifmuth,
Tin,
Gold,
Antimony,
Iron,
Manganefe,
Zinc,
Arfenic,
Nickel,
Oxide of Silver.
Muriatic acid,
Oxalic,
Sulphuric,
Saclaclic,
Phofphofic,
Sulphurous,
Nitric,
Arfenic,
Fluoric,
Tartaric,
Citric,
Laflic,
Silver.
Platina,
Sulphur,
Phofphorus.
683
Silver,
Acetic,
Succinic,
Pruffic,
Carbonic.
I. Salts of Silver.
. Sulphate of Silver.
2C3S
1. Sulphuric acid has no a61ion on lilver in the cold, Preparav
but three or four parts of the concentrated acid, boiled nun'
with one part of filver in filings or Imall pieces, pro¬
duce an effervefcence, with the evolution of fulphurous
acid gas. A white powder is formed, which is entire¬
ly foluble in water acidulated with fulphuric acid.
With excefs of acid, a folution of fulphate of filver is
obtained, which is colourlefs, very acrid and cauftic.
By evaporation it affords cryffals, which are white and.
brilliant, and in the form of fine prifms or needles.
When the folution is more concentrated, a depolition is
formed as it cools, and then it cryftallizes in large
white, brilliant plates, which feem to be compofed of
comprefled four-lided prifms. 2036'
2. This fait is not very foluble in water. When Properties-,
expofed to heat, it melts and fwells up; at a higher tem¬
perature it blackens, gives out fulphurous acid, and
oxygen gas, and is then reduced to the metallic ftate^
It is (lowly decompofed by the action of light. It is de¬
compofed by phofphorus, and vapour of fulphur in 'the
cold, and by charcoal at a red heat. It is not altered
by the action of the acids, excepting the muriatic.
All the alkalies and the alkaline earths precipitate the
oxide of filver from its folution in fulphuric acid, of a
dark gray or brown colour, and efpecially in contaft
with light. Lime caules a precipitate of a greeniih gray
colour. Ammonia rediflblves the precipitate. Sul- Decompofl-
phate of lilver is decompofed by the muriates, phof- tion.
phates, and fluates. The carbonates give a white infolu-
ble precipitate of carbonate of lilver. The alkaline fui-
phurets, fulphurated hydrogen gas, and water impregna¬
ted with this gas, decompofe the fulphate of filver, and
form in its folution a black precipitate of fulphuret of
lilver •, for the oxide is reduced by the hydrogen, while
the filver combines with the fulphur.
2. Sulphite of Silver.
Sulphurous acid combines readily with the oxide ofpreparf-
filver. It affumes the form of fmall Ihining grains, of tiou.
a pearly-white colour. It is not altered by expofure
to light. Sulphurous acid precipitates the folution of
filver in nitric acid, in form of a white powder of ful-
phite of filver. The fame fait is obtained by adding a
folution of fulphite of ammonia to a folution of nitrate
of filver. An excefs of this fulphite rediffolves the
precipitate, and forms a triple fait. This fulphite of
ammonia and filver expofed to the fun’s rays, is (bon
covered with a pellicle of filver, and the liquid contains
fulphate of ammonia. Sulphurous acid, aided by the
affinity of ammonia, deprives the oxide of filver of its
oxygen, and is converted into fulphuric acid,- which
combines with the ammonia, and forms a fulphate. Sul¬
phite of filver is decompofed by muriate of ammonia ;
and the precipitate, which is formed, aifumes a black 2039
colour, and is partly reduced. When fulphite of 111- Decoiiipbfi-
ver is expofed to the a ft ion of the blow-pipe, it, givesllon*
4 H 2 out
684
C H E M I S T R Y.
2040
Prepara¬
tion.
2041
Propel ties.
Silver, &c. out fulpKurous acid, melts into a yellow mafs, ^ and
’ leaves behind a metallic button of pure filver. _ This
fait has an acrid metallic tafte *, it is loluble in the
cauftic alkalies, and forms with them a triple fait.
3. Nitrate of Silver.
1. Silver dhTolves nitric acid with eftervefcence, in
confequence of the evolution of nitrous gas. If the
lolution be made in a tall conical veffel, the nitrous
gas, which is difengaged from the bottom, is diilolved
in the acid, and communicates a green colour to the
lower part of the liquid. If the green colour is per¬
manent, or paffes to a blue, the metal is contaminated
with copper ; but if it be mixed with gold, a purple
coloured powder is depolited at the bottom of the
velfel.
2. Nitric acid dilfolves more than of its weight of
filver. This folution is nearly colourlefs, very heavy,
and extremely cauitic. It colours the Ikin, firft of a
reddilh purple, and then of a deep black. It produces
the fame effeft on the nails, the hair, and all animal
fubftanees. It is employed to dye the hair of a black
colour, but this Ihould be done wdth, great caution.
When it is diluted with water, fo as to deprive it of its
caufticity, it has an aftringent bitter tafte. By eva¬
porating the folution till a pellicle is juft formed on
the furface, and by How cooling, it cryftallizes in tranf-
parent brilliant plates, fometimes of a metallic luftre,
when the liquid has been expofed to the fun during
the cryftallization. Thefe cryftals are not very regu¬
lar. They are fometimes lix-fided, fometimes fquare,
and fometimes triangular ; but they feem to be com-
pofed of very fine fmall prifms. The tafte is fo ex¬
tremely bitter, that it has been denominated the gall of
the metals. It is not deliquefcent in the air. When ex¬
pofed to the light of the fun, it gradually blackens,
and the filver is reduced. When it is heated in a cru¬
cible, it readily melts into a brown liquid, which fwells
up, as it is deprived of its water of cryftallization :
and in this ftate of fufion, if it be allowed to cool, it
affumes the form of a deep gray, or black mafs. When
the nitrate of filver is thus fufed, and caft into fmall
cylindrical moulds, the cylinders thus formed, which
exhibit a radiated frafture, arc well known in furgery
’ by the names of lunar caujlic, or lapis infernalis. This
is generally prepared by evaporating the folution of ni¬
trate of filver to drynefs, without previous cryftalliza¬
tion.
3. When nitrate of filver is heated in a retort, it firft:
gives out nitrous gas, then very pure oxygen gas,
which is afterwards mixed with azotic gas. The
filver is reduced at the bottom of the veffels. When
a plate or cryftal of nitrate of filver, w-ell dried, is put
upon burning coals, it produces a brilliant detona¬
tion *, the filver is reduced, and adheres to the furface
of the charcoal.
4. The nitrate of filver is very foluble in water, and
in this ftate it may be reduced by hydrogen gas and
phofphorus. By expofing paper or filk moiftened with
a folution of nitrate of filver to hydrogen gas, the pa¬
per or filk is coated with metallic filver, in confequence
of the reduction of the fait by the hydrogen, which
has a ftronger affinity for the oxygen than the filver.
The fame effeft takes place, if a cylinder of phofpho¬
rus be immerfed in a folution of nitrate of filver. The
2042
Lunar caii'
ftic.
2043
Aftiou of
heat.
2044
TDecumpofi
tion.
2045
Ey hjdro-
een.
2046
and phof-
phorus.
phofphorus combines with the oxygen of the oxide, Silver, fce
and the filver is depofited on the iurfacc of' the phof- "v—-1
phorus in the metallic ftate. The phofphorus may be
feparated from the filver by melting it in boiling \va-
ter. Thefe experiments were made by Sage and Bouil¬
lon in France, and Mrs Fulham in England. 20^
5. A mixture of this fait and phofphorus ft ruck Detonation,
fmartly with a hammer, produces a violent detonation.
Nine grains of nitrate of filver and three of fulphur
produce no detonation, but only an inflammation of
the fulphur, when they are ftruck w ith a cold hammer j
but with a hot hammer, a detonation takes place, with
the reduction of the filver.
6. Nitrate of filver is decompofed by fulphuric acid,
and forms a precipitate of fulphate of filver, in the
ftate of white powder. It is alfo decompofed by ful-
phurous acid. Muriatic acid produces a copious white
precipitate, which is very infoluble, and is depofited
in the form of thick heavy flakes of muriate of fil¬
ver.
7. Nitrate of filver is decompofed by all the alka¬
line and earthy matters. A white precipitate is at firft
formed, which afterwards pafies to an olive green y
but the carbonates of the alkalies give a white preci¬
pitate which remains unaltered. Ammonia occafions
a fparing precipitate, which is re-diffolved by an ex-
cefs of alkali, when there is formed a triple fait. But
a very peculiar action takes place between ammonia
and the oxide of filver, by which both the one and
the other are decompofed with a violent detonation.
This is the celebrated fulminating fiver, which was
difeovered by Berthollet in 1788. It is prepared by
the following procefs. _ _ _ 2048
A folution of pure filver in nitric acid is precipitat-Fulmina-
ed by lime water. The precipitate is placed on gray tlnS fl ver*
paper, which abforbs the whole of the u'ater and the
nitrate of lime. Pure cauftic ammonia is then added,
which produces an efteft fomewhat fimilar to the flak¬
ing of lime. The ammonia diffolves only part of this
precipitate. It is left at reft for 10 or 12 hours, when
there is formed on the furface a fliining pellicle, which
is rediffolved with a new portion of ammonia, but
which does not appear, if a fufficient quantity of am¬
monia has been added at the firft. The liquid is then
feparated, and the black precipitate found at the bot¬
tom, is put in fmall quantities on feparate papers.
This powder is fulminating fiver, which, even while
it is moift, explodes with great violence, when it is
ftruck with a hard body. When it is dry, it is fuffi¬
cient to touch, or rub it flightly, to produce an ex-
plofion. If the liquid decanted off this precipitate be
heated in a glafs retort, it effervefees, gives out oxy¬
gen gas, and there are foon formed fmall, brilliant,
opaque cryftals, which have a metallic luftre, and
which fulminate with the flighteft touch, though co¬
vered wfith liquid, and break with violence the veffels
containing them. In this aftion the moft obvious cir-
cumftanee is the tendency of the compound to decom-
pofition. The oxygen of the oxide combines with the
hydrogen of the ammonia, and forms water, while
the azote of the ammonia efcapes in the form of gas,
and the filver remains behind in the metallic ftate.
The violence of the explofion is owing to the fudden
expanfion of the azotic gas. The fliining pellicle
which appears on the furface, is part of the filver,.
from
CHEMISTRY.
6 85
Silver, &e.
2049
Aftion of
(alts.
2050
Of metals.
205*
Mercury.
2052
Arbor Di-
ante, or fil-
ver tree.
20S3
Copper.
from wliicli the ammonia has been feparated by the
action of the air; and to have the full effedt, another
portion of ammonia is neceffary to diflolve it. Carbo¬
nate of ammonia diffolves the oxide of filver precipi¬
tated by lime, with effervefcence, and the evolution of
carbonic acid ; but there remains enough of this acid
to form a triple fait, which, when dried, is in the form
of a yellow powder, but has no fulminating property.
The preparation of this dangerous powder frequently
fails. A mixture of copper, the abforption of carbo¬
nic acid by the oxide of lilver, precipitated by means
of lime, and left too long expofed to the air, and am¬
monia containing a little of this acid, either diminilh
or deftroy its fulminating property.
7. Many of the falls decompofe the nitrate of lilver.
All the fulphates produce a precipitate of fulphate of
lilver in the form of powder. The fame effed is pro¬
duced by the other falls, and the elfed is limilar to
that which takes place with the acids of which they
are compofed.
8. Moll metallic fubltances have a Itronger affinity
for oxygen than lilver has ; it is therefore precipitated
from its folution in nitric acid, either partially or en¬
tirely deprived of its oxygen, and in the metallic
Hate. In the precipitation which takes place by
means of mercury, the filver is reduced in an arboref-
cent form, which has long retained the name of ar¬
bor Dlance. Different proceffes have been recom¬
mended to effed this decompolition. One part of lil¬
ver, according to Lemery, is dilfolved in diluted ni¬
tric acid. The folution is then to be farther diluted
with 20 parts of dilfilled water, and then to add two
parts of mercury. It is faid, that it requires, by this
procefs, about 40 days for the formation of the me¬
tallic tree. Homberg gives a Ihorter procefs, which
fucceeds fufficiently well. It conlills in making an
amalgam in the cold of four parts of lilver-leaf and
two of mercury. This amalgam is then to be diflblved
in a fufficient quantity of nitric acid, and the folu¬
tion to be diluted with 32 times the weight of the me¬
tals of water. By introducing into part of this liquid
a fmall ball of foft amalgam of filver, the formation
of the tree immediately takes place. It may be formed
alfo by putting a foft amalgam of filver into fix parts of
a folution of nitrate of filver, and four of a folution of
nitrate of mercury. In thefe procefles one part of the
mercury of the amalgam attraded by that of the folu¬
tion, and carrying off the oxygen of the filver, preci¬
pitates the latter in the metallic ffate. The precipita¬
tion of the filver is ftill favoured by the affinity between
it and the portion of undiffolved mercury, and alfo part
of the filver of the amalgam. All thefe attradions con-
fpire to effed the feparation of the filver, when it is
depofited in prifmatic needles, which arrange them-
felves in an arborefcent form.
9. Silver is precipitated from its folution in nitric
acid, by means of copper. When a plate of cepper is
immerfed in this folution, diluted with its weight of
diftilled -water, the filver is immediately feparated
in whitiffi gray-coloured fiakes. If this precipitate
is fcraped off, and ivell waffied with water, after¬
wards fufed in a crucible, and fubjeded to the pro¬
cefs of cupellation with lead, pure filver may be ob¬
tained.
Silver, &c.
4. Muriate of Silver. w--y—w
Muriatic acid has no adion whatever on filver ; butp.^0^
by adding muriatic acid to a folution of filver in ful-
phuric or nitric acid, the moment it comes in contad
■with thefe folutions, it decompofes them, carries off
the oxide of the filver, and forms with it a white in-
foluble fait, which is precipitated in a kind of coagu¬
lated ilate. The muriates alfo produce a fimilar preci¬
pitate, and hence it is that the nitrate of filver is em¬
ployed as a re-agent, and a moft delicate left of muri¬
ates or muriatic acid in mineral water. The muriate
of filver, which is called corneous Jilver or horny filvery
is extremely infoluble in water. Expofed to the light
it becomes brown, violet, and black. By heating it
gently in a matrafs, it melts like tallowq and when it
becomes folid by cooling, it affumes the form of a fe-
mitranfparent gr«y fubilance, fimilar to fame kinds of
horn, from which it derived its name of luna corneay
or horn filver. If it be fufed on a frone, it is converted
into a kind of friable matter, cryftallized in beautiful,
brilliant, and as it vfere metallic needles. When it is
ftrongly heated in a crucible, it filters through it, and 20!.^
is loti in the fire. The component parts of this fait, Compofi-
are, according to Prouft, tion.
Acid, 18
Oxide, 82
IOO
This fait is not decompofed by any of the acids, or by
the pure alkalies. It is decompofed by the alkaline
carbonates. The muriate of filver is very foluble in
cauftic liquid ammonia. This folution, which is tranf-
parent and colourlefs, undergoes a remarkable change
when it is expofed to the air. As the ammonia eva¬
porates in the air, there is formed on the furface a
pellicle which affumes a brilliant, bluith, or iridefeent
colour. This pellicle, which gradually increafes in
thicknefs, deepens in colour, and at lalt becomes of a
dirty gray or black, by the contact of light. The fub-
ftance thus feparated is the muriate of ammonia, con¬
taining a fmall proportion of the metal reduced.
5. Hyperoxymuriate of filver.
This fait may be prepared by palling oxymuriatic
acid gas through water having the oxide of filver dif-
fufed in it. It is foluble in two parts of warm water,
and cryffallizes in cooling in the form of fmall rhom¬
boids. It is decompofed by muriatic acid, and by ni¬
tric and acetic acids. The muriate of filver remains
behind. Expoied to a moderate heat, it melts, oxygen
gas is given out, and the fait is reduced to the muri¬
ate of filver. With one-half its weight of fulphur, it!
produces violent detonation, by flight percuffion. It
gives out a white vivid flalh.
6. Fluate of Silver.
Fluoric acid diffelves the oxide of filver, and forms
with it an infoluble fait. It is decompofed by fulphu-
ric acid.
7. Borate of Silver.
Boracic acid combines with the oxide of filver, by
adding*
686 C H E M I
Silver, &c. adding a foluble borate to the folution of nitrate of
^—v   diver. The whole of the iilver is precipitated in the
form of a white, heavy, infoluble powder.
8. Phofphate of Silver.
Phofphoric acid diflblves the oxide of filvcr, and
precipitates it from its folution in nitric acid. 1 he
precipitate is a white heavy powder j with confiderable
heat it melts into a kind of greemfh enamel. It is
not foluble in water without an excefsof acid. When
it is heated in a retort with charcoal, it gives out a
little phofphorus, and is reduced, in great part, to phoi-
phuret of diver.
9. Carbonate of Silver.
Carbonic acid combines readily w ith the oxide of di¬
ver. It may be prepared by adding an alkaline car¬
bonate to fulphate or nitrate of diver. I he carbonate
of diver is precipitated in the form of a white powder.
This fait, which blackens by the aft ion of light, readi¬
ly gives out its carbonic acid by heat.
S T K Y.
10. Arfeniate of Silver.
Arfenic acid diffolved in water, and heated with
diver, has no aftion upon it ; but when the water is
evaporated, and the heat is increafed to produce vitn-
fication, arfenic is fublimed, and there remains a white
vitreous matter, which contains the diver oxidated,
and is covered with a deep yellow-coloured glafs. By
heating water on this glais reduced to powder, the fo¬
lution becomes of a brown red colour; the arfenic
acid is diffolved, and carries with it a little oxide.of
diver, which is precipitated by adding muriatic acid.
The brown infoluble powder is fufed at a high tempe¬
rature, and becomes femitranfparent. By continuing
the heat in a crucible, the filver is reduced. Arfenic
acid gives a brown precipitate m the folution of nitrate
of diver.
11. Tungftate of Silver.
Tungftic acid does not feem to have any aftion on di¬
ver-, but, when added to a folution of nitrate of diver j
it occadons a precipitate in the form of white powder,
but its properties have not been examined.
12. Molybdate of Silver.
Molybdate. Molybdic acid produces a white, flaky precipitate in
a folution of nitrate of diver. Nothing is known of
the properties of this fait.
13. Chromate of Silver.
By adding chromate of potafh to a folution of diver
in nitric acid, a precipitate is formed, of a mod beau¬
tiful crimfon red, which the aftion of light changes to
purple. The precipitate, which is the chromate of
diver, is in the date of powder. When heated by the
aftion of the blow-pipe, it become black, and is re¬
duced in part to the metallic date. Reduced to pow¬
der in this date, it is dill of a purple colour -, but when
it is heated with the blue flame of a candle direfted by
the blow-pipe, it becomes green, and the diver is fepa-
rated in globules. The chromic acid, decompofed by
the hydrogen of the blue flame, paffes to the date of
green oxide, and the oxide of diver is reduced.
2057
Chromate.
14. Acetate of Silver.
Silver, fee.
.2058
Acetate.
Acetic acid diffolves the oxide of diver. The acetate
of diver may be prepared, by adding acetate of potafh
to a folution of nitrate of diver. The folution affords,
on cooling, fmall prifmatic crydals. Ihis fait is very
foluble in water, and has an acrid metallic tade. \\ hen
heated, it fwells up, and is decompofed. The acid is
driven off, and the oxide remains behind.
1 c. Oxalate of Silver.
, *10 ",{j
Oxalic acid diffolves a fmall portion of the oxide ofoxalate.
diver, which is precipitated from nitric acid, by means
of potadi, or, by adding oxalic acid to a folution of ni¬
trate of diver. A white, thick, infoluble precipitate
is formed, which is oxalate of diver. This fait is foon
changed by the aftion of light. When expofed to the
rays of the’ fun, it becomes black *, and when h; is heat¬
ed in a fpoon, it undergoes a kind of detonation.
16. Tartrate of Silver.
Tartaric acid combines with the oxide of diver, and Tartrate,
forms with it a tartrate of diver, which becomes black
by expofure to the air. This acid has no aftion on di¬
ver itfelf, nor does it produce a precipitate in the folu¬
tion of nitrate of diver.
17. Tartrate of Potadi and Silver.
When tartar is added to a folution of nitrate of di¬
ver, there is formed, according to Thenard, a triple fait,
which condfts of tartaric acid, oxide of diver, and pot-
afti.
It is decompofed by the alkalies and alkaline car¬
bonates, and by the fulphates, and muriates *.
* Anna!, dt
Chim.
xxxiii. 35.
2061
18. Citrate of Silver.
Citric acid diffolves the oxide of diver, and ^orms citrate,
with it an infoluble fait, which becomes black by be¬
ing expofed to the fun. It has a harfli, ftrong, metal¬
lic tafte. It affords by diftillation concentrated acid,
and leaves behind the diver reduced in an arborefeent
form, mixed with a little charcoal, at the bottom of the
retort. This fait is decompofed by nitric acid. Its
component parts are,
Acid,
Oxide of fulphur,
36
64
100
2061
19. Malate of Silver.
Malic acid added to a folution of nitrate ef diver, Malate.
produces a precipitate, the nature of which is un¬
known.
20. Benzoate of Silver.
2063
Benzoic acid combines with the oxide of diver, and Benzoate,
forms with it a fait which is foluble in water, is not
deliquefeent in the air, but becomes brown by expofure
to the fun’s rays, and is decompofed by heat; the acid
being driven off, and the oxide reduced to the metal¬
lic ftate.
21. Succinate of Silver. .
2064
Succinic acid has no aftion on diver, but it combines Succinate.
with
CHEMISTRY.
silver, See. with its oxide. The fuccinate of lilver cryftailizes in
thin oblong prifms, which are arranged in a radiated
687
form.
it is white and 10ft, and the fpecitie gravity is greater &.c.
than the mean. It links to the bottom of liquid mer- ■ ^
206$
Saccolate.
206%
Adtion of
ammonia
on filver.
206-J
Cobalt.
2068
lifmuth.
20S9
mtimony.
2070
fercury.
22. Saccolate of Silver.
Sacla&ic acid poured into a folution of nitrate of
filver produces a white precipitate, the nature of which
has not been examined.
II. A£lion of Alkalies, &c. upon Silver.
1. The pure alkalies have no effe£t on lilver. Its
oxide is foluble in ammonia ; but if this folution be long
expofed to the light, the ammonia is decompofed, azo¬
tic gas is difengaged, water is formed by the combi¬
nation of the hydrogen of the ammonia and the oxy¬
gen of the oxide, which is reduced to the metallic
Hate.
2. Silver forms no compound with the earths ; but in
the Hate of oxide it combines with feme of them, by
vitrification, and in this Hate it colours glafs and ena¬
mels ef a yellow, olive green, or brownilh lhade. For
this purpofe the oxide of filver is employed in the
arts.
3. None of the falts have any aftion on filver. It
is not fenfibly oxidated by the nitrates or hyperoxymu-
riates.. The metals which are more eafily oxidated,
and with which filver is frequently contaminated, are
afted on by thefe faline matters, and in this w'ay it has
been obferved, filver may be refined or purified by
means of nitre.
III. Alloys.
1. There are few metallic fubltances with which fil¬
ver does not enter into combination, and form alloys.
Few of thefe, however, are applied to ufeful purpofes.
Arfenic combines with filver, and forms an alloy, which
is externally of a yellow colour, but internally of a
dark gray. It is brittle j and, when it is expofed to
heat, the arfenic is fublimed, and the filver remains be¬
hind in a Hate of purity.
2. Cobalt is with difficulty alloyed with filver. When
they are melted together in a crucible, they feparate
from each other, according to their fpecific gravities,
and each having a fmall proportion of the other.
3. Bifmuth combines with filver very readily by fu-
fion. The alloy is brittle, lamellated, and of an in¬
termediate colour between bifmuth and antimony. The
fpecific gravity is greater than the mean. The two
metals cannot be feparated, but with difficulty. When
this alloy is expofed to ffrong heat in the open air,
the bifmuth is oxidated, and vitrified at the fame time
that it is partially lublimed, fothat it might be employ¬
ed in place of lead for the cupellation of filver ; and in
fome cafes bifmuth is preferred, on account of its more
rapid oxidation.
4. The alloy of antimony and filver is eafily effeft-
ed by fufiom It is heavier than the mean of the two
metals. This alloy is brittle, and has not been applied
to any ufe.
5. Silver has a ftrong affinity for mercury. An a-
malgam may be formed of thefe two metals, by fatu-
rating filver leaf, or fine filings of filver, with mercury ;
or by adding to filver, while it is red-hot, heated mer¬
cury. The confiffence of this amalgam varies accord¬
ing to the proportion of the two metals. In general
2071
cury. Expofed to a moderate heat for fome time, it
flioots out into a kind of vegetation, like the tree of
Diana *, and, if after fufion, it is allowed to cool (low¬
ly, it cryitallizes in the form of fmall leaves, or in fquare
prifms, terminated by four-fided pyramids. When it
remains long expofed to the air, it becomes harder, and
of a more folid confiffence. This amalgam is much
employed in gilding.
6. Silver combines readily with zinc, by means of zinc?
fufion, and forms with it a brittle alloy, which has not
been applied to any ufe. 20^3
7. Silver combines eafily with tin, and forms an al-Tin.
loy which is extremely brittle. The filver is entirely
deprived of its ductility. This alloy, however, in-
ftead of being ufeful, is confidered as one of the moft
trouble fome in the working of filver, on account of
the hardnefs and brittlenels which it communicates,
and it is found almoft impoflible to feparate them en¬
tirely.
. 8* Lead, it has been already obferved, readily com-Lead/3
bines with filver by means of fufion. It is employed
for the purification of lead in the procefs of cupella¬
tion. 1 his alloy is very fufible, refembles lead in co¬
lour, and is lefs fonorous, but not lefs du&ile than fil¬
ver. The fpecific gravity is greater than the mean. 2074
9. An alloy of filver and iron in equal proportions Iron. '
has nearly the colour of filver. It is harder, has fome
duftility, and is attradffed by the magnet. Steel is fol-
dered with filver. Guyton fufed together filver and
iron, and obtained two buttons, which wrere placed by
the fide of each other, and ftrongly adhering, but fuf-
ficiently diftinft. Each of the metals was found to be
alloyed with a fmall proportion of the other. This fil¬
ver renders the iron hard and compaiff, and the iron
communicates to the filver properties which feem to
render it applicable to many important ufes. .
10. Silver combines readily with copper, and forms Copper')
with it one of the moft ufeful alloys. This alloy gives
hardnefs to the filver, and the colour of the latter is
not diminilhed, unlefs the quantity of copper is eon-
fiderable. . Thefe properties render it extremely ufeful
in the fabrication of various utenfils, and efpccially of
money. The denfity of the alloy is lefs than the mean
of the two metals. If 137 parts of filver be alloyed
with 7 of copper, the mean fpecifie gravity is 10.301,
but it is only 10.175, which (hews an increafe of bulk
°f vV part. This is the alloy of the filver coin of
France *. The ftandard filver, which is employed in * •70Wr- de
the Britilh filver coin, is compofed of 11 parts of filver ^ °
and one of copper. ^20-] 6
The ufes of filver are as important and extenfive as Ufes.
any of the metals, except iron, and efpecially when it
is alloyed with copper ; as it is applied as the medium
of commerce by all civilized nations, and for various
inftruments and utenfils, moft of which are fo familiar
as to require no particular enumeration.
Sect. XXI. Of Gold and its Combinations.
V G,°Jd is fP°^en Jn the earlieft hiftories of the IlilWy7
world. The peculiar properties of this metal, its fcarcity,
durability, and beauty, have rendered it always an ob-?
jed yf purfuit, and have rafted it high in the eftima-
tion
CHEMISTRY.
2079
Extraction
from its
ores.
GoW, fee. tlon of mankind. Tkc alchemxfts regarded gold as the
pureft, the fimpleft, the moft perfea, and very juftly
the moft indeftruftible of all the metals with which
they were acquainted. Hence it vas efteeme ^ie
nobleft and moft perfeft of what they conftdered as
perfeft metals, and dignified with the pompous name
of king of the metals. It was the objea of all their la¬
bours and refearches, to difeover the means of trani-
muting the bafer and more abundant metals into this
„ precious metal. . .
TIniverfallv 2. Gold is fuppofed to be, next to iron, the moft um-
diffufed, but verfally diffufed of all the metals *, but, at the lame time
in fmall it is found in fuch fmall quantities, that it is one ot the
quantities, a, is moft commonly found in the ftate of
fmall grains, mixed with the fand or with the foil, al-
moft in every part of the world. Gold is alfo found
imbedded in Hones, efpecially quartz, either in grains,
or cryftals, which are oftahedrons^ and it is probably
from thefe that the grains found in the foil or m the
fand of the beds of rivers, have been derived. . Gold
is, however, more abundant in the tropical regions of
the earth, where it forms an article of commerce, un-
dcr tlie name of gold dujl. In this ftate it is found m
the rivers of Africa, and exported to Europe. But
although gold is always found in the metallic ftate,
it is not abfolutely pure. It is generally alloyed
with copper or filver, and fometimes with iron and
mercury. .
2. To fepanite gold from the metals with which it
is alloyed, the procefs recommended by Bergman may
be employed. It is firft diiTolved in nitro-muriatic
acid •, the filver is depofited fpontaneoufly in the form of
muriate of filver, which is infoluble j the gold is pre¬
cipitated in fine powder by the fulphate of iion
the quantity of iron may be afeertained by prufliate
of potafh 5 and the copper is feparated by means of iron.
Each of thefe proceffes is performed on different por¬
tions of native gold, fo that the quantity of gold, and
the different metals wuth which it is alloyed, may be
determined. In the large way, the extraftion of gold
is a very fimple procefs. The auriferous fand of rivers
is firft walked to carry off all extraneous matters.. It
is triturated in a veffel with water, wfith 10 or 1 2 times
its weight of mercury. The w'ater is poured off, and
carries with it the earthy matters. The amalgam is
preffed in Ikins, to feparate the excels of mercury, and
the folid portion which remains is expofed to heat in
ftoneware retorts, to drive off the mercury, and the
gold remains behind. To feparate the gold from other
metals, it is fubje&ed to the procefs of cupellation,
which has been already deferibed in treating of the
purification of filver.
4. Gold is of a reddifh yellow colour. It poffeffes
conliderable luftre, although other metals have this
property in a fupetior degree. Gold, next to platina,
is the heavieft body in nature, having a fpecific. gra¬
vity of 19.3 and 19.4. It is not very hard, but is ex¬
tremely duftile and malleable. It may be beaten out
into leaves fo thin as to equal ^^oocr part of an inch.
The method of extending gold, which is followed by
the gold-beaters, is by hammering a number of thin
rolled plates between ikins or animal membranes. A
fingle grain of gold may be beaten out in this way, fo
as to cover 56^ fquare inches. The coating of gold
which covers wire is ftilL thinner. By computation it
20S0
Properties.
is found, from the diameter and length of the wire, and Gold, fee,
the quantity of gold employed, that it is only -rV of the
thicknefs of gold leaf. The tenacity of gold alfo. is
very confiderable. A gold wire .078 of an inch in dia¬
meter will fupport a weight equal to more than 150 lbs.
avoirdupois, without breaking. Gold has no percepti¬
ble tafte or fmell. joSr
5. Gold melts, according to Guyton, at the tempe- A&ion of
rature of 32^ edgw ood. It has been obferved, that heat,
gold, in the ftate of filings or grains, melts with more
difficulty than in larger maffes j and that the fmall
fragments, even after they are fufed, remain in feparate
globules. To make them run into one mafs, a little
nitre or borax is thrown into the crucible. It has alfo
been obferved, that gold, which has only been fubjeft-
ed to the degree of heat neceffary for its fufion, is brit¬
tle after cooling. To preferve its du&ility, therefore,
the temperature muft be raifed much higher. It is
brittle alfo, when it is too fuddenly cooled after fu¬
fion. By increafing the temperature while the gold is
in fufion, it feems to become convex on the furface,
and when it cools, it finks, which is aferibed to. the
expanfion and contraftion of the metal. When it is
fiowly cooled, it cryftallizes in the form of quadrangu¬
lar pyramids, or regular oftahedrons. If the heat be
continued while it is in perfeft fufion, it feems . to be
agitated, and to undergo a kind of ebullition. This
w^as obferved by Homberg and Macquer, by the ac¬
tion of the burning glafs, or when a fmall globule of
gold was afted on by the blow-pipe. According to
Macquer, it rofe in vapour to the height of five or fix
inches, and attached itfelf to the furface of a filver plate,
which it gilded completely. 2083
6. Gold is the moft indeftruftible, and the leaft al-0fair.
tered of all the metals, by expofure to the air. It pre-
ferves its luftre, its brilliancy, and colour, for any length
of time. # 2®83 I
7. The ftrongeft heat of a furnace, which has been o*klatioR.
applied to gold in fufion, has been found incapable of
producing the fmalleft change, or the leaft tendency
to oxidation ; but, by the aftion of Tfchirnhaufen’s
powerful burning glafs, Homberg having placed feme
gold in the focus, found that it rofe in vapour j and
'that it was covered with a violet-coloured vitreous
oxide. This change was at firft aferibed. to foreign
bodies, particularly to the charcoal on which the gold
was placed during the experiment. But Macquer re¬
peated the fame experiments with a more powerful
glafs, and obtained the fame refult. The vitrification
after fome time gradually extended, the gold diminifh-
ed, and the fupport was impregnated with a purple co; 20S4
loured matter. The effeft of eleftncity on gold leaf, By eiearv
placed between two cards, was obferved by Camus in city.
1773. The gold was converted into a violet-coloured
powder, which adhered to the paper. This feeming
oxidation wras regarded by fome as merely a minute
mechanical divifion of the gold •, but this objeftion has
been removed by the experiments of Van Marum on
the combuftibility of gold by means of the powerful
eleftrical machine at Haerlem. A ftrong eleftrreal
{hock was paffed through a golden wire fuipended
in the air. It kindled, burned with a perceptible
• green flame, and was reduced to fine powder, which
was diffipated in the air. It w=as fuppofed by this1
philofopher, that the inflammation of gold might be
effefted
2085
Yellow ox¬
ide.
C H E M
Gold, See. effected without the excefs of oxygen gas, as he found
'“"—V"-' it to take place in hydrogen gas and other elaftie fluids,
which are incapable of fupporting combullion. But the
force of this objection is removed by recollecting, that
all gafes hold in folution a quantity of water, and that
2085 water is very readily decompofed by eleftricity.
By light- A fimilar oxidation has been obferved to take place
on the gilding in the infide of houfes, or on the furni¬
ture, which has been (truck with lightning. The pur¬
ple oxide of gold, thus obtained, contains about five or
fix parts in the hundred of oxygen. Gold combines
with a greater proportion of oxygen, forming a dif¬
ferent oxide of a yellow colour j but this oxide is in¬
capable of combining with any farther portion of oxy¬
gen. It remains therefore, unchanged in the air, and
retains for a long time its brilliant rich colour. This
oxide, however, is decompofed by the aCtion of heat j
the oxygen is driven off, and the gold remains behind
in the metallic (fate.
When gold is diflblved in nitro-muriatic acid, or in
a mixture of equal parts of nitric and muriatic acids, an
effervefcence takes place, and the folution becomes of
a yellow colour. In this procefs the nitric acid is de¬
compofed, its oxygen combines with the gold, and the
oxide, as it is formed, is diffolved in the muriatic acid.
By adding lime water, a precipitate is formed, which
is the yellow oxide of gold, confiding of eight or ten
parts of oxygen in the 100.
8. There is no action between gold and azote, hy¬
drogen, carbone or fulphur. The oxides of gold, indeed,
are readily decompofed by hydrogen.
9. Phofphorus, according to the experiments of Pelle¬
tier, combines with gold, by heating together in a cru¬
cible a mixture of one part of gold in filings, with two
parts of phofphoric glafs, and one-eighth part of char¬
coal. Great part of the phofphorus is feparated from
the acid, and driven off, but there remains a fmall quan¬
tity united with the gold, forming a phofphuret of gold.
This phofphuret is whiter and more brittle than the gold,
and has fome appearance of crydallization. It may be
formed alfo by adding phofphorus to gold in a red heat
in a crucible. It becomes pale coloured, granulated,
brittle, and a little more fufible. This phofphuret con¬
tains o^th part of phofphorus. It is decompofed by be¬
ing kept fome time in fufion ; the phofphorus is driven
2oSS *n t^ie date °f vapour, and inflamed.
Affinities. to* The order of the affinities of gold and its ox¬
ides, as they have been arranged by Bergman, is the
following :
Gold. Oxide of Gold.
2087
Phofphu¬
ret.
Mercury,
Copper,
Silver,
Lead,
Bifmuth,
Tin,
Antimony,
Iron,
PI atina,
Zinc,
Nickel,
Arfenic,
Cobalt,
Manganefe.
Yol. V. Part II.
Muriatic acid,
Nitric,
Sulphuric,
Arfenic,
Fluoric,
Tartaric,
Phofphoric,
Pruflie.
I S T R Y.
II. Salts of Gold.
I. Nitrate of Gold.
When concentrated nitric acid is feveral times fuc-prepara-
ceflively poured upon gold, boiled and diftilled to dry- tion.
nefs, the gold is diffolved, and the folution affumes a
yellow colour. This effeft was firft obferved by
Brandt, in feparating gold and lilver, by means of this
acid. But it appears from the obfervation of Deyeux
on tile folubility of gold in nitric acid, that the fo¬
lution is more readily effe&ed in proportion to the
quantity of gas, or nitrous gas, which the acid con¬
tains. According to the experiments and obfervations
of Fourcroy, gold leaf is diffolved in nitric acid, im¬
pregnated with nitrous oxide, and that it is owing to
the nitrous oxide that the gold is oxidated, this oxide
being more eafily decompofed than nitric acid. Thus it
happens that the acid is deprived of its colour as it ads
on the gold, and the folution is more rapidly effected
in the cold than with heat, becaufe the nitrous gas is
difengaged by heat. The acid which at firft had been
deprived of its colour, by the oxidation of the gold, as
this oxide is diffolved, affumes an orange-yellow colour,
holding in folution the nitrate of gold with excefs of
acid. The nitrate of gold cannot be obtained in cry- 20g0
ftals. It is decompofed by heat, or by expofure to the Decompo-
light of the fun. When this folution is filtered, it leaves fed bX beat
on the paper a violet-coloured trace, which is the oxide
of gold. The nitrate of gold is alfo decompofed by the
the alkalies, or by introducing a plate of tin or filver
into the folution, and the purple oxide is precipitated
in the form of powder. It is alfo decompofed by muri¬
atic acid, which, at the inftant of combination, Converts
the orange colour to a pure yellow.
2. Muriate of Gold.
I. Muriatic acid has no a6b’on whatever on gold, or Preparu-
on its purple oxide, but gold is immediately oxidated tior.
and diffolved by oxymuriatic acid ; or if nitric acid be
added to muriatic acid, the folution of gold is imme¬
diately effedled. It is on account of this property that
nitro-muriatic acid was diftinguiftied by the name of
aqua regia, becaufe it diffolved gold, which was (tiled
by the alchemifts, the king of the metals. The nature
of the adtion is obvious. Gold is oxidated with great
difficulty. This is effedted by oxymuriatic acid, which
readily parts with its oxygen, or by the addition of ni¬
tric to the muriatic acid, the former of which is de¬
compofed, giving up its oxygen to the gold, which
being oxidated, is diffolved in the muriatic acid, form¬
ing a muriate of gold. This folution of the muriate
of gold is of a deep yellow colour, extremely acrid
and cauftic, has a very aftringent, metallic tafte, and
ftains the (kin of a deep purple colour, which becomes
darker by expofure to the air and the light. It con¬
tinues permanent till the epidermis is renew'ed. It
produces a fimilar effe6t on all vegetable and animal
matters, and on marble and filiceous ftones. By eva¬
porating this folution, nitric acid is difengaged, and
cryftals are obtained, in the form of truncated odfahe-
drons, or fmall quadragular prifms, of a topaz co¬
lour. Thefe cryftals are eafily procured by evaporat¬
ing the folution to one half, and adding a little al¬
cohol, They aflame a red colour by the action of
4 S ftrong
689
Gold, &c.
6qq
Cold, &c.
CHEMISTRY.
2093
Decompofi-
tion.
3094
By hydro¬
gen.
2095
Phofphorus.
2096
Sulphurous
acid.
2097 _
Soluble in
ether.
3098
Adiion o(
alkalies.
ftrong light. They attraft moiflure from the air, and
fpontaneoufly become liquid. By gradually heating
in a retort this foiution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid,
there paffes over nitric acid, muriatic acid, which car¬
ries with it a portion of gold, and even reddilh-yellow
cryftals of muriate of gold. To the nitro-muriatic li¬
quid, which is of a high colour, and which rifes during
the did illation, the alchemifts gave the name of red
lion. By evaporating the foiution to drynefs, a dry
muriate of gold is obtained, which may be reduced by
a ilrong heat, previoufly giving out oxygen gas, and
leaving the gold behind in the metallic date.
2. The muriate of gold is very foluble in water.
It is decompofed by hydrogen gas. If a piece of filk
be moidened with a foiution of muriate of gold, the
fait is decompofed, and the gold, reduced to the metal¬
lic date, attaches itfelf to the filk. Muriate of gold is
alfo decompofed by phofphorus. If a dick of phof-
phorus be introduced into a faturated foiution of muri¬
ate of gold, the fait is decompofed, and the gold be¬
ing reduced to the metallic date, forms a cylindrical
covering to the phofphorus, which may be feparated
by diffolving the latter in hot water. A fimilar effeft
is produced by burning fulphur, by fulphurated and
phofphorated hydrogen gafes, and by fulphurous acid.
If a foiution of muriate of gold be cautioufly added to
fulphurous acid, a fine pellicle ef gold appears on the
furface, which is indantly precipitated in the form of
fmall grains. Thefe curious and intereding experi¬
ments were made by Mrs Fulham. It is eafy to fee
the nature of the procefs. All the fubdances which
have been enumerated, have a dronger affinity for oxy¬
gen than gold, fo that the oxide of gold in combina¬
tion with the acid is decompofed •, the oxygen com¬
bining with the hydrogen, for indance, and forming
water, or with the phofphorus or fulphur, and forming
fulphuric or phofphoric acid. The reduction of muri¬
ate of gold, Mrs Fulham has obferved, does not take
place except in the liquid date, and ffie fuppofes that
the decompefition of water is ncceffary to produce
this effect. But the liquid date of the fait, it is fup-
pofed by others, is only neceffary, to expofe it to the
aftion of combudibles in a date of minute divifion, and
that otherwife this theory does not account for the
phenomena.
3. The muriate of gold is foluble in ether. It
forms with it a foiution of a golden yellow colour,
which floats on the top of the fluid. By adding ether
to a foiution of gold, and agitating the mixture, as
.foon as it is left at red, the two liquids feparate, the
ether rifes to the top, and affumes a yellow colour,
while the nitro-muriatic acid remains below and be¬
comes white. By this procefs a tinfture of gold, or
what was formerly called potable gold, was prepared.
The foiution of gold in ether is not permanent. It is
foon reduced to the metallic date, and is fometimes
found crydallized on the furface.
4. The muriate of gold is decompofed by all the
alkalies and earths, and is reduced to the date of
yellow oxide. This decompofition is effefted flowly
by the fixed alkalies, and if the alkali be added in fuf-
ficient quantity, the precipitate is re-diffolved, and the
liquid affumes a reddilh colour. It is owing to this
foiution o ' the oxide of gold by thefe alkalies, that the
precipitation is flow and difficult. Triple falls are CoM, &<;,
formed, the nature of which is unknown. The oxide v—1
of gold, thus precipitated, becomes of a purple colour
by expofure to the light; by the a&ion of heat it
gives out oxygen gas, and the gold is revived.
The moll Angular precipitate from the muriate ofFulminat-
gold, is that by means of ammonia, which forms thelng gold,
compound called fulminating gold. It is prepared by
the following procefs. To a foiution of gold in nitro-
muriatic acid, and diluted with three or four times its
weight of diddled water, gradually add pure ammo¬
nia, as long as any precipitate is formed. No excefs
of alkali mud be added, becaufe the precipitate is re-
diffolved. It is then waflied and dried in the air on
paper, and afterwards put into a phial, which fliould
be covered only, with a bit of cloth or paper, as the
powder is apt to explode with the flighted fri&ion. 2Ico
Fulminating powder may alfo be obtained, by dif- Another
folving gold in a foiution of two parts of nitrate ofprectfs.
ammonia, and one of muriatic acid. The oxygen of
the nitric acid combines with the gold, and forms an
oxide, which is diffolved in a portion of the muriatic
acid j nitrous gas is difengaged, and there remain in
the liquid, muriate of gold, and muriate of ammonia.
By precipitating this foiution by means of a fixed al¬
kali, fulminating gold is obtained. The alkali com¬
bines with the muriatic acid of the gold and ammonia,
and the oxide of gold uniting with the ammonia,
forms the fulminating gold. The precipitate is waffi-
ed and dried as in the former procels. Bafil Valen¬
tine, who firft deferibed this Angular preparation, had
obferved that it produced detonation equally by means
of heat, by friftion, and percuffion. When a fmall
quantity of fulminating powder is expofed to heat, it
produces a violent detonation j or, if it be rubbed
with a hard body, a fimilar effect takes place. It ex¬
plodes alfo, by being fmartly ftruck with a hammer.
Thefe aftoniffiing effects long excited the attention of
philofophers, but received no fatisfadfory explanation,
till the nature of the compofition of this fubftance was
difeovered by modern chemifts. It was examined by
Scheele and Bergman ; and at laft the theory of its
violent aftion was fully developed by Berthollet.
This compound confifts of the oxide of gold and am¬
monia, and as the oxide performs the part of an acid,
it is fometimes denominated aurate of ammonia. Du-Theory,
ring the explofion which takes place, whether by the
application of heat, or by friftion or percuflion, the
hydrogen of the ammonia combines with the oxygen
of the oxide of gold, and forms water. This water
being fuddenly raifed to the ftate of vapour, and the
azote, the other component part of ammonia, being at
the fame time fuddenly converted into gas, produce
the explofion. The gold is reduced to the metallic
ftate.
This fubftance may be deprived of its fulminating May be ^e.
property, by being expofed for feme time to a very coir)pefed
gentle heat. It is then converted into a blackilh without
brown powder. A fimilar effect is produced, by fub-exP*0^0I!*
jefting it for a long time to the temperature of boil¬
ing water. Its fulminating property is at leaft greatly
diminiffied by the latter procefs. It appears too, that
the contact of air promotes this aftion; for when
it was heated in an iron globe, in an experiment
which
4103
Adtion of
metals.
5104
Purple
pewder of
Caffius.
Gold, &cc,' which Birch performed before the Royal Society of
^--y—London, or in a fphere of ftrong copper, in an expe¬
riment by Bergman, no detonation took place. Ber-
thollet applied a gentle heat to a quantity of fulmina-
ting gold, in copper tubes ; and he obtained ammonia-
cal gas, and the gold was reduced to the date of pur¬
ple oxide. By thefe experiments it appears, that this
iubftance is decompofed without detonation, Avhen the
hidden dilatation of the gafes which are difengaged is
refifted by ftrong veffels, or when the heat is fo mo¬
derate as to feparate the ammonia without decompoft-
tion.
5. The muriate of gold is decompofed by almoft
all metallic fubftances. Some metals decompofe it
completely, and reduce it to the metallic ftate, while
others deprive it of a portion of oxygen, and reduce
it to the ftate of purple oxide. Bifmuth, zinc, iron,
copper, and mercury, reduce the gold to the metallic
ftate. Lead, filver, and tin, occafion a precipitate in
the form of purple oxide. 1 he moft lingular of all
thefe precipitates, and which has long occupied the
attention of chemifts, is that which is produced by
means of tin. This is called the purple precipitate, or
povidei- of Cajfius. It w as at firft particularly defcribed
by Caflius, from whom it derived its name j but it
was known long before, even fo early as the time of
Bafil Valentine, by whom it is mentioned. If a plate
of tin be immerfed in a folution of muriate of gold,
the furface of the metal is foon covered with a deep-
coloured violet or purple powder, which is gradually
diffufed through the whole liquid. This is ufually
prepared by adding to a folution of gold in nitro-mu-
riatic acid, a folution of muriate of tin recently pre¬
pared. The theory of this procefs is the following.
The gold in folution is in the ftate of yellow oxide.
It is deprived of part of its oxygen, and reduced to
the ftate of purple oxide by the tin. The purple
oxide is no longer foluble in the acid, and is there¬
fore precipitated. The fame effea is produced when
a fait of tin is added, provided this fait be not fully
faturated with oxygen, for in that cafe no precipitate
is obtained. This is the reafon, as Pelletier has
ihown, that muriate of tin, after it has been for fome
time expofed to the air, lofes the property of produ¬
cing tne purple precipitate, becaufe it has abforbed
oxygen from the atmofphere, and is not fufceptible of
combining with a greater quantity. For the fame rea¬
son no precipitate is obtained by the oxymuriate of tin,
or the fmaking liquor of Libavius, or the red fulphate of
iron, becaufe both thefe falts have their feafes fully fa¬
turated with oxygen. Other metallic folutions have
alfo the property of decompofing and precipitating the
muriate of gold. The nitrate of filver produces a red-
dilh precipitate, which is a mixture of white muriate of
ftlver and purple oxide of gold. The nitrate of lead
depofits a dark coloured fubftance, compofed of muri¬
ate of lead and oxide of gold.
6. I he metallic acid's have no effect whatever on
gold. Vauquelin found that chromic acid, mixed writh
?n,ur^a.^c gave it the property of diffolving gold.
1 his is owing to the chromic acid giving up part of
its oxygen, which appears to be the cale, from its paf-
ftng from its natural colour, which is orange, to the
ftate of green oxide.
C H E M I S T R Y.
II. Action of Alkalies, &c. upon Crold.
2,05
tf-tallic
rids.
1. None of the alkalies have any aft ion upon gold or Alkalies
on its purple oxide j but the yellow oxide precipitated
from its folution by means of the fixed alkalies, and di-
gefted for fome time with ammonia, is readily convert¬
ed into fulminating gold. 2IOy
2. The earths have no dftion on gold in the metal-Earths
lie ftate j but in the ftate of purple pr yellow oxide, it
combines with the earths which are vitrified by meant.
of the alkalies, and forms w ith them enamels, which
are of a violet or purple colour, or glals of a golden-
yellow colour. It is on account of the latter property
that the yellow oxide is employed in the fabrication
of artifical topazes. It has been obferved that glafs
coloured by means of gold, and which contains a con-
fiderable proportion of oxide of lead or of manganefe,
has a remarkable property of changing to a permanent
purple or ruby-red colour, when it is flightly heated,
and long before fufion. This is fuppofed to be owing
to fome change in the ftate of the oxidation of the dif¬
ferent metals.
3. The moft powerful falts, as the nitrates, the by-Salts,
peroxymuriates, have no aftion on pure gold. It has,
however, been obferved, that borax diminiflies its co¬
lour, and that nitre, which is employed in its purifica¬
tion, renders it more brilliant.
io3
III. Alloys of Gold.
1. Gold is fufceptible of combination with moft: me-With ifrfe-
tallic fubftances, which produce a very particular nic.
change on its properties. The alloy with arfenic is
brittle, hard, of a granulated texture, and of a very
pale colour. According to Mr Hatchet’s experi¬
ments, arfenic readily combines with gold railed to a
common red heat, when the former is in the ftate of
vapour, and particularly when the combination is made
in clofe velfels.
2. The alloys of gold with tungften, molybdena, Tungrten,
chromium, titanium, and uranium, have not been ex- &c. *
amined. 2III
3. The combination of gold and cobalt is not per- Cobalt,
ceptibly different from pure cobalt. This alloy re¬
duced to a fine powder, and heated in contaft with air.
gives, after its oxidation, and by ftrong heat, a deep
blue glafs, In Mr Hatchett’s experiments, one part of
cobalt and 14 of gold form a brittle alloy of a dull yel-
lowr colour. With c°balt the alloy was brittle,
but became duftile with part. 2IIJ
4. Gold forms with nickel a white and brittle alloy. Nickel.
In Mr Hatchett’s experiments °f nickel rendered
the alloy brittle. It was fcarcely, if at all, brittle with
-^T part, and with of nickel it. was completely duc¬
tile. One part of nickel and 16 of gold give an alloy
of the colour of brafs.
5. Mr Hatchett formed an alloy of gold with man¬
ganefe. It was of a pale yellowiih-gray colour, had
fomething of the luftre of poliftied fteel, and fome # p, ■
duftility, although it was very hard. It contained
about one-ninth of manganefe. Acids produced no cf- 1803/
feft, nor was it altered by expofure to the air *. 2
6. Bifmuth fufed with gold, yields an alloy which Bifnuith.
is brittle in proportion to the quantity of bifmuth em¬
ployed. The ipecific gravity of this alloy is greater
4 S 2 than
692
Gold, &c.
2114
Antimony.
CHEMISTRY.
2115
Mercury.
2116
Zinc.
2117
than the mean. In Mr Hatchett’s experiments, this
alloy was brittle, when the proportion of bifmuth
amounted only to x-g-Vo Part> _
7. Antimony combines with gold, and renders it
hard and brittle. Equal parts of thefe metals form an
alloy not much different in appearance from gold it-
fclf. This compound was frequently employed by the
alchemifts in their refearches. Antimony was called^
the royal bath. They pretended that the quantity of
gold was increafed when it was feparated from the
alloy, after having been fufed with this metal. But it
appears that this increafe of weight was owing to
part of the antimony, which was not feparated from
the gold. The fulphuret of antimony was formerly
much employed for the purification of gold, to fepa-
rate, by means of the fulphur, the metals which were
combined with it *, and from this property of a£Hng on
all the metals then known, excepting gold, the ful¬
phuret of antimony was called by the alchemifts, the
wof of the metals.
8. Gold unites very readily with mercury. If gold
be brought into contaft with this metal, it is inftantly
covered with it} and if gold leaf be triturated with
mercury, it totally difappears, and is diffolved in the
mercury ; fo that even in the cold, mercury combines
with the whole quantity of gold with which it can be
alloyed. When the proportion of gold is increafed,
the amalgam becomes folid. When this operation is
performed in the large way, the combination is pro¬
moted by means of moderate heat. This amalgam is
of a yellowilh white colour 5 it is fufible at a moderate
heat, and cryftallizes in the form of quadrangular
prifms. It is decompofed by a ftrong heat, and the
mercury is diflipated. This amalgam is much employ¬
ed in gilding.
9. Gold combines with zinc by means of fufion.
This alloy is paler than gold, has little malleability,
and if the proportion of the zinc be confiderable, is
very brittle. An alloy confifting of equal parts of the
two metals, is of a greater fpeeific gravity than the
mean, is very hard, fufceptible of a fine polilh, and is
not much altered by the air. It has been recommend¬
ed, on account of thefe properties, for the fabrication
of the mirrors of telefcopes.
10. Gold combines eafily with tin by means of fu¬
fion. This alfoy, it is faid, is the dread of the
workmen, becaufe it deprives gold of its duftility.
They are even cautious in preferving gold from the
contadl of the vapour of tin in fufion, which ren¬
ders the gold fo brittle, that it may be reduced to
powder in a mortar. It is extremely difficult to puri¬
fy gold afier it has been alloyed with tin, for it does
not pafs into the cupel with lead or with bifmuth.
Nitre, borax, and even the hyperoxymuriate of mer¬
cury, which are often employed with this view, do
not always fucceed. The mofi: fuccefsful method is
by treating the alloy with fulphuret of antimony, or
with muriatic acid, which diffolves the tin when it is
in confiderable proportion. But in the experiments of
Mr Hatchett and Mr Bingley, it appears that the uni-
verfal opinion which has hitherto prevailed, of tin be¬
ing fo injurious to the dmffility of gold, is to a certain
extent, erroneous and it appears probable, that the
duttility of gold being deftroyed, as was fuppofed,
even by the fumes of tin, ought to have been afcribed
to other metals, as bifmuth, lead, antimony, or zinc,
with which the tin was contaminated. . 2ijg
11. Lead very readily combines with gold by fu-Lead>
fion j this alloy deprives the gold of its dutfility, and
diminilhes the colour. So fmall a proportion as
part of lead deftroys the duftility of gold. This al¬
loy, it has been already ftated, is made for the purpofe
of purifying gold from other metals, in confequcnce of
the eafy oxidation and vitrification of the lead. . anp
12. Gold is eafily alloyed with iron, and forms vdth iron,
it a hard brittle mafs. Some of thefe alloys are fo
hard, that Dr Lewis found them fit for cutting inftru-
ments. Equal parts of iron and gold form an alloy of
a gray colour. Four parts of iron and one of gold af¬
ford an alloy nearly of the colour of filver, and the fpe-
cific gravity of this alloy has been afcertained to be lefs
than the mean. One part of iron alloyed with 12 of
gold, according to Mr Hatchett, was of a pale-yellow-
iih gray colour, and was fo ductile that it might be
rolled and cut. When gold is fufed, it adheres readily
to iron ; and hence it has been propofed to folder fmall
pieces of iteel with gold, which feems to be preferable
to copper. * 2150
13. Gold readily combines with copper by fufion. Copper.
This is one of the moft important alloys, on account of
the hardnefs which copper communicates to gold, with¬
out diminiftiing its colour. This alloy, according to
Mufchenbroeck, poffeffes the greateft hardnefs, with¬
out fenfibly diminifhing its duftility, when the propor¬
tions are one part of copper and feven of gold. I his
alloy is more fufible than gold, and on that account
it is employed as a folder for that metal. Ihe gold
coin of moft; countries cenfifts of this alloy, ihe pro¬
portions in the gold coin of Britain and France aie 11
parts of gold to one of copper. According to Briffon,
the fpecific gravity of this alloy is greater than the
mean. It is 17-486, but it ought to be But,
according to Mr Hatchett’s experiments, there is no
mutual penetration in the alloy of thefe metals, and
therefore no increale of denfity. On the contrary,
fome degree of expanfion was obferved. Four hun¬
dred and forty-two grains of gold of fpecific gravity
19.172, were alloyed with 38 grains of copper of fpe¬
cific gravity 8.875. The fpecific gravity of the alloy
was found to be 17-157* ihe bulk of the alloyed
mafs amounted to 27.985 while the natural bulk of the
two metals before combination was 27.32, which thews
an increafe of expanfion of the alloyed mafs equal to
Mr Hatchett obferves that Briffon’s experiment
was probably made on part of a large bar or ingot, in
which it generally happens, that the two metals are
very unequally diffufed, and this inequality, which js
greater according to the quantity of the metal, is j'ranf.
found to vary with the form, nature, and pofition of ,803.
the mould, and therefore to produce variations in thep. 112-
fpecific gravity *. _ 2121
14. Silver forms an alloy with gold. Homberg Silver,
found, that equal parts of thefe metals fufed together
in a crucible, formed an alloy which contained x of its
weight of filver. One part of filver and two of gold,
according to Mufchenbroeck, give to the alloy the
greateft degree of hardnefs. One-twentieth part of
filver changes the colour of gold very fenfibly. This
alloy is employed for foldering gold, being more fufi¬
ble than this metal.
15. Me
Gold, &c.
C H E M I
15. Mr Hatchet obferves, that the obvious inference
to be deduced from his experiments is, that only two
metals are proper for the alloy of gold coin. Thefe
are, filver and copper. All other metals either conft-
derably alter the colour, or diminilh the duftility of
gold. According to the fame philofopher, the ductili¬
ty of gold is diminilhed by different metallic fubitan-
ces, nearly in the following decreafing order :
Eifmuth,
Lead, > Thefe are nearly equal in effect.
Antimony, J
Arfenic,
Zinc,
S T R Y. 693
Cobalt, GolJ.itc.
Manganefe,
Nickel,
Tin,
Iron,
Platina (e), * Phu.
Copper, Tranf.
Silver *. 1803,95.
The ufes of gold, many of wlffch have been al- Ufes.
ready detailed, in defcribing its properties and combi¬
nations, are too familiar to require particular enume¬
ration (f).
Sect.
(e) Mr Hatchet fuppofes that the platina not being quite pure, the place he has afligned to it is perhaps not
precifely that which it ought to occupy.
(f) The metals ^hich were earlieit known, were long diftinguifhed by particular names and charaflers, of
which the following account is taken from the elaborate refearches of Profeffor Beckmann. The following table
exhibits their names and chara&ers.
Metals.
Gold,
Silver,
Mercury,
Copper,
Iron,
Tin,
Lead,
Names.
Sun,
Moon,
Mercury,
Venus,
Mars,
Jupiter,
Saturn,
Characters.
o
5
9
?
$
X
h
It cannot be doubted, Profeffor Beckmann obferves, that thefe names were firft given to the heavenly bodies j*
and the metals which were then known, amounting to the fame number, were fuppofed to have fome affinity or
relationffiip to the planets, and with them to the gods, and were accordingly named after them. “ To each god
was affigned a metal, the origin and ufe of which was under his particular providence and government j and to
each metal were afcribed the powers and properties of the planet and divinity of the like name j from which
arofe, in the courfe of time, many of the ridiculous conceits of the alchemifts.
“ The oldeff trace of the divifion of the metals among the gods is to be found, as far as I know, in the reli¬
gious w'orffiip of the Perfians. Origen, in his refutation of Celfus, who afferted that the feven heavens of the
Chrittians, as well as the ladder which Jacob faw in his dream, had been borrowed from the myfteries of Mi¬
thras, fays, ‘ Among the Perfians the revolutions of the heavenly bodies were reprefented by feven flairs,
which conduced to the fame number of gates. The firft gate was of lead j the fecond of tin 'y the third of
copper 5 the fourth of iron j the fifth of a mixed metal j the fixth of filver j and the feventh of gold. The
leaden gate had the flow' tedious motion of Saturn j the tin gate the luftre and gentlenefs of Venus 5 the third
was dedicated to Jupiter j the fourth to Mercury, on account of Ids ftrength and fitnefs for trade j the fifth to
Mars ; the fixth to the Moon, and the laft to the Sun.’ ‘ Celfus de quibufdam Perfarum myfteriis fermonem-
facit. Harum rerum, inquit, aliquod reperitur in Perfarum dcxflrina Mithrafifque eorum myfteriis veftigium.
In illis enim duse coelefles converfiones, alia ftellarum fixarum, errantium alia, et animae per eas tranfitus quo-
dam fymbolo repraefentantur, quod hujufmodi eft. Scala alias portas habens, in fumma autem oftava porta.
Prima portarum plumbea, altera ftannea, tertia ex sere, quarta ferrea, quinta ex sere mixto, fexta argentea,
feptima ex auro. v']/i7rvX«s, nri ei’ccvryi ttvXyi 'H Tr^art) r<yy ttvXuv ftoXi£$ovy « KX(rcriTt^ov, u rgiry)
^ccXkov, y, TiTagry, o-jc^gou, li TriftTTTi) Kxgxrov voftttrfixTO';, y, \xrv) x/fyi/iov, %(>v<rov d » Primum affignant Saturno,
tarditatem illius fideris plumbo indicantes : alteram Veneri, quam referunt, ut ipfi quidem putant, ftanni
fplendor et mollities 5 tertiam Jovi, aheneam illam quidem et folidam : quartam Mercurio, quia Mercurius
et ferrum, uterque operum omnium tolerantes, ad mercaturam utiles, laborum patientiffimi. Marti quintam,
inaequalem iilam et variam propter mixturam. Sextam, que argentea eft, lunje j feptimam auream foli tri-
buunt, quia folis et lunae eolores hsec duo metal]a referunt.’ Contra Cefum, lib. vi. 22. p. 161. Here then
is an evident trace of metallurgic aftronomy, as Borrichius calls it, or of the aftronomical or mythological no¬
mination of metals, though it differs from that ufed at prefent. According to this arrangement, tin belong¬
ed to Jupiter, copper to Venus, iron to Mars, and the mixed metal to Mercury. The conjecture of Borrichius,.
that the tranferibers of Origen have, either through ignorance or defign, tranfpofed the names of the gods, is'
highly probable : for if we refledt that in this nomination men, at firft, differed as much as in the nomination
of the planets, and that the names given them were only confirmed in the courfe of time, of which I (hall foon;
produce proofs, it muft be allowed that the caufes affigned by Origen for his nomination do not well agree.
witiu
694
IH.'.Una,
See.
1I23
Hiftory.
C H E M I S T R Y.
Sect. XXfl. Of P LATIN A and its Combinations.
Platina in moft of its properties is equal to gold,
but in others, it is fuperior. It was firft clearly alcer-
tained to be a diftinft metal, by Scheffer, a Swedifh
chemift, in the year 1752. It had been indeed taken
notice of at an earlier period. A quantity of it was
brought from Jamaica in 1741, by Mr Wood. It is
particularly mentioned by Antonio de Ulloa, a Spa-
nith mathematician, in the account of his voyage to
Peru with the French academicians, to meafure a de¬
gree of the meridian, which was publilhed in 1748.
After this period numerous experiments were made
upon this new fubftance, all of which tended to prove
that it is a different metal from any formerly known
Scheffer
with the prefent reading, and that they appear much jufter when the names are difpofed in the fame manner as
that in which we now ufe them. Borrichius arranges the words in the following manner : Secundum pertam
faciunt Jovis, comparantes ei ftanni fplendorem et mollitiem j tertiam Veneris seratam et folidam; quartam
Martis, eit enim laborum patiens, aeque ac ferrum, celebratus hominibus; quintam Mercurii, propter miffuram
insequalem ac variam, et quia negotiator eft ) fextam Lunae argenteam j feptimam Solis auream. 0/. Borrichius
de ortu et progrejju chernia;. Hafniae 1668, qto, p. 29.
“ This aftrological nomination of metals appears to have been conveyed to the Brahmans in India ; for -we
are informed that a Brachman fent to Apollonius feven rings, diftinguiftied by the names of the feven ftars or pla¬
nets, one of which he was to wear daily on his finger, according to the day of the week. This can be no other-
wife explained than by fuppofing that he was to wear the gold ring on Sunday j the filver one on Monday ; the
iron one on Tuefday, and fo of the reft. Allufion to this nomination of the metals after the gods occurs here
and there in the ancients. Dydimus, in his explanation of the Iliad, calls the planet Mars the iron ftar. Thofe
who dream of having had any thing to do with Mars are by Artemidorus threatened with a chirurgical operation j
for this reafon, he adds, becaufe Mars fignifies iron. Heraclides fays alfo in his allegories, that Mars was very
properly confidered as iron ; and we are told by Pindar that gold is dedicated to the fun.
“ Plato likewife, who ftudied in Egypt, feems to have admitted this nomination and meaning of the metals.
We are at leaft affured fo by Mar-filius Ficinus •, but I have been able to find no proof of it, except w here he
fays of the ifiand Atlantis, that the exterior walls were covered w ith copper and the interior w ith tin, and that the
walls of the citadel were of gold. It is not improbable that Plato adopted this Perfian or Egyptian reprefenta*
tion, as he afligned the planets to the demons j but perhaps it was firft introduced into his fyftem only by his
difciples. They feem, however, to have varied from the nomination ufed at prefent; as they dedicated to Ve¬
nus copper, or brafs, the principal component part of which is indeed copper •, to Mercury tin, and to Jupiter
ele&rum. The laft-mentioned metal was a mixture of gold and filver ; and on this account was probably con¬
fidered to be a diftintt metal, becaufe in the early periods mankind -Were unacquainted with the art of feparat-
ing thefe noble metals.
“ The charadters by which the planets and metals are generally expreffed when one does not choofe to write
their names, afford a ftriking example how readily the mind may be induced to fuppofe a connexion be->
tween things which in reality have no affinity or relation to each other. Antiquaries and aftrologers, according
to whofe opinion the planets were firft diftinguiffied by thefe charadlers, confider them as the attributes of the
deities of the fame name. The circle in the earlieft periods among the Egyptians was the fymbol of divinity
and perfedtion; and feems with great propriety to have been chofen by them as the charadter of the fun, efpe-
cially as, when furrounded by fmall ftrok.es projecting from its circumference, it may form fome reprefentation of
the emiffion of rays. 1 he femicircle is, in like manner, the image of the moon, the only one of the heavenly
bodies that appears under that form to the naked eye. The charafter b is fuppofed to reprefent the feythe of
Saturn j % the thunderbolts of Jupiter j & the lance of Mars, together with his fliield ; ? the looking-glafs
of Venus and §S the caduceus or wrand of Mercury.
“ The expreffion by charaaers adopted among the chemifts agrees with this mythological fignification only in
the charaaer affigned to gold.—-Gold, according to the chemifts, wras the moft perfea of metals, to which all
others leemed to be. inferior in different degrees. Silver approached neareft to ,it, but was diitinguilhed only
by a femicircle, which, for the more perfpicuity, was drawn double, and thence had a greater refemblanee to the
moft remarkable appearance of the moon } the name of which this metal had already obtained. All the other
metals, as they feemed to have a greater or lefs affinity to gold or filver, were diftinguhhed by charafters com-
poled of the charafters ailigned to thefe precious metals. In the character 9 the adepts difeover gold with a
filver colour. 1 he crops placed at. the bottom, which among the Egyptian hieroglyphics had a myfterious
fignification, expiclles,. in their opinion, fomething I know not what, without which quickfilver would be filver
or gold. Ihis fomething is combined alfo with copper, the poffible change of which into gold is expreffed bv
the character ? I he character $ declares the like honourable affinity alfo j though the femicircle is applied
in a more concealed manner-, for, according to the propereft mode of writing, the point is wanting at top, or
the upright line ought only to touch the horizontal, and not to interfeft it. Philofophical gold is concealed in
ftcel j and on this account it produces fuch valuable medicines. Of tin one half is filver, and the other confifts
of the fomething unknown : for this reafon the crofs with the half moon appears in o;. In lead this
is predominant, and a fimilitude is obferyed m it to filver. Hence in its character h the crofs ftands
and the filver character is only lulpended on the right hand behind it
" The mythological fignification of thefe charaders cannot be oldei than the Grecian mythology j but the che¬
mical
fomething
at the top,
/
CHEMISTRY.
platina, Scheffer, gave it the name of white gold, becaufe it re-
&-c- fembled this metal in many of its properties. In the
year 1754, Dr Lewis publiflied an account of a very
full and elaborate fet of experiments on platina, in the
Philoiophical Tranfaftions. The properties of tin's
new metal were ftill farther inveftigated by Margfaaf
in 1757, and by Macquer and Beaume in 1758. It
became afterwards the lubjeft of refearch with many
other philofophical chemifts. Among thefe may be
mentioned Buffon, Bergman, Sickingen, and more
lately Guyton, Lavoifier, and Pelletier. It was at laft
denominated platina, fignifying little Jilver, from the
Spaniih word plata, Jilver.
VVheie ^ 2* ^as on^y been found among the gold ores
:ouncj. of South America, and efpecially in the mine of Santa
Fe near Carthagena, and in the dillrift of Choco in
Peru. It is found in the form of fmall grain's or fcales,
of a white or grayith colour, intermediate between that
of filver and iron. Thefe grains are mixed with feve-
ral other fubftances, as particles of gold, a black fer¬
ruginous fand, and fome particles of mercury. Some
ofthefe grains extend under the hammer j others, which
feem to be hollow, containing particles of iron and a
whitilh powder, break to pieces. To thefe grains of
695
iron is afcribed the magnetic properly which platina Platina,
feems to polfefs (g). &c-
3. To obtain platina in a ftate of purity, it is firft ^
feparated from the fubftances with which it is contami- Purifka-
nated. Mercury is driven off by expoiing it to a red titm.
heat, and the particles of iron are feparated by the
magnet. The grains of platina are then heated M'ith
muriatic acid, which diffelves the remaining part of
the iron. By this procefs, Bergman has obferved, that
the platina diminithes in weight about 0.05. The
platina is now only alloyed with gold, which is to be
feparated by diffolving both in nitro-muriatic acid, and
by precipitating the gold by means of the green ful-
phate of iron. But even after thefe proceffes, the pla¬
tina is not in a ftate of abfolute purity, as will appear
afterwards (h). 4I26
4. 1 his metal is of a white colour, but lefs bright Broperties.
than iilver, and it poffeffes nothing of the brilliancy
of either lilver or gold. Platina is the denfeft body,
and therefore the heavieff yet known. Its fpecific
gravity, when it is hammered, is 23 ; or, according
to Chabaneau, 24. According to Guyton, it comes
next to iron and manganefe in hardnefs. It poffeffes
very confiderable malleability, for it may be ham¬
mered
mical may be traced to a much earlier period. Some, who eonfider them as remains of the Egyptian hierogly¬
phics, pretend that they may be difcovered on the table of Ills, and employ them as a proof of the high antiqui¬
ty, if not of the art of making gold, at leaft of chemiftry. We are told alfo that they correfpond with many
other charafters which the adepts have left us as emblems of their wifdom.
“ If we are defirous of deciding without prejudice refpe&ing both thefe explanations, it will be found neceffary
to make ourfelves acquainted with the oldeft form of the chara&ers, which, in all probability, like thofe ufed
in writing, were fubje&ed to many changes before they acquired that form which they have at prefent. I can
however, mention only three learned men, Saumaife, Du Cange, and Huet, who took the trouble to colleft
thefe characters. As I am afraid that my readers might be difgufted were I here to infert them, I {hall give a
Ihort abftraft of the conclufion which they form from them ; but I muff firft obferve that the 9ldelt manufcripts
difter very much in their reprefentation of thefe characters, either becaufe they were not fuHv eftablilhed at the
periods when they were written, or becaufe many fuppofed adepts endeavoured to render their information more
enigmatical^ by wilfully confounding the charaders j and it is probable alfo that many miftakes may have
been committed by tranfcribers.
“ The character of Mars, according to the oldeft mode of reprefenting it, is evidently an abbreviation of the
word 0at>£«f, under which the Greek mathematicians underftood that deity j or, in other words, the firft let¬
ter 0, with the laft letter $ placed above it. The character of Jupiter was originally the initial letter of Zsv? ;
and in the oldeft manufcripts of the mathematical and aftrological works of Julius Firmicus the capital Z only
is ufed, to which the laft letter 5 was afterwards added at the bottomto render the abbreviation more diftincff.
The fuppofed looking-glafs of Venus is nothing elfe than the initial letter, diftorted a little, of the word
wLich was the name of thatgoddefs. The imaginary fcythe of Saturn has been gradually formed from
the tw'o firft letters of his name Kgove?, which tranfcribers, for the fake of difpatch, made always more convenient
for ufe, but at the fame time lefs perceptible. To difcover in the pretended caduceus of Mercury the initial
letter of his Greek name one needs only look at the abbreviations in the oldeft manufcripts, where
they will find that 2 was once, written as C 5 they will remark alfo that tranferibers, to diftinguifti this abbre¬
viation from the reft ftill more, placed the C thus U , and added under it the next letter -r. If thofe to whom
this deduction appears improbable will only take the trouble to look at other Greek abbreviations, they w ill find
many that difter ftill farther from the original letters they exprefs than the prefent character J from the C and
t united. It is poffible alfo that later tranfcribers, to whom the origin of this abbreviation was not known, may
have endeavoured to give it a greater refemblance to the caduceus of Mercury. In ftiort, it cannot be denied
that many other aftronomical charafters are real fymbols, or a kind of proper hieroglyphics, that reprefent cer¬
tain attributes or circumftances, like the charafters of Aries, Leo, and others quoted by Saumaife.” Hi/l. of
Invent, iii. 53.
(g) Collet Defcoftils obferves, that among the metallic fubftances which are ufually found accompanying
platina, there are two kinds of ferruginous fand j of which one is attracted by the magnet, and foluble in acids.
This contains titanium. The other has no magnetic property, and is only partially foluble in acids. This laft
contains a confiderable proportion of chromic acid. Ann. de Chim. xlviii. 154.
(h) A new metal, or feveral new metajs, have been difcovered in platina, by fome late experiments, Thefe
will be mentioned in a future feclion.
696
CHEMISTRY.
Platina,
&.C.
2127
Fufing
point un¬
known.
2118
Oxidation.
2129
Yellow ox
ide.
meted out, although with difficulty, into very thin
plates ; and it is fo ductile, that it may be drawn out
into wire of an inch in diameter. The tenacity
of platina is very conliderable. A wire of .078 of an
inch in diameter will fupport a weight, without break¬
ing, equal to more than 274 ihs. avoirdupois.
5. Platina is the moft infulible of all the metals.
The temperature at which it enters into fuiion is un¬
known. But fmall particles of platina have been
fufed by means of the blow-pipe, or by directing a
ftream of oxygen gas on red-hot charcoal. Guyton
alfo fucceeded in fufing it by means of a flux, compo-
fed of eight parts of pounded glafs, one of calcined
borax, and one-half part of charcoal in powder. When
platina has been expofed to a white heat, it may be
welded by hammering, like iron.
6. As platina is infufible in the ftrongefl furnace
heat, fo it remains otherwife unchanged (1). It does
not appear to undergo, like molt other metals, any
degree of oxidation } but if platina be diflblved iy11^
times its weight of nitro-muriatic acid, by boiling
the folution becomes at firft of a yellow, and then
changes to a brown colour. This folution is precipi¬
tated by means of lime, and the precipitate^ is in the
form of a yellowiflr powder, which is the oxide of pla¬
tina. The proportion of oxygen in this oxide is fup-
pofed not to exceed .07. But according to the experi¬
ments of Mr Chenevix, it is compofed of
Platina,
Oxygen,
87
*3
Plating
&c.
2132
phofphuret to a ftrong heat, the phofphorus is feparat-
ed, and burns on the furface, and the metal remains
behind very pure and malleable. Pelletier has pro-
pofed this procefs for the purification of platina from
other metals. _ _ _
9. Sulphur has been found in combination with na-Sulphuret,
tive platina. When native platina is expofed to the
aftion of the blow-pipe on charcoal, it exhales the pe¬
netrating odour of lulphur, accompanied with a vapour
which does not render gold white, and which re¬
quires a higher temperature to fublime it than mer¬
cury *.
I. Salts of Platina.
I. Sulphate of Platina.
* A/m. d%
Chirri.
xxxviii.
149.
By adding fulphuric acid to a folution of platina in
muriatic acid, Mr Chenevix obtained an infoluble fait,
which he found to be compofed of
Oxide of platina,
Acid and water,
54-5
45-5
100.0
2. Sulphate of Platina and Potalh.
This triple fait is formed by adding a folution of
potaflr to fulphate of platina. The component parts of
this fait are, fulphuric acid, oxide of platina, and potafh j
but the proportions have not been afeertained by Berg¬
man. who examined it.
too
Crrecrnnc- The fame chemift alfo found, that in the redu&ion of
this oxide of platina, it became of a green colour, and
remained for fome time in that ftate. Ammonia af-
fumes a green colour when it holds oxide of platina in
folution. This Mr Chenevix confiders as a fecond oxide
of platina, and it contains
Platina, 93
* Oxygen, 7
100 *.
Platina has alfo been oxidated by means of eleftricity.
*So3> 3T4* ln Van Marum’s experiments, a wire * f this metal
through which electric fparks were fent, burnt with a
white flame, and was diflipated in the form of fine
powder or dull.
7. Azote, hydrogen, and carbone, have no a£lion
whatever on platina.
fV1- 8- Phofphuret of platina was formed by Pelletier, by
* P 1 mixing together equal parts of platina and phofphoric
glafs, with one-eighth of charcoal. This mixture being
expofed to the temperature of 3 2° of Wedgwood for an
hour, yielded a fmall button of phofphuret of platina, of
a filvery white colour, part of which had affumed the
form of cubic cryilals. It was fo hard as to ftrike fire
with fteel, and was not attracted by the magnet. It was
covered with a dark coloured glafs, which afterwards
became green, bluifli, and white. By expofing this
* Phil.
Travf.
3. Sulphate of Platina and Ammonia.
This triple fait is formed in the fame way as the
former, by adding ammonia to the fulphate of platina.
4. Nitrate of Platina.
Nitric acid has no aftion on platina, but it diiTolves
the yellow oxide. Mr Chenevix precipitated the ox¬
ide of platina from its folution in nitro-muriatic acid
by means of lime, and although it was added in ex-
cefs, a great portion of platina remained in the liquor.
The precipitate was rediflblved in nitric acid, and eva¬
porated to drynefs. The refult wras, a lubnitrate of
platina, which confifted of
Yellow oxide 89
Nitric acid and water 11
103
5. Nitrate of Platina and Potaih,
When potafh is added to a folution of nitrate of
platina, cryftals are depofited forming a triple fait,
and compofed of nitric acid, oxide of platina and pot¬
afh.
6. Nitrate of Platina and Ammonia.
This triple fait is formed by adding ammonia to a
folution of nitrate of platina.
7. Muriate
X.i) Guyton propofes to conftmS a pyrometer of platina. See Ann. de Chim. xlvi. 276.
CHEMISTRY.
697
Platini,
&c.
*134
Properties.
2135
Compoit-
lon.
Muriate of Platina.
Muriatic acid has no action on platina, but the mu¬
riate of platina may be obtained by diffolving the metal
in nitro-muriatic acid. Boiled in 16 parts of a mixture
confifting of one part of nitric acid and three parts of
muriatic acid, it is gradually diflblved with effervef-
cence. It may be alfo diffolved in oxymuriatic acid.
The folution of platina in muriatic acid is of a reddifli
or deep brown colour. It is extremely acrid and
cauftic, corrodes and burns animal matters, and
leaves a dark brown fpot on the Ikin. When the fo¬
lution is concentrated, it depofits, on cooling, fmall ir¬
regular cryftals, nearly in the ftate of powder, and of
a brownifh-yellow colour. When thefe cryftals are
waftied and dried, they are found to be lefs foluble by
boiling in water, than even the fulphate of lime. The
folution is of a yellow colour. The muriate of platina
has a harfia, aftringent tafte j it is decompofed by
heat} the acid is driven off, and the oxide remains.
It is alfo decompofed by concentrated fulphuric acid.
Potafh produces in this folution, fmall reddifli cryftals,
frequently in the form of ottahedrons, conftituting the
triple fait already deferibed. The fame triple fait is
formed by the fulphate of potafh. Ammonia, or the
muriate of ammonia, alfo forms a triple fait, by being
added to the folution of muriate of platina. Soda in
fufheient quantity occafions a precipitate of the yellow
oxide of platina, and a triple fait alfo is formed. Mr
Chenevix found that the infoluble muriate of platina is
compofed of
Oxide of platina
Acid and water
70
3^
* Ann. de
'him. xivui
'• 165.
ICO
8. Muriate of Platina and Soda.
Till the experiments of Collet-Defcoftils, little was
known of this triple fait. It may be obtained by add¬
ing to a folution of platina a fait with bafe of foda.
By concentration and cooling it cryftallizes in the
form of long prifms, and fometimes in that of triangular
tables, of a yellow or red colour. It is very foluble
In water, and alfo in alcohol. It is decompofed by
muriate of ammonia, and by a folutien of foda ; but
an excefs of this fait re-diffolves the precipitate. It
may be reduced by the adftion of the blowpipe on char¬
coal. This cryftallized triple fait, if it has no excefs
of acid, changes from a red colour to a green by ex-
pofure to the air. If in this ftate it be diffolved in
water, and oxymuriate of lime be added t© it, a deep
blue precipitate is formed, which being walhed and
eollc&ed, is foluble in muriatic acid, and communi¬
cates to it a beautiful blue colour. The addition of
alcohol deprives the folution of its colour, but the oxy-
muriate of lime reftores it *.
9. Murjate of Platina and Potafti.
This fait is formed by adding potafti to a folution of
muriate of platina. Small cryftals of a red colour, in
the form of octahedrons, are precipitated, which are a
triple fait, confifting of muriatic acid, oxide of platina
and potafti.
Vol. V. Part II.
10. Muriate of Platina and Ammonia.
Platina,
See.
1. A fimilar triple fait is formed by adding ammo¬
nia to the folution of muriate ot platina. Tie.' triple
fait is precipitated in the form of eryftalline grains, of
a reddifti yellow colour, which are foluble in water.
By evaporating the folution of thefe triple falts to dry-
nefs, and by expofing it to a ftrong heat, the platina
is reduced. This fail with regard to the fufibility of
platina by means of potafti or ammonia, was obferved
by Bergman, and it is by this procefs that platina is
purified and wrought.
2. When this fait is precipitated by means of potalh,
a fulminating platina is obtained. This, according to
Fourcroy and Vauquelin, by whom it was prepared, is
a compound of oxide of platina and ammonia. When
it is expofed to hidden heat, it decrepitates and is
agitated with a rapid motion, but when the heat is gra¬
dually applied, it detonates violently *.
II. Oxalate of Platina.
* Ann. de
Chirn- xlix.
p 179.
Oxalic acid combines with the oxide of platina, and
affords by evaporation cryftals which are of a yellow
colour.
12. Benzoate of Platina.
Benzoic acid, according to Trommfdorf, diffolves a
fmall quantity of the oxide of platina. When this
folution is evaporated, it cryftallizes. This fait under¬
goes no change by expofure to the air, and is not very
foluble in water. The acid is driven off by heat, and
the oxide of platina remains behind.
II. Alloys.
1. Platina combines with many of the metals, and
forms with them alloys, fome of which are of confider-
able importance in the working of this metal.
Platina forms an alloy with arfenic, which is brittle Combines
and very fufible. It is in this ftate of alloy that pla-with arfe-
tina is fufceptible of being formed into different uten-nic*
fils and inftruments for which it is peculiarly fitted.
It is firft fufed with this metal, and then call int»
moulds, at firft in the form of fquare plates. It is then
expofed to a red-heat, and hammered into bars. By ,
the heating and hammering, the arfenic is driven off,
and the metal is purified and becomes infufible, but
retains its du&ility, fo that it may be wrought like
iron.
2. The alloys of tungften, molybdena, chromium,
columbiuna, titanium, uranium, and manganefe, are
unknown j nor have the alloys of cobalt and nickel
with this metal been examined. 2I,^
3. Platina combines with bifmuth by means of fufion. Bifmuth.
This alloy is fufible and hard in proportion to the
quantity of bifmuth. It is altered by expofure to the
air } it becomes yellow, purple, and black. g
4. Platina readily combines with antimony, and Antimony,
forms a very brittle alloy. The antimony may be fe-
parated by means of heat, but not completely. Som©
part remains, which diminilhes the weight and dufti-
lity of the platina.
5. It has been found extremely difficult to combine M
platina and mercury. Guyton had obferved that the
adhefive force of platina and mercury is greater than
\ 4 r-h that
698
Platin?.,
Stc.
2x40
Zinc.
2141
Tin.
2x4*
Lead.
2*43
Iron.
2144
i. 4'pcr.
2145
Silver.
C H E M I
tliat of metals which do not combine with it, and
that it is not inferior even to thofe which readily
form alloys ; from which he conjectured that the alloy
of platr.ia and mercury might be effected by the fol¬
lowing procefs. He placed a very thin plate of pure
platina at the bottom of a matrafs containing a quan¬
tity of mercury. The matrafs was put upon a fand
bath, and heat applied, till the mercury boiled and the
matrafs became red-hot. When the platina was taken
out, it was found to have acquired additional weight,
and to have become very brittle. But this combination
is different from the other combinations of mercury with
the metals, for the platina did not lofe. its folid form.
Mr Chenevix, in the courfe of experiments and re-
fearches refpe&ing a fuppofed new metal called palladi¬
um, fueceededin forming an amalgam with platina and
mercury. He heated purified platina in the form of
fine powder, with ten times its weight of mercury, and
rubbed them together for a long time. The refult was
an amalgam of platina, which being expofed to a violent
heat, loft all the mercury it contained, and the original
weight of the platina remained.
6. Platina readily combines with zinc, and forms
with it a fufible alloy, of a bluilh colour, brittle, and
hard. By heating, the zinc is fublimed, and burns on
the furface.
7. Platina alloys readily with tin. This alloy is one
of the moil fufible. It is hard and brittle, when the
two metals are in equal proportions j but tin in the pro¬
portion of 12 parts to one of platina, affords a very duc¬
tile alloy, which becomes yellow by expofure to the
air. From this it appears that platina diminifhes the
duftility of tin.
8. Platina readily combines with lead, by means of
fufion. An alloy of equal parts of thefe metals is of
a purplifli colour, granulated in its frafture, brittle,
and eafily altered by expofure to the air. The cupel-
lation of platina by means of lead has been an object of
eohfiderable importance with chemifts, in the view of
being able to purify it in the fame way as gold and fil-
ver j but on account of the infufibility and refraftory
nature of platina, the attempts that have been made
have rarely fucceeded.
9. Dr Lewis failed in his attempt to combine pla¬
tina with iron, but he obtained an alloy by fufing to¬
gether platina and caft iron. This alloy was ex¬
tremely hard, and polfeifed fome degree of dudlility.
Platina, as it is found native, is frequently alloyed with
iron.
10. Platina combines with copper.by means of fufion,
and gives it hardnefs. When the proportion of copper
is three or four times greater than that of platina, the
alloy is duclile, fufceptible of a fine polifh, and is not
altered by expofure to the air. This alloy has been em¬
ployed in the fabrication of mirrors for telefcopes.
11. Platina readily combines with filver by fufion,
although a very llrong heat is required. The platina
greatly increafes the hardnefs of filver, but diminilhes
its whitenefs. When this alloy is kept, in fufion for
fome tiipe, the two metals are feparated. During
this fufibn, Dr Lewis obferved the filver forced to¬
wards the fides of the crucible with a kind of explo-
fion.
12. Gold combines readily with platina, but it re¬
quires a very powerful heat for the fuficn of thefe two
s T R Y.
metals. Platina diminifhes the colour of gold, unlefs it Palladium,
be in very fmall quantity. When the proportion of pla- ^c-
tina is above the colour of the gold begins to be al- !
tered. There is no perceptible change in the fpecific
gravity or the duftility of gold from this alloy.
Platina, on account of its peculiar properties, its in¬
fufibility, denfity, and indeftru&ibility, could it be ob¬
tained in fufficient quantity, and at a moderate price,
would undoubtedly prove one of the moft ufeful and
moft important of the metals yet known. The import¬
ance and utility of platina, on account of its fcarcity,
have been hitherto limited to chemical purpofes; and
for different chemical inftruments and utenfils, it has
been found peculiarly appropriate, as there are few che¬
mical agents whofe effefts it cannot refill. There is
indeed little doubt but it might be employed with equal
advantage in the conftruftion of inflruments and uten¬
fils, in various arts and manufa&ures. ’
Sect. XXIII. Of Palladium, a fuppofed new me¬
tal; and of Iridium and Osmium, two new Metals
obtained from crude PLATINA.
2147
I. In the month of April 1803, the difeovery of a Palladium
new metal, to which the name of Palladium was given, announced,
was announced in London. It was faid to poffefs the
following properties: “ I. It diffolves in pure nitric
acid, and makes a dark-red folution. 2. Green ful-
phate of iron throws it down in the Hate of a regulus
from the folution. 3. If you evaporate the folution,
you get a red calx, which diffolves in muriatic or other
acids. 4. It is thrown down by quickfilver, and by all
the metals but gold, platina, and filver. 5. Its fpeci-properties,
fic gravity by hammering, is only 11.3 5 but by flat¬
ting as much as 11.8. 6. In a common fire the face
of it tarnifhes a little, and turns blue ; but becomes
bright again, like other noble metals, on being ftronger
heated. 7. The greateft heat of a blackfmith’s fire
would hardly melt it. 8. But if you touch it while hot,
with a fmall bit of fulphur, it runs as eafily as zinc.’*
Nothing was faid of the hillory of the difeovery j but
from the unufual manner in which it was announced, Mr 2I
Chenevix conceiving it to be an impolition, procured Mr Chene»
a fpecimen, which being fubjefted to various lefts, he vix’s fufpi- i
found could not be referred to any of the known metals. cions and ,
He afterwards purchafed the whole quantity which
was offered to fale. The fubftance had been wrought
by art, had been rolled out in flatting mills, and was
offered for fale in thin laminae. The largeft, about
three inches in length, and half an inch in breadth,
weighing about 25-grains, were fold at a guinea. When
this fubilance was polifhed, it could fcarcely be dif-
tinguiftied from pjatina. It was flexible, but not very
elallic. The fpecific gravity of fome pieces was 10.972,
while others were only 11.482.
The effedls of galvanic ele£lricity upon palladium
were the fame as upon gold and filver. Expofed to
the blow-pipe, the fide removed from the immediate
action of the flame became blue. Expofed in an open
veffel to a greater degree of heat than the fufing tem¬
perature of gold, no appearance of fufion or oxidation
was obferved. When the heat was increafed, a melt¬
ed button was obtained, which had loft a little of its
weight, but was increafed in fpecific gravity. The
addition of fulphur renders it more fufible, and ex¬
tremely
ai50
Is an alloy.
Palladium, tremely brittle. There Teems to be no aftion between
kC" charcoal and palladium. Mr Chenevix found that
this fubftance formed alloys with gold, platina, filver,
copper, lead, and fome other metals. The alloy with
lead was the hardeft of all, but extremely brittle, and
its fpecific gravity was 12. He alfo fubjedted this fub*
fiance to other experiments, with alkalies, fome of the
earths, feveral of the acids, and fome of the falts ; and
from the whole he concludes that it would be difficult
to fay of what metal, or of what combination of metals,
palladium confifls.
2. Mr Chenevix ftill profecuted his experiments, and
he concluded at laft, that this fuppofed new metal is an
alloy of platina and mercury. It mull however, be ob-
ferved, that he did not arrive at this difeovery by ana¬
lyzing palladium, for he failed in every attempt with
that view. It was by combining platina and mercury
in certain proportions, that he compofed a fubftance
which he conftdered as exaftly fimilar in all its pro¬
perties to palladium. The procefs by which he fuc-
ceeded in forming palladium, or a fubftance exadlly fi¬
milar, was by diftolving 100 grains of platina in nitro-
muriatic acid, and then adding 200 grains @f red oxide
of mercury. This being infufficient to faturate the ex-
cefs of acid, more was added till it ceafed to be dif-
folved. A quantity of green fulphate of iron was then
poured into a long-necked matrafs, to which the mix¬
ed folution of platina and mercury wTas added, and the
whole placed upon a fand bath. In lefs than half an
hour, a precipitate formed, and the infide of the ma¬
trafs was lined with a thin metallic coat. The liquor
was puffed through a filter, and the precipitate, after
being digefted with muriatic acid, was well walked
and dried. The whole quantity collected amounted
to 276 grains, which were compofed of 92 of platina,
and 184 of mercury. It was in the form of a fine
powder, with a metallic luftre. It was put into a
charcoal crucible, and fufed into a button. The fpe¬
cific gravity was 11.2. It was entirely foluble in ni¬
tric acid, eafily fufed by fulphur, and precipitated by
green fulphate of iron j thus exhibiting all the proper¬
ties of palladium, which Mr Chenevix concludes, is
compofed of two parts of mercury, and one of pla¬
tina.
3. One of the moft lingular circumftances with re-
gravitv re- gard to this alloy, if fuch it can be called, is its fpeci-
snarkable. gravity, which is not only far below the mean of the
fpecific gravity of the two metals, but confiderably infe¬
rior to either of its elements. The fpecific gravity of pla¬
tina is 22, according to fome greater, and that of
mercury is nearly 14, and yet the fpecific gravity of
the compound is only 10.972, little more than the
half by calculation. But although we have no rea-
fon to doubt the accuracy and precifion of Mr Chene-
vix’s experiments, and although we are little difpofed
to place any confidence in the aflertion of the unknown
difeoverer of this fubftance, from the extraordinary
circumftances under which it has been announced, yet
we do not confider the refult of thefc experiments fully
&.C.
CHEMISTRY. (>t>9
fatisfaflory, in proving palladium tb be an alloy of Palladium,
platina and mercury (k). Every attempt which Mr .
Chenevix made to analyze this fuppofed new metal, fail¬
ed. It is true, he was equally unfuccefsfdl in decompo-
fing the alloy of platina and mercury which he had for m¬
ed, and which refembled palladium in moft of its pro-
4151
Specific
aiS2
parties which were compared. The attempts which His experi-
have been made to repeat the experiments of Mr Che-p*cnts.noi
nevix, have not fuceeeded. No other chemift has yet tat‘s
been able to form the compound of platina ahd mer- ‘
cury, which poffeffes the properties of palladium *. *
Till, therefore, Mr Chenevix ffiall have extended his ,go^
refearches concerning this alloy, or till it ffiall have
been examined by fome other chemift, we muft remain
in fufpenfe with regard to its nature.
4. Two other metals have been juft announced. Iridium.
They were difeovered in crude platirta by Mr Ten¬
nant, in analyzing the black powder which remains
after diflblving platina. To the firft of thefe metals
Mr Tennant has given the name of iridium, from the
various colours it affumes in fblution. It pofleffes the
following properties. It is foluble in all the acids,
but lefs foluble in muriatic acid, with which it forms
octahedral cryftals. The folution with much oxygen
is deep red ; with a fmaller proportion, green or deep
blue. It is partially precipitated by the alkalies, and
by all the metals except gold and platina. Infufion
of galls and pruffiate of potafti deprive this folution of
its colour, but without any precipitate j thus affording
an eafy left of its prefence. The oxide, therefore,
lofes its oxygen by water alone. When combined
with gold or filver, it cannot be feparated by the
ufual procefs of refining thefe metals. The fame fub¬
ftance was examined by Defcoftils and Vauquelin, and
the properties which they aferibe to this metal are the
following. I. It reddens the precipitates of platina
made by muriate of ammonia. 2. It is foluble in mu¬
riatic acid. 3. It is precipitated by the infufion ef
galls and pruffiatc of potalh. 2t^
5. The other new metal is obtained by heating theOfmiurn-
black powder with pure alkali in a filver crucible.
The oxide of this metal combines with the alkali,
and may be expelled by an acid, and obtained by di
ftillation, being very volatile. It does not redden ve¬
getable blues, but ftains the fkin of a deep red or
black. The oxide in folution with water has no co¬
lour j but by combining with alkali or lime, becomes
yellow. With the infufion of nut-galls it gives a
very vivid blue colour. It is precipitated by all the
metals excepting gold and platina. An amalgam may
be formed with mercury, by agitating it with the
aqueous folution of this oxide. When this amalgam
is heated, the mercury is driven off, and the pure
metal remains behind in the ftate of black powder.
To this metal Mr Tennant has given the name of
ofmium, on account of the ftrong fmell of the ox¬
ide f. f Ntchol
Such is the account of thefe metals which we have yatir- V1^-
received. Should a fuller detail reach us in time, wep'*l3, ail<*
4T2 ffiall
(k) Fourcroy and Vauquelin have thrown out a conjeflure that palladium is probably an alloy of pla-
tina, and a new metal difeovered in crude platina by Collet-Defcoftils and Mr Tennant. Ann* de C/unh
xlviii. 185.
7°°
Component
Parts of
the Atmo-
fphere.
2155
Is a com¬
pound
215(1
of oxygen
and azotic
gafes. >
2157
Phyfical
pioperties.
215S
Method
of eftimat-
ing the pro¬
portions.
C H E M
fliall not fail to lay it before our readers, either in an
appendix to this treatife, or under the names of the
metals themfelves, in the order of the alphabet, in the
courfe of the work.
Chap. XV. Of the ATMOSPHERE.
The atmofphere is that invifible elaftic fluid which
furrounds the earth. Its phyfical properties, fuch as
denlity, elafticity, and preflure, have been long known;
but its compofition and conftituent parts muft be rank¬
ed among the difcoveries of modern chemiftry. In
the prefent chapter, we propofe only to take a ihort
view of the nature, conftitution, and changes of the
atmofphere, referving the full difcuflion of the latter
to meteorology, to which it properly belongs.
Sect. I. Of the Component? ar rsofthe A tmosphebe.
1. The air of the atmofphere was confidered by the
ancients as one of the four elements of which all bo¬
dies are compofed. The fame opinion was held by
all philofophers, previous to the difcoveries of modern
chemiftry. It was univerfally admitted to be a Ample
homogeneous fubftance, till by the difcovery of oxy¬
gen gas by Dr Prieftley, and that of azotic gas by
Scheele, it was fully demonftrated that thefe two
fubftances are the chief ingredients in atmofpheric
air.
2. This compound poffefles all the phyfical properties
of the different kinds of air which we have hitherto
examined. It is invifible, elaftic, and may be inde¬
finitely expanded and comprefied. The fpecific gravi¬
ty of atmofpheric air is O.OOI 2, or it is 816 times light¬
er than water. A hundred cubic inches weigh 31
grains troy 5 but in confequence of the elafticity of the
air, the abfolute weight and the denfity muft vary with
ihe temperature and preffure. The eftimation which
we have here given, is taken at the ordinary tempera¬
ture of the atmofphere, between 50° and 6o°, and when
the barometer, which indicates the preffure, ftands at
30 inches. The denfity muft vary by diminifhing, ac¬
cording to the height above the f'urface of the earth.
The experiments of naturalifts, whofe attention has
keen particularly dire&ed to this fubjeft, have fhewn
that the diminution of denfity is in the ratio of the
comprefiion, and therefore, that the increafe of denfity
is in geometrical progreflion, while the heights increafe
in arithmetical progreflion.
3. After the difcovery of the compofition of atmo¬
fpheric air, it became an objeft with philofophers to de-
-termine the proportions of its component parts. It
was obferved by Prieftley and Scheele, and other phi¬
lofophers who were occupied in the profecution of
their difcovcries, that a certain portion of a given quan¬
tity of atmofpheric air only was abforbed during the
procefles of combuftion and refpiration. It was ob-
lerved too, that certain fubftances combined with the
portion of atmofpheric air which difappeared during
thefe procefles, and that the fame quantity of atmo¬
fpheric air fuffered no farther diminution, whatever
length of time it was expofed to the aftion of thefe
fubftances. The portion of the air abforbed is the oxy¬
gen gas, and on this principle is founded the conftruc-
tion of thpfe mltrqments which have been denominated
I S T R Y.
eudiometers, becaufe they are employed to meafure the Component:
purity of a given portion of air, by afeertaining the ^ Parts
quantity of oxygen gas which it contains. Different "f ^tm0*
eudiometers have been propofed for this purpofe, but ■ ' ^ ’ j
all depending on the fame principle, namely, the ab-
ftraftion of oxygen gas from a given quantity of air.
The reader will'probably recoiled the effeds which
take place by mixing together nitrous gas and the air
of the atmofphere, or oxygen gas. When thefe gafes
come into contad, red fumes are produced ; the
atmofpherie air is partially diminifhed ; but the
oxygen gas entirely difappears. This is owing to
the combination of the nitrous gas with the oxygen
gas, forming nitric acid, which, if the experiment be
made over water, is abforbed 5 thus diminifhing the
bulk of the air by the quantity of oxygen gas abftrac-
ted. This is the principle of the firft eudiometer, which
was propofed by Dr Prieftley ; but it has been found
that the refults and experiments with this kind of
eudiometer are far from being uniform and conftant.
It is fubjed to variation from the difference of purity
of the nitrous gas employed, the water over which the
experiment is made, and even the form and conftruc-
tion of the apparatus. The variations in the refults of
different experiments by different philofophers, are-
from 22. to 30. of oxygen gas in 100 parts of atmofphe¬
ric air.
Scheele propofed a different eudiometer. A mix¬
ture of iron filings and fulphur formed into a pafte with
water, abforbs the whole of the oxygen gas of any
given portion of atmofpheric air. The diminution of
bulk of a portion of air, expofed to the adion of this
fubftance, therefore, indicates the proportion of oxygen
gas vftuch it contains $ but this ablorption goes on
flowly, and is therefore an objedion to this mode of af¬
eertaining the proportions of atmofpheric air. This
objedion has been removed by an improvement of this
eudiometer, in which hydrogenated fulphuret of potafli
or lime is fubftituted for the iron filings and fulphur.
This is prepared by boiling together fulphur and lime
water, or a folution of potafti in water. By the ufe of
this fulphuret, the abforption takes place in a few' mi¬
nutes. A given portion of air is agitated in a bottle
with this fulphuret, taking care to exclude the exter¬
nal air with a ground ftopper. The diminution of the
bulk of this quantity of atmofpheric air (hews the pro¬
portion of oxygen gas which it contained.
Volta propofed to explode a given portion of atmo¬
fpheric air with hydrogen gas, by means of the eledric
fpark. The hydrogen and oxygen combine together
and form water 5 and the diminution of the bulk of the
airs employed is in proportion to the quantity of water
formed. But to this method of afeertaining the quantity
of oxygen gas in a given portion of atmofpheric air, it
has been objeded, that the proportion of hydrogen gas
requires to be accurately adjuftedj for if it exceed, the
fuperabundant quantity increafes the bulk of the re¬
maining air •, and, if the proportion be too fmall, the
oxygen and azote will form nitric acid by the adion of
eledricity, and thus the refiduary quantity of air will
be too much diminifhed.
When phofphorus is expofed to the air, it abforbs the
oxygen readily, and is converted into phofphorous
acid. This, which was firft propofed by Achard, has
been improved by Berthollet, for the purpofes of a eu¬
diometer.
C H E M I S T R Y.
701
Component diometer. A given portion of air Is expofed to the ao
Parts of tjon 0f phofphorus, in a velTel over water j when the ab*
the Atmo- forptjon ceafed, the remaining air is meafured, the
‘:re~ diminution of which indicates the quantity of oxygen
gas which it contained.
Mr Davy has propofed the green fulphate or muri¬
ate of iron diiTolved in water, impregnated with nitrous
gas. This folution is prepared by tranfmitting nitrous
gas through green muriate or fulphate of iron diffolved
to faturation in water. All the apparatus neceffary is
a fmall graduated tube, having its capacity divided in¬
to 100 parts, and greateft at the open end, and a vef-
fel for containing the fluid. The tube is filled with
the air to be examined, and then introduced into the
the folution. To promote the abforption, it is gently
moved from a perpendicular to a horizontal polition.
In a few minutes the experiment is completed, and the
whole of the oxygen condenfed by the nitrous gas in
the folution, in the form of nitric acid. But in this
procefs it is neceffary to obferve the period at which
the diminution flops, for after this the volume of refi-
dual gas is increafed by the decompofition of the nitric
acid, by means of the green oxide of iron *.
From a number of comparative experiments made by
Mr Davy with different eudiometers, and from other
experiments on air in different places, and colle£ted
under different circumftances, it appears that the com¬
ponent parts of atmofpheric air are always nearly the
fame. Thefe proportions are fronr .21 to .22 of oxy¬
gen gas, and from .78 to .79. of azotic gas. The con-
ftituent parts therefore of atmofpheric air by bulk may
be taken at
* Jour.
Roy. Injl
i. p. 45.
2159
Compofi-
tion.
Oxygen gas
Azotic
22
78
1=0
But in eftimating the proportions of given bulks of
atmofpheric air, it is neceffary, as we have already
hinted, to take into account the denfity and tem¬
perature, otherwife very great anomalies muft hap-
ai5o pen.
Water. 4, It is univerfally admitted, that water exifts in the
atmofphere 5 but philofophers are greatly divided with
regard to the quantity of water, and the ftate in which
it exifts in the air. To afcertain the quantity of wa¬
ter, inftruments called hygrometers, or meafurers of moi-
Jture, have been contrived ; the quantity of which is
indicated by certain changes which take place by its
abforption; but none of thefe inftruments that have
yet been invented are fufceptible of great accuracy,
and perhaps to this is owing the very different refults
in eftimating the quantity of water in the atmofphere.
There is alfo a very great difference of opinion whe¬
ther this water exifts in the atmofphere in the ftate
of water, or whether it has been converted into va¬
pour. According to the firft opinion, the water is
held in folution by the air, and the quantity increafes
In the ftate as the temperature of the air is increafed. But accord-
of vapour, ing to others, the water of the atmofphere is in the
ftate of vapour. According to the experiments of
naturalifts, the quantity of water in the atmofphere
varies in different climates, and at different feafons of
the year, from to part of the weight of the at¬
mofphere.
5. When lime-water, or an alkaline folution, is ex- Ccj^r°sn^?t
poled to the air, it is foon covered with a cruft or ;hea^*^0_
pellicle. This is owing to the abforption of carbonic fphere.
acid, and the converfion of the alkali or lime to the 1—y—J
ftate of carbonate. This (hews that carbonic acid gas 2162,
exifts in the atmofphere. This gas has been found not °™s'
only on the furface of the earth, where the denfity of h
the atmofphere is greateft, but alio on the tops of fome
of the higheft mountains. The quantity of carbonic
acid gas in the atmofphere is fuppofed to vary from .0.1
to .005 parts.
Sect. II. Of the Constitution of the Atmosphere.
2163
1. The component parts of the atmofphere are, D;g-erent
azotic gas, oxygen gas, water, and carbonic acid gas. opinions.
Here a queftion has arifen among philofophers, whether
thefe parts are chemically combined, or merely form a
mechanical mixture. According to one fet of philo¬
fophers, the oxygen and azotic gafes of the atmolphere
are in chemical union, becaufe their proportions^ are
always found to be uniform and conllant, which it is
fuppofed could not be the cafe from the inequality of
the caufes a&ing in diminilhing the quantity of oxygen
gas, by the different proceffes of combuftion and re-
fpiration, which are going on in the lurface of the
earth, if the component parts of the air were not in 2I(j^
chemical combination. The air of the atmofphere In chemi-
too, it is faid, pofleffes properties very different from cal union,
the artificial mixture of its component parts. The
proceffes of combuftion and refpiration continue for a
greater length of time in the latter, becaufe it parts
with a greater proportion of its oxygen, and for the
fame reafon it is more diminiftied by nitrous gas. Ac¬
cording to others, the air of the atmofphere is merely
a mechanical mixture. This opinion is fupported by
Mr Dalton, in fome ingenious fpeculations on the con-
ftitution of mixed gas, and particularly of the at¬
mofphere. The principle on which Mr Dalton’s hy-
pothefis is founded is, that the particles of homogene- 2165
ous elaftic fluids only mutually a6l upon each_ other, ^ec^a"ica1'
and that the particles of an elaftic fluid of one kind are mixture*
neither attracted nor repelled by the particles of an
elaftic fluid of a different kind, when they are mixed
together. According to this hypothefis, therefore, the
particles of the oxygen gas of the atmofphere mutually
a£t on each other, or are only attracted and repelled by
thofe of their own kind *. _ * See
2. Difference of opinion alfo prevails, whether the Munch.
vapour of water, as it exifts in the atmofphere, be mere- Mem'™ •7*
ly a mechanical mixture, or chemically combined. The
former opinion is alio fupported by Mr Dalton, upon the
principle that all gafes mixed with vapour, expand in a
proportional degree to the elaflicity of the vapour in
that temperature.
Sect. III. Of the Changes of the Atmospheres
2166
1. The changes which are produced in the atmo* Tempera-
fphere by heat and cold, are too obvious to efcape ob- lure,
fervation *, but it was not till the invention of the
thermometer that thefe changes could be obferved and
marked w ith any degree of accuracy; and even after
the invention and improvement of this inftrument, it
was long before any feientifie application was made of
the
702
Changes of
the Atmo-
fphere.
CHEMISTRY.
2167
The fun
the fource
'Of heat.
2i63
Fixed
points of
tempera¬
ture im¬
portant.
2169
Annual
tempera¬
ture.
the changes of the temperature which it indicated.
The variable temperature of the fame day, the great
difference between midnight and midday, and the ftill
greater difference between the heat of fummer and the
cold of winter, feem to hold out a number of infulated
fa£ts, without refemblance or connexion, and incapa¬
ble of being arranged under any general law. But
more comprehenfive views, and more extended obfer-
vations, have not only fhewn the poffibility of eftablifh-
ing a general principle, but have enabled philofophers
to arrange and claflify phenomena wrhich were other-
wife feemingly unconnefted.
2. The great fource of heat is the fun. This is
fully demonftrated by the increafe of temperature be¬
ing in proportion to the duration and greater or lefs
obliquity of the fun’s rays. It has been imagined that
the earth is heated by central fires : but this opinion
feems to be fully difproved, by obferving that the tem¬
perature depends invariably on the abfence or prefence
of the fun $ that this temperature is diminifhed, at leafl
to a certain extent, by going deeper into the earth 5
and that the cold is greatefl in places molt diftant from
the fun’s rays 5 fo that the temperature which is moft
uniform within the tropics, diminifhes, other things be¬
ing equal, in proportion to the diftance from the equa¬
tor towards the poles.
3. In confidering the difference of temperature
w hich is obferved in different places, it became an ob¬
ject with philofophers to difcover fome fixed points
from which the whole amount of the changes for any
given period could be afcertained. This was firffc
thought of by Mayer, who propofed the method ufed
by aftronomers, of finding the mean of certain large
periods, as for years and months ; and he made the
difcovery by which the mean annual temperature of
two latitudes being known, the mean annual tempera¬
ture for every other degree of latitude may be alfo
found. The application of this rule has been greatly
improved and extended by Mr Kirwan, and upon this
principle he conftru&ed tables w hich exhibit the mean
annual temperature for all degrees of latitude from the
equator to the poles. Thefe tables were conftrufted
by finding from obfervation the temperature of what
he calls a flandard fituation, that is, a place lefs liable
to be affe&ed by adventitious caufes, but where the
caufe of temperature, or the communication of heat
from the fource, was moil uniform and conflant; and
having difcovered this ftandard fituation, to compare
the temperature of every other fituation with it. The
land, Mr Kirwan thought, owing to the operation of
caufes which occafion variations lefs eafily appreciable
would not afford refults fufficiently uniform. This
fituation, he then concluded, w-as to be fought for on
the water ; and that part of the ocean, which he chofe,
■was the immenfe traft of water which includes that
part of the Atlantic lying between the 8o° of north
latitude, and the 450 of fouth latitude, extended weft-
ward as far as the gulf ftreatn, and to within a few
leagues of the coaft of America ; and all that part of
the Pacific ocean reaching from the 450 north latitude
to the 40° fouth latitude, and from the 20° to the 27 c°
of longitude eaft from London. This includes the
greater part of the furface of the globe. But for the
method of conftruaing thefe tables, and for the tables
2171
themfelves, we refer our readers to the article Mete- Changes <*
OROLOGY, where they will be inferted. tiie Atmo.
The difference of temperature, it may be obferved, vjp^ere-
within io° of the equator and within the fame diftance *
from the poles, is very fmall j and the variation of tem¬
perature K>r different years within the fame fpace, is alfo
found to be very little: but as the diftance increafes
from the equator towards the poles, the difference of
temperature is greater. In latitudes under 350, it
fcarcely ever freezes, excepting in very elevated fitua-
tions, and it fcarcely ever hails in latitudes higher
than 6o°. In places near the fea, between the lati¬
tudes of 350 and 6o°, it generally thaws when the fun’s
altitude is 40°, and feldom begins to freeze till the me¬
ridian altitude be below 40°. 21^0
4. Mr Kirwan has alfo conftrufted tables to mark Monthly,
the mean monthly temperature. In every latitude the
mean temperature of the month of April approaches
nearly to the mean annual heat of that latitude. And
from this analogy he proceeded, fuppofmg that the tem¬
perature is always regulated by the direct action of the
folar rays, unconnected with the other circumftances
which occafion confiderable variations. Taking all
thefe into the account, and endeavouring to reduce them
to ftvift calculation, he found it impracticable j and
therefore he conftruCted his tables, partly from principle,
and partly from the belt obfervations he could procure
from fea journals, and fimilar fources of information.
The mean monthly temperature in thefe tables alfo re¬
fers to the ftandard ocean.
5. The coldeft weather alfo prevails about the middle Coldeft
of January in all climates, and the warmeft in July *,feafon'
but if it depended immediately on the fun’s heat, the
greateft heat fliould prevail in the latter end of June, Warmeft.
and the greateft cold in the latter end of December.
But as the earth requires a confiderable time to ab-
forb heat, fo alf* it is fome time before what has been
abforbed is given out. All thefe obfervations and cal¬
culations refer to the furface of the ocean, which is
lefs fubjeft to variation from caufes, the influence of
which could not be afcertained with precifion.
6. But as the earth is the chief fource of heat in The earth
the atmofphere that furrounds it, the temperature muft heats the
decreafe with the elevation above the earth, and in atmofp^crSi
the higheft regions of the atmofphere, where the air
is perfeCUy free from clouds, the greateft cold muft
prevail. Hence, in confequence of this elevation
above the level of the ocean, the higheft mountains,
even under the equator, a’re covered with perpetual
fnou\ Mr Bouguer found the cold on the top of
Pinchinca in South America, immediately under the
line, to vary from 70 to 90 below the freezing point
every morning before funrife, and hence at a certain
height, which varies in almoft every latitude, it con-
ftantly freezes at night in every feafon ; although in
fome latitudes, in the warmer climates, it thaws next
day. This height he calls the lower term of conge¬
lation, and he places it at the height of 1 <;,577 feet be¬
tween the tropics. In latitude 28° he thinks it fhould
commence in fummer at the height of 13,440 feet
above the level of the fea. But at ftill greater heights
it never freezes at all, becaufe the vapours do not af-
cend fo high. This height M. Bouguer denominates
the upper term of congelation ; and immediately under
the
Changes
of the At-
mofnhere.
2174
Land and
water dif¬
ferent in
tempera¬
ture.
^ 2l’5
Tempera¬
ture varies
according
to the
height of
places.
CHEMISTRY.
7°3
the equator he fixes It at 28000 feet. As the weather
is not fubje£t to great variations under the equator,
the height of both thefe terms is nearly con-
Itant: but in other latitudes this height is variable,
both in fummer and winter, in proportion to the de¬
gree of heat which prevails} and as there is a mean
annual temperature peculiar to each latitude, fo is
there a mean height for each of thefe terms peculiar
to each latitude. By taking the differences be¬
tween the mean temperatures of every latitude, and
the point of congelation, it will appear that whatever
proportion the difterence under the equator bears to
the height of either of thefe terms, the fame proportion
will the difference peculiar to every other latitude bear
to their height.
7. But there is not the fame uniformity or capacity
in air, land, and water, for receiving and returning
heat. Hence arife very confiderable deviations in the
temperature of places, as they are more or lefs connec¬
ted with thefe bodies. Air, when it is perfectly tranf-
parent, receives very little heat from the rays of the
fun as they pafs through it. Air which is over feas or
large tradbs of water, is generally many degrees warm¬
er in winter, and colder in fummer, than air which is
incumbent on land, becaufe the land receives the heat
much more readily than the water; in general the air
participates of the temperature of thofe fubftances with
which it is in contact. Land, if dry, receives heat
tapidly, but tranfmits or condufts it to great depths
very flowly 5 but water receives it more flowly, and
diffufes it more rapidly. From experiments made by
Dr Hales, it appears that the earth is much heated
during the fummer, but that this heat defeends very
flowly, great part of it being communicated to the air j
that during winter, the earth gives out to the air the
heat it had received during the fummer, and that wet
fummers muff be fucceeded by cold winters, becaufe
the heat is carried off by the greater proportion of eva¬
poration during the wet feafon. At the depth of 80
or 90 feet below the furface of the earth, the tempera¬
ture is found to vary very little, and it generally ap¬
proaches to the mean annual heat. The temperature
of the cave at the obfervatory of Paris, which is 90
feet below the pavement, is about 53.50. The great-
eff variation which has been obferved, does not exceed
half a degree, and this only happens in very cold
years. Hence, too, the temperature of fprings is al-
moft: uniformly the fame throughout the year, and cor-
refponds with the mean annual temperature of the cli¬
mate.
8. There is not only a confiderable difference in the
temperature of land and water •, but this variation alfo
holds with regard to the land itfelf, according as it
is elevated above the furface, and according to the na¬
ture of the furfaee, whether it is covered with vege¬
tables, or only exhibits bare rocks, or fterile fand. A
confiderable deviation alfo is obferved to take place,
in proportion to the diftance from the ocean. All
thefe caufes, however, are greatly modified by the re¬
lative fituation of places with regard to feas and oceans,
mountainous regions, and extenfive trails of level
country covered with thick forefts, or improved by
cultivation. Thefe caufes too are modified by parti¬
cular winds, which produce confiderable deviations, as
they proceed from the ocean, from low, flat countries, Changes
or elevated regions. of ^ At*
9. Another remarkable change to which the atmo- , !'
fphere is fubjeft, is the difference of its weight or pref- 2176
fure. The air, like all other matter, is influenced byPreffure.
the law of gravitation, by which it preffes with a cer¬
tain force on the furface of the earth. It has been
found that the meafure of this force is nearly equal to
151b. on every fquare inch. The variations which
take place in the atmofphere are meafured by the baro¬
meter. The mercury in the barometrical tube is fup-
prtrted by a column of air of an equal bafe, and fince
this column of air and the mercury in the tube mutual¬
ly balance each other, it follows that they are of the
fame weight, and therefore the barometer may be em¬
ployed as a meafurer of the weight or preffure of the
air.
10. The firft general faft with regard to the weight The fame
of the atmofphere is, that in all places at the level ofat the level
the fea, the barometer ftands nearly at the fame point,°^t^e ^ea*
and the mean height is about 30 inches. But as the
elevation is increafed, the barometer finks, becaufe then
there is a Ihorter column of air to fupport it, which is
therefore lighter. In no place does the weight of the
air continue always the fame. It is fubjeft to daily
variations, which are greater or fmaller according to
the latitude of the place, or the influence of particular
caufes. In all places within the tropics, the variations
of the barometer have been obferved to be fmalleft, and
in elevated fituations the variations are confiderably
fmaller than on the level of the fea. The deviations
of the mercury from its mean annual altitude are more
frequent and extenfive in the neighbourhood of the
poles than in that of the equator, and they are greater
and more frequent without the tropics in winter than
in fummer. 217$
11. The caufes which have been propofed to ac-Caufes.
count for thefe variations, are changes of temperature,
velocity of winds, and the agency of vapours. The
air is fubjett to the aftion of heat, by which it is rare¬
fied or condenfed, according to the increafe or diminu¬
tions of temperature. Denfe air is heavier than that
which is rarer ; but if the maffes of air remain the
fame, the weights muff be the fame, and confequently
the heights to which they elevate the mercury will be
alfo equal. If, therefore, a change of temperature oc-
cafion a variation of the barometer, it muff be by in-
creafing or diminifliing the mafs of the atmofphere.
But it appears from obfervation, that a variation of the
mafs of the atmofphere is not a neceffary cqnfequence
of a change of temperature, for the mercury is often at
the fame height at different feafons, and at different'
places at the fame time, when the difference of tempe¬
rature is very great. But even when the mercury
changes with the temperature, this variation is often
direftly contrary to what it ought to be. The baro¬
meter has fometimes rifen with an increafe of tempera¬
ture, inftead of falling by the rarefaftion of the air.
The changes of temperature are very inconfiderable
in the higher regions of the atmofphere, fo that it
would appear that the barometer can be little affedted
by changes of temperature. Mr Kirwan has endeavour¬
ed to Ihow, that the influence of winds, or a greater or
fmaller quantity of vapours exifting in the atmofphere,
can.
7a4
Changes
of-the At-
raoi’phere.
2179
Winds.
21S0
Trade-
winds.
CHEMISTRY.
can tiave little eirefl in elevating or deprcffing tlie ba-
rometer. According to IVIr Kirwin^ the variations of
the barometer, or the difference of preflure of the air
of the atmofphcre, can only be accounted for from an
accumulation of air over thofe places in which the mer¬
cury exceeds its mean height, and from the diminution
or fubtra&ion of the natural quantity of air, oyer thofe
regions in which the mercury falls below its mean
height.
12. The winds conftitute another remarkable change
in the atmofphere. The winds in general are fubjefl to
great irregularity ; but in fome parts of the world they
are pretty regular and uniform. Between the 30° of
N. Lat. and the 30° S. Lat. the wind, when it is not
counteracted by local caufes, continues to blow conftant-
ly from the fame points. On the north fide of the equa¬
tor, that is, from the equator to the 30° ef N. Lat. it
blows from the north-eaft, and from the equator to
the 30° S. Lat. it blows from the fouth-eaft. This
is called the trade-wind. Immediately under the equa¬
tor the wind is obferved to be pretty nearly from the
eafl ; that is, about the place where the two currents
meet, the one from the north-eaft, and the other from
the fouth-eaft ; but receding from the equator, the di-
re&ion of it deviates more and more from the eafterly
point, till it reaches the intermediate point between
north and fouth, and then conftitutes the north-eaft
trade-wind on the north fide, and the fouth-eaft trade-
wind on the fouth fide of the equator. Were the
caufes which produce the eonftancy and uniformity of
the trade-winds uninfluenced by others, thefe winds
would prevail without variation within the limits or
near the boundaries of the torrid zone 5 but they are
greatly counteracted, and fubjeCt to great variations,
from the unequal influence of land and water, in rare¬
fying or condenfing the air.
13. As the air of the atmofphere is a fluid body, and
therefore fubjeft to all the laws of fluids, if any part
be removed, the remainder rufties in to reflore the
equilibrium, and hence an agitation or Avind is produ¬
ced, as air is capable of indefinite dilatation and com-
preflion. The denfer air being heavier, muft fink, and
the rarefied air afeends, Avhen air of unequal denfities
is mixed together. The greateft degree of mean tempe¬
rature is within the torrid zone, in confequence of the
fun’s rays being more perpendicular, and a&ing with
greater force on the earth’s furface. The air there-
fore round the equator undergoes the greateft degree
of rarefaftion, and this extends to the north and fouth,
in proportion to its diftance from the equator, or ra¬
ther its diftance from the fun’s place. Thus, when the
fun is perpendicular to the equator, or middle part of
the torrid zone, the air in that place being moft rare¬
fied, becomes lighter, afeends, and its place is filled
with the colder air from the north and fouth. And thus,
as long as the fun’s influence continues to rarefy the air,
would a north and fouth wind blow to that quarter
where the rarefied air, being rendered lighter, had af-
cended. But as the earth has a diurnal motion on its
axis from weft to eaft •, thofe parts of the earth’s fur-
face to the weftward are firft heated, and confequently
the incumbent air is firft rarefied. The denfer air
from the eaft muft therefore ru(h ii\ to reftore the equi¬
librium. Thus, there is produced an eafterly wind.
But there is another current of air from the north and
fouth : the two currents coming from the north-eaft
trade-wind on the north fide of the equator, and the
fouth-eaft trade-wind on the fouth fide. Such are the
caufes which are generally fuppofed to produce the re¬
gular trade-winds.
Water*
21S1
14. Thefe winds are regular and uniform in open Devianoiis, |
oceans, fuch as the Pacific or Atlantic, but they
are fubjeft to confiderable variation from the unequal
rarefaction of the air over land and water. Thus,
illands fituated within the very courfe of the trade-
Avinds have regular land and fea breezes, which are of¬
ten direCtly contrary to the trade-wind. In conie-
quence of the air incumbent on the land being more
rarefied during the day, the Avind bloAvs from the fea,
conftituting the fea breeze $ but the air over the fea
being warmer during the night, the wind blows from
the land, from w hich it is called the land wind. To a
fimilar caufe is owing another remarkable deviation
from the uniformity of the trade winds, Avhieh is ob¬
ferved in the great Indian ocean. Here the winds 2Ig2
called monfoans blow from one quarter during fix Monfoens.
months of the year, and from an oppofite direftion
during the remaining fix months. While the fun is in
the northern tropic, the air over the extenfive Indian
continent is greatly rarefied ; and, in confequence of
this rarefaClion, the denfer air from the ocean rufties
in to reftore the equilibrium, and hence the current of
the air or Avind continues during this period of the
year, conftituting the fouth-eaft monfoon. But when
the fun palfes the equator to the fouthAvard, the air
ovrer the fouthern hemifphere is more influenced by his
rays, and therefore more rarefied. The denfer air then
rufties in from the north, and thus produces the north-
Aveft monfoon, which blows during our Avinter, when
the fun is in the fouthern tropic. . . 2183
15. But even a fuperficial obfervation Avill ftiew, that Part of the
the phenomena of the Avinds cannot be fatisfaClorily ac-air fappof-
counted for, merely upon the general principle of the
unequal rarefaClion of the air over land and Avater.
Thus hidden changes of Avind often happen in particu¬
lar places, Avhich are extremely limited, and altogether
unconnected with the difterence of denfity of the air
over land and Avater. The hurricane has fwept the
land, Avhofe effeCts have not been felt 0* the neigh¬
bouring ocean, and the ftorm frequently agitates the
ocean without reaching the land. Thefe and other
phenomena of the Avinds, equally inexplicable, have
been aferibed by naturalifts to the abltraCtion or hid¬
den deftruftion of a certain quantity of the air of the
atmofphere in particular places. But for the full dif-
cuflion of this fubjeft and the other phenomena of
the atmofphere, we muft refer our readers to Meteo¬
rology,
Chap. XVI. Of WATERS.
X. We have already treated of the component parts
of water, of thedifeoveryofits compofition, and of its moft
remarkable properties, and efpecially thofe which it ex¬
hibits by a change of conflitution, as in the folid ftate
or that of ice, in the liquid ftate, and in the ftate of
vapour. In thefe views water Avas eonfidered as per¬
fectly pure j but this is rarely or never the cafe, as
it is found in nature. Rain Avater, Avhich is the pureft, ^ater n0t
is not entirely free from impregnation, even when col- founti pure.
2184
examined
by chemi-
tal agents,
CHE M I
fta-water. leAed before It falls to the earth. It is (lightly con-
taminated*\vith certain fubftances, which it held in (b-
lution, as It exifted in the clouds, or with which it com¬
bined in its paflage through the atmofphere. But wa¬
ters as they flow on the furface of the earth, or are car¬
ried through the ftrata under the furface, muft diflblve
thofe foluble fubftances with which they come in con¬
tact. It is the objeft of our prefent inveftigation to exa¬
mine the waters as they are found in nature, and the
fubftances with which they are impregnated.
2. The properties of pure water are almoft obvious to
the fenfes, fo that few fubftances, at leaft in any quan¬
tity, can be diflblved in water, without being eafily re¬
cognized. Thus, the faline, naufeous tafte of fea-wa-
ter, the fetid odour, or the aftringent tafte of mineral
2185 fprings, muft readily be diftinguiftied by thefe ftriking
Caft only be qualities. Bht although it is probable that the re¬
markable diverlity of waters, from their obvious pro¬
perties, could not fail to be early obferved by man¬
kind, it is only by chemical inveftigation that the na¬
ture of the fubftances to which they owe thefe proper^
ties, can be afeertained; and indeed we are indebted
to the difeoveries and improvements of modern che-
miftry for the knowledge which we poffefs of the na¬
ture and proportion of the ingredients which enter
into the compofition, either of fea water or mineral
fprings.
This fubjeft has been particularly inveftigated by
Bergman, Weftrumb, Black, Fourcroy, Klaproth, and
Kirwan. In the three following feftions we propofe to
treat, 1. Of fea-water j 2. Of mineral waters j 3. Of
the method of analyzing them.
Sect. I. Sea-water.
^186
Properties. 1. The faline tafte of fea-water, we have already
obferved, could not fail to make it be diftinguifhed
from pure water j and this tafte, it is well known, is
chiefly derived from common fait which it holds in
folution. Sea-water isalfo diftinguiftied by a nanfeous
bitter tafte, which is aferibed to the animal and Vege¬
table matters which are floating in it. This tafte has
been confidered as in fome meafure foreign to it j for
it is only found in the water on the furface of the ocean
or near the (bores. Sea-water taken up at confidera-
ble depths, contains only faline matters. The fpecific
gravity of fea-water varies from 1.0269 to 1.0285.
Its greater denfity is owing to the falts which are
diffolved in it 5 and to this impregnation alfo it is owing,
that it is not frozen till the temperature is reduced
2187 nearly to 28°.
waits. 2. The falts which are chiefly found in fea-water,
are muriate of foda, or common fait, muriate of mag-
nelia, fulphate of magnefia, fulphate of lime and fo¬
da. The quantity of faline ingredients in the waters
of the ocean varies from to part. Mr Kirwan
makes the average quantity about ^ of its whole
weight. The quantity of faline contents of water,
taken up by Lord Mulgrave at the back of Yarmouth
fands, in latitude 530, amounted nearly to j while
Bergman found the water taken up in the latitude of
4i$8 the Canaries to contain about ^ of its weight of faline
Proportion matter. Thefe quantities, however, vary, even in the
*Mles' fame latitude, during rainy and dry feafons, near the
land, or the mouths of great rivers. The difference
Vol* V. Part II. ‘
^5
S T R Y. /
of latitude does not feem to make any confiderable dif- Sea-wau-c^
ference in the proportion of (aline matter. In latitude
8o° north, 60 fathoms under ice, fea-water taken up
by Lord Mulgrave, yielded about j in latitude 74®
nearly the fame j and in latitude 6o°, Pages ob¬
tained four per cent, from water taken up in latitude
8i°, and the fame quantity of faline matter from water
taken up in latitude 450 and 390 north. In fouthern
latitudes, the proportion was (till greater j he found it
to contain the following proportions :
Lat. 490 $0' S.
46° 00'
40° 3 o'
28° 54'
20° oo'
i° 16'
4.1666 per cent, of faline matter, infouthem
4.5 latitudes.
4
4
3-9
3-5
In the Mediterranean the proportion is faid to be
(till greater 5 but the Euxine and Cafpian feas are
found to be lefs fait than the ocean. This alfo is the
cafe with the Baltic. If the faline matters of the wa¬
ters of the ocean did not confift of different kinds, the
proportion of falts which it contains might be afeertain¬
ed by the fpecifie gravity. In the following table the
fpecific gravity of fea-water taken up in difterent lati¬
tudes has been determined by Mr Bladh. The tem¬
peratures are reduced by Mr Kirwan to 62° of Fahren¬
heit j and the longitude is reckoned by Bladh from
Teneriffe.
Lat.
Long.
N.
59
57°
57°
54o
44
44o
40°
34°
2 9°
24*
J80
16°
140
10°
5°
2°
1°
oc
5P
ioc
14°
20°
25°
30°
37°
S.
39'
18'
i'
00'
32'
°7'
41'
40'
50'
oo'
28'
36'
56'
30'
50'
20'
2 s'
16'
10'
00'
40'
06'
45'
2S'
37'
E.
8° 4#
18° 48'
W.
i° 22'
4° 45'
2° 04'
E.
i° 00'
o° 30'
i° 18'
0° 00'
W.
2° 32'
3;
3
3”
3°
3°
3°
6°
6°
5
2°
24'
37'
46'
49'
28'
26'
30'
4°'
00'
os'
00'
30'
22'
E.
Sp. Gr at 62°
7
68°
12'
I3'
1,0272
1,0269
1,0272
1,0271
1,0276
1,0276
1,0276
1,0280
1,0281
1,0284
1,0281
1,0277
1,0275
1,0272
1,0274
1,0271
1,0273
1,0277
1,0277
1,0285
1,0284
1,0285
1,0281
1,0279
1,0276
3190
Specific
gravity ia
different
latitudes.
4 U
From
06
CHEMISTRY.
?a-water.
2Ipl
In the Bal¬
tic.
From tills table it appears that tbe proportion of fa-
line matter is greateft near tbe tropics •, and the fmaller
quantity near the equator is afcribed to the great
quantity of rain that ufually falls on that part of the
globe.
3. The experiments of Mr Wilcke (how that the
proportion of faline matter in the Baltic is lefs than
that of the ocean •, and that it is falter during the pre¬
valence of a wefterly wind, by which the water is driven
from the ocean, than during an eailerly wind. The
following is the fpocilic gravity of the waters of the
Baltic, taken during the prevalence of different winds,
and reduced by Mr Kirwan to the temperature of 62°.
Wind.
Eaft,
Weft,
Weft, a ftorm,
North-weft,
Specific gravity.
I.OO39
I.0067
1.01x8
1.0098
From this it appears, that the proportion of faline
matters in the Baltic is increafed by the influx of wa¬
ter from the oeean, and is confiderably influenced dur¬
ing a ftorm, when the wind blows from that quarter..
4. Dr Watfon has eftimated the quantity of fait in
water of different fpecific gravities. It is alfo reduced
to the temperature of 62° by Mr Kirwan, as in the
following table.
Salt.
vz
T
ZT
To
1
TTT
1
ZZ
t
rz
TcfT
Specific gravity.
I.O285
I.0275
I.0270
I.0267
I.0250
1.0253
I.0185
I.OO33
1-0105
I.OO4O
1,0023
Thefe experiments were made with folutions of com¬
mon fait, which was not perfe&ly pure, and therefore
it is allowed that they may correfpond pretty nearly
with the proportions of faline matter in fea-water of
o j£2 the fame fpecific gravities.
-Piopovtions. 5. The proportions of the different falls in an ana-
lyfis by Bergman, are the following.
Muriate of foda,
Muriate of magnefia,
Sulphate of lime,
30.011
6.222
I.coo
38.133
in 1000 parts of water taken up near Dieppe, Lavoi-
fier found the following falls.
Muriate of foda,
-■ — - " of lime and magnefia,
■    of magnefia,
Lime,
Sulphate of foda and magnefia,
1375
256
156
87
84
*958
Sect. II. Of Mineral Waters.
Mineral
Waters.
• 2I93
1. The name of mineral waters has been given to characters,
thofe waters which are diftinguiftied by the fmell,
tafte, or colour, from pure water, the obvious proper¬
ties of which are, tranfparency and infipidity. Thefe
peculiarities of tafte, fmell, and other properties, are
owing to the impregnation of certain mineral fubftances
which they have acquired in their paffage through the
foil or ftrata of the earth. The effects which fuch wa¬
ters produce on the animal economy, early attrafted the
attention of mankind, and led to their application as re¬
medies in the cure of difeafes. It was long indeed be¬
fore any other diftin&ion of mineral waters was made,
except what was indicated by their fenfible qualities,
and their effefts on the human conftitution. From thefe Glafl'es.
properties mineral waters have been divided into four
claffes : 1. Acidulous or gafeous w aters j 2. Saline wa¬
ters ; 3. Sulphureous or hepatic waters ; and, 4. Chaly¬
beate waters. 2195
(1.) Acidulous waters are diftinguiftied by their pene- Acidulous,
trating acid tafte, the facility with which they boil j
by fparkling when they are poured into a glafs ; and
by the emiffion of bubbles of air, by agitation. The
acid with which they are impregnated is generally the
carbonic. Thefe waters redden the tinfture of turn-
fole, and precipitate lime-water.
(2.) The fecond clafs, or the faline waters, are fuffi-Saline,
ciently charafterized by their tafte, which varies ac¬
cording to the nature of the fait with which they are
impregnated. ltp^
(3.) The fulphureous or hepatic waters are at once Sulphure-
recognized by their fetid odour, and by blackening ous.
fome metallic fubftances, as lead and filver. Some of
thefe waters are impregnated with fulphurated hydro¬
gen gas, while in others it is combined with lime, or
with an alkali. 2Ip3
(4.) The fourth clafs, or the chalybeate waters, are Chalf-
<liftingui(hed by an aftringent tafte. With the prufliate beate.
of lime they give a blue colour, or a black with the in-
fufion of nut galls. This property is owing to a por¬
tion of iron which is held in folution, either by carbo¬
nic or fulphuric acid. Sometimes carbonic acid is in
excefs, and then the water has a penetrating (lightly
acid tafte. 2x99
2. The fubftances which have been found in mineral Sub fiances
waters, as they have been enumerated by Mr Kirwan, f0?™1 'j1
belong either to the clafs of gafeous bodies, acids, alka-
lies, earths, or falls. 2I0a
3. Oxygen gas was firft difcovered in waters by Gates.
Scheele. It is generally in fmall proportion, and does not
exift in waters with fulphurated hydrogen gas, or iron,
becaufe it is incompatible with thefe fubftances. Azo¬
tic gas has been found in the waters of Buxton, Har-
rowgate, and Lemington Priors. Common air was
firft difcovered in mineral waters by Mr Boyle $ the
quantity fcarcely exceeds ^-g- of the bulk of the water.
Fixed air or carbonic acid was firft; difcovered in Pyr-
mont waters by Dr Brownrig. The proportions are
very variable ; but there are few mineral waters which
are entirely free from it. A hundred cubic inches of
moft waters, contain from 6 to 40 of carbonic acid
gas. A hundred cubic inches of Pyrmont waters con¬
tain, according to Bergman, 95 «f fixed air j accord¬
ing
C H E M I
Mineral
Waters.
2201
Acids.
2202
Alkalies.
2203
Earths.
2204
Salts.
mg to Dr Higgins, 160, and according to Weftrumb,
187 cubic inches. Sulphurated hydrogen gas is the
principal ingredient in fulphureous or hepatic water.
Carbonated hydrogen gas is faid to have been detected
in fome mineral waters in Italy.
4. The next clafs of fubftances found in mineral
waters, are the acids. Sulphuric acid has never been
found, except in combination with other fubftances,
forming falts in mineral waters. With fome of thefe
falls it exifts in excefs. Sulphurous acid has been de¬
tected in many of the hot mineral fprings in Italy, in
the vicinity of volcanoes. Muriatic acid has only been
found in mineral waters, in combination with other
fubftances. Nitric acid is faid alfo to exift in mineral
waters in Hungary, in a combined ftate. Boracfc acid
has been found in a feparate ftate, in fome lakes in
Italy.
5. The alkalies are rarely found combined in mine¬
ral waters. In the ftate of carbonate they are frequent.
Soda only was deteCted in the hot mineral fprings of
Iceland, by Dr Black.
6. Few of the earths, except in combination, have
been found in mineral waters. Lime, it is faid, exifts
uncombined in fome waters; but Bergman obferves
that it muft be in hot, and not in cold mineral waters.
Dr Black detefted filica in the waters of Geyfer and
Rykum in Iceland. It has been found in thofe of
Carllbad by Klaproth, and it has not unfrequently
been obferved by others in different mineral waters.
7. The falts which have been found in mineral
waters, are fulphates, nitrates, muriates, and carbo¬
nates.
Sulphates.—Sulphate of foda is frequently found in
the waters of fprings and lakes. Sulphate of ammo¬
nia has been found in mineral waters, in the neigh¬
bourhood of volcanoes. Sulphate of lime is one of
the moft common fubftances in moft fprings. Sulphate
of magnefia, or Epfom fait, is not unufual in many mi¬
neral fprings. Sulphate of alumina is rarely found in
mineral waters', it is more commonly found in the ftate
of triple fait or alum. Sulphate of iron is frequent
in the fprings and lakes of volcanic countries. It has
alfo been found in other places. Sulphate of copper
has only been detected in the waters which iffue from
copper mines.
Nitrates.—Nitrate of potafti or nitre is rarely found
in mineral waters. It has, however, been detefted
in feveraj fprings in Hungary ; fome traces of it have
been obferved in wells in Berlin, and in fome fait
fprings in Germany. Nitrate of lime has been detect¬
ed in fprings in the fandy defeats of Arabia. Nitrate
of magnefia is faid alfo to have been found in mineral
waters.
Muriates.-^Nhxxi2.\.e of potafti is but rarely found in
mineral waters. It has been deteCted in the fprings
of Uleaburg in Sweden. Muriate of foda or common
fait exifts in almoft all waters, as well as in the ocean.
Muriate of ammonia is not very frequent in waters ; it
has been detected, however, in fome mineral lakes in
Italy, and alfo in Siberia. Muriate of barytes is very
i-are, but according to Bergman, it has been found in
fome mineral waters. Muriate of lime is very gene¬
rally found in mineral fprings. Muriate of magnefia
is very common in mineral waters. Muriate of alu¬
mina has been detected in fome mineral waters by Dr
s t r Y. 707
Withering. Muriate of mangahefe was found by Berg- A^alyi|s"f
man in fome mineral waters in Sweden, and it has late- „
ly been difeovered, in Imall proportion, in the waters ot
Lemington Priors, by Mr Lambe.
Carbonates.—Carbonate of potafti, it is faid, has been
found in fome mineral waters. Carbonate of foda
exifts very frequently in the waters of many fprings
and lakes. Carbonate of ammbnia has been found in
the waters of Rathbone Place in London, by Mr Ca-
Vendifti, and in fome waters in France. Carbonate of
lime is commonly found in almoft all waters, and it is
held in folution by an excefs of carbonic acid. Carbo¬
nate of magnefia very frequently exifls in mineral wa¬
ters. When it is fully faturated with carbonic acid,
it is foluble in water, without any excefs of acid. Car¬
bonate of alumina is faid to have been found in the
waters of Avor in Anjou, in France, Carbonate of
iron is frequently found in mineral waters. It is to
this that chalybeate waters owe their diftinguiftiing
properties.
8. Borax, or the fubborate of foda, is found in fome
lakes in Thibet and Perfia. 2,35
9. Sulphurated alkali and fulphurated lime, or the Hydiofftl-
hydro-fulphurets of fada and of lime, have been found phurets*
in mineral waters. It is to thefe fubftances that hepa¬
tic or fulphureous waters owe their diftimftive proper¬
ties. 22Q6
10. Bituminous fubftances have alfo been difcoVered Bitumen,
in fome mineral waters. Sometimes they have been
found combined with an alkali. Waters alfo fometimes
contain vegetable and animal matters ; but thefe are
not, properly fpeaking, to be cohfidered as ingredients
in thefe waters.
Sect. III. Of the Analtsis of Mineral Waters.
In the analyfis of mineral waters, the firft thing to Phyfical
be attended to is to afeertain the temperature and fi-properties,
tuation of the fprings from which they are obtained.
The fenfible properties are then to be examined, fuch
as colour, tranfparency, fmell and tafte. Of the phyfi¬
cal properties of mineral waters, one of the moft im¬
portant and the firft to be afeertained, is the fpecifie
gravity. By this means, although not with perfedl ac¬
curacy, the quantity of faline ingredients may be
known} but it is only by means of chemical opera¬
tions that the nature of the fubftances with which mi¬
neral waters are impregnated, can be determined j and
by obtaining thefe fubftances in a feparate ftate, or
forming new combinations, that their quantity or pro¬
portions can be accurately afeertained. In the ana¬
lyfis of mineral w'aters, therefore, after difeovering their
phyfical properties, the obje£l of the chemift is firft tA
deleft the nature of the fubftances, and then the quan¬
tity or proportion of tHefe fubftances which they con¬
tain. In both we (hall follow the method pointed out
by Mr KirWan, in his Lifay on the analyfis of mineral
waters.
I. Of the Method of Difeovering the Subftances in
Mineral Waters.
I. The nature of the component parts of mineral
voters is difeovered by the addition of certain fubftances
which produce changes of different kinds. The fub-
4 U 2 Ranees
708
Analyfis of
Mineral
Waters.
CHEMISTRY.
2210
Carbonic
add.
2211
Mineral
acids.
2212
Sulphurat¬
ed.
2213
And carbo¬
nated hy¬
drogen gas.
2214
Fixed al¬
kalies.
2215
Carbonates,
2215
Iron.
ftances employed for this purpofe are known in che-
miftry by the name of lefts or re-agents, becaufe they
aft upon the fubltances with which the waters are im¬
pregnated, by decompofing them, and forming new
combinations.
2. Gafeous fubfiances are eafily dete&ed, either by
their efcaping in the form of bubbles when the water
is expofed to the air, or, if they are more permanently
held in folution, by boiling a quantity of the water in
a retort, and receiving the gas over water or mercury.
The nature of the gas, thus collefted, may then be ex¬
amined by the ufual tefls for gafes.
3. Carbonic acid is dete&ed by the infufion 'of lit¬
mus, not, however, when the acid is faturated with any
bafe, unlefs the acid be in excefs. Saturated lime
water may alfo be employed as a tell for carbonic acid.
One cubic inch of carbonic acid gas in 7000 grains of
water, may be difeovered by this teft. Thefe effe&s
are not produced by carbonic acid, after the water has
been boiled.
4., The infulion of litmus, or paper tinged with it,
is alfo employed as a tell for mineral acids exilling in
waters. A red colour is produced, either when the
acid is combined, or united with a bafe in excefs.
In this cafe the rednefs is permanent, and is not de-
ftroyed by boiling.
5. Sulphurated hydrogen gas reddens the infulion of
litmus, and blackens lilver or lead, or the folutions of
thefe falls. It is alfo eafily recognized by its peculiar
odour.
6. Carbonated hydrogen gas burns with common
air without explolion \ is not abforbed by lime-water,
and has no peculiar fmell.
7. The fixed alkalies produce a reddilh brown co¬
lour with the infufion of turmeric. The fame change
takes place with the alkaline and earthy carbonates.
The infufion of Brazil wood affumes a blue colour.
Paper tinged blue with litmus, and reddened with vine¬
gar, may be alfo employed as a tell for alkalies ; and
by all the alkaline and earthy carbonates, the original
blue colour is reftored. The muriate of magnefia is
precipitated only by the fixed alkalies. Potalh forms
with nitric acid a prifmatic fait ; with acetic acid a
fait which does not deliquefee, and with fulphuric acid,
a fait which efflorefees. Ammonia, when in confider-
able quantity, is detected by the fmell. If the pro¬
portion be fmall, it may be difeovered by dillilling
part of the water with a gentle heat.
8. The carbonates of the earths and the metals are
precipitated by expofure to the air, or by boiling and
evaporation. Carbonates of lime, of alumina, and of
iron, are precipitated by boiling for a quarter of an
hour. Carbonate of magnefia is only partially precipi¬
tated by the fame procefs.
9. Iron either in the Hate of carbonate, or combin¬
ed with fome other acid, is dete&ed by tindlure of
galls, which produces a black or purple colour. A
very minute portion of iron is detected by this tell.
Three grains of cryftallized fulphate of iron diffolved
in five pints of water, llrike a purple colour in five
minutes, with a Angle drop of this tinaure. With
this teft the colour affumes different ftiades, according
to the nature of the other fubftances which are , in
combination. If the water contains a carbonate of an
alkali or an earthy fait, the colour is violet; -it is
dark purple 'vith other alkaline falts $ with fulphate Aralyfis 0f
of lime it is firft whitifh, and afterwards black j and M‘neral
with fulphurated hydrogen gas, the colour is purplifh Wa’ers‘j
red. The latter, Mr Kirwan fufpedls, is occafioned
by manganefe. Iron diffolved by carbonate of am¬
monia, is at firft whitened, and afterwards blackened
by tin&ure of galls. In the cauftic fixed alkalies the
precipitate is at firft crimfon red, but afterwards be¬
comes black. Pruflian alkali is a fenfible teft of iron \
the precipitate is blue : but if an alkali exifts in the
water, it prevents a fmall portion of iron from link¬
ing a blue colour with this teft, until it be faturated
with an acid.
10. Sulphuric acid is deteiled by muriate, nitrate, 5^],^
or acetate of barytes, nitrate or acetate of lead, ni- acid.
trate of mercury, nitrate, muriate, or acetate of ftron-
tites, and nitrate, muriate, or acetate of lime. 2jjg
11. Muriatic acid is readily dcte£led by nitrate ofMimatic.
filver. It forms a white precipitate, or a cloud in the
w'ater. If there are any carbonates of alkalies or
earths in the water, they mull be previoully faturated
with nitric acid. Sulphuric acid, or the fulphates, mull
be precipitated by nitrate or acetate of barytes. A-
cetate and fulphate of filver may be alfo employed for
the fame purpofe. 21 jp
12. Boracic acid, when it is uncombined, is dete&ed Boracic.
by acetate of lead ; but the alkaline and earthy car¬
bonates mull be previoufly faturated with acetic acid.
The fulphates mult be decompofed by means of acetate
of ftrontites, and the muriates by acetate of filver. 22JO
13. Lime is readily detefted with oxalic acid ; but Lime,
if the water contains any mineral acid, it mull be pre¬
vioufly faturated w ith an alkali. Barytes, if any exifts
in the w'ater, mull be precipitated by fulphuric acid.
Magnefia is precipitated very flowly with oxalic acid,
by which it is readily diftinguhhed from lime. 22,j
14. Barytes is detefted by diluted fulphuric acid. Barytes,
with which it inftantly forms an infoluble white preci-
pitate. ^ j r 2222
15. Magnefia and alumina are both precipitated byMagnelia
means of pure ammonia and lime water j but it is ne- and alu-
ceffary that carbonic acid, if any exifts in the water, be011113,
previoufly feparated by means of a fixed alkali, and by
boiling. If lime-water is employed, the fulphuric acid
mull be firft precipitated with nitrate of barytes. If
the two earths are precipitated together, the alumina
may be feparated from the magnefia, by boiling them
with pure potalh, which combines with the alumina. 222.j
16. Siliceous earth may be difeovered by evaporat-Silica,
ing a large quantity of water nearly to drynefs, and
then by rediffolving the precipitate in nitric or fulphu¬
ric acid, and afterwards evaporating to drynefs. The
dry mafs, rediffolved in water and filtered, leaves the
filica on the filter. 2224
17. Mr Kirwan gives the following directions for Sulphates,
difeovering the fulphates.
Sulphate of foda is deteCled by feparating ammonia
by gentle diftillation, and then by evaporating to one-
half, and afterwards by adding lime-water, while any
precipitate is formed. By this means all the other ful¬
phates are precipitated. By farther evaporation, and
the addition of a few drops of alcohol and oxalic acid,
the whole of the lime is feparated. To the filtered
refiduum add a llrong folution of nitrate of lime j and
if the alkaline fulphates exift in the quantity of eight
grains
Analyfis of
Mmei al
Waters.
2225
Sulphate
of lime.
2226
Alum.
2227
Sulphate of
magnefia.
2228
Of iron.
2229
Muriate of
potafli and
foda.
2230
Of amaio-
2231
Of barytes.
2252
Of lime.
C H E M I
grains in 1000 nf the liquid a precipitate will ap¬
pear. To afeertain whether the bafe of this alkaline
fait be potalh or foda, add to an equal quantity of the
water acetate of barytes 5 filter the folution, and eva¬
porate to drynefs. Add alcohol to feparate the other
falls. This folution, filtered and evaporated to drynefs,
gives an acetate of potalh or foda *, if the former, if der
liquefces, but if it be the latter it efflorefces by expo-
fure to the air.
18. Sulphate of lime is depofited by evaporation to
a few ounces, if it be contained in the proportion of
four grains to iodo. It affords a precipitate with mu¬
riate of barytes, oxalic acid, or alcohol; the latter of
the fpecific gravity of 0.848 produces a cloud inflanta-
neoully, in a folution of one grain of the fait in 1000
of water.
19. The left for alum is carbonate of lime. With
this, alum forms a precipitate. If the water con¬
tain muriate of barytes, it muft be precipitated with
diluted fulphuric acid. A fulphate of any of the me¬
tals may be precipitated by means of an alkaline pruf-
liate.
20. The hydrofulphuret of ffrontites affords a good
teft for fulphate of magnefia, and it does not give an im¬
mediate precipitate with any other fait $ but the water
fhould be free from any excefs of acid.
21. Sulphate of iron is dete&ed by expofmg it in an
open veffel to the air for a few days ; or it may be pre¬
cipitated from the water by means of alcohol.
2 2. To deleft the muriate of potafh and of foda, it is
neceffary, firft, to feparate the fulphates, if any exift
in the mineral water, which is done by means of alco¬
hol and nitrate of barytes. The earthy nitrates and
muriates are decompofed by diluted fulphuric acid, and
the nitric and muriatic acids are expelled by heat.
The falls formed with fulphuric acid may be feparated
by alcohol and barytic water, fo that nothing can now
remain but alkaline nitrates and muriates. The laft is
decompofed by acetate of lilver, and if a precipitate is
thus formed, the water contains muriate of foda or of
potafli. To feparate thefe from potafli or foda, eva¬
porate to drynefs, and treat the dry mafs with ftrong
•alcohol for 24 hours in a temperature of 6o°. The
acetates are thus diffolved and depofited by evaporation.
The acetate of potafli is known by its deliquefcence,
and the acetate of foda efflorefces.
23. Muriate of ammonia is to be detefted by fir A:
feparating the fulphates by the acetate of barytes, and
then evaporating the folution to drynefs. The mafs
can only confifl; of acetates and alkaline muriates.
Diflblve the dry mafs in alcohol, and let it remain for
24 hours in the temperature of 60. All the falts are
dilTolved, except the alkaline muriates. The refiduum
diftilled with quicklime will give out ammonia, which
will precipitate the folutions of iron, alum or lead,
previoufly introduced into the receiver.
24. Muriate of barytes is difeovered by fulphuric
acid. This is the only barytic fait yet found in mine¬
ral waters.
25. To deteft muriate of lime, firfl: feparate the
fulphate of lime by evaporation, to a few ounces 5 add
alcohol, and afterwards nitrate of barytes. Evaporate
the filtered folution to drynefs, treat the mafs with al¬
cohol •, evaporate the folution to drynefs, and re-dif-
fulve the refiduum in water. If a precipitate be
S T R Y. 709
formed, by adding nitrate of filver, oxalic or fulphuric Analyfis of
acid, the folution then may contain muriate of lime } Waters1
if to a portion of the folution, carbonate of lime be ■ 1
added, alumina is precipitated, if the muriate of alu¬
mina exiit in the water, but not muriate or nitrate
of magnefia. Pure ammonia will precipitate mag¬
nefia from its combination with the nitric or mu¬
riatic acid. And if none of thefe earths appear, the
muriatic acid detefted in the water muft be united to
lime. 2233
26. Muriate of magnefia is difeovered by decompo- Ofimagne-
fing the fulphates by means of nitrate of barytes. Fil- ^a"
ter the folution, evaporate to drynefs, and diffolve the
refiduum in alcohol. Evaporate this foiution to dry¬
nefs, and diffolve the refiduum in water. The nitrates
of lime and magnefia, and the muriates of lime, mag¬
nefia and alumina, can only exift in the folution.
Carbonate of lime precipitates alumina $ pure ammonia
precipitates magnefia. Muriatic acid is detefted by
nitrate of filver. To afeertain whether the muriatic
acid be united to magnefia, treat another portion of
the folution with fulphuric acid and alcohol. If no
alumina has been found, and no precipitate now ap¬
pears, magnefia is the only earth retained in the folu¬
tion. 2234
27. To deteft the muriates of alumina and iron, Of alumina*
the alkaline carbonates, if they exift in the water,an<*iron*
ftiould be faturated with nitric acid, and the fulphates
decompofed with nitrate of barytes. By adding car¬
bonate of lime to a portion of the water filtered and
purified, the muriates of alumina and iron will be pre¬
cipitated. Muriate of manganefe is alfo feparated by
carbonate of lime. 2335
28. To difeover the nitrates of potalh and of fodarNitrate of
precipitate the fulphates with acetate of barytes, and an(*
the muriates with acetate of filver. Evaporate to dry- 0 a“
nefs, and diffolve the refiduum in alcohol. The alka¬
line nitrates, and a portion of acetate of lime, remain
undiffolved. Filter off the undiffolved nitrates, walh
them with alcohol, and rediflblve them in water.
Carbonate of magnefia decompofes nitrate of lime.
To feparate the nitrate of magnefia thus formed, eva¬
porate to drynefs, add alcohol to the dried mafs 5 the
nitrate of magnefia is diffolved, but the alkaline ni¬
trates remain untouched. 2236
29. To deteft nitrate of lime, evaporate the water Of lime,
confiderably to feparate the fulphate of lime which it
may contain, and add alcohol to feparate the other
fulphates. The fulphates being filtered off, and the alco¬
hol expelled by heat, oxalic acid added to the folution,
will produce a precipitate, if there be any lime in it.
Decompofe the muriates with acetate of filver ; filter
the folution, and evaporate it to drynefs j diffolve the
dry mafs in alcohol 5 evaporate this to drynefs, and re-
diffolve it in water. If nitrate of lime exift in the fo¬
lution, fulphuric acid will difeover it. 22-y.
30. To difeover nitrate of magnefia, the fulphates Of magne-
and muriates are firft to be feparated y the folution be-^a-
ing filtered, and evaporated to drynefs, the refiduum
is to be diffolved in alcohol. Evaporate this folution
to drynefs, and diffolve!' the refiduum in water* Add
to the folution pure potalh, which precipitates the
earthy acetate and the nitrate of magnefia. Filter,
the folution, evaporate to drynefs, and treat the refi-
duuna with alcohol, which diffolves the alkaline ace¬
tates. .
7io
Anaiyfis of
Mineral
Waters.
2238
Bitu men.
CHEMISTRY.
2239
Extractive
matter.
2240
Animal.
2241
Incompati¬
ble falls.
tates, and leaves the nitrate of potafh untouched j by
which procefs it muft appear, that nitrate of magnefia
previoully exifted in the water.
31. Alkalies combined with bitumen are fometimes
found in mineral waters. Thefe mineral foaps, _ or bi-
tuminated alkalies, as they are called by Mr Kirwan,
form a coagulum with the acids. This coagulum is fo*
luble in the alkalies.
3 2. Extra&ive matter, which is fometimes found in
mineral waters, is difeovered by means of nitrate of filver,
with which it forms a brown precipitate, but the water
containing it muft be freed from fulphuric and muriatic
acids with nitrate of lead. Three grains of the pre¬
cipitate, according to Weftrumb, indicate one grain
of extraflive matter.
33. Animal extra&ive matter gives a very difagree*
able tafte and feiell to water. It is foluble in alcohol.
34. The following is a lift of falts which are incom¬
patible with each other, or which cannot exift together
in the fame water.
1. Alkaline carbonates j and earthy or metallic ful-
phates, muriates, or nitrates.
2. Sulphuric acid } and earthy nitrates, muriates, or
carbonates.
3. Alkaline fulphates 5 and earthy nitrates, or mu¬
riates.
4. Sulphate of foda $ and muriate of potafh.
5. Sulphate of potafli ; and nitrate of foda.
6. Sulphate of ammonia j and nitrate of potafhj and
muriate of potafti.
7. Sulphate of magnefia •, and nitrate or muriate of
lime.
8. Alum ; and nitrate of lime and of magnefia, or
muriate of magnefia.
9. Nitrate of lime $ and muriate of potafli, muriate
of ammonia, of barytes, or magnefia.
10. Nitrate of magnefia ; and muriate of barytes,
and of potafli.
11. Muriate of magnefia j and nitrate of foda or
lime*.
II. Of the Method of afeertaining the Proportions of
Subftances in Mineral Waters.
1. In examining any mineral water, it has been al-
hrit'al'ccT ready mentioned, that it is neceffary, firft to afeertain
tained. " t^e phyfical properties, and efpecially the fpecific gravity,
from which the quantity of faline matter, as Mr Kir¬
wan obferves, may be eftimated. The method he pro-
pofes is the following. He fubtrafts 1000, the fpecific
gravity of pure Water, from the fpecific gravity of the
mineral water to be examined, expreffed in whole num¬
bers, and multiplying the produft by 1.4, which gives
the weight of the falts freed from their water of cry-
ftallization. Thus, a folution of common fait, whole
Tpecific gravity is 1.079. thoufand fubtra&ed from
this leaves 79, which multiplied by 1.4 is equal to
jio.6, which is the quantity of faline matter in 1000
parts of the folution of common fait.
2. After afeertaining the phyfical properties, the
firft ftep in the analyfis is to eftimate the quantity of
gafeous bodies which the water contains. Thefe are
oxygen g*s, azotic gas, atmofpheric air, fulphurated
hydrogen gas, and fulphurous acid. They are to be
eolle&ed by heating a quantity of the water in a re-
W aters.
* Analyfis
of Min.
tVat. p.
34.—142.
2242
Phyfical
„ 2 *43
Gafeous
bodies.
tort, and receiving the gas over water, or over tiiei*-Anal^fis of
cury, if it is abforbed by water. The nature of the Mineral
gas will be afeertained by the different tells which ,
have been already mentioned for dete&ing the gafes,
and the quantity of it may be afeertained, by calcu¬
lating the bulk, taking care to make the proper allow¬
ance for the difference of preffure of the air and tem¬
perature. But for this fee Mr Kirwan’s method of
calculation, in his Effay on the Analyfis of Min. Wat.
P‘ 1 27^\ . ... 2244
3. To difeover the carbonates which may exift in Carbonate*,
the water, is the next ftep in the analyfis. There may
be carbonate of lime, of magnefia, of alumina, or iron.
If the water contains fulphurated hydrogen, it muft
be feparated by expofure to the air, or by means of
litharge. Filter and boil a quantity of the water for
half an hour. In this way it is deprived of the earthy
or metallic carbonates, if the water contains no ful¬
phurated hydrogen. It is to be boiled for a quarter of
an hour, expofed to the air till it is cool, and filtered.
Diffolve the precipitate in diluted muriatic acid. The
whole are foluble in this acid, excepting alumina and
fulphate of lime. Let the refiduum be expofed to a
red heat 5 mark the weight, and boil it in carbonate of
foda. Saturate the foda with muriatic acid, and boil
the mixture for half an hour. Carbonate of lime and
alumina are thus precipitated. Diffolve the dried pre¬
cipitate in acetic acid. The lime is diffolved, but the
alumina remains. The weight of the lime, after being
dried, fubtrafted from the original weight, gives the
proportion of fulphate of lime. To feparate the iron,
add ammonia to the muriatic folution, as long as a red-
difli precipitate is perceived. If magnefia be precipi¬
tated with the iron, expofe the precipitate in the open
air for fome time, to a heat of about 200° •, add acetic
acid in fmall quantities, to diffolve the magnefia j the
iron thus feparated, is to be re-diffolved in muriatic
acid, precipitated by an alkaline carbonate, and gently
dried and weighed. The acetate of magnefia is next
to be precipitated and eftimated as above. The mu¬
riatic folution is thus freed from iron and part of the
magnefia. Add fulphuric acid as long as any preci¬
pitate appears $ heat the folution flightly, and add al¬
cohol. The fulphate of lime is feparated and heated
to rednefs. A hundred grains are =70 of carbonate
of lime. The ammonia is to be precipitated by car¬
bonate of foda, dried and weighed. The whole of the
carbonate of magnefia is not precipitated by boiling.
Evaporate the boiled water nearly to drynefs. The
carbonate of magnefia and fulphate of lime will be de-
pofited. Add a large quantity of boiling diftilled wa¬
ter, which will diffolve the fulphate of lime, and
other fubftances. The carbonate of magnefia remains
behind, and may be collefted, dried, and weighed.
The carbonate of alumina and fulphate of lime are to
be eftimated by weighing them, after they have been
dried in a red heat. 2a4 <
4. To afeertain the proportion of fulphuric acid, Sulphuric
add barytic water to faturationj and weigh the preci-»cid.
pitate after it has been expofed to a red heat. A
hundred parts of the fulphate of barytes contain 33
of real fulphuric acid. To determine the quantity of Muriatic,
muriatic acid, likewife add barytic water, till it is
neutralized, then precipitate the barytes with fulphu¬
ric acid. A hundred parts of barytes take up 31.8 of
real
C H E M
Annlyfis of real muriatic acid. The proportion of boracic acid
Waters1 aieertained by precipitating it with acetate
^ ‘ . of lead. The precipitate is to be digefted in a heat
2247 of 2SO° for an hour with fulphuric acid. Evaporate
Boracic. the folution to drynefs, and add to the dried mafs 10
or 12 times its weight of alcohol. Dillil and eva¬
porate this folution 5 the boracic acid remains behind,
2248 which may be dried and weighed.
Sulphate of 5. The alkaline fulphates are precipitated by means
foda. of nitrate of barytes. A hundred and feventy parts
of ignited fulphate of barytes indicate 100 of dried ful-
phate of foda; and 136.86 of fulphate of barytes in-
22^9 dicate 100 of dry fulphate of potalh.
Of lime, 6. Sul pirate of lime is moft conveniently determined
by evaporating to a few ounces, and adding a few
drops of alcohol, which will precipitate the fulphate
of lime. It is then to be dried and weighed. The
proportion of alum in a mineral water is afeertained by
evaporating to one-half, and precipitating by means of
carbonate of lime. Acetic acid added to the precipi¬
tate, combines with the excefs of lime which may
have been added. The alumina thus freed from the
carbonate of lime, is to be heated to incandefcence
for half an hour. Twelve parts denote too cryftal-
lized alum, or nearly 49 of the dried fait.
Of magne- *]. If no other fulphate exifts in the water, fulphate
of magnefia may be eftimated by precipitating the acid
with barytic fait. A hundred grains of fulphate of
barytes indicate 52.11 of fulphate of magnefia. But
if the water contains fulphate of lime, without any
other fulphate, it may b*e decompofed by means of car¬
bonate of magnefia. The lime thus obtained being
weighed, fhews the quantity of fulphate of lime. By
adding barytes, the whole of the fulphuric acid is
precipitated, and thus the quantity of this acid may
be eftimated. Then by fubtrafting the quantity of
fulphuric acid belonging to the fulphate of lime, the
remaining portion indicates what was combined with
the magnefia. If the water is found to contain ful¬
phate of foda, none of the earthy nitrates or muriates
can exift along with it. If, therefore, no other earthy
fulphate has been dete&ed, the magnefia is to be pre¬
cipitated by means of foda, and is then to be dried
and weighed ; 36.68 parts indicate 100 of dried ful¬
phate of magnefia. If fulphate of lime accompany thefe
two fulphates, the precipitate confifts both of lime and
magnefia. It is then to be difiblved in fulphuric acid,
and evaporated to drynefs. By adding twice its weight
of cold water, the fulphate of magnefia is difiblved ; the
fulphate of lime is infoluble. Evaporate the fulphate of
magnefia to drynefs, expofe it to a heat of 400°, and
weigh it. If the water contain alum inftead of fulphate
of lime, the fame procefs may be followed. But the
precipitate being dried, mult firft be treated with acetic
acid to diffolve the magnefia, but the alumina remains
untouched. Sulphate of iron is feparated by expofing
the water to the air for fome days, and then adding
alumina. The iron is precipitated in the ftate of ox¬
ide, and the fulphate of alumina, being infoluble, is
precipitated at the fame time. Thefe falts being previ-
euily feparated, the proportion of fulphate of magnefia
may be eftxmated in the way which has been already de-
J2,r feribed.
iron. 8. The proportion of fulphate of iron may be efti-
mated by the following procefs. Let the weight of a
I S T R Y. 7rf
precipitate formed with pmfliate of potalh in a folu- Ar.alyfisof
tion of a known weight of fulphate of iron in water, M;1,eraj
be previoufly afeertained. Then with the fame pruf- VVatex':5, f
fiate precipitate the fulphate of iron in the water. But
if muriate of iron has been dete&ed in the water ; eva¬
porate to drynefs, and add to the refiduum alcohol,
in which the muriate, but not the fulphate, is folu-
ble.
2252
9. Muriate of potalh or of'foda, unaccompanied with Muriate of
•other lalts, may be eftimated by precipitating by means Potalh and
of nitrate of filver. 217.65 grains of muriate of fil-^3,
ver denote 100 of muriate of potalh ; and 235 grains
of muriate of filver denote 100 of muriate of foda;
If the water contains any of the alkaline carbonates,
they muft be previoufiy feparated by faturating with
fulphuric acid. The muriatic acid is then to be pre¬
cipitated by fulphate of filver. Muriate of ammonia is
decompofed by means of barytic water ; the ammonia
is expelled by boiling, the barytes is precipitated by
fulphuric acid, and the muriatic acid is faturated with
foda. The fulphate of barytes denotes the quantity of
muriate of ammonia. 22c;o
10. If the common fait be accompanied with muri-Of lime*,
ate of lime, of magnefia, of alumina, or of iron, thefe Scc’
may be precipitated with barytic water, and each earth
waflied, but not dried, re-diffolved in muriatic acid. If
only one of thefe falts be found, faturate the excefs of
acid with a known quantity of an earth of the fame
kind, and evaporate to drynefs. Then deduft from
the weight that of the muriate formed by the earth
added: thus 50 grains of lime denote 100 of muriate of
lime heated to rednefs; 31 grains of magnefia indi¬
cate 100 of muriate of magnefia ; and 21.8 grains
of alumina indicate 100 of muriate of alumina. The
barytes is precipitated by fulphuric acid ; and the
muriatic acid is driven off by heat. The muriate of
foda may then be eftimated by evaporation ; but the
proportion of muriate of foda, which the known quanti¬
ty of muriatic acid feparated from the earths denotes,
muft be deduced.
If fulphates and muriates are found accompanying
each other, the former may be precipitated by alcohol,
or by evaporating the whole to drynefs. The earthy
muriates may then be diffolved in alcohol. Sulphate
of lime, accompanying alkaline and earthy muriates, is
decompofed by muriate of barytes, and the precipi¬
tate of fulphate of barytes indicates the proportion of
fulphate of lime.
If muriates of foda, magnefia, and alumina, accom¬
pany the fulphates of lime and magnefia, the water
to be examined is to be divided into two equal por¬
tions. To precipitate the whole of the lime and alu¬
mina, add to the one portion carbonate of magnefia.
The proportion of lime in fulphate of lime is then to
be afeertained ; and, by precipitating the fulphuric
acid, by means of muriate of barytes, the quantity con¬
tained in the fulphates of magnefia and of lime is afeer¬
tained. The proportion of fulphate of magnefia is de¬
termined by ded^Ging this laft portion. The whole
of the magnefia and alumina is precipitated from the
fecond portion of water by lime water. The quantity
of thefe earths indicates the proportion of muriate of
magnefia and alumina, deducing that portion of mag¬
nefia which was difeovered in the ftate of fulphate in
the firft portion of water. The fulphuric acid is then-
precipitated!
22S4
Nitrate of
potafli.
,I2 ' „ CHEMI
Vegetables.preclpitatfed by b&ryhc tvater, and the linte by car-
    1 borne acid j the common fait is obtained by evapo-
rating the water to dryneft. ,
11. Nitre may exift in water with all fulphates ana
muriates which are not incompatible with each other.
After fufficient evaporation, the fulphates are to be
precipitated by acetate of barytes, and the muriates by
acetate of filver. Filter and evaporate to drynefs $ and
add to the refiduum alcohol, which diffolves the ace-
tates. The nitrate of potafli, which remains undiffol-
ved, may then be eftimated. If foda be found in the
water, it mult be previoufly faturated with fulphuric
acid. # . r i ’
If nitre be accompanied with common ialt, nitrate
of lime, muriate of lime, muriate of magnefia, evapo-
rate to drynefs, and add alcohol, which diffolves the
earthy falts. Re-diflblve the dry refiduum in water,
from which the nitre and common fait may .be fepa-
rated by acetate of filver. Evaporate the fpirituous fo-
lution to drynefs, and re-diffolve the refiduum in water.
The weight of muriate of magnefia is afeertained. by
precipitating by means of nitrate of filver. The weight
of the nitrate of lim6 is determined by precipitating by
means of fulphuric acid j 35 grains denote 100 ot dry
nitrate of lime *.
See Anal.
Min- Wa¬
ters, 175—
Chap. XVII. Of MINERALS.
In following out the arrangement which we have
laid down at the beginning of this treatife, we fliould
now enter upon the confideration of mineral fubftances.
To preferve the chemical inveftigation of the different
departments of nature unbroken, ive propofed to em¬
ploy this chapter in a general view of the characters
of mineral bodies, of their compofition and methods
of analyfis j but as this article has been unavoidably
extended to fo great a length, we fhall referve the
whole to the article Mineralogy, where they will be
fully detailed.
Chap. XVIII. Of VEGETABLES.
-5 1. Natural bodies may be properly divided into or-
Diviiion of ganized and inorganized, each of Avhich exhibit cha-
natural bo- rafters fufhciently diferiminative. The fubltances in-
die3* eluded under the 17 preceding chapters, belong to the
latter clafs. Organized fubftances are vegetables and
animals, which are to be treated of in this and the
following chapters. The diftinftion between thefe tAvo
elaffes of bodies, although in fome cafes it is lefs ob*
vious, in general is eafily recognized. The moft per*
left forms of inorganized matter afford no marks of
refemblance to the varied and complicated ftrufture of
a plant or an animal. In the mode of formation, or
the growth and increafe of the individuals of thefe
two claffes, there is the moft ftriking diverfity, Avhich
exhibits plain and certain charaftersof diftinftion. In
the one clafs the growth or increafe takes place by the
mere aggregation of the particles of matter already pre¬
pared, and according to the Ihavs of aftinity between
the particles $ and no new properties exift in the ag¬
gregate, which did not exift in the minuteft particles of
which it is compofed. The other clafs of bodies, com¬
prehending vegetables and animals, exhibits a very dif¬
ferent procefs. The fubftances which enter into their
S T R Y.
compofition are received into tubes or veffels, are eon- Vegefao!*,
veyed by them to every individual part of the rege- v*»—v—
table or animal, are fubjefted to peculiar changes, and
affume neAe forms, poffefling properties, and qualities
which .could not be previoufly detefted in the Ample
elements, by any chemical or mechanical operation.
This is indeed the effential charafteriftic of vegetables
and animals. The particles Avhich compofe a cryftal,
formed by the evaporation of water, were held in folu-
tion by the water, and inArariably and uniformly ar¬
ranged according to certain laAVS j but the almoft in¬
finite variety of fubftances which compofe vegetable.3
and animals, are not to be found in the materials
which are necellary to promote their groA\th and
health j neither in the Avater,' the earth, the air, the
heat, nor the light, all which contribute their ftiare to
the fame end. Thefe undergo neAV changes, and en¬
ter in new combinations, none of Avhich exifted in
the limple elements, and none of which can be effeft-
ed by any mechanical or chemical procefs. Indeed
the laws Avhich regulate vegetable and animal opera¬
tions, feem to be totally different from the eftabliflied
laAvs of chemical aftion. Hence, from obferving this
difference of aftion, the exiftenee and influence of a
different principle have been inferred in animals and ve¬
getables. This has been called the vital principle, m
the principle of life, becaufe by its influence the varied
and complicated phenomena of animals and vegetables
are exhibited^ which cannot be accounted for on me¬
chanical or chemical principles. It is by the influence
of this principle that the animal or vegetable feems to
poffefs the remarkable power of refilling or counteraft*
ing to a certain degree the effefts of chemical or.mecha¬
nical agents which may prove injurious to its exiftence j
the power of regulating and felefting vyhat is beneficial
and neeeffary, of fupplying Avhat is deficient, and of cur¬
tailing what is redundant. Organized fubftances admit
of a natural divifion into vegetables and animals. Ihe
bodies included under each of thefe divifions have, fome
points of refemblance $ but in general are fufficiently
eharafterized and diftinguilhed from each other, by
their form, ftrufture, povver of motion, component
parts and peculiarities of habits. Ihe firft of thefe
divifions, namely vegetables, forms the fubjeft of the
prefent chapter. 2255
2, A vegetable is compofed of a root, ftem, leaves, Strudlureoj
flowers, fruits, and feeds-, and when all thefe different plants,
parts are fully developed, the vegetable is faid to be
perfeBt When any are deficient, or at leaf! lefs obvi¬
ous, the vegetable is faid to be imperjeB. . . 2257
The root is that part of the plant Avhich is concealed Root,
in the earth, and which ferves to convey nourilhment
to the whole plant. The ftem, Avhich commences at
the termination of the root, fupports all the other parts
of the plant. When the ftem is large and folid, as in
trees, it is denominated the trunhy which is divided
into the Avood and the bark. Ihe bark conftitutes
the outermoft part of the tree, and covers the Avhole ofjjarii,
the plant from the extremity of the roots, to the ter¬
mination of the branches. The bark is compoled of
three parts, namely, the epidermis, the parenchyma,
and cortical layers. The epidermis, which is a. thin
tranfparent membrane, forming the external covering of
the bark, is compofed of fibres crolfing each other.
When the epidermis is removed, it is reproduced.
Ths
CHEMISTRY.
22 S 9
Wood.
2260
Pith.
2261
Flowers
and fruits.
Vegetables. The parenchyma, which is immediately below the
epidermis, is of a dark green colour, compofed of fibres
crofling each other in all direftions, and is fucculent
and tender. The cortical layers, which conftitute the
interior part of the bark, are compofed of thin mem¬
branes, and increafe in number with the age of the
plant.
The wood immediately under the bark, is compofed
of concentric layers, which increafe with the age of the
plant, and may be feparated into thinner layers which
are compofed of longitudinal fibres. The wood next
the bark, which is fofter and whiter, is called the al¬
burnum. The interior part of the trunk is browner
and harder, and is denominated the perfeB wood.
In the middle of the ftem is the pith, which is a
foft fpongy fubftance, compofed of cells, or utneuli,
as they are called. In eld wood, this part entirely
difappears, and its place is occupied by the perfedt
wood. The leaves are compofed of fibres arranged in
the form of net-work, which proceed from the Item,
and footftalks by which they are attached to the
branches. Thefe fibres form two layers in each leaf,
which are deftined to perform different fundtions. The
leaves are covered with the epidermis, which is com¬
mon to the whole of the plant. Each furface of a
leaf has a great number or pores and glands, which
abforb or emit elaftic fluids. Flowers are compofed of
different parts. The calyx or cup is formed by the
extenfion of the epidermis j the corolla is a continua¬
tion of the bark, and the ftamina and piftilla, the in¬
ternal parts of frudlification, are compofed of the
woody fibres and pith of the plant. Fruits are ufually
compofed of a pulpy, parenchymatous fubftance, con¬
taining a great number of utriculi or veficles, and tra-
verfed by numerous veffels. Seeds are conttituted of
the fame utricular texture, in the veficles of which is
depofited a pulverulent or mucous fubftance. Thefe
cells have a communication with the plant by means of
veffels, and by thefe is conveyed the neceffary nourifti-
ment during germination.
Plants contain different orders of veffels, which are
diftinguifhed from each other by their courfe, fituation,
and ufes. Lymphatic veffels ferve for the circulation
of the fap. They are chiefly fituated in the woody
part of the plant. The peculiar veffels, which gene¬
rally contain thick or coloured fluids, are placed im¬
mediately under the bark j they are fmaller in num¬
ber than the fap-veffels, and have their interftices filled
up with utriculi or cells, with which they form a
communication. ' Some of thefe proper veffels are fi¬
tuated between the epidermis and the bark, which are
readily detefted in the fpring. Some are fituated in
the interior part of the bark, forming oval rings, and
filled with the peculiar juices of the plant. Another
fet of proper veffels is placed in the alburnum, nearer
the centre of the ftock or trunk, and fometimes in the
perfe£t wood. The utriculi or cells conftitute another
fet of veffels, which feem to refemble a flexible tube,
flightly interrupted with ligatures at nearly equal dif-
tances, butftill preferving a free communication through
its whole length. They vary in form, colour, and
magnitude, in different vegetables, and exift in the
roots, the bark, leaves, and flowers. The tracheae
or fpiral veffels, which are readily detedted in fucculent
plants, appear in the form of fine threads, and may be
Vol. V. Part II.
71 J
2262
Vtffels.
drawn out to a conliderable length without breaking. Fundtions
Thefe veffels are very numerous in all plants, efpeeially |y[gj’eU’
under the bark, where they form a kind of a ring, and , ^ V, .
are difpofed in diitimft; bundles, in trees, ftirubs, and
italks of herbaceous plants.
After thefe preliminary obfervations on the charac¬
ters of organized fubftances, and the general ftrufture
of plants, we now proceed to give a thort view of the
fundions, decompofition, and component parts of vege¬
tables. Thefe ftiall form the fubjed of the three fol¬
lowing fedions.
Sect. I. Of the Functions of Vegetables.
N I. Of Germination.
1. When the perfed feeds of a vegetable are placed Tempera-
in certain circumftances, they produce plants exadly-ture.
fimilar to thofe from which they originated. The re-
quifite circumftances for the germination of feeds are,
heat, air, and moifture. It is well known that no ve¬
getation goes on when the temperature of the air is at
the freezing point, and very little till it rifes a conft-
derable number of degrees above it. The feeds of dif¬
ferent plants, it is obierved, require different degrees
of heat for their germination, and hence the various
feafons and climates in w'hich different plants and feeds
are found to vegetate. 22^
2. But whatever the temperature may be, no feeds Air.
germinate, unlefs they are expofed to the adion of the
air. It is found that it is the oxygen of the air which
is neceffary for the produdion of this change; for
when it is entirely excluded no change takes place, and
when it is in greater quantity, vegetation is more rapid
and more vigorous.
3. Moifture is alfo neceffary for the vegetation of Moifture.
feeds. But although water be neceffary for this purpofe,
it mull be applied in moderate quantity, for, except the
feeds of aquatic plants, which are poffeffed of peculiar
habits, moil feeds are deprived of their vegetative
power, and entirely decompofed, when they are kept in
water. Hence it is that many feeds do not vegetate in
ftiff clay foils, which retain too much water, nor in
fandy lands, which allow the whole of the water to
filtre through them. Many feeds, although they are
expofed to the favourable adion of thefe agents, do not
vegetate when they are expofed to the adion of light.
It is on this account, and alfo, no doubt, for the proper
application of moifture, that feeds are covered with the
foil, by w'hich means germination is found to be great¬
ly promoted.^ > 22(J(?
4. A ieed is compofed of three principal parts, which Parts of
have been denominated the cotyledons or lobes, the feeds,
radicle, arid plumula. The greateft number of feeds
have two cotyledons. Some, however, as many of the
farinaceous feeds and feeds of graffes, have only one.
Other feeds have three, and fome fix. Hence plants
have been diftinguifhed into mono-cotyledinous, di-coty-
ledinous, and poly-cotyledinous.
5. The fir ft change which takes place on a feedR00t2fJrm„
placed in circumftances favourable to germination, ised.
the increafe of fize by the abforption of moifture. The
radicle is then formed, which ftretches downwards in¬
to the earth. The plumula {hoots upwards, and ex¬
pands into leaves and branches. The peculiar func¬
tion of the root is to convey nourifhment from the earth
4 X for
/
H E M I S T R Y.
Vuntfions for the future growth of the plant j but from what
of Vegeta- fource is the nourifliment derived for the formation or
     the root itfelf ? . t , 1 ...
2268 6. The very firft change which takes place within
Oxygen ab-the feed is the combination of the oxygen of the air
forbed. which is abforbed, with the carbone which exifts in the
lobes of the feed, and the formation of carbonic acid,
which is given out in the Hate of gas. Ihe farinace¬
ous matter of the feed being, deprived of part of its^ar"
bone, is converted into a laccharine fubftance, which
is deftined for the nourifhment of the embryo plant, till
its parts are fo far evolved, and its ftrufture fo complet-
^ ed, as to derive nourilhment from the earth.
Carbonic 7* The firft chemical, change, therefore, which is
jicid gas obferved in the germination oi feeds, is the abforption
emitted. 0f oxygen, the emiflion of carbonic acid gas, and the
converlion of the farinaceous matter into a faccharine
fubftance. This is the procefs of germination, as it
has been defcribed by chemical phyfiologifts. But if
oxygen gas be entirely excluded, no change takes
place 5 no part of the procefs of germination goes on j
or even if it has proceeded fo far as that the plumula
{hall have appeared above the furface in the form of
feminal leaves j if thefe leaves are removed before
Others have been unfolded, the plant dies. The femi¬
nal leaves are the lobes which have been puftied out
of the earth along with the plumula, fo that if they are
deftroyed the plant is cut off from the neceffary fource
of nourilhment for the evolution of its parts, and the
formation of roots and leaves, which are deftined to
perform the different funftions of vegetation.
II. Of the Food of Plants.
Supposed to I- But air, heat, and moifture are not only neceffary
be water, for the formation of the different parts of the plant ^ their
aftion muft be continued, and is ablolutely requilite
for its future health and growth. It could not long
efcape obfervation, that plants ceafe to vegetate when
they are entirely deprived of water. Hence it became
the opinion of the earlier phyfiologifts, that water con-
2271 ftituted the chief or the only food of plants j but it
Not pure, has been proved by experiments in analyzing plants
which grew in pure water, that they received no in-
creafe of one of the neceffary principles in their confti-
tution, farther than what previoufly exifted in the feeds
or roots from which they fprung. In a feries of expe¬
riments inftituted by Haffenfratz, on the roots of hya¬
cinths, the feeds of kidney beans and other feeds, he
found that the quantity of carbonaceous matter in the
full-formed plant, xvas even lefs than what previoufly
exUled in the bulb or feed.
Is ‘hefy! 2- B'-lt although pure water feems not to contribute
Vf n, 0f tjie to the growth of plants, yet it is neeelfary as a folvent
seed. for thofe fubftances which are conlidered as the proper
food of vegetables. But when water is impregnated
with certain faline and earthy, but efpecially with
carbonaceous matter, it is then found to be moft pro¬
per for promoting the growth and increafe of vege¬
tables. We have obferved plants growing in a foil
which was frequently moiftened with the water from a
dunghill, advance with a more rapid and vigorous
growth, and attain to a larger fize, than fimilar plants
In the fame foil, which received only the ufual fupply
of rain and dew from the clouds. It has been found
by- experiment, that this water holds in folution a con-
fiderable portion of carbone. It is not improbable Fun&ionji
that it alfo contains fome of thofe faline matters which of Wgeta.;
have been detected by analyfis in plants in the greateft , ^ ^
health and luxuriance. The wafte of the foil muft 'i
be repaired with frequent additions of manure, which
may be confidered as neceffary fupplies of food or nou-
riftiment.^ _ _ 3J7
3. But whatever maybe the food of plants, it is Peculiar
taken up by the roots in the ftate of folution in water, ftrudture cl j
and conveyed by the veffels to every part of the vege-tlie root. *
table. For this purpofe it would appear that there is
a peculiarity of ftru&ure in the extremities of the roots}
for, if part of the fibre of a root be cut off, the plant
ceafes to vegetate till new fibres are formed, which are
fo conftrufted, as to be capable of abforbing the necef¬
fary quantity of water. . 22^
4. This fluid, which is found in plants, is called the Sap.
fap. It is moft abundant in the fpring, as the feafon
of vegetation advances ; and during that feafon, when
the plant is wounded, it flows out copioufly, and it is
then faid to bleed. This is particularly the cafe with
fome trees, fuch as the birch and a fpecies of maple j
the fap of which, by certain proceffes, yields wine or
fugar. The fap is contained in wh^t is called the lym¬
phatic or common veffels of the plant.
5. The fluids taken up by vegetables, it is probable, ls preparedi
no fooner enter the plant, than they undergo fome in the
change. VaUquelin has directed his attention to thisPlant*
fubjeft, and has analyzed the fap at different periods
during the feafon of vegetation. The fap of the com-Sap of the
monrelm (ulmus campejlris Lin.) extrafted from the elm.
tree early in the fpring, w as of a brown colour, had a
fweet mucilaginous tafte, but fcarcely reddened the
tin&ure of turnfole. Ammonia produced in this fluid
a copious yellow precipitate, foluble with effervefcence
in acid. Barytes and lime-water produced a fimilar
effeft. Oxalic acid and nitrate of filver gave a white
precipitate. Sulphuric acid, diluted with water, occa-
fioned a brilk effervefcence, with the evolution of the
odour of acetic acid from the mixture. Oxymuriatic
acid deflroyed the colour of the fap, and formed in the
liquid a yellow precipitate. Hydrofulphuret of pot-Experi.
afti and fulphate of iron effedled no change, but alco-mem^*
hoi threw down a flaky precipitate. A quantity of
this fap being evaporated with a moderate heat, there
was found on the furface a brownifti pellicle j a brown
matter feparated in the form of flakes, and an earthy
matter depofited on the fides of the veffel, which w’as
dry to the touch. After evaporation to a certain de¬
gree, and cooling, a yellow earth was depofited, which
diffolved with effervefcence in muriatic acid. When
the folution was completed, the liquid was filtered, to
feparate the infoluble vegetable matters. The muria¬
tic folution mixed with carbonate of potafh, yielded
carbonate of lime. The liquid which had depofited
the vegetable matter being evaporated with a gentle
heat afforded a grayilh extraft, which ftrongly attra£led
moifture from the air, and had a very pungent, faline
tafte. It eftervefeed with the addition of concentrated
fulphuric acid, and gave out the odour of radical vine¬
gar. Diftilled with three parts of fulphurie acid, it
furnifhed very concentrated acetic acid, and there re¬
mained in the retort fulphate of potafti with excefs of
acid.
6. From this analyfig it follows, that the extraft of the
lap
CHEMISTRY.
Fun&Ions {*ap of the elm is chiefly compofed of acetate of potafli.
of Vegeta-Qne thoufand and thirty-nine parts of this fap yielded
^ es‘ . nearly the following proportions.
7*3
2278
Compofi-
tions.
Acetate of potafh 9.240
Vegetable matter 1.060
Carbonate of lime *79^
2279
Of the
beech.
* Ann. de
The deficiency was made up of water and fome vola¬
tile matter.
When the feafon was farther advanced, the fap of
the fame tree was again fubje&ed to analyfis, and it
was found that the quantity of acetate of potalh and
carbonate of lime had diminifhed, but that the quan¬
tity of vegetable matter was nearly double. At a ftill
more advanced period of the feafon, the experiment was
repeated, the refult of which was, that the increafe of
the vegetable matter, and the diminution of the ace¬
tate of potafh and carbonate of lime were ftill greater.
It appeared too, that carbonic acid exifted in excefs in
the fap, and that the carbonate of lime was held in fo-
lution by it.
7. The fame chemift analyzed the fap of the beech,
and it was found to be compofed of water, acetate of
lime with excefs of acid, acetate of potafh, gallic
acid, tan, mucus, extractive matter, and acetate of
alumina ; but the proportions of thefe parts have not
been mentioned. From this analyfis it appears, that
the fap of the beech is different from that of elm, in
containing acetic acid uncombined, befides gallic acid
and tan, but at the fame time having no carbonate of
lime. When the fap of the fame plant was examined
later in the feafon, the proportion of gallic acid and
tan had increafed. Vauquelin alfo examined by ana¬
lyfis, the fap of the carpinus fylveftris or hornbeam, and
the betula alba or birch *. The component parts of
'him. xxxt. the fap of the former were found to be, acetate of pot-
!0, afh and lime, mucilage, fugar, and extract, with wa¬
ter 5 and the latter were found to be water, acetates of
lime, alumina and potafh, ftigar, and vegetable ex¬
tract. From thefe experiments it appears that the fluids
W'hich are taken up by plants, are immediately changed
by certain procefles within the plant ; for fome of
the fubftances which are component parts of the fap
of plants, are either not found in the liquids before
they enter the plant, or exill; in them in very fmall
quantity. Thefe changes, it appears too, from the
fame experiments, are confiderably greater, at the later
periods of the feafon of vegetation. Some of the com¬
ponent parts are greatly increafed, while others are
much diminifhed.
8. The fap afeends from the root to the extremities
trough the of the branches, which has been proved by making
?ood. incifions in the trunk of a tree at different heights in
the fpring feafon. The fap is obferved to flow, firft,
from the lowed; incifion, and fucceflively to the high-
eft. It is through the veffels in the woody part of
the tree, that the fap afeends, for no fap flows from an
incifion unlefs it has penetrated the wood, and in fome
trees it is neceffary to make the incifion nearly to the
centre. It has been obferved that coloured infufions
always pafs from that part of the wood called the al¬
burnum.
9. The fap of plants is conveyed through thofe vef-
fels which were deferibed under the name of trachea? or
fpiral veffels. Thefe were denominate-d trachefe or air-
12S0
)fthe
lornbeam.
2281
*1 (tends
4282
! !y the
racheas.
veffels by the earlier phyfiologifts, becaufe being found Fun<£tions
empty, when they were cut acrofs and examined, they of
were fuppofed to convey nothing but air. , v
10. As the fap of vegetables moves with very con- 2*83
fiderable force, it has given rife to much fpeculation Caufe of
about the nature of that power, or the caufe by which ^ afcent
this is effected. Malpighi aferibed the afeenfion of
the fap to the dilatation and contradlion of the air in the
air-veffels j while Grew fuppofed, that it was owing to
the lightnefs of the vapour, in which ftate he conceived
the fap entered the plant, and was conveyed through
it. By many others the afeent of the fap in vegetables
has been aferibed to the force of capillary attraction
but the nature of this a£Hon, as it is demonftrated and
explained by mechanical philofophers, feems to be in¬
compatible with the phenomena of the circulation of
the lap in vegetables, and has therefore been rejected
as a hypothefis equally unfatisfa&ory with thofe which
have been juft mentioned. It has been aferibed with
more prdbability to the aftion of the veffels themfelves.
This is owing, in the language of phyfiologifts, to the
irritability of the veffels, or a certain power by which
they are enabled to contraft, by the aftion or influence
of certain fubftances. This is fuppofed to be the cafe
with the fap, and the action which takes place when it
enters the roots, is owing to the irritability of the veffels.
As the fap is carried a certain length by the firft con-
traftion, it is carried ftill farther by the fecond 5 anA
thus by fucceflive contractions it is propelled through
every part of the plant, while at the fame time new ad¬
ditions continue to enter the extremities of the root.
III. Of the Functions of the Leaves.
1. Whatever be the nature of the procefs, the fap is
carried to every part of the vegetable, and we have
feen that it has no fooner entered it than it undergoes
certain changes, which become more confiderable ac- 2-84
cording to the length of time after its abfbrption. But Produce
the greateft changes which take place in the fap of Sreat
plants, are effeCted in the leaves. The leaves are to^ffeS °n
be confidered among the effential organs of vegetables, 22|-
for in them the fap is totally changed, and concerted Convert it
into the peculiar jnice, or fuccus proprius, of the plant. ‘nt0 t!lC
As the functions of the leaves are of great importance,)(;cuaAr
in vegetation, it will be neceffary to confider the na-'
ture of their aCtion.
2. During the day, the leaves of plants tranfpire a During th*
very confiderable quantity of moifture, the proportion
of which, it appears from fome experiments, Was not
much inferior to the quantity abforbed. From fimi-
lar experiments it appears that the quantity evaporated
was in proportion to the extent of furface of the leaves.
The quantity has been obferved to be greateft too,
during funfliine and warm weather. It is greatly in¬
terrupted during the night, and entirely checked by
cold. When the quantity of moifture traiifpired is di-'
miriiflied, the raoifture imbibed is alfo found to be
lefs in proportion. This indeed might have been ex-
pe&ed, for when the tranfpiratnm of a plant ceafes,
this being an effential fun Cl ion of vegetation, the whole
proc.efs mult be interrupted. In experiments made 04
this tranfpired matter, by evaporating to drynefs a
quantity which had been collected, a fmall portion,
of carbonate of lime was obtained j from the rcliduuni,
4X2 a
716
CHEMISTRY.
hies
2287
Oxygen ga
given out.
2288
Carbonic
, 2289
A&ion of
light.
Fu’i&fons a ftill fmallcr proportion of fulpliate of lime, with a
of Vegeta- jittle crummy and refinous matter. It has been found
that the tranfpiration of moiflure takes place chiefly on
the upper furface of the leaVes, and this feems to be
performed Dy a particular fet of organs.
3. During the day, and efpecially during bright fun-
fhine, oxygen gas is given out by the leaves of plants.
The quantity of oxygen gas emitted by leaves, as ap-
acid gas ab-pears from the experiments of naturalifts, depends on
forbed, the quantity of carbonic acid gas which is abforbed by
the plant ^ for it has been afeertained that vegetables
grow rapidly and vigoroufly when they are expofed to
this gas j nay, it is found elfentially neceffary to their
health and growth. If the water with which plants
are lupplied be deprived of the whole of its air by
boiling, no oxygen gas is emitted, and water which is
impregnated with the greateft proportion of carbonic
acid gas, gives out the greateft quantity of oxygen
gas.
4. This procefs goes on only during the day, and it
is more vigorous during bright funfhine ; from which
it is natural to conclude, that light performs fome ne¬
ceffary part in it. It is well known that plants which
grow in the dark do not acquire a green colour ; and
it is found that thefa plants contain a fmaller propor¬
tion of carbone than fimilar plants, in the fame cir-
cumftances, expofed to the light. From this it may
appear what is the nature of the procefs when carbonic
acid gas is abforbed by plants, and oxygen gas emit¬
ted. It is the decompofition of the former, which is
effefted ; the carbone being retained in the plant, and
the oxygen given out •, but light being a neceffary
agent in this decompofition, the procefs mull be inter¬
rupted when it is excluded.
5. This decompofition takes place in the parenchy¬
matous fubftance of the leaf, and the quantity emitted,
it appears, is in proportion to the thicknefs of this fub-
out the-oxy- {|ance> The green colour of plants, it has already
gen gas. mentioned, depends on the action of light. Plants
which vegetate in the dark, have not only a fmaller
proportion of carbone, but alfo continue of a white
colour ; but in a ftiort time after they are expofed to
the light, the green colour is reftored.
6. Thus it appears, that it is one part of the func¬
tions of leaves of plants to exhale a conftderable pro¬
portion of the moifture taken in by the roots •, to ab-
forb carbonic acid gas ; to decompofe this gas, by
129I which its carbone is retained in the plant, and the
Vegetables oxygen is given out. Thus too, it appears, that ve-
the great getables are one of the great fources of fupply of oxy¬
gen gas, which is effentially neceffary in the numer¬
ous proceffes of combuftion, and the refpiration of ani¬
mals, which are conftantly going on on the furface of
the earth ; and thus the wafte of this vital fluid is re¬
paired, and the balance preferved between its deftruc-
tion and fupply.
j ’7. The leaves of plants perform a very different func-
Jeaves du- tion during the night. Inftead of emitting moifture
an(J oxygen gas, and abforbing carbonic acid gas,
which takes place during the day, the procefs is re-
verfed. Carbonic acid gas is emitted, and moifture
and oxygen gas are abforbed. The abforption of moi¬
fture feems to be chiefly performed by the under fur¬
face of the leaves, at leaft in many plants. It has been
found by expeiiment, that plants, which have been made
2290.
Parenchy¬
ma of the
leaf gives
fource of
oxygen.
2292
Fun<ftLon of
ring the
iiiirht.
to grow in oxygen gas give out a greater quantity of Fun&ions
carbonic acid gas, than when they grow in common air. of ^fjgeta'
From this circumftance it has been fuppofed, that the , e5, .
carbonic acid gas, emitted by plants during the night,
is owing to the combination of the oxygen abforbed,
with the carbone of the fap j for it is at the fame time
that exygen is abforbed. It has alfo been aferibed to
the decompolition of the water.
8. By thefe different proceffes which are carried on
in the leaves of plants, by the abftra&ion of fome of its
principles, and by entering into minute combinations 2253
with others, the fap undergoes very great changes. It Peculiar
is there converted into the peculiar juice of the plant,juice,
from which are derived, by other proceffes, the differ¬
ent fubftances, which are produced in the different
parts of plants, the nature of which will be afterwards
examined. The leaves of pla its have been compared
to the lungs and ftomach of animals. How far this
analogy is juft, it is not neceffary to inquire ; but there
can be no doubt that the leaves are effential organs in
the economy of vegetables. In the very firft ftep in
the procefs of vegetation, during the germination of
feeds, the moifture abforbed by the roots is carried to 1
the feminal leaves, and there undergoes certain changes,
before it is fit for the formation of the ftem and other
leaves of the plant j for, if thefe leaves are removed,,
vegetation is entirely interrupted, and the plant dies^
Even when plants have made farther progrefs, and are
in full vigour, if they are entirely ftripped of their
leaves, the powers of vegetation ceafe, till thefe necef¬
fary organs are reftored, and new leaves are formed.
The progrefs of vegetation is alfo flopped when the
furface of leaves is varniftied over, fo that the ab¬
forption and emiflion of the neceffary fluids are inter¬
rupted. _ 2294
9. The fap of plants, it has been already obferved, Sap flows '
flows from the roots towards the branches and leaves from the
of the1 plant. In the leaves it undergoes peculiar j
changes, in confequence of part being exhaled, and in16
confequence of the abforption of different principles
which combine with it, and no doubt contribute by
this combination to the changes which take place.
The fap, as we have already faid, is then converted in¬
to fuccus proprius, or peculiar juice. It is the fap
of the plant, which is fo far prepared to be converted
into the different parts of the plant, correfponding to
its nature and properties *, and, as the different parts,
both of liquids and folids in plants, poffefs properties
totally diftinft from each other, and have derived thefe
from the fame nouriftiment, the proceffes by which
thefe different fubftances are produced in different
plants, and even in the fame plant, muft undoubtedly
be different. 22p5
10. The peculiar juice of plants flows from the leaves Peculiar
towards the roots. If a ligature is fattened round the juice from
ftem of a plant, the place immediately above the liga-
ture, that is, between it and the leaves, fwells out by
the accumulation of this juice. Or if a wound be
made in the bark, the peculiar juice flows in greater
abundance from that fide of the wound next to the
leaves, than from the other fide.
11. The peculiar juice of plants has a greater con-properties
fiftence than the other juices. It is readily recognized of it.
by {ome peculiarity of colour. In a great many plants
it is milky, in fome it is of a green colour, and in
others
CHEMISTRY.
717
Uecompotl others it Is red. The component parts of the peculiar
twn of Ve-jujce 0f plants are little known ; but from forae ex-
getables. jments which have been made on this fubje£t, it ap-
U , J pears that fome part of the vegetable is ready formed.
In the experiments of Chaptal on the peculiar juice
cf plants, he detedted a fubitance which poffefled the
properties of the woody fibre. In fimilar experiments
on the feeds of plants, it was found that they contained
a greater proportion of the woody fibre, from which it
is inferred, that the peculiar juices of plants contain
their nourilhment ready prepared, and in that ilate in
which it is found in the feed. The peculiar juices of
plants contain a greater proportion of thefe elements
which conftitute the different parts of plants, than what
is found to exift in the fap. Thefe are carbone, hy¬
drogen, and oxygen, s
Plantshave 12. Many plants ceafe to vegetate as foon as they
different have perfected their feeds, which is accomplilhed by
periods of fome in one feafon, by others in two, and hence fuch
duration, pian^ have been called annuals and biennials. Other
plants, however, continue to yield feeds and fruit for
many fucceffxve feafons, and to live for a great length
of time. What is the caufe of this remarkable diver-
fity among tbe vegetable tribes,—why the humble an¬
nual fprings up, flowers, and forms perfect feeds with¬
in the (hort period of a few months, while the ftately
oak rears its lofty head, and continues to be the pride
and glory of the foreft for hundreds of years, it would
be difficult to fay. At prefent, however, it is not our
province to enter into the fpeculation.
Sect. II. Of the Decomposition of Vegetables.
1. As foon as the plantshave ceafed to vegetate, they
undergo a new fet of changes. The whole plant is broken
down •, the elements of which it is compofed enter in¬
to new combinations, and new fubftanees make their
appearance, which did not previoufly exift in the plant.
This decompofition is owing, partly to the affinities
between the component parts of the vegetable them-
felves, and partly to the affinities which exift between
fome of the elementary principles of the plant, and the
heat, air, and moifture, without which no decompofi¬
tion takes place. While the plant continued to exhibit
the phenomena of vegetation, that is, while it conti¬
nued to live, it poffefled a power of refilling this che¬
mical action between the elements of which it is com¬
pofed, and alfo to a certain extent the action of external
agents. During this decompolition of vegetables, air,
heat, and moifture, are neceffary. Gafeous bodies are
generally given out, and new compounds are formed.
Some plants, and fome parts of the lame plant, have a
greater tendency to undergo this decompofition than
others, becaufe they either poffefs a greater proportion
of the fubftances which promote the decompofition,
or a greater proportion of the fubftances of which the
new compounds are formed.
1298 2> -j'jjg changes or fpontaneous decompofitions of
tionmenta* vegetables, as they are almoft always accompanied with
an inteftine motion, have received the name oifermeti-
tation. The nature of thefe changes is very different,
both with regard to the gafeous bodies which are ab-
forbed or emitted, and the nature of the products which
are obtained after procefs is Snilhed Hence, fer¬
mentations have been ufually diftinguilhed into three Decompofi-
kinds ; namely, the vinous, fo called, becaufe the Pr0" tl0£t^ieSC"
dud is wine, when certain fubftances are fubjeded to . 1
thisproccfs, or beer, when other fubftanoes are employed j
the acetous fermentation, becaufe during this part of
the procefs vinegar is produced-, and the putrid or putre¬
factive fermentation, becaufe the fubftances are ftill far¬
ther decompofed, and run into the ftate of putridity.
But thefe different kinds of fermentation might perhaps
be confidered merely as different ftages of the fame pro¬
cefs ; for unlefs it is checked at certain periods, it runs
on through the different ftages without interruption.
According to fome, thefe three fpecies of fermentation
do not include all the changes which have the charac¬
ters of this procefs to which vegetables are fubjed. To
thefe it has been propofed to add the faccharine fer¬
mentation, or that change which is induced on farina¬
ceous feeds by heat and moifture, which is the germi¬
nation of feeds or the procefs of malting ; and the co¬
louring fermentation, or that procefs by which the co¬
louring matter of vegetables, as indigo, is developed,
In the prefent fedion we propofe to treat, I. Of the pour
vinous fermentation ; 2. Of the acetous or acid fer¬
mentation j 3. The panary fermentation, or the forma¬
tion of bread j and, 4. Of the putrid fermentation.
I. Of the Vinous Fermentation.
23°0
1. The vinous fermentation, otherwife denominated Hiftory.
the fpirituous, has been fo called, becaufe the firft pro-
dud is wine, which by diftillation yields fpirits. Boer-
haave was the firft who direded his attention to trace
the caufes, and to obferve the phenomena of fermenta¬
tion. The fame fubjed was afterwards profecuted by
other chemifts, and much was written on the nature
and manufadure of wine j but till the difeoveries of
modern chemiftry, and efpecially the important one of
the compofition of water, nothing was afeertained w ith1
precifion concerning the nature of fermentation, or the
changes which take place on the fermenting fubftances.
To the experiments and refearches of Lavoifier on the
formation and decompofition of alcohol, chemiftry is'
indebted for fome of the moft important fads with re¬
gard to the procefs of fermentation.
2. Certain conditions are neceffary to promote the Conditions,
vinous fermentation. The firft indifpenfable condition
is the prefence of fome faccharine matter. Experience
has fhewn that no vegetable fubftances are fufceptible
of this fermentation, which do not contain fugar. Thus,
the fweet juices of fruits are ufually employed in this
procefs j and particularly, for the produdion of wine,
the juice of the grape.
But fugar in a ftate of purity, or uncombined with
other fubftances, is not fufceptible of any change. A
certain quantity of water, therefore, is neceflary that.
the faccharine matter may be in the liquid ftate. Wa¬
ter, therefore, is one of the effential conditions of the
vinous fermentation ; and it feems neceffary that the
water ffiould neither be in too great quantity, nor defi¬
cient. In the latter cafe the fermentation is interrupt¬
ed j in the former it is promoted too rapidly, and is apt
to be converted into the next ftage, the acetous or acid
fermentation. When the confiftence is too great, wa¬
ter muft be added, and when it is too fluid, the addi¬
tion of fugar becomes neeeffary.
The
ig CHEMISTRY,
Decompofi- The vinous fermentation fcarccly commences, if the
tionofVe- temperature be below 6o0, but at the temperature of
. gL>tablcs- _ ^0o jhg procefs goes on brilkly.
¥ ' But fugar and water alone do not ferment, without
the addition of fome other fubftances. In the liquid
exprefled from grapes, which has received the name of
mujl, there are, befides fugar, a portion of jelly, fome
glutinous matter, and tartar.
The cont^ft of air has been coufidered as one of the
requilites of the vinous fermentation j but this is not
neceffary, on account of the fermenting liquid deriving
any addition from the atmofphere, for the procefs goes
on equally well, when it is excluded, provided the ga-
feous bodies which are formed are permitted to efcape.
A large mafs is alfo favourable for promoting the
vinous fermentation. A fmall quantity of faccharine
matter fcarcely at all undergoes this change, while it
2302 runs fpeedily to the acid fermentation.
Phenomena 3. When the fubftance# which are fufceptiblc of
of fermen- this fermentation, are placed in proper circumftances,
tatlon’ the procefs commences in a few hours, or a few days,
according to the temperature and the quantity of li¬
quid employed. The liquid is then agitated with an
inteiline motion \ it becomes thick and muddy ; the
temperature increafes, and carbonia acid gas is difen-
gaged. The liquid is increafed in bulk, and the fur-
face is covered with a voluminous, frothy matter,
which is owing to the carbonic acid gas adhering for
fome time to the vifeid matters in the liquid. The
quantity of Carbonic acid gas difengaged during this
procefs is very confiderable. It begins to be evolved
at the commencement of the fermentation, and con¬
tinues till its termination. At the end of a few days,
or a longer or fhorter time, according to the tempera¬
ture and other eircumftances, the fermentation ceafes*
The liquid becomes tranfparent, the matters which
occafioned the muddinefs having precipitated to the
bottom, and from having a fweet tafte, it becomes
(harp and hot, and from having been vifeid and gluti¬
nous, it becomes more liquid and lighter. It is now
2303 converted into wine.
T)ecompofi- 4. Such are the phenomena of fermentation, from
■don ot the which, and from the nature of the produft, Very confi-
' derable changes mull have taken place on the compo-
'nent parts. One change" has been obferved during
this procefs j namely, that the quantity of fugar is
always diminifhing, and, at the end of the procefs, is
entirely decompofed. The liquid is now more fluid,
is fpecifically lighter, and has obtained a vinous tafte j
which new properties are aferibed to the formation of
alcohol which exifts in all wine. It would appear,
from the experiments of M. Lavoifier, that it is the
fugar only which has fuffered decompofition. It is di¬
vided into two portions, one of which feparates, and is
carried off in the form of carbonic acid gas, while the
other, containing a greater proportion of hydrogen, re¬
mains in the liquid, in the form of alcohol. Part of
the alcohol is carried off, and the alcohol which re¬
mains in the liquid is combined w ith the acids of the
wine and the colouring matter, from which it muft be
feparated by diftillation. The tartaric acid, it has alfo
been found, is partially decompofed during the pro¬
cefs, and a portion of malic acid is formed. It appears
from other experiments, that azotic gas is difenga¬
ged during this procefs, from which it is inferred,
that fome others of the conftituehls of the fermenting Decompofi.
liquid have been decompofed, fince fugar contains no tl0n ,Ve*
azote. ;aoxes,j
. 5, There is great variety in the colour, flavour, 2304
and ftrength of wines. Thefe difterences depend on Component
the nature of the foil and of the grapes, and very of-PartSCff
ten on the manner in which it is manufadlured. Butwines'
the component parts of wine are generally fome acid
matter, alcohol, extraftive matter, oil, and colouring
matter. It has been afeertained by experiment, that all
wines redden the tinfture of turnfole. The acid which
exifts in greateft abundance in wine, was found by
Chaptal to be the malic acid j fome portion of citric
acid alfo has been dete&ed. Some wines, ag cham-
paigne, contain a conftderable portion of carbonic
acid.
It is to a certain portion of alcohol contained in
wines that they owe their ftrength j and, when wines
are fubjefted to the procefs of diftillation, the alcohol
paffes over, and the fpirit which is thus obtained is
known by the name of brandy.
The extradlive matter found in wines has been ob-Extracflivi
ferved todiminifti in proportion to the age of the wines,matter*
as it feparates gradually from the liquid, and is preci¬
pitated to the bottom. 25c6
The flavour and odour of wines have been aferibed Volatile
to a fmall quantity of volatile oil ; but this quantity is°ft'
fo fmall, that no means hitherto employed have fucceed-
ed to obtain it in a feparate ftate. Wines are diftin-
guilhed by a peculiar colour, which is owing to the co¬
louring matter originally derived from the hulk of the
grape. ^ . 2307
6. The juices of other fruits alfo afford materials forFrom other
fermentation, as that of cyder from apples, and perry ful)ftances>
from pears. Thefe are diftinguifhed from wines pro¬
perly fo called by containing a greater proportion of
mucilaginous matter. The juice of the fugar cane alfo
affords a fermenting liquid from which is obtained by ,
diftillation the fpirit called rum. 2308
7. Beer or malt liquors, as they are called in Bri-Beer.
tain, are fermented liquors obtained from farinaceous
feeds. Different kinds of corn are employed for the
purpofe of making beer. In Britain, barley is the moft
common grain in the preparation of this liquid. It is
firft fteeped in water, and afterwards thrown together
in a heap for about 24 hours. During this period, in
confequence of the moifture which has been abforbed
by the grain, the procefs of germination commences,
oxygen gas is abforbed, carbonic acid gas is given out
and heat is evolved, w'hile the radicle is protruded.
The procefs having advanced thus far, is cheeked by
flowly drying the grain. For this purpofe it is fpread
out on a floor, and in' this ftate it is known by the
name of malt. It is afterwards expofed to heat, fully
dried, and ground to a coarfe powder. An infufion
is then made with water about the temperature of
1600, which is drawn off; more water is added till the
whole foluble part of the malt is extrafted. This infu¬
fion, which has a fweet tafte, from having a portion of
faccharine matter, is called wort. After being boiled
with fome bitter fubftances, as hops, it is allowed to
ferment, and the procefs of fermentation is in a great
meafure fimilar to that which has been already de-
feribed of the fermentation of vrine. The temperature
moft proper for this fermentation is about 6o° 3 the fer¬
mentation
C H E M I S T R Y.
Decompofi- mentation of wort is greatly promoted, and the quan-
tion of Ve- tjj.y 0£ fermented liquor is more abundant with the
^ getabks. ^ a(£jjtj0n 0f yeaft,
2309 It has been found alfo, that the infulion of malt fer-
yermenta- ments in clofe veffels, and equally well as when expofed
tion goes on 0pen air> During this fermentation carbonic
j£lsclole vel'acid gasisdifengaged, which is mixed with a portion of
the wort. By the dilfillation of the liquid obtained af¬
ter the fermentation has ceafed, alcohol is obtained j
the nature and properties of which have been already
deferibed in treating of that liquid under inflammable
fubftances.
II. Of the Acetous Fermentation.
I. In treating of acetic acid, which is the pro¬
duct of this fermentation, we have already detail¬
ed the method propofed by Boerhaave for the ma¬
nufacture of vinegar, and we have alfo deferibed
the properties of that acid. All that is now neceffary,
therefore, is Ihortly to Hate the general phenomena
Phenome- which are exhibited during this fermentation. When
na. wine or beer, which is the produCt of the vinous
fermentation, is expofed to a temperature between 700
and 90°, it becomes gradually turbid, the tempera¬
ture is increafed; it is agitated with intefline motions,
and flaky fubftanees are feen floating through it in all
directions. The inteftine motions at lafl: iublide, the
liquid becomes tranfparent by the matters which ren¬
dered it turbid precipitating to the bottom of the
veflel. The liquid has now aflumed different pro-
2311 perties 5 it is converted into acetic acid or vinegar.
Conditions. 2. The conditions neceflary for the acetous fer¬
mentation are, a confiderable elevation of temperature,
and expofure to the air of the atmofphere. During
this fermentation oxygen is abforbed from the air, and
unlefs this abforption takes place, the fermentation
does not go on. It is neceffary that the fubftances to
be fubjeCted to this fermentation contain a certain pro¬
portion of extractive matter j for if they are entirely de¬
prived of it, the procefs does not go on. Weak wines
or beer are nfore readily converted into vinegar than
ftrong wine } but when the procefs of fermentation
lias commenced on the latter, the produCt is a ftronger
2^x2 and better vinegar.
Changes. 3. In examining the produCts of this fermentation*
it has been found that the malic acid and the alcohol
which previoufly exifted in the wine, have entirely
difappeared, fo that by their decompofition they have
contributed to the formation of the vinegar. Some
portion of the extractive matter alfo has been deeompof-
ed. The acetic acid is formed alfo during the deeom-
pofttion of many vegetable fubftances, either by means
of heat, or other chemical agents.
III. Of the Panary Fermentation, or of Bread.
„ !3T3
Nature of
this fer-
I. The fermentation which takes place in making
bread is fuppofed to be peculiar ; but the phenomena
mentation. aTj3 produCt have not been fufficiently examined to be
able exaCtly to afeertain its nature1. The procefs is
extremely Ample. Wheat flour, which is generally
employed, is formed into a pafte with wat'e’-, the propor¬
tions of which vary according t<? the age and quality
of the flour. After feme time it is agitated with an
*314-
719
internal motion, limilar to the other fermentations, Decompofi*
in confequence of the aCtion of the component parts tlorVe*
upon each other, the formation of new compounds,,6
and the evolution of gafeous matter. Water is ef-
fentially requiftte in this fermentation. One of the
changes which have taken place during the procefs, is,
that the gluten which conftitutes a part of the flour,
has dilappeared. It is entirely decompofed. This
matter has acquired a four difagreeable tafte, and if
it is made into bread, it is found unfit to be eaten.
A quantity of new pafte is then prepared, and a Leaven.
fmall quantity of the old four pafte is added to
it. This produces rapid fermentation. The four
pafte, thus added, to promote the fermentation,
is called leaven, and the bread prepared by this
procefs has received the name of leavened bread; a
diftinCtion which has been known to mankind from
the earlieft ages of the world. It is frequently men¬
tioned in Scripture, in the Jewifti hiftory. It requires
fome attention to be able to determine the exaCt quan¬
tity of leaven neceffary for the proper fermentation of
the pafte. When it is deficient in quantity, the pro¬
cefs of fermentation is interrupted, and the bread thus
prepared is lolid and heavy, and if too much leaven
be ufed, it communicates to the bread a difagreeable
four tafte. When the fermentation fucceeds, the pafte
fwells up, and is greatly enlarged in bulk, which is
owing to the formation of a quantity of gas, which is
confined within the mafs, by the vifeidity of the gluti¬
nous part of the flour.
Other fubftances are employed to promote the fer¬
mentation of pafte for the purpofe of making bread j
one of the moft common is the matter which col-
lefts on the furface of fermenting liquids from fari¬
naceous matters. This fubftance, which is called
barm or yeaft, is equally efficacious in producing fer¬
mentation, and is lefs apt to contaminate the bread
with any difagreeable tafte. As it is colleftcd on Yeaft.
the furface of fermenting beer, it was examined by
Weftrumb, and was found to contain a great variety
of ingredients. Befides the water, which was in
greateft proportion, it confifted of gluten, fugar, and mu¬
cilage, with a quantity of alcohol, and a fmall portion 2315
of malic, acetic, and carbonic acids. The effential Component
parts of barm or yeaft were found, by the fame che- Parts*
mift, to be gluten mixed with a vegetable acid 5 and
therefore yeaft, which has been collefted and put
into bags ftrongly preffed and dried, by which means
it is obvious many of the component parts muft be
feparated, has been found equally fit for fermentation. 23T7
2. When the pafte has undergone the proper de-Baking of
gree of fermentation, it is formed into loaves, and in-bread,
troduced into an oven, which has been previoufly
heated. The fame temperature is as nearly as pof-
fible employed for the baking of bread. This is re¬
gulated by throwing a little flour on the bottom of
the oven. If it becomes black, without taking fire,
the oven is fuppofed to have acquired a proper tem¬
perature. This is found to be about 448°.. 2,lg
3. If the fermentation has been properly condufted, changes,
the bread during the procefs of baking enlarges in
bulk, becomes light and porous, and is full of eyes or ca¬
vities, in confequence of the extrication of the gas
which was confined by the vifeid, glutinous matter,
and now driven off by means of heat. It is alfo con-
fiderably>
720
Derompofi-
uon of Ve¬
getables.
CHEMISTRY.
2319
Breed of
rye and
potatoes.
2320
Colouring
fermenta¬
tion.
2321
Nature.
2322
Conditions,
*313
Phenome-
fiderably lighter, In confequence of the evaporation of
moifture j and it ttill continues to lofe weight by being
kept, if it be expofed to the air. When it is firft re¬
moved from the oven, bread is diftinguifhed by a pe¬
culiar tafte and odour. Thefe are alfo carried off by
the evaporation of the moiiture, unlefs it be prevent¬
ed by excluding the air. The component parts of
bread, fo far as they have been inveftigated, are quite
different from thofe of the flour, fo that thefe have
undergone a chemical change.
4. Loaf bread is ufually made of wheat flour,
which is found moft proper for this purpofe, in confe-
quence of the great proportion of gluten which it con¬
tains. Rye is alfo frequently employed in making
bread, but being deficient in the proportion of gluten,
it is lefs proper for the purpofe. Bread made of rye
has not the lightnefs and poroufnefs of the wheaten
loaf. Parmentier has defcribed a procefs for making
bread from potatoes. The potatoes are boiled and
reduced to a fine pafte; but before they can be con¬
verted into bread, it is neceffary to add an equal
weight of ftarch obtained from the fame root. In
this way a white, well-raifed bread, it is faid, is ob¬
tained.
To a fermentation fomewhat fimilar is afcribed the
produftion of the colouring matter of fome vegetable
fubftancesj as for inftance that of indigt* j in this, how-
ever, greater changes are effe&ed. In this procefs
the indigo plants are put into wat6r, which is foon agi¬
tated with an inteftine motion. It is alfo accompanied
with an inereafe of temperature, the produftion of a
frothy matter on the furface, and the evolution of an
elaftic fluid, which is a mixture of carbonic acid and
carbonated hydrogen gas. During this procefs, the
colouring matter of the plant is feparated and preci¬
pitated, from which Fourcroy propofes to denominate
this the colouring fermentation.
IV. Of the Putrid Fermentation of Vegetables.
1. The putrefa&ive procefs is the laft ftage in the
decompofition of vegetable matters. In fome the parts
are completely feparated, and refolved into their pri¬
mary elements by the efcape of thofe fubftances by
which they were mutually held together. In others,
new compounds are formed, by a new fet of attraftions
and combinations.
2. Several conditions are neceflary to promote pu-
trefaftion. The firfl; requifite is water, without which
the procefs does not go on. When vegetables are kept
perfectly dry, they undergo no change. The contaft
of air is alio neceffary, and a moderate temperature.
When the temperature is too high, the moifture is
carried off by evaporation, before the changes in
which this procefs confilts can be effected 5 but when
the moifture is not carried off, the higher the tem¬
perature, the more rapid is the putrefaction.
3. When vegetables are placed in proper circum-
ftances to favour this procefs, the colour and confift-
ence are foon changed •, the texture is deftroyed,
the fibres are feparated j the foft and liquid parts fwell
up and are covered with froth; elaftic fluids are dif-
engaged, the temperature is increafed, and fometimes
fo high as to produce aCtual inflammation. I he gafes
which are difengaged, are, after the procefs has fairly
commenced, accompanied with a fetid odour. TheyCompct-nt
are compofed of a mixture of carbonated hydrogen,
carbonic acid, and azotic gafes. After thefe phenome-, ege|a'>le8.
na have continued for forne time, which is longer or
ftiorter, according to the nature and confiftence of the
vegetable matters, great part, it appears, has been dif-
fipated by evaporation. There remains a dark colour¬
ed fubftance, containing the more fixed materials of the
vegetable, as the earths combined with the acids and
part of the carbone.
4. In obferving the neceffary conditions, the pheno- Changes,
mena, and the produdts of the putrid fermentation of
vegetables, the influence of the numerous attractions
of the different materials which enter into their com-
pofition is manifeft. Part of the hydrogen combines
with the oxygen, and is carried off in the ftate of
water, part efcapes in the ftate of gas combined with
a portion of carbone, and another portion of hydrogen
unites with the azote of thofe plants which contain it,
and forms ammonia. A fourth part remains behind,
and communicates odour and colour to the refiduary
mafs. The carbone combines partly with the dif¬
engaged hydrogen, partly with the oxygen, forming
carbonic acid, and part remains behind. The oxygen is
divided between the hydrogen and carbone, forming
compounds of which thefe elements are the bafe.
Sect. III. Of the Component Parts of Vegetables.
1. Having in the two former feClions given a ftiort
vievv of the fundlions and fpontaneous decompofition
of plants, we are now to confider the nature and
properties of thofe fubftances which enter into their
compofition. Some of thefe fubftances are obtained Obtained
from plants, while they continue to exhibit the phe-by different
nomena of vegetation } fuch are faccharine matters l*006®55,
obtained from the fap, which is extracted by wound¬
ing the bark and wood, without much feeming injury
to the health and growth of the plant ; and Tuch too
are gummy and relinous matters, which many plants
throw off by fpontaneous exudation 5 and which, fo far
from being injurious, is perhaps neceffary in fome de¬
gree to vegetation j but, in general, the fubftances form¬
ed during the procefs of vegetation, or which are con-
ftituent parts of vegetable matters, can only be obtained
by the deftru&ion of the vegetable itfelf. Thefe are
procured by different proceffes, which we {hall ftiortly
deferibe, in treating of the nature and properties of
each individual fubftance.
2. The component parts of vegetables, fo far as theyEnumera-
have been examined, and fufficiently characterized by tion of fub-
diftinCt properties, may be enumerated under the fol-^anceE*
lowing heads:
1. Gumj
2. Sugar,
3. Jelly,
4. Acids,
5. Starch,
6. Albumen,
7. Gluten,
8. Extractive matter,
9. Colouring ditto,
IC. Bitter ditto,
11. Narcotic ditto,
12. Oil
Ootnponent
Parts of
Vegetables.
2327
Extradlion
and proper
ties.
X2. Oils,
13. Wax,
14. Camphor,
15. Caoutchouc,
16. Relins,
17. Gum-refins,
18. Wood,
19. Tan,
20. Suber,
21. Alkalies,
22. Earths,
23. Metais.
I» Of Gum.
CHEMISTRY.
.328
Aftion of
air and
heat.
2329
3f acids.
! 2330
I tlcohol.
iiftilla-
1. Gum exudes from many trees during the procefs
of vegetation, in the form of a vifcid, tranfparent, in-
lipid fluid. . Ehe finer kind of gum is obtained chiefly
from the tnitTioJa niloticn^ a plant which is very common
in many parts of Africa. This gum is ufually diftin-
guifhed by the name of gum arable. After it feparates
from the tree, the watery part evaporates, and the gum
remains behind. It has then lome degree of hardnefs,
and is fo brittle that it may be reduced to fine powder.
It retains its tranfparency, is generally of a yellow co¬
lour j but, when pure, it is entirely colourlefs. It has
neither tafle nor fmell. Ihe fpecific gravity is from
1.316 to 1.481.
2. Gum is not changed by expofure to the air, but
it is deprive.’ of its colour by the a&ion of the fun’s light.
When it is expofed to heat, it becomes foft, fwells up,
gives out air-bubbles, blackens, and is reduced to char¬
coal. During the change it gives out very little flame,
and is greatly enlarged in volume. It readily diffolves
in water. rlhe lolution is thick and adhefive, and well
known as a parte, under the name of mucilage. This
lolution is little difpofed to decompofition. By evapo¬
ration the whole of the gum may be obtained un¬
changed.
3. Gum is foluble in the vegetable acids without de¬
compofition. Sulphuric acid decompofes it, and con¬
verts it into water, acetic acid, and charcoal. With
the aflirtance of heat, muriatic acid produces a fimi-
lar effeft. Oxymuriatic acid converts it into citric
acid.
Gum is foluble in nitric acid with the afliftance ef
heat. . Nitrous gas is emitted during the folution, and,
when it cools, faclaftic acid is depofited. Malic acid
appears at the fame time $ and by continuing the heat,
the gum is at laft converted into oxalic acid. Four
hundred and eighty grains of gum digefted with fix
ounces of nitric acid, afforded Mr Cruickfliank 210
grains of oxalic acid, and fix grains of oxalate of lime.
4. By pouring alcohol into a mucilaginous folution,
the gum is precipitated, fo that it is infoluble in this li¬
quid. It is alfo infoluble in ether.
5. Mr Cruickfhank dirtilled 480 grains of gum arabic
by expofing it to a red heat in a glafs retort, and ob¬
tained the following produdls :
Acetic acid mixed with fome oil 2 1 o grs.
Carbonated hydrogen and carbonic acid gafes 1 64
Charcoal . - 96
Lime and a little phofphate of lime - 20
Vol. V. Part II.
480
72T
Thus the conrtituent parts of gum are, oxygen, by- Component
drogen, carbone, azote, and lime. i>arts 0?
6. Befides gum arabic, the properties of which we yeSetabicr;
have now deferibed, there are different fpecies of gum 2332
obtained from different plants, which, however, in their Conftitu-
general properties refemble gum arabic. In feme m-ents
deed they feem to be different, but thefe differences have 0} 2;5.-?;3,
not been diftinctly afeertained. Gum tragacanth, the from other
produce of the ajlraga/us tragacantha, which is in the plants,
form of vermicular maffes, is lefs tranfparent than gum
arabic, lefs foluble in water, and more adhefive j but
yields by diftillation fimilar products. Gum obtained
from the cherry and plum tree, is of a brownifh
colour, fbfter and more foluble in water, but feems
otherwile to poffefs nearly the lame properties as gum
arabic.
7. Gum in the ftate of mucilage exifts in a great num- Mucuag*
ber of plants, and efpeciaHy in the roots and leaves, 'm
It feems to be moll abundant in bulbous roots, as thofe 11|any
of the hyacinth, which contain fuch a quantity thatp aiitS‘
they may be advantageoufly employed in place of gum
arabic. It is obtained alfo in confiderable quantity
from many of the lichens, and moft of the fuci. Mu¬
cilage is found in greateft proportion in young plants,
but this proportion diminifhes with the age of the plant.
It is a principal conftituent in the leaves and roots of
efculent vegetables. „
8. In the ftate of mucilage, gum conftitutes a nutri-UfesI0 J
tious aliment. On account of its adhefive properties,
it is employed as a parte, and by the calico-printers to
mix with their colours to give them confiftency. It is
well known as a component part of ink, to prevent
the precipitation of its more infoluble ingredients,
and it forms a very valuable article in the Materia
Medica.
II. Of Sugar.
. 2335
1. Sugar exifts in every part of plants. It is foundIn art parts
in the roots,, as thofe of the carrot and beet root; inof Plants*
the Items, as in the birch, the maple, fome palms, and
efpecially the fugar-cane; in the leaves, as thofe of the
alh 3 in the flowers, the fruits, and feeds.
2. But the fugar which now forms A very extenfive Sugarcane,
article of commerce, and may be confidered as a necef-
fary of life, is entirely obtained from the juice of
the fugar-cane, which is chiefly cultivated in the
Eaft and Weft Indies for the purpofe of extra&ing
the fugar. When the plants have arrived at their
full growth, which in the Weft Indies is in the courfe
of 12 or 14 months, they are cut down and bruifed Manufac-
by means of machinery 3 the juice which is collec- ture.
ted, is conveyed to iron boilers, where it is boiled
w ith the addition of a fmall quantity of quicklime, and
the impurities which rife to the furface are feummed
off. The boiling is continued till it acquires the con¬
fidence of fyrup, after which it is put into {hallow vef-
fels, where it is allowed to cool and granulate. In ge¬
neral, it is afterwards put into hogftieads, in w hich it is
imported to Europe, the bottoms of which are perfo¬
rated, that the molafies with which the fugar is mixed
may be allowed to drain off. Sometimes it is put into
conical earthen veffels, open at both ends, the bafe of
which is covered with moift . clay, fo that the water
filters through the fugar, and carries w ith it a greater
quantity of the molaffes and other impurities. The fu-’
4 ^ gar
722
Component
Parts of
Vegetables.
2339
Raw.
CHEMISTRY.
2340
Properties.
*34*
Action of
heat.
2342
Water.
2.343
Acids.
2.344
Alkalies.
g.Tr thus treated, is called clayed fugar. It is not dif¬
ferent from the former, but in being fomewhat purer.
The addition of quicklime in the boiling is fuppofed to
take up feme vegetable acids which prevent the granu¬
lation of the fugar.
3. In this ftate the fugar is known in commerce by
the name of raw NLufcovado fugar. It is ftill farther
purified by diffolving it in water, and boiling, when
the impurities which rife to the furface are again re¬
moved ; a quantity of lime is alfo added, and it is clari¬
fied with blood. When boiled down to a proper con-
fill ency, it is put into unglazed earthen veflels of a
conical Ihape, and inverted, to allow the water from
the moift clay with which the bafe of the cone is cover¬
ed, to pafs through the fugar, and carry off its impuri¬
ties. It is ftill farther purified by again diffolving it in
water, and fubjedling it to a fuiiilar procefs. Accord¬
ing to the number of proceffes to which it has been
fubje&ed, it is called Angle or double refined fu-
gar.
4. Sugar in this {fate is of a whh.e colour j it is well
known for its fweet tafte; it has no fmell. It has fome
degree of tranfparency when it is cryftallized. It is con-
fiderably hard \ but it is brittle, and may be eafily re¬
duced to powder. It is phol'phorefcent in the dark.
When the folution of fugar in water is concentrated,
it cryftallizes in the form of fix-fided prifms, terminated
by two-fided fummits. The fpecific gravity of fugar
is I.4045.
5. When fugar is expofed to heat, it melts, fwells up,
becomes of a dark brown or black colour, emits air
bubbles with a peculiar fmell, w hich has been called ca¬
ramel. If a red heat be applied, it fuddenly burfts into
flames, with a kind of explofion.
6. Neither oxygen nor azote have any adlion on fu¬
gar. It is not altered by expofure to the air. If the
air be moift, it abforbs a little water. There is no ac-
timi between hydrogen and fugar. It is very folubie in
water j at fo low a temperature as 48°, v-ater diffolves
its own wreight of fugar. This power increafes with
the temperature of the water. When water is faturated
with fugar, it is called fyrup, which by concentration
and reft affords cryftals.
7. Sugar is folubie in many of the acids. It is de-
compofed by fulphuric acid j when heat is applied,
the acid itfelf is decompofed, and converted into ful-
phurous acid j and a great quantity of charcoal is de-
pofited.
Nitric acid a&s on fugar with confiderable violence *,
an effervefcence is produced, nitrous gas is emitted; and
the fugar is converted into oxalic and malic acids.
Muriatic acid gas is {lowly abforbed by fugar, which
becomes of a brown colour, and acquires a very ftrong
fmell. Sugar is inftantly diffolved when it is thrown
in the ftate of pow'der into liquid oxymuriatic acid \ it
is converted into malic acid, while the oxymuriatic acid
is deprived of its oxygen, and reduced to the ftate of
muriatic acid. Alcohol readily diffolves fugar. One
part of fugar is folubie in four of boiling alcohol.
Sugar alfo combines with the oils, and by this means
they may be mixed with water.
8. The fixed alkalies combine with fugar, and de¬
prive it of its fweet tafte; but by adding fulphuric acid,
and precipitating the fulphate which is formed by means
of alcohol, the tafte is reftored. Some of the earths.
as lime, combine with fugay, and form fimilar com- Component
pounds. Vejretabf
9. The fulphurets, hydrofulphurets, and phofphurets 1—" * ^
of the alkalies and fome of the earths, decompofe fugar, 2345
and reduce it to a ftate fomewhat fimilar to gum. Sulphurets,
Mr Cruickfliank diffolved a quantity of fugar in alco-&c*
hoi, and added to it phofphuret of lime. After expof-
ing the mixture to the open air for fome days, it was
evaporated, and wrater was added. There was no evo¬
lution of gas, and the phofphuret was found converted
into a phofphate. By filtering the liquid, and by eva¬
poration, a tenacious fubftance, refembling gum, re¬
mained behind.
10. By diftilling fugar in a retort, the firft part of
the product is wrater, nearly in a ftate of purity. Acetic
acid with a little oil next comes over, and afterward
empyreumatic oil. A bulky carbonaceous matter,
which fometimes contains a little lime, remains behind.
Mr Cruickfliank obtained l>y the diftillation of 480
grains of pure fugar, by means of a red-heat,
Acetic acid and oil, iyo.grs.
Charcoal, 120
Carbonated hydrogen and carbonic acid gafes 90
480
Sugar, therefore, is compofed of oxygen, carbone, Conftituent
and hydrogen. The proportions of its conftituent parts,
parts, according to Lavoifier, are the following:
Oxygen,
Carbone,
Hydrogen,
64
28
100
3347
II. Sugar is alfo obtained from the juice of the ma- Maple
pie tree in North America. The juice is extra&ed fugar.
from the tree during the afcent of the fap in the fpring
feafon. A Angle tree, it is laid, yields from 20 to 30
gallons of fap, from which are contained five or fix libs,
of fugar. It is manufa&ured in the fame way as the
juice of the fugar-cane. 234g
It has lately been propofed to extraft fugar from the Beet root,
root of the beet; and the attempt has been made, even
in the large w'ay* by Achard of Berlin. The pro¬
cefs which he followed is to boil the roots, cut them
into llices, and extraft the juice by preffure. The
roots are again put into water for 1 2 hours, and again
fubjefted to the prefs. The liquids thus obtained are
filtered through flannel, boiled doivn to 3, and filtered
a fecond time. The remaining liquid is reduced by
boiling to 1 of the original quantity, and again filter¬
ed. It is then evaporated to the confiftence of fyrup.
The cruft which forms on the furface muft be broken
from time to time, and the fpontaneous evaporation
allowed to continue till the furface is covered with a
vifcid pellicle, inftead of the cryftals which firft form
on it. The whole mafs is then introduced into woollen
bags, and the mucilage is feparated by preffure. This
fugar, which in many refpe&s poffeffes the properties
of common fugar, is contaminated with fome matter,
which communicates a bitter naufeous tafte. Many
other plants alfo contain fugar, either in the roots, the
fap, or the feeds. It exifts in wheat, barley, beans,
peafej
/
CHEMISTRY.
2349
Ufes.
235°
Prepara¬
tion.
235*
1 Properties.
Component.peafe, and other leguminous feeds, efpecially when they
Part^ cf are youngs Jn conliderable quantity.
Vegeta es. ^ ^ upes pUgar are p0 familjar> Jt Js fcafce_
ly neceffary to enumerate them. In moft countries
where it can be obtained, it may be confidered in
fome meafure as a neceffary of life. It contains a great
proportion of nutritious matter. It is not changed by
the a&ion of the air, fo that it may be preferved for
any length of time. It is employed to preferve other
vegetable matters from putrefa£Hon, and fometimes it
is alio advantageoufly applied to a limilar purpofe, in
the prefervation of animal fubftances.
III. Of Jelly.
1. Jelly is a foft tremulous fubftance which is obtain¬
ed from the juice of different fruits, efpecially from
currants and bramble berries. The juice is extrafted
by expreflion, and when it is allowed to remain at reft,
it coagulates. It is ftill mixed w ith a portion of a-
queous liquid $ but this being poured off, and the coa¬
gulated part walhed with water, the jelly remains near¬
ly pure.
2. It is fometimes perfe&ly colourlefs, but frequent¬
ly tinged with the colouring matter of the fruit. It
is of a foft, tremulous confiftence, and has an agreeable,
flightly acid tafte. It diffolves readily in hot water,
and again coagulates on cooling. In cold water it is
nearly infoluble. It is deprived of the property of
coagulating by boiling, and then it is fimilar to muci¬
laginous matter.
3- By coagulating the juices of the fruits which
yield jelly, feparating the liquid parts by filtration,
afterwards waftiing the coagulum with cold water,
and by allowing the mafs to dry, it is found diminifhed
in bulk, and is tranfparent and brittle, having many of
the properties of gum j fo that it has been fuppofed
that jelly is this latter fubftance in combination with
fome vegetable acid.
4. Jelly is converted into oxalic acid by means of
nitric acid. It combines readily with the alkalies ;
and when it is diftilled, it yields a confiderable por¬
tion of acetic acid mixed with oil, but no percepti¬
ble quantity of ammonia. Jelly is found in all the
acid fruits, as in goofeberries, oranges, and lemons.
IV. Of Acids.
I. The acids which exift in many vegetables are at
©nee recognized by their tafie. Thcfe acids were for¬
merly denominated ejfential falls of vegetables, and it
was fuppofed, that all effential falls were the fame, and
were compofed of tartar, or vinegar. But Scheele’s
difeovery of the citric, malic, and gallic acids, which
poffeffing diftinft properties from thofe of tartaric and
acetic acids, proved the contrary. Some vegetables
contain only one acid, as oranges and lemons, which
contain citric acid only. In other vegetables two
acids are found, as in goofeberries and currants, the
malic and citric acids; and fometimes three, as the
tartaric, citric, and malic acids, which exift together in
the pulp of the tamarind. As the acids which exift
in vegetables have been already deferibed, with the
method of preparing them, it is now only neceffary
to enumerate the vegetable acids, fpecifying at the
2332
Refembles
gum.
2353
A&ion of
nitric acid.
5354
Eafiiy
known.
fame time feme of the plants from which they are ob- Component
tained. Pam of
2. Acetic acid has been difeovered in the fap of. e^a ^7
feme trees, and in the acid juice of cicer arietinum. *355
In the latter it is mixed with oxalic and malic acids. Acetic.
Acetic acid w'as detetted by Seheele in the fambucus
nigra or elder. _ 23s6
3. Oxalic acid exifts in combination w ith potafti, in Oxalic,
the leaves of the oxalis acetofella or wood-ferrel. In
other fpecies belonging to the fame genus, and in fome
fpecies of rumex, it is in the ftate of acidulous oxalate
of potafti. Oxalate of lime has been found in the root
of rhubarb. 233y
4. The following vegetable fubftances contain tar-Tartaric,
taric acid ; in which, however, it is combined with
potafti, in the ftate of acidulous tartrate of potafh.
In this ftate it is found in the pulp of the tamarind,
the juice of grapes, of mulberries, of rumex acetofa
or forrel, of rheum raponticum, or rhubarb, and of
agave americana. It is found alfo in the roots of Iritis
cum repens, or couch-grafs, and in leontodon taraxacum,
or dandelion. 23sg
5. Citric acid is found in the juice of oranges and Citric,
lemons, in the berries of two fpecies of vaccimum, the
oxycoccos or cranberry, and the vitis ideea or red
whortleberry, thzprunus padus, or bird cherry,yo/anzrm
dulcamara, bitter-fw eet, or nightfhade, rofa canina, or
wild rofe. _ _ _ _ 23S9
6. Malic acid exifts unmixed with other acids, in Malic,
the apple, the barberry, plum, floe, elder, rowan, or
fruit of the mountain afli.
In the goofeberry, in the cherry, ftrauberry, cur¬
rants, and fcmd other fruits, malic and citric acids are
found nearly in equal proportions.
Malic acid has been found mixed with tartaric
acid in the agave americana, and in the pulp of ta ¬
marinds, along with citric acid. Vauquelin found it
combined with lime, forming a malate of lime, in the
fempervivum ieBorum or houfe-leek j in three fpecies
of fedum or ftone-crop, namely the album, acre, and
telephium; in different fpecies of craffula and viefem-
bryanthemum, and in arum maculatum. _ ^ ^
7. Gallic acid is found in a great number of plants, Galiw.
and in them it exifts chiefly in the bark. The follow¬
ing are the relative proportions of tire quantity of gal¬
lic acid in different plants, as they have been afeertain-
ed by Mr Biggiu.
Elm 7
Oak cut in winter 8
Horfe-chefnut 6
Beech 7
Willow boughs 8
Elder 4
Plum-tree 8
Willow trunk 9
Sycamore 6
Birch 8
Cherry-tree 4
Sallow 8
Mountain a(h 8
Poplar 8
Hazel q
A(h 10
Spanifh chefnwt 10
Smooth oak 10
Oak cut in fpring 10
Huntingdon or Lei-
cefter willow i o
Sumac 14
* Kichol.
your. iii.
* P- 394. 41°“
2361
8. Benzoic acid is found in benzoin, balfam of To-j3enZoic
lu and Peru, liquid ftyrax, cinnamon, and vanilla.
Fourcroy and Vauquelin fufpeft that it exifts in the
anthoxanthum odoratum, or fweet^feented grafs, which
communicates the aromatic flavour to hav.
4Y2
9. Pruftie
724
Component
Parts of
Vegetables.
■23,62
Pruffic.
CHEMISTRY.
2.3^3
Phofphoric.
2364
Prepara¬
tion.
Properties.
2366
Aifiion of
heat.
2367
Of acids.
236S
Comp'jfi-
tion.
9. Pruflic actd has been found in the leaves of the
laurocerafus and peach, in bitter almonds, in the
kernels of apricots ; and it is fuppofed that it exifts al-
fo in the kernels of peaches, of plums, and cherries.
It is obtained from the kernels of apricots by diltilling
water off them with a moderate heat ^ and if lime be
added to the concentrated infuiion of bitter almonds, a
pruffiate of lime is formed.
to. Phofphoric acid has been found in different parts
of plants y but it is generally combined with lime, form-
ing a phofphate of lime. This fait exifts in the leaves
cf many trees, in the aconitum napellut, or monks-hood,
and in all kinds of grain.
V. Of Starch.
1. If a pafte be formed of wheat flour and water,
•and this be waihed with additional quantities of water,
till it is no longer turbid, but comes oft' pure and co~
lourlefs, the mafs which remains beromes tenacious and
ductile. This is called gluten, which will be afterwards
defcribed. If the water with which the patte was
walhed be allowed to remain at reft, it depofits a white
powder, which is diftinguilhed by the name of fecula
or Jlarch.
2. Starch is of a fine white colour, and is ufually in
the ftate of concrete columnar maffes. It has no per¬
ceptible fmell, and fcarcely any tafte. It is little al¬
tered by expofure to the air j when it is expofed to
heat on a hot iron, it melts, fwells up, becomes black,
and burns with a bright flame. The charcoal which
remains, contains a little potafh. When it is diftillcd,
it gives out water mixed with acetic acid, which is con¬
taminated with oil. It gives out alfo carbonic acid
and carbonated hydrogen gas.
3. Starch is not foluble in cold, but forms a thick
pafte with boiling water, and when this pafte is allow¬
ed to cool, it becomes femitranfparent and gelatinous ;
it is brittle when dry, fomewhat refembling gum. If
this pafte be expofed to moift air, it is decompofed, for
it acquires an acrid tafte.
4. Sulphuric acid diffolves ftarch flowly; fulphurous
acid is difengaged, and a great quantity of charcoal is
formed. •
Muriatic acid alfo diffolves ftarch, and the folution
refembles mucilage of gum arabic. When left at reft,
a thick, oily, mucilaginous liquid appears above, and
a tranfparent ftraw-coloured fluid below. The odour
of muriatic acid remains j but when water is added,
it is deftroyed, and a ftrong peculiar fmell is emitted.
Starch is alfo foluble in nitric acid, with the evolu¬
tion of nitrous gas. The folution affumes a green
polour, and when heat is applied, the ftarch is con¬
verted into oxalic and malic acids. Some part of the
ftarch, however, is infoluble in nitric acid, and when
this is feparated by filtration, and waftied with water,
it has a thick oily appearance like tallow, is foluble
in alcohol, and when diftilled, yields acetic acid, and
an oily matter fimilar to tallow in colour and confift-
ence.
5. Starch is infoluble in alcohol, but is foluble in
the alkalies ; injure potafti it fwells up, becomes tranf¬
parent and gelatinous, and is then fufceptible of iblu-
tion in alcohol. The component parts of ftarch, as ap¬
pears by diftilling it, and by the a&ion of re-agents,
are oxygen, hydrogen, and carbone.
6. Starch exifts in a great number of vegetable fub-Component
ftances, but chiefly in the roots and feeds, and particu- v^“rts ot
larly thofe which are employed as food. 1 egfc^')]ts.
Starch, it is well known, may be-obtained from the
potato. If the potato be grated down and waftied with Found m
water till it comes off pure and colourlefs, this waterroots an(l
being left at reft, depofits a fine white powder, which ‘eec*s‘
affumes fomething of a cryftallized appearance, and is potato^°
heavier than wheat ftarch. 2371
Sago, which is well known on account of its nutri-Sago.
tious qualities, is obtained from the pith of different
fpecies of palms which grow within the tropics. The
Item is cut into pieces, which are fplit into two j the
pith is waftied out with cold water, which being left
at reft depofits the ftarch. The water is poured off,
and before the remaining mafs is fully dried, it is for¬
ced through a perforated veffel, and granulated, in
which ftate it is brought to Europe.
Saloup, which is chiefly compofed of ftarch, is pre-ga]0Up/ ''
pared from the roots of different fpecies of orchis. It
is meftly imported from Perfia. 2,^
Caffava, or caffada, is a kind of bread chiefly com- Caffava,
pofed of ftarch, which is much ufed as an article of
food in the Weft Indies. It is prepared from the
roots of the jatropha manihot. The roots are well
walhed, grated down, and put into bags, which are
fubjefted to ftrong preffure. By this procefs the
whole of the juice is leparated. This juice, or fome¬
thing at leaft which it holds in folution, when taken
internally, is a deadly poifon to moft animals. The
matter remaining in a bag is dried and fifted, and
without any other addition, when it is fpread thin on
a hot ftone, it forms a cake, which is the caffada
bread, found to be of a very nutritious quality, in
confequence of the great proportion of ftarch W'hich it
contains. ^
Some fpecies of the tribe of lichen contain a confi- Ljchen.
derable proportion of ftarch, as the lichen rangiferinus,
or rein-deer lichen, which affords food to the rein-deer,
and the lichen ifiandicus which is formed into bread
by the Icelanders, and is found to be extremely nutri¬
tious. The latter has lately been recommended as
a remedy in confumption •, but it probably pofleffes no
other virtue in the cure of that fatal difeafe, than af¬
fording a great proportion of nutritious matter in fmall
bulk.
VI. Of Albumen.
1. The exiftence of albumen in vegetable fubftances
had begun to be doubted by chemifts, till it was late¬
ly difcovered, by Vauquelin, in the juice of the carica
papaya, or papaxv-tree, which grows in different coun¬
tries within the torrid zone. The juice which exudes
from this tree, was brought home in the liquid ftate,
mixed with an equal quantity of rum, and another
portion of the juice was in the ftate of extract. The
firft was of a reddifti broxvn colour, was femitranfpa¬
rent, and had the odour and tafte of boiled beef. The
fecond was of a yellowifli w'hite colour, femitranfpa¬
rent, and of a fweetifti tafte •, had no perceptible
fmell, but was of a firm confiftence, and in the form of
fmall irregular maffes. When the dried portion was
macerated in cold water, it was almoft entirely diffol-
ved. When nitric acid was added, a copious white
precipitate was formed. This was the albumen in the
ftate
2374
Co nponent
Parts of
Vegetables.
"-375
Refelnbles
animal al¬
bumen.
^ Annul, tie
Chim. xliii.
p. 270. and
xlix. p. 304.
2376
Prepara¬
tion.
4377
Properties.
2378
Ferments.
4379
Aftion of
acids.
2380
Of alcohol
on ferment,
ed gluten.
4381
Of alkalies.
C H E M
Hate of white flakes. When the extra# of this juice
was fubje#ed to diftiilation, it yielded carbonate of am¬
monia, a thick fetid, reddiih coloured oil, carbonic acid,
and carbonated hydrogen gaffes, and there remained
behind a light carbonaceous matter j which, being
burnt, left a quantity of white alhes, confiding almoit
entirely of phofphate of lime.
2. From other experiments to which this matter was
fubjefted by the fame chemiit, from its folution in w a¬
ter, its coagulation by means of heat, its a&ion with
the acids, the alkalies, metallic folutions, the infufion
of nut-galls, and alcohol, he concludes, that it is precifc-
ly of the lame nature with animal albumen *.
VII. Of Gluten.
1. When a pafte is formed with flour and water, and
wathed with more water till it paffes off pure and co-
lourlefs, a tenacious, du#ile, foft, elaftic mafe remains
behind, which is gluten.
2. This fubfiance is of a gray colour, extremely duc¬
tile and tenacious, and poffeffes confiderable elaltici-
ty. It has a peculiar fmell, but no perceptible tafte.
When it is fuddenly dried, it increafes much in vo¬
lume, and, when it is expofed to heat, it cracks, fwells,
blackens, and burns like horn, exhaling a fetid odour.
When it is diililled, it yields water impregnated with
ammonia, and an empyreumatic oil j charcoal remains
behind. When mpift gluten is expofed to the air, it
gradually dries, becomes hard, brittle, flightly tranf-
parent, and of a brownilh colour, having fome refem-
blance to glue. When it is broken, it refembles the
fra#ure of glafs. It is infoluble in water, but retains
a portion of it, which'it abforbs, and to which the ela-
fticity and tenacity are owing. It is deprived of thefe
properties by boiling.
3. When it is kept moiil, it ferments with the evo¬
lution of hydrogen and carbonic acid gafes. An of-
fenfive putrid odour is given out at the fame time.
The gluten afterwards, if the procefs be allowed to go
on, exhales the fmell, and acquires the tafte of cheefe.
In this Hate it is found to contain ammonia and acetic
acid.
4. Gluten is foluble in all the acids. It is precipi¬
tated from this folution by all the alkalies, and is then
nearly in the flate of extractive matter, being deprived
of its elaftieity. It is decompofed by concentrated ful-
phuric acid j hydrogen gas is emitted, and wrater, char¬
coal, and ammonia are formed. It is alfo decompofed
by nitric acid j azotic gas is emitted, and if the heat
be continued, a portion of oxalic acid is formed. Yel¬
low coloured oily flakes are precipitated. After gluten
is fermented, it is foluble in acetic acid, and this folu¬
tion fnay be employed as a varnifh.
5. Gluten is infoluble in alcohol and in ether 5 but
if fermented gluten be triturated with a little alcohol,
and afterwards mixed with a quantity of the fame liquid,
part of it is diffolved and forms a varnifh, which may
be employed either for paper or wood, for cementing
china, or for mixing with vegetable colours that arc
ufed as paints. Pieces of linen dipped in this varnifli,
adhere ftrongly to other bodies, and if lime be added
to the folution, it conititutes a good lute.
6. With the affiltance of heat gluten Is ffluble in
the akalies 3 and when they are much concentrated it
1 s T R Y. 725
is decompofed, and formed into a kind of foap, confilt- Component
ing of oil and ammonia. v^cb! s
7. It appears from the diltillation of gluten, and ■ s ^ ‘
from its fpontaneous decompofition, that it confifts of 2382
oxygen, hydrogen, carbone, and azote. The vapour Compoii-
which is evolved during the fermentation of gluten,tlon*
blackens filver, from which it is inferred that fulphur
is one of its conflituent parts. From the properties
and compofition of gluten, the refemblance between
this fubftance and animal matter is fuffieiently obvi-
0US' ... ‘ 2383
8. Gluten exifis in greateft abundance in wheat In wheat,
flour, but it is found in a great number of plants, and
in different parts of vegetables. It exifts in coniider- 2 ^
able proportion in the juice of the leaves of many Leaves,
plants, as thofe of the cabbage, creffes, &c. When
this juice is procured by expreflion, filtered through a
cloth, and allowed to remain at relt, it depofits in the
courfe of fome days, a greenilh powder, which has been
called the green feculaof plants. Thisfecula is chief¬
ly compofed of gluten mixed with a refinous matter,
which gives it its colour, and a portion of woody fibre.
If this juice be expofed to the temperature of about
130°, the fecula coagulates in the form of large flakes.
It dries when feparated from the water, and affumes the
appearance of horn. When it is treated like gluten,
it alfo acquires the fmell and tafte of cheefe.
Gluten has been found in acorns, chefnuts, and horfe- jn feeds and
chefnuts, in barley, rye, peafe, and beans 3 in apples fruits,
and quinces; in the leaves of fedum of different fpe-
cies, hemlock, borrage, faffron; in the petals of the
rofe, in the berries of the elder, and in the grape.
None was detefted in the potato by Prouft, although
he found it in feveral other roots.
A fubftance which refembles the fibrina of the
blood, was found by Vauquelin in the juice of the pa-
paw-tree. When tfyis juice is mixed with water, part
is diflblved, and part remains infoluble. The latter
has a greafy appearance, becomes foft in the air, vifeid,
brown, and femitranfparent. It melted when thrown
on burning coals, while drops of greafe exuded. It
was entirely confumcd, without leaving any refiduum.
But according to fome, this fubftance is exa£tly fimilar
to gluten, and therefore, is not to be confidered as one
of the conllituents of vegetable matter.
9. Gluten is one of the molt important of the com- ufesf
ponent parts of vegetable fubftances. It is one of the
chief ingredients in wheat, and to this it is owing that,
wheat flour is fit for being formed into bread,.
VIII. Of Extractive Matter.
1. The word extraB was formerly employed to fig-Prepanw
nify the infpiffated juices of vegetables, but of late it tlon.
has been limited to a peculiar principle poffeffed of dif-
tinCl properities. If faffron be infufed in water for
fome time, and if the infufion be filtered and evaporated,
to drynefs, the refiduum is that fubltance to which the
name of extractive principle is given.
2. The following properties of extra# were afeer- p10nerdcs.
tained by Vauquelin. 1. All extra#s have an acid* 1
tafle. 2. If a few drops of ammonia be added to a fo¬
lution of extra#, a brown precipitate is formed, which,
confilts Oi lime, and part of the extra# becomes in-,
foluble. 3. Sulphuric acid difengages a penetrating
acid vapour, which is found to be acetic acid. 4. When,
^ quicklime
J26
Component
Farts of
-Vegetables
CHEMISTRY.
23S9
Shafts in
•old plants.
*39°
In the
bark.
2391
Catechu.
2392
Senna.
quicklime is added to a folution of^ extraftive matter,
ammonia is difengaged. A folution of fulphate of
alumina without excefs of acid, being poured into a lo-
lution of extra6live matter, and boiled, there is formed
in the liquid a flaky precipitate which is compofed of
alumina and vegetable matter, and rendered infoluble
in water. 6. Almoft all metallic folutions produce
a fimilar effea. With muriate of tin an infoluble
brown precipitate is formed, which is compofed of the
oxide of tin and vegetable matter. . 7* Oxymuriatic
acid poured into a folution of extractive matter, forms
a copious, dark yellow precipitate. Muriatic acid re¬
mains in the folution. 8. If wool, cotton, or thread,
be impregnated with alum, and boiled with a fo¬
lution of extractive matter, thefe fubftances become
charged with a great quantity of the extractive fub-
ftance, they affume a fawn-brown tint, and the folu¬
tion lofes a great deal of its colour. Ihe feme effect
is produced by immerfing the fubflances to be dyed in
a folution of muriate of tin. The effect is Hill better, if
oxymuriatic acid be employed inftead of alum, or the to-
lution of muriate of tin. 9* Wdien extraftiye matter
is diltilled in an open fire, it yields an acid liquid,
which contains a greater portion of ammonia than
when it is diftilled in the humid way with lime or alka¬
li. 'io. When extractive matter is diffolved in water,
and is left expofed to the open air, it is completely de-
compofed. The carbonates of potafh, of ammonia, and
of lime, and fome other mineral felts which previoufly
exifted in the extractive matter, and are indeltruCtible
by putrid fermentation, remain behind.
3. It appears that extractive matter is found m
greater proportion in old plants. It is found in dif¬
ferent parts of the plant. It frequently forms one of
the conftituents of the fap. It is this extractive mat¬
ter which precipitates during the evaporation of the
fap, or when oxymuriatic acid is added to it.
Extractive matter has been found in the bark of
many trees, and it is fuppofed that it exifts in all barks
which pofiefs an aftringent property. It has been found
in the bark of the common willow, the Leicefter willow,
the oak, and the elnn
Extractive matter has been obtained from the in-
fufion of catechu, in which it is united with tan. If
the powder of catechu be repeatedly wafhed with wa¬
ter, the liquid which pafles off no longer precipitates
gelatine. The refiduum is extractive matter, of a red-
diih-brown colour, has no fmell, but a flightly aftrin¬
gent tafte. The folution in water is at firft yellow-
ifh-brown, but acquires a red colour by expofure to
the air. Many of the metallic falts form a precipi¬
tate with the folution of this matter. Linen boiled in
it almoft extracts the whole, and becomes of a light
red brown colour. Extractive matter foftens when ex¬
pofed to heat •, the colour beegmes darker, but it does
not melt. When it is diftilled, it yields carbonic and
carbonated hydrogen gafes, acetic acid, and a fmall
portion of extractive matter unchanged. A light por¬
ous charcoal remains behind.
The infufion of the leaves of fenna is of a brown co¬
lour, has a peculiar aromatic odour, and a bitter tafte.
When the air of the atmofphere or oxygen gas is
made to pafs through this infufion, a yellow coloured
precipitate is formed. It is produced alfo by adding
fo the folution muriatic or cxymuriatic acid. In this
ftate the extractive matter has combined with oxygen, Component
and has affirmed a yellow colour, and being no longer Parts of
foluble in water, it is precipitated. The tafte is flight- Wgetabks.
ly bitter. It is foluble in alcohol, but when water is
added, it is thrown down. It is foluble alfo in al¬
kalies, and forms with them a deep brown folution.
When placed on burning coals, it gives out a denfe
fmoke, exhales an aromatic odour, and leaves behind a
fpongy mafs of charcoal.
Extractive matter is obtained from the infufion of Peruvian
Peruvian bark, which being united with oxygen, be-bark,
comes of a fine red colour. It is obtained by boiling
water on it, and by flow evaporation, and then diflblving
what remains in alcohol. By evaporating the alcohol,
the peculiar extractive matter is depofited. The mat¬
ter thus obtained was of a brown colour, of a bitter
tafte, foluble in hot water and alcohol, but infoluble
in cold water. It is of a black colour when dry,
and brittle. It breaks wdth a polifhed fraCture. With
the addition of lime-water it was precipitated in the
form of a fine red powder, which combined with al¬
kalies, but is infoluble in water and alcohol.
IX. Of Colouring Matter.
’394
1. Colouring matter is extra&ed from a number of Exifts in
plants for the purpofes of dyeing, as from madder, car-many
thamus, brazil wood, logwood, yellow weed or refeda P1^3-
luteola, fuftic or yellow-wood, anatto, and indigo.
2. The colouring matter of madder or rubia tine- Madder.
toruniy is foluble in alcohol. By evaporation it leaves
a refiduum of a dark red colour. A violet precipitate
is formed in this folution by a fixed alkali.. Sulphu¬
ric acid produces a fawn-coloured precipitate, and ful¬
phate of potafh, a beautiful red. Precipitates of dif¬
ferent fhades of colour are obtained with alum, nitre,
chalk, acetate of lead, and muriate of tin.
3. Carthamus (tin&orius) contains two colouring Carthamus.
matters, the one yellow' and the other red. The firft
only is foluble in water, but the folution is turbid. It
becomes tranfparent with the addition of acids } with
alkalies it inclines to an orange colour $ a fawn-colour¬
ed precipitate is formed, and then the folution becomes
clear. Alum produces a dark yellow precipitate, but
not very copious. A flight tin&ure is extrafled from
the flowers of this plant by means of alcohol, after
the whole of the yellow matter has been diffolved by
water.
4. Brazil wood, or fernauibouc, is much employed Brazil
in dyeing. A recent decoftion of this wood gives a wood,
red precipitate inclining to fawn colour with fulphuric
acid. The liquid in which the folution was made re¬
mains tranfparent and of a yellow colour. With the
firft addition of nitric acid the tinfture firft pafles
to a yellow colour 5 but with a greater quantity, be¬
comes of a dark orange yellow and tranfparent, after
having depofited a matter fimilar in colour to the for¬
mer, but more copious. The fame changes take place
with the muriatic acid as with the fulphuric.
5. Logwood or Campeachy wood yields its colouring Logwood
matter to water and to alcohol, but more copioufly to
the latter. The tindture of logwood, or the folution in
alcohol, is of a beautiful red colour, inclining to violet
or purple. Thefe different fliades are more obvious in
the decodlion in water. When the aqueous folution is
left
Component
farts of
i^egenbles.
2399
yellow
weed.
1400
Fuftis.
5401
Anatto.
4402
[ndigo.
2403
Prepara-
ion.
C H E M I
left to itfelf, it firft becomes yellow, and then changes
to black. The addition of acids produces a yellow
colour j alkalies deepen the colour and reftore the
purple or violet. Sulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids
throw down a light precipitate which feparates (low¬
ly. Sulphate of iron communicates a biuiih colour
fomewhat refembling ink. A copious precipitate of a
fimilar colour is formed at the fame time.
6. Yellow weed, or dyers weed {refeda luteoia, Lin.)
in folution in water yields a yellow colour inclining to
brown. When it is diluted with a greater quantity
of water, the yellow colour which was more or lefs
bright changes a little to green. The colour becomes
paler with the addition of acids. It becomes deeper
by the a&ion of alkalies.
7. Fuftic, or yellow wood {morvs tinRoria, Lin.)
contains a great proportion of colouring matter. A
Itrong decoftion in water is of a dark reddilh yellow
colour. When water is added to this folution the co¬
lour becomes orange-yellow. The liquid grows turbid
with the addition of acids. Alkalies render it much
deeper and nearly red.
8. Anatto is in the form of a dry hard pafle, exter¬
nally brown, and internally of a beautiful red colour.
It is prepared from the feeds of the bixa orellana by
reducing them to powder, mixing them with water,
and allowing them to ferment. Anatto is more folu-
ble in alcohol than in water. With the addition of an
alkali the folution is promoted, and the colour inclines
lefs to red.
Befide thefe, a great variety of other vegetable fub-
ftances give out their colouring matter to water or al¬
cohol, and are employed in dyeing. To what has
now been faid, however, we (hall only add a Ihort
account of one of the molt important, namely indigo.
9. Indigo is a colouring matter which is obtained
from feveral plants, and has fome refemblance to fecu-
la or llarch. The indigo of commerce is chiefly ob¬
tained from the indigofera tint!aria, a fhrubby plant
which is cultivated in the Ealt and Weft Indies, for
the purpofe of extracting the colouring matter.
10. When the indigo plant has arrived at maturity,
it is cut down, and conveyed to large wooden veflels,
where it is covered with water, and foon commences a
fermentation. When the plant is cut down at the
period of its maturity, it produces a more beautiful
colour, but in fmaller quantity. If it be too late, the
quantity is ftill diminilhed, and the indigo is of a
bad quality. The putrefaClive procefs foon com¬
mences, and fucceeds beft about the temperature of
8o°. The water becomes turbid, and of a green co¬
lour. The fmell of ammonia and carbonic acid gas
are evolved. The fermenting procefs is finilhed in
the period of from 6 to 24 hours, according to the
temperature and ftate of the plant. The liquid is
then poured off into flat veffels, in which it is conftant-
ly agitated till blue flakes appear. With the additien
of a quantity of lime-water thefe flakes precipitate to
the bottom. A yellowith liquid is poured off, and the
blue precipitate is colleCted in linen bags, from which
the water drains off. When the matter in the bag has
acquired fufficient conliftence, it is formed into fmall
cakes, which are flowly dried in the (hade. This is
ffee indigo of commerce.
s T R Y. 737
11. Indigo may be alfo extracted from the neriam Component
Unclorium, or rofebay, a plant which grows in abund- *>aits°* _
ance in the Eaft Indies, from the leaves of which Dr , Cg C»
Roxborough extraCled it, by the following procefi. 2404
He digefted the leaves in a copper veffel with water, From other
kept at the temperature of 160° till they affumed aP^ants*
yellowifh colour. The liquid becomes of a deep green;
it is then poured off, and with the addition or lime-
water is agitated till the indigo is precipitated. To
produce one pound ef indigo, two or three hundred
pounds weight of gre.en leaves were found neceftary ;
but this quantity varies according to the feafon and
ftate of weather in which they are collected. 240^
1 2. The if at is tinRoria% or woad, which is a Britiih From
plast, alfo yields indigo, by treating it in the fame way woa£*‘
as the indigo plant. 2406
13. The hiftory of indigo is curious. It was early Hiftory
known in India, but its value as a dye-ftuff was not0^11^0*
underftood in Europe before the middle of the 16th
century. But what is moft fingular, the ufe of this
fubftance was either reftrifled or entirely prohibited in
different countries, from fome prejudice that its effects
in dyeing were injurious. The ufe of it was prohibit¬
ed in England from the time of Queen Elizabeth till
the reign of Charles II. It was alfo prohibited in
Saxony. It is deferibed in the edidl as a cerrofive
fubftance, and denominated food for the devil! In
France during the adminiftration of Colbert, the dyers
were rcftri&ed to the ufe of a certain quantity. For
fome time after, indigo was generally employed as a
dye fluff in Europe, and was chiefly cultivated in the
Weft Indies, and fome parts of the American con¬
tinent. This indigo was generally preferred in the
market. What is now cultivated in the Eaft Indies
is found to be equal in quality.
14. Indigo is a light, friable fubftance, of a compaft Properties^
texture, and a deep blue colour. The (hade varies
from copper, violet, and blue tints. The lighteft indi¬
go is the beft. It is always contaminated with extra¬
neous matters. Bergman found in the pureft indigo
which he could procure, the following component
parts.
Pure indigo
Gum
Relin
Barytes
Lime
Silica
Oxide of iron
47
12
6
10.2
10.0
1.3
13.0
2408
Compoiw-
tion.
100.0
Other earths have been found in indigo. In fome fpe-
cimens Prouft detected magnefia.
15. Pure indigo is a foft pow der of a deep blue co- Aiflion of
lour, which has neither tafte nor frnell, When expofedheat.
to heat, it emits a bluifti red fmoke, and then burns
away with a faint white flame. The earthy part re¬
mains behind in the ftate of allies. It undergoes no
change by expofure to the air. It is infoluble in wa¬
ter, but if kept fome time under it, a fetid odour is ex¬
haled, owing to fonae change. 24Tcr
1,6. Diluted fulphuric acid poured upon indigo dif- of acids*
folves
728
2411
Effects of
different
fubftances
on liquid
blue.
C H E M I
Component folves only die earthy anti mucilaginous matters 5 but
Farts of jf concentrated fulphuric acid be added, in the proper-
X egetablcs. tjon 0p gjgjjj. parts of acid to one of indigo, the latter
is diil'olved with the evolution of heat, in about 24
hours. The mixture is black and opaque ; but if wa¬
ter be added, it becomes clear, and of a fine blue co¬
lour, producing various (hades, according to the quan¬
tity of water. This folution of indigo in fulphuric acid
is called /iquid blue, or according to Bancroft, fulphate
of indigo.
Bergman made a great number of experiments on
the effeft of different fubftances on this folution, fotne
of which we (hall now mention, in which the colour
was either changed, or entirely deftroyed. When it
was dropped into fulphurous acid, the colour which
was at firft blue, became green, and wras at baft de¬
ftroyed. In diluted tartaric acid the colour became
gradually green, and was at laft converted into a pale
yellow. In acetic acid it became green, and was at
laft deftroyed. In potafti, carbonate of potafh, foda,
ammonia and its carbonate, the colour became green,
and at laft difappeared. In fulphate of foda, the folu¬
tion being diluted, after feme time became green. It
alfo became green in fulphale of iron, and at laft diiap-
peared. In the fulphurets the colour was very foon de¬
ftroyed. Black oxide of manganefe produced the fame
effect. Thefe experiments have been mentioned, to
(hew that indigo is deprived either partially or totally
of its colouring matter, by thofe fubftances which have
a ftrong affinity for oxygen. From.this it is inferred
that indigo owes its colour to oxyget^j and that it be¬
comes green when it is deprived of it.
Concentrated nitric acid attacks indigo with fuch
violence, that it fometimes inflames it. By diluting
the acid, the aftion is greatly moderated. The folu¬
tion becomes of a brown colour j cryftals appear, which
are fuppofed to be oxalic acid, and a brown vifeid fub-
ftance remains behind.
Muriatic acid diflblves indigo precipitated from ful¬
phuric acid, and forms a liquid of a dark-blue colour*
The other acids, as the phofphoric, acetic, and tartaric,
exhibited firnilar phenomena. They readily diflblve in¬
digo, which has been precipitated.
Oxymuriatic acid has little action on indigo in
fubftance, but it deftroys the colour of it in the (late
of folution.
17. Neither alcohol, ether, nor oils, have any adlion
on indigo. Common indigo, when digefted with al¬
cohol and ether, communicates a yellow colour 5 but
this, it is fuppofed, is owing to the folution of the refin-
ous fubftance.
18. The folution of the fixed alkalies readily diffolves
indigo, when it is precipitated from its folution. The
colour of the folution is at firft green, and is at laft de¬
ftroyed. Liquid ammonia and its carbonate produce a
fimilar effeft, from which it appears, that indigo is de-
compofed by the alkalies.
19. Lime water alfo diflblves indigo precipitated
from its folution. The colour is at firft green, becomes
gradually yellow ; when expofed to the air, the green
returns, and at laft difappears.
_ 20. Bergman fubjeefed indigo to the procefs of di-
ftillation ; from 576 grains he obtained the following
produfts ;
24”.
Nitric acid.
24i3
Of alcohol.
24'4
Alkalies.
S T K Y.
Carbonic acid gas - - 19
Yellow acid liquid containing ammonia 173
Oil - - - \ - 53
Charcoal - - - 331
576
The component parts of indigo, therefore, appear to be
oxygen, carbone, hydrogen, and azote.
X. Of Bitter Matter.
Com potent
Parts of
Vegetables,
241S
Compofi.
tion.
2415
1. A great number of vegetable fub(lances are diftin-differerr
guiftied by a very bitter taite, fuch as quaflia, a fub- fubftances.
ftance ufed in medicine, gentian, hops, chamomile.
This tafte is aferibed to a peculiar matter, called from
this property bitter matter. It may be obtained by in-
fufing quaflia for fome time in water. This folution,
which is of a yellow colour, has an extremely bittef
tafte, but no fmell. If the water be evaporated with a
moderate heat to drynefs, a brownifti yellow fubftance,
which has fome degree of tranfparency and dutfti-
lity, remains behind. After fome time it becomes
brittle.
2. When this fubftance, which has a very bitter pr0pertjei
tafte, and a brown yellowifti colour, is heated, it fof-
tens, fwells, and blackens, then burns away without
much flame, and leaves -a fmall quantity of afhes. It
is Very foluble in water and alcohol. Nitrate of filver
renders it turbid, and afterwards produces a yellow pre¬
cipitate in the form of flakes. Acetate of lead produces
a copious white precipitate.
¥
XL Of Narcotic Matter.
1. A peculiar fubftance has been dete&ed in opium, found in
to which it is fuppofed the properties it pofiefl'es of different
producing deep, are ow ing. On account of this pro- P*ants-
perty this fubftance has received the name of narcotic
matter. It is obtained from the milky juices of fome
plants, as thofe of the poppy, lettuce, and fome others.
Opium, which is extracted from the poppy, is prepared
by the follow ing procefs.
The heads of the palaver album or W'hite poppy, E*tradios
which is cultivated in India and different countries of of opium,
the eaft for this purpofe, are wounded with a (harp in-
ftrument; a milky juice flows out, which concretes, and
is collefted and formed into cakes. 2^20
2. In this ftate opium is a tenacious fubftance, of a Propertie;.
brownifli colour, has a peculiar fmell, and a difagree-
able bitter tafte. It becomes foft with a moderate
beat. It readily takes fire, and burns rapidly. By
the analyfis of opium, it appears to be compofed of
the fulphates of lime and of potafti, extractive matter,
gluten, mucilage, refinous matter, and an oil, belides
the narcotic matter to which its peculiar properties
are owing. 2421
3. By digefting opium in water, part of it is diffol- Separation
ved, and by evaporating the folutioh to the confidence
of fyrup, a gritty precipitate appears, which becomes ter>
more copious W'ith the addition of water. This pre¬
cipitate is compofed of refinous and extradive matter,
befides the peculiar narcotic matter which is cryftal-
lized. When alcohol is digefted on this precipitate,
the refinous and narcotic matters are diflolved, and
the
e H E M I S T R Y.
1424
A&ion of
34aS
©f acids.
Competent tae extracHve matter remains behind. As the folu-
Parts of tjon coo]Sj the narCotic matter cryftallizes, but the cry-
Vegeta es. ^ajg are coioured whh a portion of refin. By repeated
* Ann. de folutions and cryftallizations it may be obtained tole-
Chim. xlv. rably pure *.
2l53■ If alcohol be digefted on the refiduum, it becomes
Of alcohol. a ^eteP'red colour j the fame cryftals are depofited
on cooling, and may be purified in the fame way
from the refinous matter Avith which they are conta-
minated.
Properties. 4. The narcotic matter, or, as it is called by De-
rofne, the ejj'ential fait of opium, when properly puri¬
fied, is of a white colour, cryftallizes in right-angled
prifms, with a rhomboidal bafe, and has neither tafte
nor fmell. It is infoluble in cold water, and requires
400 parts of boiling w'ater for its folution, from which
it is precipitated by cooling. The folution does not
redden the tin&ure of turnfole. It is foluble in 24
parts of boiling alcohol, and requires about ICO parts
when it is cold. When water is added to the folution
in alcohol, it is precipitated in the form of a white
opaque matter.
Ether and the volatile oils diflolve this fait with the
ether, &c. afliftance of heat j but on cooling it is depofited in the
form of an oily liquid, and fome time after cryftals ap¬
pear at the bottom of the veffel.
5. One of the moft decided characters of this fub-
ftance is its eafy folubility in all the acids, and with¬
out the aid of heat. It is precipitated from thefe fo¬
lutions by means of an alkali, in the form of white
powder. Pure alkalies increafe the power of its folu¬
bility in Avater ; and the acids, when not added in ex-
cefs, occafion a precipitate. When nitric acid is poured
on the cryftals reduced to a coarfe powder, it commu¬
nicates to them a red colour, and readily diffolves them.
When the folution is heated and evaporated, it yields
cryftals of oxalic acid in confiderable quantity. The
refiduum has a very bitter tafte.
6. When it is throwm on burning coals, it gives out
a copious flame. When heated in a fpoon, it gradu¬
ally melts like w'ax. Diftilled in a retort with a mo¬
derate heat, it melts, and afterwards fwells up, with the
evolution of Avhite vapours, Avhich eendenfe on the
tides of the veffel, in the form of a yellow oily matter.
There paffes over, at the fame time, a little water im¬
pregnated with carbonate of ammonia. Towards the
end of the procefs, carbonic acid and carbonated hy¬
drogen gas, Avith fome ammonia, are difengaged.
There remains in the retort a light, fpongy, volumi¬
nous mafs of charcoal, Avhich, by burning, gives fome
traces of potafti. The oily matter depofited in the neck
of the retort is very vifeid, and has a ftrong aromatic
odour, Avith a pungent, acrid tafte.
7. Derofne tried the effects of this fubftance on ani¬
mals, and in very fmall quantity. The fymptoms
which appeared, when it Avas given to dogs, were ex¬
actly fimilar to thofe which are produced, when a large
quantity of crude opium is fwallowed. They were re¬
covered from its effects by means of vinegar, which he
accounts for on the principle of the eafy folubility of
this fubftance in acids.
8. From the effects of heat and of nitric acid on this
fubftance, it appears to be compofed of oxygen, hydro¬
gen, carbone, and azote.
9. This narcotic fubftance is alfo found in the milky
Vol. V. Part II.
729
1^6
Of heat.
Effects on
animals.
2428
Compoli-
iion.
juice, and in the extrafls Athich arc obtained from fe- Component
veral other plants, as from different fpecies of latfuca p*rts
or lettuce, /njefeyamus niger, or henbane. The leaves ■
of fome plants alfo produce fimilar effetts, as thofe of 2429
the deadly nightfhade, foxglove, and conium maculatumOpium
or hemlock. found in
other
XII. Of Oils. plants.
2430
1. The nature, properties, and component parts of Fixed-
oils, have already been detailed, Avhen treating of in¬
flammable fubftances. Oils are of two kinds, fixed
and volatile. Fixed oil exifts chiefly in the feeds of
plants, as linfeed oil, almond oil, and rape-feed oiL
Fixed oil is alfo found in the pulp of fome fruits, as
in that of the olive. Fixed oils are found in thofe
feeds which have double lobes, or two cotyledons, and
in thefe they are mixed Avith a quantity of mucilage.
Thefe oils are extrafted from feeds by exprefiion and
boilinS- . . . 2431
2. Volatile oils are found in all parts of plants, ex- Volatiie-
cepting the feeds. In fome plants they exift in the
root, or the ftem, and in others in the leaves, the
floAver, the pulp and rind of the fruit. The peculiar
odour by which almoft all plants are diftinguiftied, is
fuppofed to be Qjving to a volatile oil. Thefe oils
are alfo extracted by expreflion, and fometimes by dif-
tillation.
XIII. Of Wax.
*43*
1. Wax, of Avhich bees form their combs for con-Prepara-
taining honey, is collected from vegetables; and a fi-tion.
milar fubftance being found in different parts of plants,
it is to be confidered as vegetable matter. The var-
nilh with which the upper furface of the leaves of fome
trees is covered, poffeffes the properties of bees wax.
If the bruifed leaves are digefted in water, and after¬
wards in alcohol, till the foluble part is extracted, and
the refiduum be mixed Avith fix times its weight of a folu¬
tion of ammonia, and after maceration, the folution be¬
ing poured off and filtered, diluted fulphuric acid be
added in excefs to faturate the alkali, conftantly ftirring
it, the varnifti precipitates in the form of a yelloAv pow¬
der. It is then to be Avalhed with Avater; and melted
Avith a moderate heat. This fubftance is wax. 243;
2. Pure wax is of a white colour, has no tafte, and Properties,
fcarcely any fmell. The aromatic fmell of bees wax
is owing to fome fubftance Avith Avhich it is mixed, for
it is entirely removed by expofure to the air, Avhen the
colour at the fame time difappears. Pure wax under¬
goes no change by expofure to the air. The fpecific
gravity is 0.96. It is infoluble in Avater.
3. Wax becomes loft by the application of heat. Adion^of
Unbleached Avax melts at the temperature of 14 20. beat.
When it is pure it requires the temperature of 1 ijj0,
and then melts into a colourlefs, tranfparent fluid. By
increafing the heat, the Avax boils and evaporates ; Avith
a red heat the vapour takes fire, and burns with a bright
flame.
4. The acids have fcarcely any a&ion on wax. It Acids?3
is bleached by means of oxymuriatic acid, but no other
effeft is produced.
5. Wax is foluble in boiling alcohol. It requires Alcohol,
20 parts of alcohol to cliffulve one of Avax, and as
folution cools, the greater part is precipitated. With
the addition of water the whole is thrown down. With
4 ^ the
73°
Component
Parts of
Vegetables,
*437
Alkalies.
2438
Compofi-
tion.
G H E M I
the afliflatice of heat ether diffolves wax nearly in the
fame proportion, but on cooling it is alfo precipi-
teitcd* •
Wax is foluble in the fixed oils with the aid of heat.
This compound is known by the name of cerate, which
is much employed to form plafters for dreffing wounds.
It is foluble alfo in fome of the volatile oils, as thole ot
turpentine, with the affiltance of heat. As the folu-
tion cools, part of the wax is precipitated.
6. Wax combines with the fixed alkalies, and forms
with them fubftances fimilar to foap.
7. According to the analyfis of Lavoifier, wax is
compofed of
Carbone, 82.28
Hydrogen, I7-72
100.00
Butter of 8* When wax is diftilled with a temperature above
wax. 2120, water comes over, fome acid, and a little fluid
and odorous oil. The oil in the courfe of the pioccfs
becomes thicker, and at laft affumes the confiftencj of
butter *, and hence it has been called butter of wax.
This fubftance by repeated diftillation is converted
into a volatile oil. A coaly matter remains in the
0 retort.
Obtained 9- Wax is extrafted from a number of plants, pof-
from many fefling different degrees of confiftency, as that from the
plants. cacao, called the butter of cacao; from the croton febi-
fera, called the tallow of croton ; and the myrtle wax
extracted from the myrica cerifera, ox candle-berry
myrtle of America. TL he myrtle wax is obtained from
the berries of this plant. They are colle&ed and put
into a kettle, and covered with water to the depth of
half a foot. Heat is applied, and the berries are pref-
fed againft the fides of the velfel. The wax melts, and
fvvims on the top. It is colleaed, paffed through a
cloth, dried and melted again, and then caft into cakes.
The wax, it appears, exifts chiefly in the outer cover¬
ing of the berries. Myrtle wax is of a pale-green co¬
lour j the fpecific gravity is 1.015. When heated to
the temperature of 109°, it melts j with a ftronger
heat it burns, giving out a white flame with little
fmoke 5 an agreeable aromatic odour is at the fame
time emitted. In its other properties it refembles bees
wax.
Prouft has detefted wax in the rind of plums,
oranges, and fimilar fruits, and in the green fecula of
many plants.
XIV. Of Camphor.
2441
Fxtraction. 3* Camphor is obtained from the laurus camphorata,
a fpecies of laurel which grows in China and Japan.
It is extrafted by fublimation in an iron pot. The Hutch
2442 afterwards purify it by a fecond fublimation.
fjopemes. jt *s a brittle fubftance, poffefiing a hot
acrid tafte. The fpecific gravity is 0.9887. It is not
altered by expofure to the air, but it is fo extremely vo¬
latile, that it difappears entirely if left in an open vef-
fel. It cryftallizes by fublimation in clofe veffels in
the form of hexagonal plates or pyramids. It is info-
luble in water, although at the fame time it communi-
2443 cates fome of its odour.
Action of When a heat about the temperature of 300° is
fuddenly applied, it melts, and then is volatilized. It
S T R Y.
readily catches fire, and burns with a bright flame, with Component
out leaving any refiduum. It even burns on the fur- Partsof
face of water. When a fmall quantity of camphor jn yegetables.
a ftate of inflammation is introduced into a large glafs *
veffel filled with oxygen gas, it burfts out into a vivid
flame ; the infide of the veffel is covered w ith a black
powder, and a great deal of carbonic acid gas is dif-
engaged. If a little water has been previoufly put into
the veffel, it is impregnated with carbonic and campho¬
ric acid. # _ jm*.
4. Camphor is foluble in the acids, but with thead-Acid^
dition of water or an alkali, it is precipitated un¬
changed. Camphor in fulphuric acid forms a red iblu-
tion ; in nitric acid, a yellow folution, which was for¬
merly called oil of camphor. By the repeated diftilla¬
tion of nitric acid off camphor, it is converted into cam¬
phoric acid.
Sulphurous acid, muriatic acid, and fluoric acid, in
the ftate of gas, diffolve camphor. If oxymuriatic
acid gas be made to pafs into a folution of camphor in
nitric acid, it is immediately changed to a rofe colour,
and inftantly afterwards it becomes yellow, which is
permanent during the procefs. When water is added
to the folutions of camphor in acids, it is feparated.
Camphor is alfo foluble in water impregnated with car¬
bonic acid gas, and in acetic acid. The latter com¬
pound conftitutes Henry’s aromatic vinegar..
5. Alcohol readily diffolves camphor, but it is preci¬
pitated with the addition of water. By diluting alco¬
hol which holds camphor in folution with water juft fo
much as not to precipitate the camphor, the latter cry¬
ftallizes in the form of feathers. The fixed and vola¬
tile oils diffolve camphor with the afliftance of heat, but
on cooling the camphor is precipitated, and cryftaU
lized, as in the folution wdth alcohol. _ _ 2445
6. Camphor communicates to the alkalies a little of Alkalies,
its colour, but is not otherwife foluble in thefe bo-
dies. £
7. According to the analyfis of Bouillon Lagrange,Com^
by diftilling one part of camphor with two of alumina,tion.
formed into a pafte with water in a glafs retort, the
component parts of camphor are carbone and hydro¬
gen j the proportion of carbone being much greater
than in oils. 2447
In the courfe of the diftillation, he obtained a vola-oil of cam-
tile oil, of a golden yellow colour, which floated on thephor.
furface of the water in the receiver. It had an acrid
burning tafte, and aromatic odour, fimilar to that of
thyme or rofemary. 2448
8. Camphor has been detedted in many other plants. Found in
It has been extrafted from the roots of thyme and many
fage, and in thefe plants it feems to be combined withPlants’
volatile oil. If the oil be expofed to a temperature be¬
low 540 in the open air, it evaporates, and the camphor
cryftallizes. It may be alfo obtained by diftilling the
oil in a w ater bath, under the temperature of 212°, till
a third part of the oil paffes over. Part of the cam- ^
phor is found cryftallized in the veffel, and by repeat¬
ing the procefs, the whole may be extracted from the
oil. By mixing the camphor with a little dry lime,
and fubliming it, it may be purified.
XV. Of Caoutchouc.
heat.
244^
i. Caoutchouc is a foft elaftic fubftance, chiefly ob-Hiftory.
tained
245°
Prepara-
tioo.
2451
Properties
2452
Aftion of
heat.
C H E M
Component tained from the infpiffated juice of two trees, the hcevea
Parts of caoutchouc and jatropha elajlica, which are natives of
Vegeta es. ^merJca> This fubftance was firft brought from
America about the beginning of the 18th century. It
is called by the inhabitants of Efmeraldas, a province
of Quito, heve, and by the natives of the province of
Mainas, caoutchouc,
2. It is extracted by making incifions in the bark of
the tree. A milky juice flows from it, which is col-
le£};ed in proper veffels. The jui^e is then applied,
one ftratum above another, on earthen moulds, and fuf-
fered to dry in the fun, or before a fire. Various
figures are formed on the furfaces of the different
pieces by means of a pointed inftrument. They are
then expofed to fmoke, and, when perfectly dry, the
moulds are broken. In this ftate it is brought to Eu¬
rope. It is generally in the fliape of bottles, but fome-
times in other forms.
3. When caoutchouc is pure, it is of a whitifh co¬
lour ‘7 it is foft and pliable like leather, extremely elaf-
tic, and poffeffes great tenacity. The fpecific gravity
is 0.9335.
4. When caoutchouc is expofed to heat, it readily
melts into a matter of the confiftence of tar. It
burns with a bright white flame, and diffufes a fetid
odour.
5. Sulphuric acid decompofes caoutchouc j charcoal
is precipitated, and the acid is partially converted in¬
to fulphurous acid. It is alfo decompofed by nitric
acid ; carbonic acid gas, azotic gas, and pruffic acid
gas are difengaged, and oxalic acid is formed. Muri¬
atic acid has no aftion upon it $ but if oxymuriatic
acid is poured upon the milky juice, the caoutchouc is
immediately precipitated, and the acid is converted
into muriatic acid. If a given quantity of air be con¬
fined in a veffel over a quantity of tins milky juice, the
oxygen of the air is abforbed, and a pellicle of caout¬
chouc is formed on the fur face, from which it appears
that the formation of caoutchouc is owing to the com¬
bination of its bafe with oxygen.
6. Caoutchouc is infoluble in alcohol. It is folu-
ble in ether, but it is neceffary that the ether be pre-
vioufly waflied with water. By this treatment it is
formed into fyringes, catheters, and other inftruments.
It is foluble in the volatile oils, but it remains fome-
what glutinous after the evaporation. A mixture of
volatile oil and alcohol forms a good folvent for caout¬
chouc, and in this ftate it may be employed as a var-
nifti for paper or fluffs. A varnilh may alfo be form¬
ed with it by diflblving it in boiling wax. It is
alfo foluble in reflified petroleum, and when the fo-
lution is evaporated, the caoutchouc remains unchan-
ged.
7. According to fome, caoutchouc is infoluble in the
alkalies •, but according to others, all of thefe bodies
are capable of diffolving it.
8. By diftillation caoutchouc yields ammonia j and
from this, and its decompofition by means of fulphuric
and nitric acids, its conftituent parts muft be carbone,
hydrogen, azote, and oxygen.
9. Caoutchouc has been detefted in different parts
of many other plants, but it is mixed with refinous,
gummy, and extractive matters. It has been found
in different fpecies of the mifletoe, in opium and ma-
I S T R Y.
2453
Alcohol.
, HS4
Alkalies.
2455
Cornpoli-
tion.
2456
Found in
'hfferent
vegetables.
ftic. It has alfo been eSftra&ed from the artocarpus Component
inte^r if alia or bread-fruit tree, the urceola elajlica, and vPar^3.05
feus indie a. g J *
XVI. Of Refins.
2457
1. Refinous bodies form a very numerous clafs of ve-Nature of.
getable fubftances. When volatile oils are expofed ta
the air, they become thick after a ftiorter or longer
time, and are then found to be converted into a rfn.
The oil abforbs oxygen from the air, and is deprived of
part of its carbone, which combining with the oxygen
of the atmofphere, forms carbonic acid. Refinous fub¬
ftances, therefore, are generally confidered as volatile
oils faturated with oxygen. The general properties of
refinous fubftances are the following.
2. They are folid, brittle, and commonly of a yellow- Properties,
ifh colour, with fome degree of tranfparency. The tafte
refembling volatile oils, is hot and acrid. They have
no fmell. The fpecific gravity is from 1.0180 to 1.2289.
All refinous bodies are eleftrics, and when excited by
friftion, the eleftricity is negative 3 hence it is called
ref nous eleBricity,
3. They melt by being expofed to heat, and burn Aftion of
with a yellow flame, giving out a great quantity ofbeat'
fmoke. Refins are infoluble in water.
4. Refinous fubftances are foluble in nitric acid 3 Acids, &.c»
part is precipitated by the addition of water, and the
whole by means of the alkalies. With the afliftance of
heat they are all foluble in alcohol, and in fulphuric
ether. Refins are foluble in fome of the fixed oils, and
alfo in volatile oils. 2461
5. Refinous fubftances have been found to be foluble Alkalies,
in the fixed alkalies.
6. We (hall now enumerate fome of the refins which
are bed known.
Rcfn.—This fubftance is extrafted from different Rofin.
fpecies of the fir, and the refinous matter obtained
from it has received different names. That procured
from the pinus fyhefris is the common turpentine 3
from the pinus larix, Venice turpentine 3 and from the
ptnus balfamea, balfam of Canada. The turpentine is
obtained by (tripping the bark off the trees ; a liquid
juice flows out, which gradually hardens. This juice
confifts of oil of turpentine and rofin. By diftilling
the turpentine the oil paffes over, and the rofin remains
behind. By diftilling to drynefs common rofin is ob¬
tained. When water is added, while it is yet fluid, and
incorporated by agitation, what Is called yellow rofin
is formed.
Pitch—Is a refinous juice obtained from the pi- Pitch.'
fius picea, or pitch pine. It is purified by melt¬
ing and fqueezing it through linen bags, and it
is then known by the name of white or Burgundy
pitch. White pitch mixed w ith lamp-black forms black
piteh. ... . 2464
Maf ic.—This is a refinous fubftance obtained from Maftic.
the pfacia lentifeus, a tree which grows in the Levant.
The fluid which exudes from the tree, concretes into
yellowilh ffmitranfparent brittle grains. It has little
tafte, melts and exhales a fragrant odour when heated,
and readily diffolves in alcohol and-fixed oils. It con¬
tains a little volatile oil. ,
Sandarac.—This refinous fubftance is extrafted from Sandarac.
4 Z 2 the
732
Component
Parts of
Vegetables.
2466
Labdanum.
2467
Dragons-
blood.
CHEMISTRY.
2468
Anirae.
2469
Copal.
2470
Varnilh.
Elemi.
3472
Balm of
Gilead.
the juniper. It is a fpontaneous exudation from this
plant in the form of brown tears, which are femitranf-
parqnt and brittle. .
Labdanum, or Ladanum.—T^ is the produce ot
the ctftus creticus, a fhrub which grows in Candia. It
is the exudation of a vifeid juice, which concretes by
expofure to the air. It has a fragrant odour and a
bitter tafte.
Dragons-bfood.—This refmous fubftance is a pro-
duftion of the dracetna draco, and fome other plants.
It is of a dark-red colour, opaque and brittle.
powder is of a crimfon colour. It melts when it is
heated, and readily burns. It has no tafte., is.infolu-
ble in water, but foluble in alcohol, to which it com¬
municates a crimfon colour. It is alfo foluble in the
fixed oils, and gives them a red colour. #
Reftna animcc.—This refin is the produce of a fpecies
of hymencea, or locuft tree, a native of North Ame¬
rica. It is foluble in alcohol, and is employed as a
varnifh.
Copal. This refinous fubftance is obtained from a tree,
the rhus copallinum, a native of North America. The
copal molt preferred is brought from Spanith America.
It is a light brown, tranfparent fubftance. It melts
when heated, but is not diredtly foluble in alcohol, or
in oil of turpentine, and it is with difficulty foluble
in fixed oils. Copal forms an excellent varnifh. In¬
deed it is one of the beft that is known for beauty and
durability. . .
If copal be treated with oil of turpentine m a clofe
veffei, from which the vapours are not allowed to ef-
cape, they exert a great preffure, which prevents the
boiling, and thus the mixture acquires a higher tem¬
perature. A confiderable portion of the copal is thus
diflolved, and with the addition, of a little poppy oil
it forms an excellent elaftic varnifh.
If copal be kept melted till a four-fmelling aroma¬
tic odour ceafes to proceed from it, and if it be then
mixed with an equal quantity of linfeed oil previoufly
rendered colourlefs by expofure to the fun, it com¬
bines with the oil, and thus forms a varnifh. i he fub-
ftances varnifhed with this preparation muft be dried in
the fun.
Copal may be diffolved in alcohol,, by previoufly
diffolving half an ounce of camphor in 16 ounces of
aicohol. This folution is poured on 4 ounces of copal
in a matrafs, which is flopped with a cork, and per¬
forated with a pin. When the copal is nearly diffolv¬
ed, the procefs is flopped, and the matrafs allowed to
cool, before the cork is removed. This folution forms
a colourlefs varnifh.
Copal, it is faid, may be diffolved in alcohol, by
expofing it to the a£lion of the vapour. This procefs
is conducled by boiling a quantity of alcohol in the
bottom of a veffel, at the top of which a piece of
copal is fufpended. During the procefs the copal fof-
tens, and falls down like oil into the alcohol.
Elemi.—This refinous fubftance is the produce of
the amijris elsmifera, a tree which grows in the Eaft
and Weft Indies. It is femitranfparent, of a pale yel¬
low colour, foftifh, and hardens by keeping. It has
a ftrong fragrant fmell, and alien diftilled it yields a
fragrant oil.
Opobalfamum, or balm of Gilead.—This refin is pro¬
cured from another fpecies of arayris, the Gileadenfis,
a tree which is a native of Arabia. The beft kind, Component
which is highly valued by the Turks, is never feen in Pam of
t- ° J Vegetables.
Europe. #
Copaiva, or balfam of Copaiva.—This refinous fub- 2473
fiance is obtained from the copaiva officinalis, a tree Copaiva.
which is a native of South America. It exudes by
wounding the trunk of the tree. It is tranfparent, of a
yellowifti colour, has a pungent tafte, and an agreeable
fmell. It is at firft of the confiftence of oil, but after¬
wards becomes as thick as honey. By diftillation the
volatile oil, with which it is mixed, may be feparated,
and the refinous matter remains behind.
Guaiac.—This refin is the produce of the guaiacum Guaiac.
officinale, a tree which is a native of the Weft Indies.
The refin exudes fpontaneoufly in tears, but it is chiefiy
obtained by cutting the ivood into billets, and boring
them longitudinally. WTen one of thefe is heated on
the fire, the refinous matter is melted, and runs through
the hole as the wood burns. This refin is of a browniih-
yellow colour, and has fome degree of tranfparency.
It is foluble in alcohol, and has neither fmell nor taile.
It melts when heated, and when it is thrown on hot
coals, it diffufes an agreeable odour. When fvvallow-
ed in the ft ate of powder, it produces a ftrong fenfa-
tion of heat in the throat. _ 2475;
Lac. This refinous fubftance is obtained from the Lac.
croton lacciferum. It is of a deep red colour, with
fome degree of tranfparency. It is the bafis of the
finer kinds of fealing wax, and is employed as a var-
mill* 247^
Amber.—This fubftance poffeffes many of the pro- Amber,
parties of the refins, and it has been confidered by
fome of vegetable origin. It is a brittle hard fub¬
ftance, tranfparent, fometimes colourleis, but often
yellow or deep brown. Ihe fpecific gravity is i.obj*
It has neither tafte nor fmell, except when it is heat¬
ed, and then it becomes foft, and gives out a fragrant
odour. It burns with a ftrong heat, leaving only a
fmall refiduum. It is infoluble in water, but alcohol
diffolves a fmall quantity of it. When the folutiom is
concentrated, it becomes milky with the addition of
water. The precipitate which is formed is a refinous
fubftance. It is foluble in the fixed alkalies at a boil¬
ing temperature. _ 2
Sulphuric acid converts amber into a black refinous
mafs. It is alfo foluble in nitric acid. . _ acids.
By the diftillation of amber, carbonic acid gas and *478.
carbonated hydrogen gas, an acid liquor, and an oil, 1 atlor
which is at firft thin and tranfparent, but afterwards
larger and thicker, is obtained. Succinic acid fublimes
towards the end of the procefs. _ 2479
When amber is roafted, it becomes foluble in the Vamifli.
oils, and forms a varniih. Phis varnifh may be form¬
ed by fpreading the amber on a flat-bottomed iron
pan, and expofmg it to heat till it melts. It is then
covered up, and fet by to cool. One part of this roaft¬
ed amber, which has loft half of its weight, if the
procefs be properly managed, is then to be mixed with
three parts of linfeed oil. The mixture is to be expofed
to a gentle heat till the amber is diffolved. It is then
to be removed from the fire, and four parts of the oil
of turpentine are to be added when it is nearly cold.
The clear part, after it has fettled, is ftrained through
a linen cloth. 1480
Benzoin.—~Thls fubfiance contains a refinous matter Benzoin-
combined
Component
parts of
Vegetables,
2481
Styrax.
2482
Storax.
2483
Balfam of
Tolu.
2484
Of Peru.
C H E M 1
combined with an acid, and is commonly ranked among
ballams. Benzoin is obtained from the Jiijrax benzoin,
a tree which is a native of Sumatra. It is a brittle
fubdance, has a fragrant odour when rubbed, and,
when it is heated, the acid efcapes. It may be dif-
folved in alcohol, but it is infoluble in water.
Styrax.—This fubftance, which is in a half-fluid
date, exudes from a tree in Arabia. It is of a green-
ifh colour, has an aromatic tafte, and an agreeable
odour. The benzoic acid, which is one of its com¬
ponent parts, diffolves in water. The whole of it is fa¬
llible in alcohol. It abfarbs oxygen, and becomes
harder by expofure to the air.
S lor ax.—This fubftance is procured from the Jhjrax
officinale, a tree which is a native of the Levant. It is
of a brown colour and brittle, has an aromatic tafte,
fragrant odour, and is foluble in alcohol. It gives out
benzoic acid by heat.
Balfam of Tolu.—This fubftance is obtained from
the tolufera balfamum, a tree which is a native of
South America. It is of a reddifh-brown colour, be¬
comes folid and brittle when expofed to the air, and
has a very fragrant fmell.
Balfam of Peru.—This is obtained from the tnyroxilon
peruferum, a plant which is a native of South Ameri¬
ca. The refin is extracted by boiling the twigs in wa¬
ter. It is of the confidence of honey, has a brown co¬
lour, an agreeable fmell and an acrid tafte. It is fo¬
luble in alcohol. The acid part is faluble in water.
Benzoic acid is driven off by heat.
XVII. Of Gum-Refins.
Parts of
Vegetables.
0 I. This clafs of fubftances feems to be compofed of a
Lonltitu* . _ . , . V
ents. mixture of refinous matter with a portion ot gummy
and extra&ive matter. They are never obtained from
plants by means of fpontaneous exudation, but are pro¬
cured by wounding the plants which contain them.
The general properties of gum-refins are the follow-
2486 ing-
Propeities. 2. They are always in the falid ftate, and common¬
ly brittle and opaque. They are faftened by heat,
but do not melt, and are lefs combuftible than the
refms. They burn with flame. They have an acrid
tafte, with a ftrong fmell, famewhat refembling garlic.
They are partially foluble in water, and in alcohol.
The folution in water is opaque and milky, and the
folution in alcohol is tranfparent. They are partially
faluble in vinegar and wine. They are fallible in
nitric acid, and alfo in the alkalies, with the afliftance
of heat.
3. The gum-refins by diftillation yield a portion of
ammonia, which ftiews that azote forms one of their
conftituent parts.
4. Many of the gum-reftns have been long known in
medicine, and fame of them are of confiderable impor¬
tance. We fliall fpecify the peculiar properties of the
following.
2487 OUbanum.—This gum-refin is chiefly eolle&ed in
Ib-nmm. from the juniperus lycia. It is brought from
Mecca to Cairo, and from thence to Europe, in the
form of tranfparent brittle grains, not larger than a
chefnut, of a yellow colour, a peculiar aromatic fmell,
but with little tafte. With water it forms a milky
fluid, but it is entirely faluble in ^alcohol. When
S T R Y. 733
heated it does not melt, but inflames and burns writh Component
an agreeable fmell. It is the frankincenfe of the an¬
cients, and is ftill employed to diffufe an agreeable
fragrance in the Greek and Romifti churches. 2488
Scammony.—This fubftance is extrafted from the Scammony.
convolvulus fcammonia, a climbing perennial plant
which grows in Syria. By cutting the roots, a milky
juice flows out, which is collefted and dried m the fun.
It is of a dark-gray colour, a bitter acrid tafte, and a
naufeous fmell. It forms a greenifh milky fluid with
water. It is foluble in alcohol. It is employed in me¬
dicine as a cathartic. 2489
Euphorbium.—This fubftance is obtained from tlieEuphor-
euphorbia officinalis, which is a native of Ethiopia. Thebium.
milky juice which flows from incifions made in the
plant, is dried in the fun. It is in the form of fmall
yellow tears. It has no fmell, and at flrft no percep¬
tible tafte, but it communicates afterwards a burning
fenfation to the mouth. It is foluble in alcohol. It
has been conftdered as poifanous.
fffiafeetida.—This gum-refin is obtained from the Affafcetida.
ferula affiafeetida, a perennial plant, vhich is a native
of Perfia. It is extra&ed from the roots by cutting off
the extremity. The milky juice flows out, which is
dried in the fun. It is brought to Europe in large ir¬
regular maffes, which are of a whitifh, reddifli, or vio¬
let hue. It has a ftrong fetid, alliaceous fmell, and a
bitter acrid tafte. It is but partially faluble, both in
alcohol and in water. It is much employed in medi¬
cine as a ftimulant and antifpafmodic.
Ammoniac.—This gum-refin is fuppofed to be ob-Ammonia#
tained from another fpeeies of the ferula, a plant
which grows in Abyflinia and in the interior parts of
Egypt. It is brought from the Eaft Indies, ufually
in large maffes, which are compofed of little lumps or
tears, of a milky colour. When expofed to the air, it
is changed to a yellow colour. It has a naufeous, fweet
tafte, which is fucceeded by a bitter. It has a pecu¬
liar fmell. It is not fufible 5 but when placed on hot
coals, it burns awray in flame. It forms a milky folu¬
tion with water and vinegar, and it is partially foluble
in alcohol. _ . 249S
Myrrh.—It is not yet know'll from what plant this Myrrh,
fubftance is obtained. It is brought from the Eaft
Indies in the form of tears; is light and brittle, of a
reddiih-yellow colour, and an umftuous feel. It has a
bitter aromatic tafte, and a ftrong, but famewhat grate¬
ful odour. It does not melt, and burns w'itK'difficulty.
It is more faluble in water than in alcohol. With the
former the folution is yellow and opaque j with the
latter it is tranfparent.
Sarcocol.—This fubftance is fuppofed to be the pro- Sarcocoh
du£l of the pence a farcocolla. It is brought from Perfia
and Arabia, in the farm of fmall whitiffi-yellow' grains.
It has a bitter and famewhat fweetiffi tafte. It is aL
moft entirely faluble in water. 2494
Galbanum.—This fubftance is obtained from themGalbanum.
bubon galbanum, a perennial plant which grow's in
Africa. The milky juice fametimes exudes from the
joints of the old plants, but is moft commonly procured
by cutting them acrofs. This juice becomes hard, and
is the galbanum brought to Europe. It is in. the form,
of whitifh-yellow tears, has a bitterifli acrid tafte, and a
peculiar fmell. It forms a milky folution with water,
wine, and vinegar. It is faareely faluble in alcohol.
It
734
C H E M I S T R
2496^
Opoponax,
Component It does not melt, but yields a confiderable proportion-
Parts of of oil by diftillation.
Vegeta )Ies. Sagapenutn.—It is only conjectured that this gum-
2495 refin is obtained from the ferula perjica. It is brought
Sagapenum. in large mafies or diitinCt tears from Alexandria. It
is of a yellow colour, becomes hot in the hand, but is
not fufible. It has a hot, naufeous, bitteriih tafte, and
a difagreeable garlic fmell. It is fparingly foluble in
alcohol, but diflolves almoft entirely in water. It yields
by diftillation a fetid volatile oil.
Opoponax.—This gum-refin is obtained from the pa-
Jlinaca opoponax, a perennial plant which grows wild
in the fouth of Europe. It is obtained by wounding
the flock or root, and is in the form of round drops or
tears, or in irregular maffes of reddifti-yellow colour.
It has a bitter, acrid, and fomewhat naufeous tafte,
with a ftrong peculiar fmell. It forms a milky fo-
lution with water, and yields an effential oil by dif¬
tillation.
Gamboge.—This gum-refin is obtained from the Jia-
lagmitis cambogioides, a tree which grows wild in Siam
and Ceylon. In Siam it is procured in drops by break¬
ing the leaves and young Ihoots, from which it is fup-
pofed to derive the name of gum guttce. In Ceylon it
is obtained by wounding the bark and collecting the
juice, which is afterwards dried in the fun. It is
brought from the Eaft Indies in cakes or rolls. It is
of a yellow-orange colour, opaque and brittle, has no
fmell, and little tafte, leaving only a flight fenfe of
acrimony when it has been kept in the mouth. It
forms ? turbid yellow folution with water, and is almoft
entirely foluble in alcohol. It is employed in medi¬
cine, and is a violent cathartic.
Bdellium.—Little is known of this fubftance, or of
the tree from which it is obtained. It is in the form
of fmall pieces or tears of different fizes, of a golden-
yellow colour, with a reddifli tint. This fubftance, or
a fubftance with the fame name, was long celebrated
among the ancient phyficians.
2497
Gamboge,
2498
Bdellium.
2499
Prepara¬
tion.
XVIII. Of Wood.
2500
Froperties.
2501
Aftion of
heat.
2502
Compofi-
tion.
If a piece of wood be boiled in a great quantity
of water till it no longer gives out tafte or fmell, and
if it be afterwards digefted in alcohol, the fubftance
which remains is the woody fibre.
2. It is either in a fibrous, lamellated, or pulveru¬
lent form. This fubftance, which is more or lefs co¬
loured, has neither tafte nor fmell, is not altered by
expofure to the air, and is infoluble in water and al¬
cohol.
3. When it is heated in contact with air,it blackens,
exhales denfe, acrid, pungent fumes, and leaves be¬
hind a coaly matter, which does not change its form.
By reducing it to allies, it is found to contain a little
potalh, fulphate of potalh and lime, phofphate of lime.
When it is diftilled in a retort it yields water, acetic
acid contaminated with oil, a thick oily matter, carbo¬
nated hydrogen and carbonic acid gafes, and a portion
of ammonia, combined with acetic acid.
4. By the aftion of nitric acid on quinquina, which
refembles the woody fibre, Fourcroy obtained from 100
parts, the following products :
Oxalic acid,
Citric acid,
56.25°
3’9°5
Y.
Malic acid,
Acetic acid,
Azotic acid,
Carbonate of lime,
0.388
0.486
0.867
8*33°
Component
Parts of
Vegetables,
Refiduum,
70.226
32.031
A quantity of carbonic acid gas was alfo difengaged,
which was not eftimated. The increafe of weight is
afcribed to the oxygen which combined with the bafes
of the acids which were formed during the decompefi-
tion of the woody fibre by the nitric acid. The refi¬
duum, by diftillation, yielded a yellowilh fluid mixed
with alcohol and fome acetic acid, a concrete oil folu¬
ble in alcohol, charcoal, and carbonate of lime, Jbefides
carbonic acid and carbonated hydrogen gafes. The
component parts of wood, therefore, appear to be, oxy¬
gen, carbone, hydrogen, azote, and lime.
The relative proportion of wood in plants has been Proportion*
eftimated by the proportion of charcoal which they af-of charcoal
ford. From different woods, Prouft obtained charcoal
in the following proportions.
2S°3
Black afh,
Guaiac,
Pine,
Green oak,
Heart of oak,
Wild afh,
White afli.
25
-24
20
20
*9
17
*7
XIX. Of Tan.
1. Tan is obtained from a great number of vegeta-prep^,
ble fubftances. It exifts in confiderable proportion intion.
oak bark and nut-galls and it is obtained from the
latter by the following procefs.
Reduce a quantity of nut-galls to a coarfe powder,
infufe them in water till it is faturated, pour off the
liquid, and boil it to drynefs. A black matter re¬
mains, which is tan, nearly in a ftate ef purity. It is
propofed alfo to extraift: tan from nut-galls by other
proceffes. If a folution of muriate of tin be added to
the infufion of nut-galls, a copious precipitate of a yel¬
low colour is produced. When this is feparated by fil¬
tration, and dried, it is in the form of a buff-coloured
powder. It is a compound of oxide of tin and tan.
It is then mixed with water, and a ftream of fulphura-
ted hydrogen gas is paffed through it. An infoluble
fulphuret of tin is formed, and the tan is diffolved in
water. By filtration and evaporation of this water to
drynefs, a brown fubftance remains, which is tan; but
by this procefs it is not perfectly pure, being mixed
with a portion of extra&ive matter. It has alfo been
propofed to feparate tan from the infufion of nut-galls
by means of concentrated fulphuric or muriatic acid,
carbonate of potafh, or lime water.
2. Tan is a brittle fubftance, of a brown colour, haspr0pert'ies.
a very aftringent tafte, is foluble in water and alcohol,
to both of which it communicates a brown colour and
very aftringent taftc. 2506
3. When it is heated, it becomes black, gives outA<ftlono1"
' • - * 1 ii • .1 -i • heat.
carbonic acid gas, and burns in the open air, leaving
behind a fmall quantity of lime. 2i;0,
4. Tan is precipitated from the infufion of galls, Acids,
by
- — .   -
2508
Alkalies.
2509
Earths.
2510
Metallic
oxides
and falts.
C H E M
Component by means of fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids, and
Vegetables. |'orms with them compounds which are foluble in wa-
5. The alkalies combine with tan, and form com¬
pounds which are foluble in water. A reddifh brown
colour is produced in the liquid by the addition of
potalh or foda, and it lofes the property of precipitat¬
ing gelatine. Ammonia forms a limilar compound
with the infulion of galls.
6. .Moft of the earths combine with tan, and form
with it compounds which are chiefly infoluble in wa¬
ter. Lime water, added to the infuflon of galls, pro¬
duces an olive-coloured precipitate. A fimilar preci¬
pitate is obtained by means of barytes, ftrontites, .and
magnefia.
7. The metallic oxides combine with tan, and form
compounds which are nearly infoluble in water. Si¬
milar precipitates are obtained by means of many of
the metallic falts. The green fulphate of iron pro¬
duces no precipitate ; but the red fulphate gives a
deep-blue precipitate, which becomes black by expo-
fure to the air, or when it is dried. This is the bafe
of writing ink, as was formerly defcribed in treating of
the fulphate of iron.
8. Tan forms an infoluble compound with gelatine,
which is the principle of the important procefs of
tanning leather, and is nothing more than the combi¬
nation of tan with the animal matter called gelatine or
glue.
9. Tan is chiefly found in the bark of trees j it is
alfo found in the leaves, the wood, the fap, and fome-
times it is obtained by fpontaneous exudation, as is the
cafe with the fubftance called kino. Several varie¬
ties of tan have been found in different vegetable fub-
ffances, as in catechu, dragon’s blood, fumach, and
fuftic.
10. The quantity of tan varies with the age and fize
of the tree, and at different feafons. The greateft
proportion has been found in the inner bark. Mr
Davy afcertained the quantity of tan obtained from the
folid matter extracted by water, from an ounce of dif¬
ferent vegetable fubftances.
Solid Matter. Tan.
White inner bark of old oak 108 grs. J2grs.
young oak m 77
Spanifh chefnut 89 63
Leicefter willow 117 79
Coloured or middle 7 1
bark of joak 43 r9
Spanifh chefnut 41 14
Leicefter willow 34 16
Entire bark of oak 61 29
Spanifh chefnut 53 21
Leicefter willow 71 33
elm — 13
common willow — 11
Sicilian fumach - - 165 78
Malaga fumach - - - 156 79
Souchong tea - - — 48
Green tea - - - — 41
Bombay catechu - ^ -—261
Pfok Bengal catechu - - — 231
2511
Gelatine.
2512
Exifts in
the bark
thiefly.
1SI3
Proportion
varies.
I S T R Y. 73s
The following proportions of tan were found by add- Component
ing a folution of glue to the infufion of the plant in _.i>arts of
water. Vegetables.
Proportion
of Tan.
Elm 2.1 Sallow
Oak cut in w inter 2.1 Mountain afh 4.7
Horfe chefnut 2.2 Poplar . 6.0
Beech 2.4 Hazel 6.3
Willow boughs 2.4 Afti 6.6
Elder 3.0 Spanifh chefnut 9,0
Plum tree 4.0 Smooth oak 9.2
Willow trunk 4.0 Oak cut in fpring 9.6
Sycamore/ 4.1 Leicefter willow 10.1
Proportion 2514
of Tan. Proportions
4,6 indifferent
plants.
Birch
Cherry tree
4.1 Sumach
4.2
XX. Of Suber.
16.2 *. * pm.
Tranf.
1799.
an/.
'°3-
Nut-galls
180 127
1. The vegetable fubftance denoted by the name of Conftitutes
fuber, is, according to Fourcroy, the epidermis or outer t*16 epi-
covering of trees. This fubftance is analogous to com-^ermis'
mon cork, which is the epidermis of the quercus fuber,
from which the name of this peculiar vegetable fub¬
ftance is derived.
2. It is a light, foft, elaftic fubftance, is infoluble in Properties,
water, but readily abforbs this liquid. Common cork
is the fame fubftance, having greater denfity, and ac¬
cumulated in greater quantity.
3. This matter is very combuftible, and burns with AdHon of
a white vivid flame, leaving behind a very black, light, heat,
voluminous coaly matter. When this matter is diftill-
ed, it yields ammonia.
4. When cork is treated with nitric acid, carbonic Of nitric
acid gas and nitrous gas are evolved. The cork is acid,
decompofed, and converted, partly into a yellow, foft,
umffuous matter, which fwims on the furface, and part¬
ly into fuberic acid j the nature and properties of which
have been already defcribed.
XXL Of Alkalies.
1. The fixed alkalies only have been dete&ed in Fixed aL
plants, and there are few plants which do not yield akaliesonly
fmaller or greater proportion of one of thefe alkalies. It found.
is fupphfed that they exift in plants, in combination with
acetic and carbonic acids. 2 ,;Q
2. Potafh, formerly called vegetable alkali, becaufe Potafh.
it was fuppofed to exift only in vegetables, is found in
all plants except thofe which grow near the fea. The
procefs for extrafting it has been already defcribed.
The vegetables are reduced to afhes by burning j the
afhes wafhed with water, which is filtered and evapo¬
rated to drynefs. The potafh remains behind.
3. Shrubby and herbaceous plants yield a greater pro¬
portion of afhes than trees. The branches of trees af¬
ford more afhes than the trunk, and the leaves yield
more than the branches. Other falts are found mixed
with the potafh, fueh as the fulphates of potafh and of
lime, muriate of potafh, phofphate of lime, and phof-
phate of potafn ; the latter of which has been dete&ed
in maize and wheat. In the following table the pro¬
portion of afhes obtained from 100 parts of different
plants, and the quantity of potafh which thefe afhes
yield, are exhibited.
Sallow'.
736
Component
Parts of
Vegetables.
2521
Soda.
Sallow,
Elm,
Oak,
Poplar,
Hornbeam,
Beech,
Fir,
Vine branches,
Common nettle,
Common thiftle,
Fern,
Cow thiftle,
Great river ru(h,
Feathered ruih,
Stems of Turkey wheat, 8.86
Wormwood, 9*744
Fumitory, 2,1.9
Red clover,
Vetches,
Beans with their ftalks,
Allies,
2.8
2.36727
i-35ii8S
1.23476
j.1283
0.58432
°*34I33
3*397
10.67186
4.04265
5.00781
10.5
3*85395
4*33593
HEM
Potalh.
O.285
39*—
0-15343
0.07481
0.1254
0.14572
0.00000
o-55
2.5033
0-53734
0.6259
1.96603
0.72234
0.50811
i*75
7*3
7'9 o
0.078
2-75
2.
I S T R Y.
4. Soda is generally found in all marine plants, and
in many others which grow near the (hore. The pro¬
portion of foda which many plants containing it yield,
is very confiderable. A hundred parts of the faijo a
foda afford 19.921 of allies, from which may be extraft-
ed 1.992 part of foda. It is from different fpecies of
fuci that the foda or kelp of Britain is obtained.
ibda of commerce is extracted from two fpecies of falfo-
la, namely the fativa and vermiculata, which grow a-
bundantly on the ftiores of Spain and the ]\lediter-
.ranean.
Turkey wheat,
Sun-flower,
Vine branches,
Box,
Willow,
Elm,
Afpen, _
Fern,
Wormwood,
Fumitory,
Ml
/•
3*72
2.85
2.674
z-S'S
1.96
1.146
3.221
2.444
14.000
Component
Parts of
Vegetables.
Herbaceous plants, it appears, contain a greater pro¬
portion of earths than trees. In all the kinds of grain
which Bergman examined, he found all the four earths.
From 100 parts of oat grain, Vauquelin obtained a re-
ftduum of 3.1591, which by analyfis he found to be
compofed of
Silica, 60.7
Phofphate of lime, 39.3
100.0
By burning the Item and feeds of the fame grain, the
refiduum by analylis afforded the following lubftances.
Silica, _ 5 5
Phofphate of lime, 15
Potalh, 20
Carbonate of lime, 5
95
Some traces of oxide of iron were alfo detefted.
XXIII. Of Metals.
XXII. Of Earths.
<2 c 2 £ ' m
Lime. 1. Four of the earths have been dete&ed m vege¬
tables, namely lime, filica, magnefia, and alumina.
Few plants have been found which do not contain fome
portion of lime. It is the moft abundant of all the
earths in plants.
Silica. 2. Silica has been found in feveral plants, and chief¬
ly in the epidermis, fome of which are almoft entirely
compofed of this earth. A hundred parts of the epi¬
dermis of the following plants yielded the annexed pro¬
portions of this earth.
2524
M.ignefia.
252S
Alumina.
2326
Proportion
of earths.
Bonnet cane, 90
Bamboo, 71.4
Common reed, 48.1
Stalk ©f corn, 6.5
3. Magnefia is more rarely found in vegetables. It
has been detetted in confiderable proportion in the fuci
and other fea plants. The greateft proportion yet dif-
covered is found in the falfola foda. A hundred parts
of this plant have yielded 17.929 of magnefia.
4. Alumina is found in plants in very fmall quan¬
tity.
5. In the following table is exhibited the quantity
of earths in general, found in 100 parts of different
plants.
Oak, 1.03
Beech, 1.453
Fir, 0.003
. 2j;27
The only metallic fubftances which have certainly Iron and
been found in plants are iron and manganefe. Iron manganefe.
has been detected in the afhes of falfola j and manga¬
nefe has been found in the allies of the pine^ green
oak, calendula, vine, and fig-tree. Gold, it is faid,
has been found in fome plants, but in very minute pro¬
portion.
Chap. XIX. Of ANIMALS.
. . r .1 252s 1
ANIMALS conftitute the fecond divifion of organized Character,
matter. They are diftinguilhed from vegetables by
texture, form, and component parts. The more cha-
radleriftie differences between animals and vegetables
are, the locomotive power of animals, irritability, and
fenfibility. Animal matters pafs to the putrid fermen¬
tation, and they are all foluble in the alkalies, bul-
phuric acid reduces animal fubftances to a carbonaceous
matter. Charcoal is precipitated, and ammonia is dif-
engaged. Nitric acid afts violently on animal fub¬
ftances, with the evolution of azotic gas.
In treating of animal matters, we ftiall firft confider
the funftions of living animals } 2. d heir decompofi-
tkm j and, 3. Their component parts. Thefe fubjefts
(hall occupy the three following fections.
Sect. I. Of the Functions of Animals. 252p
Cannot be
In taking a view of animal fubftances, it is neceffa- explained
ry to confider the function of the living animal, fooncb.3 4 5 6 *®1^
•' £ar principle’-
C H E M
Functions far at leaft as thefe funftlons admit of explanation on
ds"1* c^em*ca^ principles. It is beyond the reach of human
^ s' fagacity fully to underftand the fimpleft proceffes in the
animal economy. Thefe cannot be explained on che¬
mical or mechanical principles j but to comprehend
clearly and fully, even what is known of the func¬
tions of living animals, it would be neceffary to enter
into a defcription of the ftrudture and nature of the
organs which are employed in thefe functions. But this
is not the province of chemiftry j it belongs to the
fciences of Anatomy and Physiology. We muft
therefore content ourfelves with giving a fliort account
of the chemical changes which take place by the ac¬
tion of living animals. The functions of animals
which have occupied the attention of chemical phyfi-
ologifts, and which we propefe to treat of in this
fe&ion, are refpiration, digeftion, fecretion, and alfi-
milation.
2530
A vital
fun&ion.
2531
All gates
not fit for
refpiration,
,S32
Not even
pure oxy-
|ge»-
_ 2533
some ratal
to life.
I. Of Refpiration.
x. Refpiration is to be confidered as one of the vital
functions of animals. No animal can exift when it is
interrupted, nor indeed can it be fufpended, even for
the (horteft time, without the hazard of life. In the
mechanical part of the function of refpiration, the air
is alternately drawn into the lungs and expelled.
2. It is well known that all gafes are not fit for re-
fpiratipn. Some indeed, as carbonic acid gas, the
moment they are inhaled, are deftruftive to life. The
refpiration of others, although they are not produc¬
tive of fuch fudden effects, yet at laft they prove fa¬
tal to the animal which is forced to refpire them.
Animals are very differently conftituted, both with
regard to the ftru&ure of their refpiratory organs,
and with regard to the quantity of air which
muff be refpired in order to fupport life. In thefe
refpedts, the hot' and cold-blooded animals are very dif¬
ferent from each other j and even among the latter
clafs, napjely the cold-blooded animals, there are fome
tribes which require a very fmall quantity of air, and
can bear xvithout much feeming inconvenience a tem¬
porary interruption of this function 5 but for all ani¬
mals, whatever be their nature, whatever be their
itru&ure, or whatever be the modifications of their re¬
fpiratory fyltem, the air of the atmofphere is the moft
proper for the fupport of life. It is the oxygen of at-
mofpheric air which is neceffary for the breathing of
animals ; but although animals live longer in a given
quantity of oxygen gas than in atmofpheric air, as ap¬
pears from the experiments of Count Morozzo, re¬
lated in the chapter on oxygen gas, yet it is too power¬
ful, or too ftimulating for their organs 5 for to fuch
as have been confined to breathe it, it has been found
highly injurious.
3. Some of the gafes prove immediately fatal to life j
fuch for inftance is carbonic acid gas. It feems to be
certain that no animal ever made a full infpiration
of this gas, without being dellroyed. Nay, it is fo
noxious to animal life, that the organs themfelves, by
an involuntary aftion, obftruft it in its paffage to the
lungs. Other gafes are equally fatal after a few in-
fpirations, fuch as hydrogen and azotic gafes ; and in¬
deed it is probable, if the lungs were completely emp-
Vol. V. Part II.
I S T R Y. 737
tied of air, before the infpiration of any gas what- Turuftions
ever, excepting oxygen gas or atmofpheric air, a fingle
infpiration would prove fatal. This, however, is never . ~ *
the cafe ; for after the fulleft expiration, a confiderable
quantity of air remains in the lungs. We may con¬
clude, therefore, that the air of the atmofphere alone
is proper for the refpiration of animals, and the fupport
of life. 3534
4. After the fame quantity of atmofpheric air or lam-
oxygen gas has been once refpired by animals, it be-
comes totally unfit for farther refpiration either by the refpired?
fame animals or any other. It is then not only de¬
prived of the whole of the oxygen, but is alfo con¬
taminated with noxious gafes. This even happens
to filhes and infefts which require a very fmall quan-
*tity of air. If the water in which the former live be
deprived of its air, it is equally fatal to them, as being
immerfed under water is to thofe animals which live in
the air of the atmofphere.
5. Attempts have been made by phyfiologifts to af-The qua»-
certain the quantity of air refpired by animals. This,*1*?*
it will appear at fir ft fight, muff be extremely differ¬
ent in different clafles of animals. Even in the fame
clafs of animals, it is probable that it varies much.
The difference of the refults of experiments on man
to afeertain this point are enormous. No conclufion
whatever can be drawn from the number of refpirations
made in a given time, even if this could be determined
with any degree of accuracy, which is fcarcely to be
expected. For no function of the body is fooner in¬
fluenced by mental affeftions than the breathing. The
very attention to the circumftance of reckoning the
number of refpirations will have fome effeft in occa-
fioning confiderable deviations from the natural num¬
ber. The number of refpirations which have beei*
reckoned by fome is 14 in a minute, while others
make the number amount to 27, which {hews that
little dependence can be placed on this mode of cal¬
culating the quantity" of the air refpired in a given
time. But even if this could be accurately afeertain-
ed, ftill it would not enable us to afeertain the quan¬
tity of air refpired. For it is extremely probable that
this quantity varies greatly in- different men and in
different animals, and in the fame animal at different
times, arifing from caufes the effefts of which either
entirely elude obfervation, tr are altogether inappre¬
ciable. And accordingly we find that the differences
of the refults of the quantity of air taken in at a lingle
infpiration, or of the quantity calculated in the lungs
after expiration, are not lefs than thofe of the number of
refpirations. 2536
6. The nature of the changes which the air infpired Changes on
undergoes has been afeertained with more accuracy, t^ie air*
although the experiments made to determine the
amount of thefe changes vary confiderably. Part of
the air which is relpired difappears; and it has been
generally fuppofed that it is.only the oxygen gas which
is taken up. But according to the experiments of JVIr
Davy, part of the azotic gas alfo difappears and is ab-
forbed along with the oxygen. Dr Menzies eftimates
the quantity of oxygen gas abforbed by a man in 24
hours at rather more than 41 oz. troy. Lavoifier fixes
the quantity confumed by a man in the fame time at
32I- oz. nearly, and Mr Davy gives as the refult of
3 A his
2 537
Gafes ex¬
pired.
2538
Water.
. 2S40
Circulation
of the
blood.
733 , e
i’aniflions }jig expei inients ancl calculations about 3 St cxy-
" g«n gas» and 4t of azotic gas» amounting together to
about 38 oz. . .
7. The air thrown out of the lungs by expiration
contains a quantity of carbonic acid gas. But here
the refults of experiments to determine the quantity
are as widely different as in other points relating to
refpiration. By one it is reckoned at 13 oz. in 24
hours j by another at not lefs than 37 oZ*
8. Water in the Hate of vapour is alfo thrown out
of the lungs during refpiration. I he quantity efti-
mated by different philofophers exhibits the fame dif¬
ference of refults as in the other fubftances. Accord¬
ing to Hales it is 2o£ oz. nearly j according to La-
2(;,9 voilier it amounts to 28^ oz. . .
Component 9. But although it feems difficult, or perhaps impoi-
parts of the to afcertam with perfect accuracy the proportions
air expired. or quant;ty 0f each Gf the fubftances thrown out of the
lungs, yet it is clearly proved by experiment, that the
component parts of the air expired are azotic gas, car¬
bonic acid gas, and water in the ftate of vapour.
10. The blood, as it flows from the left fide of the
heart, is of a bright red colour. It is conveyed by
the arteries to every part of the body. It is then
taken up by the veins, and carried back to the heart, by
means of the venous fyftem. The blood having thus
circulated through the body, enters the right fide of
the heart, and has totally changed its colour. It is
new of a dark purpliffi red, inftead of the bright red
colour which it poffeffed when it paiTed out of the heait,
to be diftributed through the body. But before the
blood can pafs to the left fide of the heart, again to
enter the circulation, it mull pafs through the lungs,
where it again acquires the bright red colour. From
the lungs it paffes to the left fide of the heart, from
which it flows as before through the arterial fyffem to
all parts of the body. The blood then acquires this
florid red colour in the lungs. Let us now fee in what
this change confifts.
11. This change was aferibed by fome of the earlier
chemical phyfiologifts to the abforption of air. Dr
Priefiley obferved that venous blood, Avhich was of a
dark colour, became of a bright red when expofed to
oxygen gas, and that hydrogen gas produced a con¬
trary effe£t. The fame thing has been afeertained
fince, by many other qhemifts. According to Dr
Prieftley, the blood was deprived of its phlogifton as it
paffed through the lungs : but according to the theory
of Lavoifier and others, no part of the air infpired is
abforbed •, the blood gives out hydrogen and carbone,
which, combining with the oxygen of the air, form
water and carbonic acid. He fuppofed that the quan¬
tity of oxygen in the water and carbonic acid expired
was equal to that which had difappeared during re¬
fpiration. According to another theory, the oxygen
gas combines with the blood, and while this combina¬
tion takes place, the carbonic acid gas and water
which are expelled from the lungs along with the azo¬
tic gas, are given out. According to later experi¬
ments, it has been afeertained that not only the whole
of the oxygen of atmofpheric air, but part of the
azote, is abforbed during refpiration *, and indeed
fome have fuppofed that the whole of the atmofpheric
air is abfbrbed by the blood unaltered, and that it is
H E M I S T R Y.
3541
Changes on
the blood.
only after this abforption that the decompofition takes Fun&ion,
place. The whole of the oxygen and part of the 0|^nu
azote are retained, and the remaining part of the azote . ^ J
is thrown out, along with the carbonic acid gas and
water, which are expired j but this opinion, as well as
molt others with regard to the nature of the changes
that take place during refpiration, reffs in a great
meafure on plaufible conjecture. 2^s
1 2. A queltion has arifen among chemifts ivith re- Are the
gard to the formation of the carbonic acid and the fubftances
w ater which are expired; whether it takes place im-^P^.
mediately in the lungs, by the direct combination of^™^^,
the oxygen of the air with the carbone and hydrogen
of the blood, or whether thefe fubftances previoufly
exifted in the blood in a ftate of combination, and are
thrown out during refpiration. 2
13. What are the purpofes of thefe changes ? What PurpJes ol
are the ufes of refpiration in the animal economy? As refpiration.
the blood is the fource from which are derived the ma¬
terials for repairing the conftant wafte of the body,
it is neceffary that means ftiould be provided, to
fupply this wafte, to which the blood is conftantly
fubjefted. This is accompliftied, as we ftiall find
afterwards, by the procefs of digeftion, the produCl of
which is conveyed to the blood. But before it can
be converted into blood, it muft undergo certain 254.
changes, which take place in the lungs. There is To form fi-
one effential part of the blood, and an effential partbrina.
alfo of animal bodies, namely the fibrina, which does
not exift in the chyle and lymph, which are the fub¬
ftances conveyed to the blood, to repair its wafte, be¬
fore they have paffed through the lungs along with
the blood. Hence it is fuppofed that one purpofe of
refpiration is to form the fibrina of the blood. .
14. But another great purpofe of refpiration in thexo preferve
animal economy is to preferve the proper degree of tempera-
temperature neceffary for the health and life of the ani-ture-
mal. It is w'ell known that the temperature of ani¬
mals is not regulated like inorganized matter by the
furrounding medium. In -whatever temperature ani¬
mals are placed, except in thofe extreme degrees of
heat or cold which deftroy life altogether, the tempe¬
rature of their bodies continues almoft uniformly the
fame, and this temperature, it appears, correfponds to
the quantity of air infpired. Hence it is that the
temperature of the lower orders of animals which re¬
quire but a fmall proportion of air, as infedls, fifties, and
amphibious animals, is not much higher than that of
the medium in which they live, and on this account
they conftitute a divifion of animals which have been
diftinguiftied by phyfiologifts by the name of cold-blood'
ed animals. The temperature of w'arm-blooded ani¬
mals, whatever be the temperature in which they live,
is from 96° to 104°. The temperature of man is
about 98°, while that of birds which require a greater
proportional quantity of nir, is ufually 50 or 6° high¬
er. 2546
15. The manner in which the temperature of the Theories 01
body is kept up by means of refpiration, has been thus
accounted for, on the principles of Dr Black’s theory
of latent heat. Part of the latent heat of the air,
which was infpired and combined with the blood, is
given out, and thus raifes the temperature of the blood,
and that of the whole body through which it circu¬
late?.
muls.
2547
G H E M
fashions lates. But if this change took place in the lungs, and
of Ani- latent heat of the air int'pired was extricated in
, that organ, it was urged as an objedtion to this theory,
that the temperature in them would be much higher
than in other parts of the body. According to the
theory of Lavoifier and Crawford, the oxygen gas of
the air infpired combines with the hydrogen and car-
bone which are given out by the blood, forming car¬
bonic acid and water. During this procefs, which
takes place in the lungs, the latent heat of the oxygen
becomes fenfible. Part of it combines with the water
and the carbonic acid, and converts them to the Hate
of gas j the remainder combines with the blood, to pre-
ferve the temperature of the body. The capacity of
arterial blood for caloric, or the fpecific caloric of ar¬
terial blood, that is, the quantity of caloric which is
aeceffary to raife it to a given temperature, is much
greater than that of venous blood. According to
this theory, therefore, the fpecific caloric of arterial
blood, as it circulates through the body, is more and
more diminifhed, till it is at lail converted into ve¬
nous blood. In this way it has been propofed to obvi¬
ate the objeftion of the temperature of the lungs be¬
ing higheft, if, as it has been fuppofed, the whole of
the caloric is here evolved 5 and to account for the
uniformity of temperature which exifts in every part
of the body.
Ak abforb- 16. But if the difference of the fpecific caloric of
ed in the arterial and venous blood be not fufficiently great to
kate of gas. accoun|. for phenomena, this objeftion has been
attempted to be removed, by fuppofing that the air
is abforbed by the blood in the ftate of gas, and that
the greateft part of the changes which it undergoes, is
effected in the courfe of the circulation. Part of the
caloric, it is fuppofed, is evolved, when the air combines
with the blood, and this portion combining with the
carbonic acid and water thrown off, raifes them to the
Hate of gas, in which ftate they are emitted during re-
fipiration. The air abforbed by the blood gives out the
remaining portion of its caloric in the courfe of the cir-
culatien, when the oxygen combines with the carbone
and forms carbonic acid, and with the hydrogen and
forms water ; and thus the caloric is gradually evolved
during the courfe of the circulation. Such then are
two of the important purpofes which feem to be accom-
pliihed by means of the fumftion of refpiration j name¬
ly, the prefervation of animal temperature, and the
complete formation of the blood.
II. Of Digeftion.
Wafteof T- The animal body is fubjeft to continual wafte,
the body, and the quantity of this wafte varies according to the
nature and age of the animal. This wafte is repaired
by the blood, which muft confequently receive fome
fupplies, to make up for its continual confumption. On
this account, all animals require food or nourilhment,
to compenfate for the wafte of the body, and directly
for the confumption of the blood from which this wafte
is fupplied.
JoocUfdif- 2- Different animals, according to their nature, con-
ferent ani- ftitution, and circumftanees in which they are placed,
mats diffe- require different kinds of food. Some animals live en-
rent* tirely on vegetables, others feed exclufively on animals,
I s T R Y. 7J9
while a third elafs feed indiferiminately both on vcge- Fur.dlions
tables and animals. But whatever be the kind of food,
or whatever be the nature of the animal, it is all con-1
verted, by the procefs of digeftion, into the fame uni¬
form fubitance. In molt animals the food, as it is taken
into the mouth, is broken down, mixed with the faliva,
and conveyed to the ftomach, and after it has remained
there for a fhort time, it is totally changed, and is con¬
verted into the uniform fubltance above alluded to,
called chyme.
3. In attempting to account for the functions of theFalfe ana-
anirnal body, chemifts and phyfiologifts have been al- l°gies of
ways too much difpofed to confider the changes which Pfiy**0*0-
take place within the body, as analogous to thofe which
take place on inorganized or dead matter, in fuppofed
fimilar circumftances. Accordingly we find among
the fpeculations of philofophers, concerning the nature
of the fumftion of digeftion, that it has been aferibed
to fermentation. By one fet it was aferibed to one
kind of fermentation, namely to the vinous or acetous;
and by another fet this converfion of the food was fup¬
pofed to be effe&ed by the putrefaftive fermentation.*
But now, that the nature and circumftances of the pro-
ceffes of fermentation and digeftion have been more
accurately obferved, this opinion, it is probable, is uni-
verfally exploded. The experiments of phyfiologifts,
alfo, have led to more rational views concerning this
function. .j
4. It is now' generally admitted, that the converfion Gaftric
of the food into chyme, is effefted by the action of ajuice*
peculiar fluid fecreted in the ftomach, from which it
has been denominated gqftric juice. This liquid feems
to poffefs different properties in different animals, for
thofe animals which live entirely on vegetables cannot
digeft animal food, and the gaftric juice of thofe which
have been accuftomed to live entirely on animals, has
no effeft on vegetables. It is true, indeed, that the
nature of animals in this refpeft, as well as in molt of
their habits, may be completely reverfed, when it is
effe£ted by flow degrees. All fubftances taken into
the ftomach, are not equally afted upon by the gaftric
juice. Some of the hardeft are readily diffolved, while
others, feemingly lefs compaft and durable, remain un¬
altered. The hulks of grain in the ftomachs of many
animals refift its adtion, while the hardeft bone is en¬
tirely confumed.
5. No accurate knowledge has yet been obtained Its nature,
concerning the nature of the gaftric juice. According unknown,
to fome it is of an alkaline nature, and according to
others it poffeffes acid properties. But this difference of
opinion is by no means to be wondered at, if we con¬
fider the difficulty, or perhaps the impoffibility of ob¬
taining the gaftric juice in a ftate of purity, to fubjeft
it to chemical examination. If it even were poffible to
colledl it perfectly pure, its effedts could not be the
fame as within the body, fince all animal matters, the
moment they ate feparated from the living body, be¬
gin to undergo new changes, and therefore muft exhi¬
bit new properties. All experiments, therefore, which
have been made, to afeertain the nature of the gaftric
juice, and the procefs of digeftion out of the body,
muft be eonfidered as entirely inconelufive. Such ex¬
periments ffiew us the effedls of this liquid in the ftate
of dead matter, but can lead to no knowledge of itsna-
5 A 2 . . _ . . ture
740
Funftions
of Ani¬
mals
^553
Tood con¬
verted into
chyme.
CHEMISTRY.
«S54
Which is
changed in.'
to chyle.
2555
Chyle fepa.
rates into
two parts.
*5=16
Is totally
• hanged.
turc and properties tvlnle it cxiits in the living bo¬
dy (b). . .
6. But whatever be the nature of this liquid, or the
procefs of digeftion, the food, as we have already ob-
ferved, is broken down in the mouth and mixed with
the faliva, which, in the firft inftance, probably contii-
butes much to favour its commencement; for it has
been obfetved that the procefs of digeftion^ confider-
ably deranged when the fecretion of faliva is interrupt¬
ed, or its ufual quantity diminifhed. All, then, that is ■
certainly known concerning this change is, that the
food conveyed to the itomach is in a very fhort time
converted into the fubftance called chyme.
7. The chyme, which is a foft, pulpy matter, after
being formed in the ftomach, is carried totheintelhnes,
where it is mixed with other fubfiances, and undergoes
new changes. As foon as the chyme has paffed into
the interlines, it is converted partly into a milky fluid
called chyle, and partly into excrementitious matter.
Thus it is decompofed by feme procels, and feparated
into two parts, one of which is deilined for the nourilh-
mentof the body, and for repairing itswafte, while the
other is eje&ed.
. 8. The chyle, foon after it is formed from the
chyme, mixes with the bile which flow’s from the liver
into the inteftines. In confequenee of this combina¬
tion, it is fuppofed the excrementitious matter is fepa¬
rated from the chyle, and is thrown out of the body j
while the chyle itfelf is taken up by a fet of veflels
called laBeals, w hich open on the inner furface of the in¬
teftines, and receiving the fluid, convey it to a large trunk
in which they all terminate, denominated, from its fi-
tuation in the thorax, the thoracic du£i. The ufe of the
bile is fuppofed to be, to feparate the excrementitious
matter which might prove injurious to the fyftem, if it
were abforbed along with the chyle j and for this pur-
pofe the bile, it is fuppofed, is decompofed $ one part,
namely its faline and alkaline conftituents, combines
with the chyle, by which it becomes more liquid,
while another part, namely the refinous and albuminous
matter, combines with the excrement, and in this ftate
acts as a ftimulant to the inteftines, fothat the contents,
which might otherwife prove injurious, if long retain¬
ed, are ejedfted.
9. As a proof that the food which has been taken
into the body has been totally changed, fubftances
have beeen dete£led in the excrement of different ani¬
mals which did not previoufly exift in the food. Ac¬
cording to Vauquelin, excrementitious matter is alw ays
diftinguiftied by an acid property. Benzoic acid has
been detefted in that of horfes and cows. An acid of
a peculiar nature has been found in the dung of pi¬
geons \ but in general this matter is much difpofed to
ferment, and at laft gives out ammonia.
In the analyfis of the excrement of a hen by Vau¬
quelin, compared with the nourifhment, he found that
the oats which were taken in were compofed of phof-
phate of lime and fllica, and that the fhellsof the eggs, Fun&io&s
and the excrements which were examined, confifted of Ani-
phofphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and filica. The
proportion of filica which was found in the excrement
was lefs than the quantity taken in 5 but the quantity
of phofphate of lime w’as increafed, and a quantity of * Ann. de
carbonate of lime which did not previoufly exift in the Cbim. xxix.
food, was formed *.
10. The chyle, it has been obferved, _ is taken up byPr0!Xsr^eS
the la&eals, and conveyed to the thoracic du£. Little
is known of its properties, excepting that it poffeffes
fome in common with milk. Like milk, it coagulates,
and divides into a ferous and oily matter. In the tho¬
racic du£t the chyle is mixed with another fluid called
the lymph, which is conveyed frgm all parts of the
body by a fet of veffels which have been denominated 25Sg
lymphatics. This fluid is in confiderable quantity, isOfiympb.
vifeid and colourlefs, but from the difficulty of colleft-
ing it, little is known of its properties. The lymph
and the chyle, thus mixed together, are conveyed by
the thoracic duft to the blood-veffels. It is mixed with
the blood in the veins, and conveyed by them to the
right ftde of the heart, from which it is carried to the
lungs, where it undergoes the changes already deferib-
ed in the account of refpiration, and the whole is con¬
verted into arterial blood, which returns to the heart,
from whence it is diftributed to all parts of the body. -
III. Of Secretion.
1. In the courfe of the circulation of the blood, Matters fe.
different fubftances are feparated from it, fome of which parated
are deftined for the growth and nourifhment of thefro?n5ff‘c
body, as in young animals, or for the repair and fupply 00
of parts that are deftroyed ; while other fubftancts,
which feem either to be fuperfluous, or if retained,
w’ould be injurious, are thrown out of the body. Thefe
fecretions are performed by peculiar organs, the de-
feription and operation of which belong to Anatomy
and Physiology.. At prefent we will give a fhort ac¬
count of two of the moft: important of thefe fecretions,
namely, the fecretion of urine, and that of perfpirable
matter. . 2560
Secretion The urine, which is an ex-By the hid-
crementitious matter, is feparated from the blood byneys-
the aftion of the kidneys. According to the obferva-
tions of anatomifts and phyfiologifts on the ftru&ure
and office of thefe organs, a great proportion, or even,
as fome fuppofe, the whole, of the blood paffes through
them. As the urine fecreted by thefe organs feems
to ferve no purpofe in the animal economy, fince the
whole of it is thrown out, it is probable that the fub¬
ftances of whigh it is compofed, or at leaf! their confti¬
tuents, would have proved injurious if they had been
retained.
2. Whatever the change be wdiich takes place on js an iin,
the blood by the action of the kidneys, it is of the ut-portant
moft importance to the health and even to the life ofchange.
the
(b) The ftomach of young animals contains fome fubftance which has the property of coagulating milk. Acids
alfo have this property, from which it has been concluded that the fubftance in the ftomach of young animals,
which produces this effeft on milk, is of an acid nature : but it ought to be recolle&ed, that it is out of the body,
and that it has undoubtedly undergone new changes j and befides, it is not known exattly what fubftances may
have the property of inducing this change on milk.
Par'.clions
jjf Ani¬
mals-
156?
Secretion
from the
fkin.
35^3
Quantity.
the animal; for if thefe organs tire deilroyed by dif-
eafe or accident, the death of the animal is the certain
confequence.
3. By the aftion of the kidneys on the blood, new
fubftances make their appearance. Such, for inifance,
are urea and uric acid, which exift in the urine, but
cannot be detected in the blood ; but the bafes or
conftituents of thefe fubflances mull have formed part
of fome of the matters *f the blood, "which are there¬
fore decompofed for their evolution j and this decom-
polition muft take place in thefe organs. But al¬
though the urine, the fecreted matter, has been accu¬
rately analyzed, and its component parts, after it is
thrown out of the body, pretty well afeerfained, it is
yet unknown what are the peculiar changes which the
blood undergoes by the a£Hon of the kidneys.
Perfpiration.—1. A confiderable quantity of matter
is feparated from the blood by means of a fet of veffels
on the fkin of animals. This aftion is called fierfpi-
ration, and the fubfiance emitted, perfpirable matter.
The attention of phyfiologifts and chemifts has been
long directed to afeertain the quantity and nature of the
matter thus thrown off. To afeertain the firfl point,
many experiments have been made. San£lorius, an
Italian phyfician, vras the fii'ft who made this attempt,
by weighing himfelf, and eftimating the quantity of
food which was taken ia, and the quantity of excre-
mentitious matter thrown off. The difference, he
fuppofed, indicated the quantity of matter perfpired *,
but neither in his experiments, nor in thofe of many
others, who endeavoured to afeertain the fame thing,
was any eftimate made of the quantity of matter given
out by the lungs.
2. With this diftinction in view, a fet of experi¬
ments was inftituted by Lavoifier and Seguin. The
latter was inclofed in a varnifhed bag, which prevent¬
ed the efcape of every thing thrown off from the bo¬
dy, excepting what was loll by refpiration. Having
previoufly weighed himfelf, and having continued the
experiment for fome time, the quantity of matter
thrown off by refpiration was afeertained, by weighing
a fecond time. By weighing himfelf afterwards with¬
out the covering, and repeating the operation at the
end of a fimilar interval, he was thus enabled to afeer¬
tain the quantity loll by tranfpiratkm from the fldn,
by fubtrailing what had been previoufly afeertained
by tranfpiration from the lungs, from the whole dimi¬
nution of weight which was indicated in the lail expe¬
riment. From thefe experiments, the following con-
clufions were drawn.
a. In a ftate of health, and when there is no difpofi-
tion to corpulence, the body returns to the fame
weight once every 24 hours.
b. Indigeftion retards tranfpiration. The weight is
increafed for four days, and on the fifth the body re¬
turns to its original wreight.
c. Drink only, and not folid foqd, increafes the
perfpiration. It is lead at the moment of taking
food, and immediately after.
d. The perfpiration is greatefl during digeftion.
e. The greatell quantity of matter perfpired amount¬
ed in a minute to 26.25 grains troy; the leall to nine
grains.
f The pulmonary tranfpiration is proportionally
greater than that of the fkin. It is greater in winter,
C H E M 1 S T R Y, 74*
on account of the neeeflity of preferving the tempera- Funfhons
ture of the body. #_ roals.
3. The quantity of matter perfpired is greatefl du- *  j
ring hot weather, and in hot climates. The quantity
too bears a relation to the quantity of urine. Ihe
following are the refults of the experiments of Rye
made in Ireland, on the relative proportion of urine
and perfpirable matter, which were excreted in the
courie of one day at different feafons of the year.
Matter perfpired. Urine,
Winter,
Spring,
Summer,
Autumn,
Ounces.
53
60
63
50
Ounces.
42
40
37
37
4. When the temperature to which the body is ex- 5^.^.
pofed is much elevated, the quantity of perfpired mat¬
ter is greatly inereafed, and it then appears in a vifi-
ble liquid form called fiveat. This anlwers a very im¬
portant purpofe in the animal economy, for by this
means the equilibrium of temperature is preferved.
The heat which is abforbed is carried off along with
the matter which evaporates from the furface of the
body, and thus the increafe of temperature which
would otherwife prove fatal, is prevented. 2^,.
5. The next objcfl of chemical phyfiologifls was tocomponentr
afeertain the nature of the fubftance which is perfpir- parts.
ed. This has been found extremely difficult, on ac¬
count of the fmall quantity which it has been poffible
to collefl. But it has been afeertained that it conflfts
chiefly of water and carbone, with an oily matter.
Phofphoric acid alfo, and phofphate of lime, have been
detected in the perfpirable matter. In the air which
has been confined in contafl with the fkin, carbonic
acid gas has been detefled $ from which it is conclud¬
ed, that either the carbone muft have been evolved,
and combined with the oxygen of the air, or the oxy¬
gen gas mufl have been abforbed, and combining with
the carbone, is given out in the ftate of carbonic acid.
The oily matter which is emitted by the fkin, is fup¬
pofed to occafion the peculiar fmell by which animals-
are diftinguifhed. The remarkable circumrtance of a
dog being able to trace another animal to a great di-
ftance by the fmell, or to difeover his mafter by the
fame means to a much greater diftance, is aferibed
to the emiffion of this matter. The matter perfpired,
according to Bertholkt, poflefles acid properties, and
the acid he fuppofes, is the phofphoric. Phofphate
of lime has been detefted in the fkins of horfes by
Fourcroy and Vauquelin. _ %-^G'
Befides thefe, there are other fecretions which are other fe-
diflined for peculiar purpofes in the animal economy, cretions.
or immediately connected with the funftions of parti¬
cular organs, or parts of the fyftem. Such is the fe-
cretion of faliva in the mouth, of tears in the eyes, of
mucus in the nofe, and wax in the ears. The fecre-
tion of milk in the female is deftined for the nourifh-
ment of the offspring *, but we ffiall not enter into the
defeription of the. organs employed in thefe fecretions.
The nature and properties of the matters fecreted will
come under our conftderation in treating of the differ¬
ent parts of animals,.
IV,
742
Fundions
of Ani¬
mals.
2567
Wafte of
-the body
mud be re¬
paired.
C H E M I S T R Y.
By particu¬
lar organs.
2569
Which al¬
ways fe-
crete the
fartre mat¬
ter.
2570
Functions
vary with
circumftan
£V. Of AlTimilalion.
1. The continual wafte and decay of the body re¬
quire to be repaired. This, as we have already feen,
is the purpofe of taking nourilhraent into the^ body j
part of which being fubjeft to the proceffes of digeftion
and refpiration, is converted into blood, from which
fource are derived thofe fupplies of new matter which
are wanted in the formation of new parts, or to make
up the general decay of the fyftem. New fupplies of
matter are peculiarly neceffary, in young animals, in
which the parts already formed increafe in fize and
confiftency, and in which, in theprogrefs of the growth
of the body, entirely new parts are evolved. But if
there be any thing in the fpeculations of phyfiologifts,
of the whole matter in the body being periodically
changed, even after it has arrived at its full growth,
a conftant fupply of new matter becomes abfolutely ne-
ceflary. All thefe fupplies are furnilhed by the blood,
and for this purpofe it is diftributed to every part of
the body. The materials for repairing the general
wafte, for increafing thofe parts which are already for¬
med, or for the formation of new parts, are all derived
from it. From this fource are derived the moft fluid,
as well as the moft folid parts of the body ; the faliva
of the mouth, and the gaftric juice of the ftomach, fo
neceffary in the funftion of digeftion, by which the
health and life of the animal are preferved, as uadi as
•the bones and mufcles, which give it ftrength, firmnefs
and motion. The procefs by which the different fub-
ftances which are furnifhed by the blood for the repair
of fome parts and the formation of others, has been
diftinguifhed by the name of aflimilation, becaufe, in
confequence of new aftions and combinations, mat¬
ter exa&ly fimilar to the parts repaired or renewed,
is depofited, which did not previoully exift in the
blood.
2. Thefe changes are effe<fted by the a£Hon of pecu¬
liar organs or veffels. Whatever be the nature of the
food taken into the ftomach, it is converted into chyme
by the procefs of digeftion. This again, by a farther
change, as it paffes into the inteftines, forms the
chyle, which is conveyed to the blood, and after this
fluid has undergone the changes which are induced on
it by refpiration, it has acquired thofe properties which
render it fit for the important purpofes to which it is
deftined.
3. By the action of the different fecretory organs,
the fame matter is ahvays feparated from the blood,
w'hile the animal continues in the healthy ftate. The
perfpirable matter is feparated by the glands or veffels
on the Ikin, and the faliva is prepared by the glands
of the mouth. The matter of bones, of mufcles, or of
nerves, is feparated and depofited in thofe places
where it is required, and no other. In the healthy ftate
of the body, mufcular matter is not depofited among
the bones, nor is offeous matter mixed w ith the muf¬
cles.
4. The moft aftonifliing part of the animal fyftem
is that power which it poffeffes of accommodating it-
' felf to particular circumftances. It would be lefs fur-
prifing that the fame adtions and the fame fund!ions,
after they have commenced, fhould continue to be per¬
formed with uniformity and regularity. But, in the
animal fyftem, new adtions take place, or at leaft thofe
which were comparatively feeble and limited, becomeBcccmpo.i
more powerful and more extenfive. Thus, a part of11^0^Atlh
the body which has been deftroyed or removed is by n^aanc"s *
this new or extended adlion, completely renovated. A 1 1—1',J
large piece of mufcle in the healthy ftate of the body
is foon renewed ; and, w-hat is more furprifing, the con-
ftituent parts of bone are prepared, vrhen neceffary,
and depofited in thofe places where large pieces of this
fubftance have been removed.
5. But although fome, or perhaps all thefe changes Are regu.
which take place in the different proceffes going on luted by
in the animal fyftem, are of a chemical nature, yett!lf
they are fubjedt to the controul of fome power, the chaA*1 ^ e‘
radteriftics of w hich are totally different from thofe of
a chemical or mechanical agent. This is the living
principle which counteradls, regulates, and diredis the
effedls of chemical agents. It is by means of this
power, that the materials of which the different parts
of the body are compofed, are depofited in their pro¬
per places. It is by means of the fame pow er that a
greater quantity of matter neceflary for the renovation
of any particular part which has been deftroyed, is pre¬
pared and depofited exadlly in that place where it is
wanted 5 but the power of this agent is limited. Cer¬
tain fubftances taken into the ftomach, which are unfit
for digeftion or nourilhment, are immediately rejedfed j
but others are too powerful, and deftroy the organ it-
felf. As the ftrongeft proof of the exiftence and con¬
troul of this power, the conftituent parts of animal bo¬
dies begin immediately to decompofe each other as
foon as its adtion has ceafed. The gaftric juice of the
ftomach, which adts only on the fubftances introduced in¬
to it in the living ftate, has been fometimes found to
corrode and deftroy the ftomach itfelf, after death.
But the inveftigation of the nature of this agent, and
of its influence on the animal body, belong to Phy¬
siology.
Sect. II. Of the Decomposition of Animal Sub¬
stances.
2572
1. As foon as an animal has ceafed to live, its frame DecompoS-
and texture are deftroyed, the conftituent parts are fe-tion ofve-
parated, they enter into new combinations, new fub-S^a^e.s
ftances are formed, and the component parts are total-ma|s
ly changed. The rapid fpontaneous decompofition ofrent.
animal matters, Avhich has been called putrefaBion, is
one of the moft ftriking charadters by which they are
diftinguiflred. Vegetable matters, w’e have feen, W'hen
vegetation ceafes, are alfo fubjedt to decompofition j
but in them the procefs is flow' and gradual, and many
of the produdts are totally different. 2573
2. The remarkable difference between the fponta-Owing to
neous decompofition of vegetables and animals, de-^16
pends on the difference of the conftituent parts of thefe comp0g_
two claffes of organized fubftances. Animal matters tion.
are compofed of a greater variety of conftituent princi¬
ples, and thus originates a greater variety of adtion,
when the different component parts begin to adt on
each other. By the numerous and complicated attrac¬
tions which exift among thefe conftituent principles,
decompofition is more readily effedted, and a greater
variety of new produdts make their appearance. 2574
3. But notwithftanding the variety and complicated
ftrudture of animal fubftances, total decompofition or0.
putrefadtion
2575
Phenoine-
Decompofi- putrefaftion does r.ot take place, except in certain cir-
1 camftances, by which the mutual aftion of the confti-
dances. tuent principles is promoted. The chief circumftances
neceffary for the putrefaction of animal matter are,
moifture and moderate heat. Dry animal matters do
not undergo any change. Bones, when moiftened
with water, the foft parts of animals, but efpecially
the liquid parts, run rapidly on to putrefaction. Heat
is alfo neceifary to promote this change. No putrefac¬
tion takes place in animal matters, at or below the
freezing temperature. Before it commences, the tem¬
perature muit be elevated fome degrees above this
.point, and as the temperature rifes, the rapidity of the
procefs is proportional. This condition, however, has
its limits ; for when the heat reaches a certain point, fo
far from promoting the procefs of putrefaftion, it is re¬
tarded, or altogether interrupted, by carrying off the
moilture. The contaCl of air was thought neceffary
to favour this procefs j but although it appears that this
is not an effential condition, putrefaftion goes on more
rapidly in the open air, perhaps by receiving and car¬
rying off the elaftic fluids as they are formed. Mat¬
ters which have already undergone this change, brought
in contaCt with recent animal fubftances, promote and
accelerate putrefaCtion.
4. When animal matters are placed in favourable
circumflances, the folid parts become foft, and the li¬
quid parts become more fluid. The colour changes,
and is converted into a reddifh brown, or deep green.
The odour, which is at firit difagreeable, becomes fetid
and infupportable. An ammoniacal fmell is alfo dif-
fufed, but this is only temporary, while the putrid
odour continues during the whole procefs. The li¬
quids become turbid, the foft parts are melted into a
kind of jelly, accompanied with an inteftine motion,
and an enlargement of the bulk of the whole mafs, ow¬
ing to the efcape of elaftic fluids, which are flowly
difengaged. The w'hole matter is then reduced to
one mals, the fwelling ceafes, the bulk is diminilhed,
and the colour deepens. Towards the end of the pro¬
cefs, a peculiar odour, fomewdiat aromatic, is emitted-.
When it ceafes entirely, there remains behind an unc¬
tuous, vilcid, and fetid earthy mafs.
5. The duration of this procefs is extremely vari¬
ous, according to the nature of the fubftances and the
circumftances in which they are placed j but it has
been divided by fome into different ftages. In the
firft there is merely a tendency to putrefaflion, ac¬
companied with a very flight change of texture and
colour. The fecond change, or incipient putrefaction,
exhibits fome traces of acidity ; the parts are more
foftened, a ferous matter begins to flow from the re¬
laxed fibres ; the colour is more altered, and the pu¬
trid fetid odour exhaled. In the third or more ad¬
vanced ftage of putrefaftion, the fetid odour is more
or lefs mixed with the fmell of ammonia 5 the diffolved
putrid matter becomes of a deeper colour, and is di-
minifhed in weight by the efcape of a great quantity
of volatile matter. In the laft ftage, or when the
procefs is completed, the ammoniacal odour vanifhes,
the fetid fmell becomes lefs, and is often fucceeded by
fomething of an aromatic fmell. The animal matter
has diminilhed greatly in bulk, and has loft all ap¬
pearance of organized ftruCture. There remains only
a dark brown, earthy fubftance, un&uous to the feel,
CHEMISTRY.
which has been atilmaiearth.
743
But thefe changes Oecompofi-
2575
The period
HfTerent.
are regulated by the particular cireumitances in whichtion I’
the procefs takes place. dances.*
6. In the courfe of the putrefaCtive procefs of ani- > —t
mal fubftanccs, difterent gafes are fucceflively emitted. 2577
Thefe are chiefly carbonated, fulphurated, and phof-
phorated hydrogen gafes, water in the ftate of vapour, UI J‘
ammonia, and carbonic acid gas. Thefe bodies are
evolved and volatilized, carrying with them fome
of the principal confUtuents. Other produfts, formed
at different periods of the procefs, and of a more fixed
nature, make their appearance •, fueh, for inftance, is
an unCtuous matter, and a kind of foap, formed of this
matter and ammonia j fuch too is nitric acid, which is
frequently formed during this decompofition, and is
combined with an earthy or alkaline bafe j and fuch
finally is the undtuous earth which remains after the
evolution and feparation of the former produtls. g
7. The procefs of putrefaction, then, confifts in a Nature of
change produced by the adtion of affinities, more the procefs,
powerful than thofe which hold together the conftituent
principles of the animal matter. Thefe conftituents
are, hydrogen, azote, carbone, and oxygen, with a
certain proportion of fulphur, phofphorus, and dif¬
ferent Ipecies of phofphates. During the decompo¬
fition, a portion of the hydrogen combines with azote
to form ammonia, while another portion combines
with part of the oxygen to form water j part of the
carbone is united with a portion of oxygen, and forms
carbonic acid j the union of azote w ith a third portion
of oxygen conftitutes nitric acid j a combination of
hydrogen, carbone, and azote, yields a volatile or fixed
oil, according to the proportion of the conftituents j
and finally, the faline, earthy, and metallic fubftances,
which are little fufceptible of change, during this pro¬
cefs, remain unaltered, and conftitute the reliduum.
Thus, in taking a general view of the affinities which
come into adtion during this procefs, the amount of
thofe which tend to combine the hydrogen with the
azote to form ammonia •, the oxygen with the carbone,
to form carbonic acid •, the carbonic acid with the
ammonia, to form carbonate of ammonia j the hydrogen,
carbone and oxygen, to form oil, and this latter with
ammonia to conftitute foap, befide the hydrogen and
oxygen to form water, is greater than the fum of the
forces which retain in combination, the hydrogen, the
azote, the carbohe and oxygen, which are the principal
conrtituents of animal compounds.
8. Such are the refults when the procefs is condudled In p
in clofe veffels j but w'hen the procefs takes place in ieoP-n
the open air, fimilar refults are obtained, but in a man¬
ner fomewhat difterent, according to the nature of the
compounds which are formed. In this cafe part of the
animal fubftance is diffolved and carried off by the air
and the water. The ammonia and carbonic acid are
diffipated as they are formed j part of the carbonated
hydrogen is alfo volatilized by the increafe of tempera¬
ture, and there is no un&uous matter or ammoniacal
foap formed. 2(.go
9. It is well known that the odour wffiich proceeds Caule of
from putrid animal matters is extremely offenfive. This the letui t*
is owing in a great meafure, to the fulphurated and^our*
phqfphorated hydrogen gafes difengaged ; but it is not
merely offenfive, but noxious to the health, and fome-
times dcftruftive to the life of animals* Thefe effe&s-
are
74+
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
C H E M I S T R ¥.
SS81
Method of
•preferving
animal
matters.
are no doubt owing to the putrid effluvia which are
exhaled, and which are taken into the lungs during re-
fpiration. To counteract the effects of thefe putrid
exhalations, attention fhould be paid to agitate the air
of inhabited places by proper ventilation, which may
be done by burning wood in the vicinity of infectious
air, fo that the fmoke may be mixed with it, or by
directing currents of water into fimilar places. lo
deftroy the noxious effeCts of putrid miafmata, which
are produced in confined places, frequented by numbers
of people, muriatic acid gas, difengaged from common
fait by means of fulphuric acid, has been fuecesfully
employed. Oxymuriatic acid gas has alfo been pro-
pofed for the fame purpofe.
io. It is an objeCt of confiderable importance in do-
meftic economy, to prevent the procefs of putrefaftion
in thofe animal fubftances which are to be preferved
and employed as food. It is alfo an objeCt of iome
importance for many other purpofes. Different me¬
thods have been propofed to accompliih this.. It is
effected by depriving the animal matters entirely of
their moifture, without which the procefs is interrupt¬
ed. Animal matters are alfo preferved by . keeping
them at the freezing temperature, or below it. 1 he
fame objeCt is attained by covering up inatters to. be
preferved with fuch fubftances as readily enter into
combination with water, and thus prevent its effeas
upon the animal matters. The acids, fugar, alcohol,
and fome falts, it is fuppofed, ad in this way, by pre¬
venting putrefaaion. With the fame view aromatic
and refinous fubftances, volatile oils, camphor, the
powder of dried aftringent and fragrant plants, char¬
coal and bitumen, are employed.
Sect. III. Of the Component Parts of Animal
Substances.
Having given a ftiort account of the functions
of living animals, and of the fpontaneous decompofi-
tion which takes place after death, we now proceed
to take a view of their component parts, as they have
been inveftigated by chemical analyfis. Phis fhall be
the fubjeCt of the prefent feftion, which for the fake
of perfpicuity of arrangement, may be fubdivided un¬
der the four following heads: I. Of the conftituent
parts of animal fubftances in general. II. Of the li¬
quid parts of animals. III. Of the folid parts ; and
IV. Of fubftances peculiar to different claffes of ani¬
mals.
I. Of the Conftituent Parts of Animal Subftances in
General.
■*582
Elements-
The Ample fubftances which enter into the com-
pofition of the different parts of animals, are chiefly
azote, carbone, hydrogen, and oxygen, of which, ar¬
ranged in different proportions, the foft parts are com-
pofed j phofphorus and lime, which conftitute the bafis
of the hard parts j fulphur, the fixed alkalies, muriatic
acid, iron and manganefe. But by the conftituent
parts of animals, is here to be underftood thofe fubftan¬
ces into which they are refolved by analyfis. Some of
thefe are compound, and fome are fimple, as will ap¬
pear from the following enumeration.
1. Gelatine,
2. Albumen,
3. Fibrina,
4. Urea,
5. Sugar,
6. Oils,
-7. Refins,
8. Phofphorus,
9. Sulphur,
10. Acids,
11. Alkalies, earths, and metals.
Competent
Parts of
Animal
Subltances.
2583
Component
parts.
I. Of Gelatine.
. . 2584
1. Glue, a well known fubftance in the arts, is gem- Prepara-
tine in a ftate of impurity. This may be obtained tion.
pure by repeatedly waihing the frefti £kin of an ani¬
mal in cold water, afterwards boiling it, reducing it
to a fmall quantity by a flow evaporation, and allowing
it to cool. It then affumes the form of a folid tremu¬
lous fubftance called jelly. When this fubftance is
dried in the air, it becomes hard and femitranfpa-
rent. *585
2. Gelatine has different degrees of hardnefs, and Propertie*
when pure, it is colourlefs and femitranfparent. It is
brittle, breaks with a vitreous fra&ure, and has neither
tafte nor fmell. . # 258^ .
3. When it is expofed to heat, in the dry ftate, it Adlionof
becomes white, then blackens, and is converted into heat.
a coaly matter. J. remulous gelatine melts before it
undergoes thefe changes. When it is diftilled, it af¬
fords a watery fluid, impregnated with ammonia and
a fetid oil. A voluminous mafs of charcoal remains
behind. 25s7
4. Gelatine remains unaltered in the dry ftate by Of air and
expofure to the air $ but the folution in water is foon
decompofed, giving out an acid, the nature of which is
unknown, a fetid odour, and fome ammonia. It is not
very foluble in water j it increafes in bulk, and be¬
comes foft and tremulous. In this ftate it foon diffolves
in wrarm water j but as the folution cools, it returns to
its former ftate.
5. With the afflftance of heat gelatine is jeadily dif- Acids,
folved by the acids. Sulphuric acid a£ts flowly on
this fubftance, and forms a brown folution, which be¬
comes gradually darker with the evolution of fulphur-
ous acid. Nitric acid by digeftion on gelatine, is de¬
compofed j azotic gas is evolved, and afterwards a
great quantity of nitrous gas. 1 he gelatine is diffolved,
and converted partly into oxalic and malic acids, and
an oily matter which remains on the furface. Muri¬
atic acid readily diffolves gelatine, and forms a brown-
coloured folution, from which a white powder is gra¬
dually precipitated. When this folution is added to
the folution of tan in water, a copious precipitate is
formed.
2588
2589
6. Gelatine is readily diflblved by the alkalies, with Alkalies,
the aid of heat. There is no aflion between any of the
earths and this fubftance. _ . 2590
Some of the metallic oxides form precipitates w ith Metallic
gelatine in its folution in water. The compound thus oxides,
formed is infoluble. Similar precipitates are occafioned
by fome of the metallic falts. ~S9i
8. Gelatine forms a copious white precipitate with Tan.
tan.
Component tan. A brittle compound is thus produced, which
Animal *S water> and is not changed by expofure
C H E M I S T R Y. 745
no fmell. When dried in a moderate heat, it be- Component
Subftances.
ajpa
Compoli-
tion.
2593
■Different
kinds.
2594
Found in
different
parts of
animals.
2595
Ufes.
2596
Obtained
from eggs.
2 597
Action of
heat.
aqpS
'aufe of
i :oaguia-
! tion.
I *599
roperties
1 'f uncoa-
-ulatcd
1 dbumen.
to the air.
9. The component parts of gelatine are carbone, hy¬
drogen, azote, and oxygen, with fome traces of phof-
phate of lime and of foda, but the proportions of thefe
fubftances have not been determined.
10. There are various kinds of gelatine, probably
arifing from flight variations of the proportions of its
conftituents, or from the addition of other fubftances,
the nature of which has not been diftindtly al'certained.
Glue is extra&ed from different animal fubftances, as
bones, mufcles, membranes, but efpecially from Ikins, by
firft fteeping them in lime-water, to purify them from
all extraneous fubftances, and afterwards boiling them
with pure water. The ftrongeft glue is obtained from
the Ikins of old animals. What is called jfec, is a
weaker kind of glue, which is colourlefs and tranfpa-
rent, and is extracted from the Ikins of eels, horfes,
cats, rabbits, and from fome kinds of white leather.
It is this which is employed in the manufafture of pa¬
per, and in gilding and painting. Ifinglafs, another
kind of glue, is extracted from different parts of the
fturgeon, and fome other fifli.
11. Gelatine forms a principal part, both of the folid
and fluid parts of animals. It is found in blood and
in milk, in the bones, ligaments, fkin, and other
folid parts.
12. Animal jelly, which is gelatine, is well known
as a very nutritious food, and is much employed in
the ftate of glue, lize, and ifinglafs, in numerous
arts.
II. Of Albumen.
1. The white of an egg confifts chiefly of albumen.
It is combined with a portion of foda and fulphur.
From thefe fubftances it cannot be feparated without
decompofition, fo that its properties arc probably mo¬
dified by them.
2. When albumen is expofed to a heat of about 165°
it coagulates into a folid white mafs, of different de¬
grees of confiftency, according to the duration of the
heat applied. This is the ehara&eriftic property of
albumen. In this ftate it has totally changed its pro¬
perties. Formerly foluble in water, it cannot now be
diffolved in that liquid, either hot or cold.
Different opinions have been formed concerning the
nature of this change, or the caufe of the coagulation
of albumen. It has been afcribed by fome to the ab-
forption of caloric, and by others to that of oxygen.
The former opinion was that of Scheele, and the lat¬
ter is fupported by Fourcroy j but this coagulation is
found to take place when air is entirely excluded, or
without any change being produced in the furround¬
ing air. It has been fuppofed by others, that the coa¬
gulation is produced by the extrication of caloric, as
in other cafes when fluid bodies are converted into
lolids. According to an experiment.of Fourcroy, this
extrication of caloric actually takes place ; but it is
afcribed by others to a different arrangement of the
particles of the albumen, which is induced by the
action of the heat applied.
3. The properties of albumen, it has been obferved,
are very different after coagulation. Before coagula¬
tion it is a glairy liquid which has fcarceiy any tafte, and
Vol. V. Part II.
comes brittle and tranfparent, and by being fpread
thin, forms a varniih. When thus dried, it is not5ul)1j.aneei>
changed by expoiure to the air, but otherwife it foon v—.r
becomes putrid. 2600
Albumen is coagulated by means of the acids.^<^10n
With the aid of heat, fulphuric acid diffolves it, 1Ca2gOI
and forms a folution of a green colour. By the a6tion Acids,
of nitric acid, azotic gas is difengaged : the albumen
is then diffolved j nitrous gas is given out, and oxalic
and malic acids are formed, befides a thick oily fub-
ftance which appears on the furface. The coagula¬
tion of albumen does not take place when it is dif¬
folved in a great proportion of water. Albumen is
alfo coagulated by means of alcohol and ether, but
if the quantity of water in which it is diffolved be con-
fiderable, the coagulation is not effefted. 26 r
5. By trituration w ith a concentrated folution of Alkalies,
pure potalh, albumen left at reft for fome time, coa¬
gulates, and is converted into a fubftance refembling
jelly, which is brittle and tranfparent when it is dried.
No change takes place on albumen by the adlion of the
earths. ^.
6. Albumen is precipitated, from its folution in wa- Metallic
ter, by many metallic falts. The precip.tate is white, falts.
yellow, or brown, according to the metal employed. 2604
7. Tan precipitates albumen from its folution in Tan.
water, in the form of a copious yellow fubftance,
which is infoluble in water. It becomes brittle when
dry, and is not changed by expofure to the air. 260$
Coagulated albumen.—1. Albumen, when it is coagu-Properties,
lated, acquires new properties. It is then a tough,
opaque fubftance, of a pearly-white colour, and of a
fweetilh tafte. It is infoluble in water, and is lefs
fubjeft to change. When it is dried in the tempera-Adtion of
ture of 212°, it is converted into a hard, brittle, yel-heat.
lowifh fubftance, of the tranfparency of horn.' When
it is fome time digefted in water, it becomes foft,
white, and opaque, like albumen newly coagulated.
By long aftion a fmall part feems to be diffolved, but
no precipitation is formed in this folution by the infu-
fton of tan. ^ ^
2. The mineral acids largely diluted with water, Adds. *
diffolve a portion of coagulated albumen j but by the
addition of the lame acids in their concentrated ftate,
it is again precipitated. If coagulated albumen be
kept in diluted nitric acid for feveral weeks, the acid
acquires a yellow colour, which gradually deepens j
the albumen becomes more opaque, but Is not dif¬
folved. By faturating the yellow-coloured acid with
ammonia, no precipitate is formed, but it affumes a
deep orange colour. If the albumen be then intro¬
duced into liquid ammonia, the latter affumes a deep
orange colour, inclining to red. The albumen dil- »
folves flowly, and after the folution is completed, it
is of a yellowifti-brown colour. By waffling and
boiling in water, the albumen thus treated with nitric
acid, is diffolved, the liquid becomes of a pale "yellow,
and affumes the form and appearance of jelly, when
it is concentrated. If this mafs be diffolved in boilinp-
water, the folution is precipitated by tan ; fo that ni^
trie acid has the property of converting coagulated al¬
bumen into gelatine. a^o8
3. Coagulated albumen is readily diffolved in a fo- Alkalie?,
lution of potalh by boiling. Ammonia is difengaged,
5 ^ and
740
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances
2609
Compofi-
tion.
2610
Exifts in
different
parts of
animals.
2611
Ufes.
C H E M 1
and a (dap is formed. It this foap he difTolved in
water, and muriatic or acetic acid be added, a pre¬
cipitate is formed, which alfo has the properties of
foap. When it is moderately heated, a portion of oil
Hows out, and a vifcid brownilh fubftance remains be¬
hind. ,
4. Albumen is compofed of carbone, hydrogen, azote,
and oxygen, but the proportions have not been deter¬
mined. It is luppoled by fome that it contains a great¬
er proportion of azote than gelatine.
5. Albumen conftitutes an effential part in the com-
poiition of bones and mufcles. Cartilage, horns, and
hair confift almoil entirely of this fubftance, as well as
the membranous portion of ftiells and fponge.
6. Albumen is advantageoufly employed for clarify¬
ing liquids. The liquid to be purified is mixed with
the white of eggs, the ferous part of the blood, or other
fubftances containing albumen, and then heated. By
the action of heat the albumen is coagulated, and falls
to the bottom, carrying with it thofe fubftances which
were mixed with the liquid, and occafioned the opacity,
and which, on account of the minutenefs of the par¬
ticles, could not be otherwife feparated.
III. Of Fibrina.
Obtained 1* Fibrina is readily obtained by allowing blood to
from blood remain at reft for fome time after it has been drawn
from an animal. The clot, which has formed and falls
to the bottom, is to be feparated, put into a linen cloth,
and repeatedly walhed with water, till the liquid come
off infipid and colourlefs. The fibrous part of the
blood, as it has been called, or the fibrina, remains be-
26x3 hind. Mr Hatchett obtained it by cutting lean beef
From muf- into fmall pieces, macerating in water for fifteen days,
c!e’ changing the water daily, and fqueezing it out at the
fame time by preffure. The mufcular fubftance was
boiled every day five hours for three weeks in a frelh
portion of fix quarts of water. The fibrous fubftance
was then preffed, and dried with the heat of a water
bath. What remained is confidered as fibrina nearly
2614
Properties.
2615
A ft ion of
heat.
263d
Acids.
pure.
2. Fibrina is of a white colour, foft and elaftic, when
it is recently extra£led from blood j and, as it dries,
the colour becomes deeper. When it is extracted by
boiling and maceration from mufcular matter, it is
brittle, has feme degree of tranfparency, and does not
become fo deep in the colour. It has neither tafte nor
fmell. It is infoluble in water and alcohol, and is not
changed by expofure to the air.
3. When it is expofed to heat, it contrails fuddenly,
and emits-the fmell of burning feathers. It melts with
an increafe of temperature. It yields by diftillation,
water, carbonate of ammonia, a thick fetid oil, carbo¬
nic acid, and carbonated hydrogen gas, with fome traces
V>f acetic acid. The coaly matter which remains be¬
hind burns with difficulty, on account of the phofphate
of foda, phofphate and carbonate of lime, with which it
is mixed.
4. Fibrina is foluble in the acids. The folution in
fulphuric acid is of a deep brown colour ; charcoal is
precipitated, and acetic acid formed. When diluted
nitric acid is-added to fibrina, azotic gas is copioufly
difengaged. Fibrina kept by Mr Hatchett for 15 days
in nitric acid diluted with 3 times its weight of water,
gave to the folution a yellow colour, and it refembled
S T R Y.
in its properties the folution of albumen in the fame Component
acid. By this procefs, after being diffolved in boiling
water, and concentrated by evaporation, the fibrina isSub^^es<
converted into gelatine, which is foluble in hot water, > 1—,tj
ai)d is precipitated by tan. The fibrina in this ftate
alfo is almoft entirely diffolved by ammonia, and the
folution is of an orange colour. Fibrina is diffolved in
boiling nitric acid, in which ammonia produces a pre¬
cipitate, compofed chiefly of oxalate of lime. During
the adfion of the nitric acid, pruflic acid paffes over,
with carbonic acid gas and nitrous gas. Oxalic acid
is formed, and a fatty matter appears on the furface.
Fibrina is alfo foluble in muriatic acid, with which it
forms a green-coloured jelly* It is diffolved alfo in
acetic, oxalic, tartaric, and citric acids, with the af-
fiftance of heat j and is converted by concentrating the
folutions, into a gelatinous mafs. Alkalies precipitate
fibrina from its folution in the acids, in the form of
flakes, which have the properties of gelatine, and are
foluble in hot water.
5. Concentrated potafh or foda, boiled upon fibrina,
forms a deep brown coloured folution, which has the
properties of foap. During the procefs ammonia is
given out.
6. Fibrina is compofed of carbone, hydrogen, a-
zote, and oxygen, but the proportions are unknown.
It is found only in the blood and mufcular parts of ani¬
mals.
IV. Of Urea.
1. The nature and properties of urea have been
chiefly inveftigated by Fourcroy and Vauquelin. It is
obtained from urine. It may be extra&ed by the fol¬
lowing procefs.
If a quantity of human urine which has been paffed Method of
a few hours after taking food, be evaporated with a preparing,
gentle heat, to the confiftence of a thick fyrup, and
allowed to cool, it concretes into a cryftalline mafs.
Add to this mafs in feparate portions four times its
weight of alcohol ; with the application of a gentle
heat, great part is diffolved, and what remains confifts
of different faline fubftances. Separate the folution
from the undiffolved part, and introduce it into a re¬
tort. Diftil with the heat of a fand-bath, and conti¬
nue the boiling till the liquid is reduced to the form
of a thick fyrup. The matter which remains in the
retort cryftallizes as it cools. The cryftals thus form¬
ed are urea. 261S
2. Urea, which is prepared by this procefs, is cry-Propertiej.
ftallizeff in the form of plates, crofting each other.
It is vifcid, refembling thick honey, and of a yellow-
iffi white colour. It has a ftrong acrid tafte, and a
fetid alliaceous fmell. It deliquefees in the air, and
by attrafting moifture is converted into a thick brown
liquid. It is very foluble in water, and alfo in alco¬
hol. The folution in water concentrated is of a brown
colour. This folution is gradually decompofed, air is
emitted, which is partly compofed of ammonia, and
acetic acid is formed in the liquid. If the folution in
water be boiled, and as the evaporation goes on frefh
portions of water be added, the urea is decompofed j
carbonate of ammonia is difengaged, while acetic acid
is formed and charcoal precipitated. 2619
3. By the aftion of heat urea foon melts, enlarges in Aftionof
bulk, and evaporates, emitting an extremely fetidheat*
fmell,
CHEMISTRY.
Component fmell. Ey diftillation, benzoic acid firft paiTes over,
Par:tS °[ afterwards carbonate of ammonia, carbonated hydro-
Subftances. §en Sas» with a fmall portion of pruffic acid and oil.
w. v' ■■ > What remains behind confifts of charcoal, muriates of
ammonia and of foda. The benzoic acid, the mu¬
riate of ammonia and muriate of foda, are confi-
dered as extraneous matter, fo that the produfts of
urea by diftillation conlift of the carbonate of ammo¬
nia, carbonated hydrogen gas, and charcoal. The
component parts of urea, therefore, are fuppofed to
be,
■z6io
Compofi
tion.
Oxygen,
Azote,
Carbone,
Hydrogen,
26a!
Action of
acids.
39-5
32.5.
14.7
13-3
100.0
.4. If one-fourth of its weight of diluted fulphuric
acid be added to the folution of urea, and heat be ap¬
plied, an oily matter appears on the furface, which
concretes on cooling. Acetic acid is found in the li¬
quid which is colle&ed in the receiver, and fulphate
©f ammonia remains in the retort. The whole of the
urea may be converted into acetic acid and ammonia by
repeated diftillation.
Nitric acid produces a violent effervefcence with
the cryftals of urea. The liquid becomes dark red,
and during effervefcence nitrous gas, azotic gas,
and carbonic acid gas are evolved. A concrete white
matter remains after the effervefcence has ceafed, mix¬
ed with a fmall portion of the red liquid. The refi-
duum produces a detonation with the application of
heat.
Urea is foluble in muriatic acid, but it remains un¬
changed. A diluted folutien of urea abforbs very ra¬
pidly oxymuriatic acid gas. Whitilh flakes appear,
which foon become brown, and adhere to the fides of
the veffel. After the abforption, the folution gives out
carbonic acid and azotic gafes. Muriate and carbo¬
nate of ammonia remain in the liquid after the effer¬
vefcence ceafes.
5. Urea is readily diffolved in folutions of patafh or
foda. Ammonia is alfo difengaged, when urea is dif¬
folved in folutions of barytes, lime, or magnefia. It
is alfo difengaged by triturating pure potalh in the fo-
lid ftate, with urea. Heat is produced at the fame
time. The mixture affumes a brown colour, and an
oily matter is depoftted.
Muriate of foda diffolved in a folution of urea in
water, affords by evaporation cryftals in the form of
regular oftahedrons; but muriate of ammonia, dif-
lolved in the fame way, cryftallizes in the form of
cubes.
V. Of Sugar.
Extract<1 I* Sugar ha* only been difcovered among animal
from milk, matters in milk and in the urine of perfons labouring
under diabetes. Sugar is obtained from milk by eva¬
porating frefh whey to the confiftence of honey. When
it cools, it concretes into a folid mafs. This is to be
diffolved in water, and being previoufly clarified with
the white of eggs, to be filtered and evaporated to the
confiftence of fyrup. Cryftals of fugar of milk are de-
pofited on cooling.
I Alkalies.
747
Component
Parts of
A»i«iai
Subftances,
——v—
2624
Properties,
2625
Adtion of
heat.
2626
Acids.
2627
Method of
obtaining
it.
2. When fugar of milk is pure, it is of a white co¬
lour, has a fweetilh tafte, but no fmell. It cryftallizes in
the form of regular parallelepipeds, terminating in four-
fided pyramids. The cryftals are femitranfparent. The
fpecific gravity is 1.543. It is foluble in feven times
its weight of water.
3. When it is burnt, it exhibits the fame appearances
as vegetable fugar, giving out at the fame time the
odour of caromel. Similar products are obtained by
diftillation as from vegetable fugar 5 but the empyreu-
matic oil has the odour of benzoic acid.
4. By means of nitric acid the fugar of milk is partly
converted into faclaftic acid.
Sugar from diabetic urine.—This is obtained by eva¬
porating the urine of perfons labouring under diabetes.
One twelfth of the weight of urine of a fweet-tafted fub-
ftance of the confiftence of honey has been obtained by
this procefs. When this fubftance is treated with ni¬
tric acid, it affords oxalic acid in the fame proportion
as vegetable fugar $ but no facla&ic acid is formed, as
when fugar of milk is treated in the fame way. It has
not been cryftallized.
VI. Of Oils.
. . . 2628
1. The oils which have been dete&ed in animals In differ-
have the chara&ers of fi*ed oils. Sometimes they ex- ent ftates.
ill: in the folid ftate, and lometimes they are liquid.
Fat is a copious animal production, which has different
degrees of confiftence, as it is obtained from different
animals. To purify it, it is cut into fmall pieceSj
which are to be well wafhed with water, and the mem¬
branous and vafcular parts feparated. It is then put
into a lhallow veffel along with fome water, and kept
melted till the whole of the water is evaporated. It
is then of a pure white colour, without tafte or
fmell. . 2629
2. It melts at different temperatures. Hogs lard re- Aaion cf
quires only a temperature of 970, while the fat extraft-heat*
ed from meat by boiling requires a temperature of
1270. When the heat is raifed to 400°, a white fmoke
is given out j as the heat increafes it is decompofed,
and becomes black. When hogs lard is diftilled in a
retoet, carbonated hydrogen and carbonic acid gafes,
accompanied with a very offenfive fmell, pafs over. A
portion of water is alfo obtained, and a white oil which
concretes in the receiver. Acetic acid and a portion
of febacic acid are alfo found in the receiver. A black
mafs remains behind in the retort.
3. Fat is infoluble in water and alcohol,
folved and decompofed by the ftrong acids,
acid he poured upon fat, and a moderate heat applied,
the acid is decompofed, and the fat is converted into a
yellow coloured ointment. Fourcroy calls this an oxide
of fat •, the oxygen of the acid having combined with
the oily matter.
4. Fat combines with the alkalies in the fame way as Alkalies,
other oily fubftances, and with them it forms foap. 2(-)3Z
5. The conftituent parts of fat, as appears from the Compoli-
products which are obtained from its decompofition, are don-
oxygen, hydrogen, and carbone.
There are beiides fome other oily fubftances obtain¬
ed from different parts of animals, as fpermaceti from
the head of the fpermaceti-whale, fpermaceti-oil, which
is feparated in the purification of the fpermaceti,, and
5 ® 2 train-
2630
It is dil- Acids.
If nitric
748
CHEMISTRY.
2633
Properties.
a«34
A &ion of
heat.
Component train oil, extracted from the blubber of the whale,
Parts of an(j from other fea animals.
Animal _ _ _
Snbftances. VII. Of Reims.
1. Refinous fubftances are found in different parts of
animals, or rather they exift in thofe fubftances which
are fecreted by animals.
2. A reiinous fubftance is extrafted from the bile of
animals. It is extrafted from the freih bile of the ox,
by muriatic acid, in the proportion of one part of the
latter to 32 of the former. The mixture remains for
fome hours, is filtered, and a white coagulated fub¬
ftance is feparated. The filtered liquid, which has a
fine green colour, is to be evaporated in a glafs veffel
with a gentle heat. The evaporation is continued till
a areen-coloured fubftance precipitates, which is to be
feparated, and waflied with pure water. This fubftance
is the refin of bile.
3. It is of a dark-brown colour, but when fpread
thin, is of a fine green. The tafte is extremely bit-
ter.
4. When it is heated to the temperature of 122 ,
it melts. By increafing the heat, it takes fire and burns.
It is foluble in cold and hot water, and alfo in alcohol;
but it is precipitated from the latter by water. The al¬
kalies alfo diffolve this fubftance, and form a compound
which has the properties of foap. This fubftance is
precipitated from all thefe folutions by means of di¬
luted acids.
A refinous fubftance has alfo been difcovered in hu¬
man urine, in ambergris, which will be afterwards de-
fcribed, and in caftor, civet, and mufk.
VIII. Of Phofphorus.
Given out During the putrefa&ion of animal matters, phofpho-
dtiring pu- ms is given out in the ftate of phofphorated hydrogen
trefaftion. p.as f0 that ft muft have entered as a conftituent into
o >
thefe matters.
IX. Of Sulphur.
Found in Albumen is always mixed with a portion of fulphur.
albumen. It has been dete&ed in the white of eggs and in milk,
in the blood, in the urine and faeces, in the mufcles
and in the hair. According to Prouft fulphur exifts
in the blood, in combination with ammonia, forming
a hydrofulphuret of ammonia.
X. Of Acids.
Knumera- No lefs than T 2 different acids have h^en dete&ed
tion of ready formed in animal bodies. Thefe are,
acids.
Sulphuric, Malic,
Muriatic, Benzoic,
Phofphoric, Laftic,
Carbonic, Uric,
Acetic, Rofacic,
Oxalic, Amniotic.
1. Sulphuric acid has been found combined with
fbda, forming fulphate of foda, in the liquor of the
amnios of cows. Sulphate of lime has been dete&ed
in the urine of quadrupeds.
2. Muriatic acid exifts in combination with foda
in almoft all the animal fluids, forming muriate of
foda.
3. Phofphoric acid is found in great abundance in Component
different parts of animals. The phofphate of lime Partsof
conftitutes the bafis of the bones, and it exifts alfo in
almoft all the folid parts of animals, and in moft of ■ ^
the fluids. In the blood it is combined with iron.
4. Carbonic acid is found combined w ith lime in the
urine of horfes and cows. It has alfo been detefted in
frefli human urine.
5. Acetic acid is found in urine $ but it has been
dete&ed in great abundance in the red ant, and was
formerly called formic acid, at leaft combined with
malic acid.
6. Oxalic acid has been found in urinary calculi.
7. Malie acid has been found in the liquid obtained
from the red ant. This is obtained by bruifing the
ants, and macerating them in alcohol. The alcohol
is driven off by diftillation, and an acid liquid remains
behind. By faturating this liquid with lime, and add¬
ing acetate of lead to the folution, a copious precipitate
is formed, which is foluble in acetic acid, fo that this
liquid contains fomething befides acetic acid. If nitrate
of lead be mixed with the acid liquid after it is faturated
with lime, a precipitate is formed, which is the malic
acid combined with lead.
8. Benzoic acid has been dete&ed in human urine,
and in confiderable quantity in the urine of cow's. It
has been found in the blood, white of eggs, in glue,
filk, or wool, in the fponge, and in mufhrooms.
9. Ladlic acid is obtained from milk, when it be¬
comes four. It is alfo faid, that it has been found in
new milk.
10. Uric acid exifts in human urine, and forms
one of the conftituents of urinary calculi. One fpe-
cies of calculus, indeed, is compofed entirely of this
fubftance.
11. Rofacic acid is obtained from the urine of
perfons labouring under fevers and other diforders,
when the urine depoftts what is called a lateritious fe-
diment.
12. Amniotic acid is obtained from the liquid of
the amnios of the cow.
XI. Of Alkalies, Earths, and Metals.
... 2^8
1. The different alkalies have been found in animal Alkalies,
fluids. Potafti has been found in confiderable abun¬
dance in the urine of quadrupeds. It has alfo been
detefted in the milk of cows. Soda is found in all
the fluids. It is ufually mixed with albumen. It is
frequently combined with the phofphoric and muri¬
atic acids. Ammonia alfo has been detected in
urine. _ ^9
The earths which have been dete&ed in animals Earths,
are, lime, magnefia, and filica. Lime forms, in combi¬
nation wdth phofphoric acid, the bafis of bones. It is
alfo found in the fame ftate in the other folid parts, as
well as in moft of the fluids. The fhells of animals are
compofed chiefly of carbonate of lime. Magnefia has
been found in human urine, combined with phofphoric
acid and ammonia. It forms alfo one of the compo¬
nent parts of urinary calculi. Silica has only been found
in fimilar concretions.
3. The only metal which has been dete&ed in ani- Metals,
mals is iron, in combination with phofphoric acid,
which forms a conftituent part of the blood.
II. Fluid
CHEMISTRY.
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
1641
Enumera¬
tion.
II. Fluid parts of Animals.
We ihall treat of the animal fluids in the following
order :
1. Blood,
2. Bile,
3. Urine,
Milk,
5. Saliva,
6. Tears and mucus of the
nofe,
2642
Properties.
2643
Separates
into two
parts.
2644
Aftion of
adds.
2645
Alkalies.
2646
Metallic
oxides.
2647
Vegetable
produc¬
tions.
2648
Serum.
7. Humours of the eye,
8. Wax of the ear,
9. Synovia,
10. Semen,
11. Liquor of the amnios,
12. Fluids fecreted by dif-
eafe.
1. Of the Blood.
1. The blood is a fluid of a red colour, which circu¬
lates through the body, and is diftributed by means
of the arteries to every part of it, communicating,
as we have feen, heat and nourifhment. It is then re¬
conveyed by the veins from the extremities to the
heart. Human blood, and that of fome other animals,
is of a fine, purplifh-red colour, has fome degree of con-
fiftency., foft and foapy to thq feel, of a fweetifh faline
tafte, and a peculiar odour. The blood is found to
vary in confiftence, fo that its fpecific gravity alfo va¬
ries from 1.05310 1.126.
2. When blood, after it has been feparated from the
body, remains for fome time at reft, it feparates into
two parts. One part, called the c/ot or cruor, is coagu¬
lated, and continues of a red colour j the other part
called the ferum, remains fluid. The ufual proportion
of cruor to ferum, is about one part of the former to
three of the latter. This proportion, however, is fub-
jeft to conftderable variation.
3. The acids alfo coagulate blood, and decompofe
it. Concentrated fulphuric acid occafions a brown co¬
lour, with the produftion of charcoal. It is coagu¬
lated by nitric acid, with the evolution of azotic gas,
and the produftion of carbonic and oxalic acids, befides
fome unctuous matter. Muriatic acid alfo coagulates
blood, but without any perceptible change of colour.
Oxymuriatic acid renders it as black as ink. Acetic
acid alfo produces a coagulation.
4. The cauftic alkalies diflblve the coagulum of blood,
even when it has been produced by acids. If they are
mixed with blood recently drawn, the coagulation is in¬
terrupted. Many faline bodies produce a fimilar ef-
feft by preventing coagulation, or decompofition.
5. The metallic oxides have little perceptible ac¬
tion on blood, except thofe which readily part with
their oxygen. It is then coagulated. ALmoft all me¬
tallic folutions coagulate blood, and have the pro¬
perty, as w ell as the alkaline falls, of preferving it from
puterfaftion.
6. Many vegetable fubftances, when mixed with
blood, prevent its putrefa&ion, fuch as fugar, volatile
oils, camphor, refins. It is coagulated by folutions of
gum and of ftarch. Tan produces a copious precipi¬
tate in blood, and gallic acid gives a black colour,
owing to the iron which is contained in blood. The
latter precipitate may be obtained by diluting the blood
wdth a confiderable proportion of water.
7. Blood, by remaining at reft, it has been ob-
ferved, feparates into two parts, the ferum and the
cruor. The ferum \s of a pale, greenifti yellow co¬
lour, of a thinner confiftence than blood 5 but retains
749
its tafte, fmell, and foapy feel. The fpecific gravity Component
is about 1.0287. oonfequence of its containing a
portion of foda, it gives a green colour to fyrup ofsupftances>
violets. Serum coagulates at the temperature of 156°. v —
The fame effeft is produced by adding boiling water.
This coagulum is of a grayiftr white colour, refem-
bling the white of eggs. By breaking the coagulum
to pieces, a fluid may be exprefl'ed from it, which has
been called the ferq/ittj of blood. The rcfiduum being
wafhed with boiling water, exhibits the properties of
albumen. 2<y49
8. By diluting ferum with fix times its weight of Gelatine,
water, and boiling it, the albumen is coagulated. If
the remaining liquid be evaporated with a gentle heat,
till it is confiderably concentrated, it affumes the
form of jelly, and this pofleiles the properties of ge¬
latine. 2650
9. By heating the coagulated ferum in a filver vef- Sulphur,
fel, the filver is blackened, in confequence of its con-
verfion into a fulphuret, by combining with fulphur
contained in the coagulum. It has been already
mentioned, that this fulphur exifts in the blood, in
combination with ammonia, in the ftate of hydroful-
phuret. _ 2651
10. The ferum of blood contains muriate of foda, car-Different
bonate of foda, phofphate of foda, and phofphate ofklts.
lime. Thefe falls may be obtained by mixing ferum
with double its weight of water, applying heat to coa¬
gulate the albumen, which being feparated, and the
remaining liquid filtered and evaporated, cryftals are
depolited on cooling. The foda exifts in blood com¬
bined with gelatine and albumen, and is in its cauftic
ftate. It unites with the carbonic acid of the air du-
2652
ring the evaporation. The component parts of ferum, Compofi-
therefore, are the following : ft011 of fo¬
rum.
Albumen,
Gelatine,
Hydrofulphuret of ammonia,
Soda,
Muriate of foda,
Phofphate of foda,
Phofphate of lime.
11. The cruor or clot of the blood, the other por- cruou ^
tion into which it fpontaneoufly feparates, is of a red
colour, and has confiderable confiftence. Its fpecific
gravity is about 1.245. -^7 wafhing this fubftance
with a fmall quantity of water, and continuing the
procefs till the water paffes off colourlefs, part of it is
diffolved in the water, and part remains in the ftate
of a folid white elaftic fubftance, which is the fibrina
of the blood. That part which is held in folution by
the water contains the colouring matter. This folu¬
tion converts the fyrup of violets to a green colour.
By expofure to the air it depofits albumen in the form
of flakes. By the evaporation of this folution to dry-
nefs, and the addition of alcohol, part is diffolved. If
this folution be evaporated, the refiduum converts Vege-Al^ut^n
table blues to green, and mixes with water like foap. and foda.
This refiduum contains albumen and foda.
1,2. If the watery folution be evaporated to drynefs iron. J;>
with a moderate heat, a quantity of iron remains be¬
hind, which may be feparated by the magnet. It has
been faid that the quantity of iron in the blood of a
healthy man amounts to more than two ounces but
this •
75°
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
2656
Quantity
conjec¬
tured.
C H E M I S T R Y.
. 2657
Fibrina.
2^58
Dilt illation
2659
Aft ion of
beat.
tliis Is little better than'conjecture, founded on vague
calculation. The iron in blood is combined with
phofphoric acid. If the watery folution be evaporat¬
ed to drynefs, and the refiduum obtained be calcined
in a crucible, a red mafs remains, which amounts to
0.0045 of the blood which was employed. Part of
this refiduum, which is pliofphate of iion, is diflblye^d
by digeftion in nitric acid. Frorn this it is precipi¬
tated of a white colour, by ammonia. With the ad¬
dition of pure potalh, the precipitate becomes red.
By adding lime water to the folution which contains
the potalh, a precipitate is formed, which is phof-
phate of lime. By the a&ion of thefe re-agents,, it
appears that the iron in the blood combined with
phofphoric acid, is in the ftate of fub-phofphate. Phof-
phate of iron is infoluble in water, but foluble in the
acids. It is partially decompofed by the alkalies,
which carry off part of its acid, and leave the remain¬
der with excefs of iron. Ihus it is that this fait is
preferved in the ftate of fub-phofphate, by means of the
foda which exifts in the blood.
15. The method of obtaining fibrina from blood
has "been already deferibed. This fubftance may be
feparated by agitating, or ftirring rapidly with a ftick,
the blood which has been newly drawn from the ani¬
mal. The fibrina or fibrous matter being well walked
and dried on paper, lofes about two-fifths of its weight,
and becomes hard and brittle. The mean proportion
of fibrina in the blood of man has been eftimated at
0.0028. The fibrina is formed in the blood as it
pafles through the lungs, and is depofited in the muf-
cular part of animal bodies, of which it forms one
of the principal conftituents. When the fibrina is
feparated from the blood, the latter is no longer
difpofed to coagulate when it is left at reft. A
flaky matter only is feparated, which appears on the
furface.
14. Blood dried with a moderate heat, exhales a
quantity of water which pofleffes a peculiar odour,
owing to a portion of animal matter which it holds in
folution. If the blood thus dried be diftilled in a re¬
tort, a watery fluid pafles over, afterwards carbonic
acid gas, carbonate of ammonia, which cryftallizes in
the neck of the retort, a fluid oil, carbonated hydro¬
gen gas, and an oily matter of the confifience of but¬
ter. A green powder is precipitated from fulphate of
iron by the watery fluid. A portion of this powder is
foluble in muriatic acid, and a fmall quantity of Pruf-
fian blue remains behind, from which it appears that
prufiic acid and an alkali are contained in the watery
liquor.
A quantity of dried blood amounting to 9216 grs.
was introduced into a large crucible, and being gra¬
dually heated, it became at firft nearly fluid •, it then
fwelled up, gave out abundance of yellowifh-co-
loured fetid fumes, and at laft took fire, and burnt
with a white flame. The flame and the fumes ceafmg
to be emitted, were fucceeded by a light, acrid
fmoke, which had the odour of pruflic acid. When
the matter had been deprived of about five fixths of
its weight, at the end of fix hours it melted again 5 a
purple flame appeared on the furface, with the evo¬
lution of denfe acrid fumes, which being collefted
were found to poflefs the properties of phofphoric
acid. One hundred and eighty-one grains of a deep
black colour and metallic brilliancy confiituted the Component
refiduum. It was attrafted by the magnet. From thefe f>ar.ts
obfervations it appears that the eonftituent parts of the suiMta»ces
blood are the following.
Water.
Fibrina.
Albumen.
Gelatine.
Hydrofulpburet of am¬
monia.
6. Soda.
2660
Compofi.
7. Subphofphate of iron. tlon.
8. Muriate of foda.
9. Phofphate of foda.
10. Phofphate of lime.
11. Benzoic acid.
15. The eonftituent parts of blood vary confi-Varies at
derably at different periods of life, and in different dlfferent
ftates of the body. The colouring matter of the blood
of the foetus has been found to be darker and more
copious. It contains no fibrina or phofpboric acid.
16. The blood of perfons labouring under inflam-Inflamma.
matory diforders feems to poflefs different properties tory.
from that of perfons in health. It then exhibits, foon
after it is drawn from the body, what has been called
by phyficians the huffy coat, which is confidered to be
the charafteriftic of inflammation. This inflammatory
cruft has been found to confift of fibrina, fo that the
cruor deprived of this matter, becomes foft, and is al-
moft entirely foluble in water. The albumen of the
ferous part has alfo undergone fome changes. It af-
fumes a milky appearance when mixed with hot wa¬
ter, and does not coagulate when it is heated.
17. The ferum of the blood of perfons labouring Diabetic,
under diabetes, is deprived of its faline tafte, has the
appearance of whey, and fomewhat of a faccharine
tafte.
II. Of Bile.
1. Bile is an important fluid in the animal economy.importance
It feems to perform an effential part in the function and pro¬
of digeftion. It is fecreted from the liver, and is ofP61'-163,
a yellowifli-green colour, has a foapy feel, a bitter
tafte, and a peculiar odour $ but it varies in colour,
and in fome other of its properties, in different animals.
It varies alfo in its fpecific gravity. It has been efti¬
mated at 1.0246. The experiments which have been
made on bile relate chiefly to that obtained from the
gall-bladder of the ox, hence denominated ox-gall.
When bile is ftrongly agitated, it forms a lather like
foap •, and hence it has been called an animalfoap. It
mixes in all proportions with water, to which it com¬
municates a yellow colour.
2. When bile is expofed to a moderate heat, it be-Aftionof
comes thick, having loft a great part of its weight, heat.
The vapour it exhales has a peculiar offenfive odour.
A folid brown mafs is thus obtained, which has a bit¬
ter, with fomewbat of a fweetifh tafte, becomes foft
with the heat of the hands, is duftile, attrafts moifture
from the air, and is foluble in water. This fubftance
effervefees {lightly with acids, and acquires a perceptible
odour of mulk or amber, when kept for fome time.
This has been called the extraEi of bile. When
this procefs is conduced in clofe veffels, with the heat
of a water bath, it gives out a clear aqueous fluid of a
difagreeable odour, which undergoes no particular
change by means of re-agents, if the diftillation has not
been carried too far, or the bile has not become in fome
degree putrid. If this latter circumftance has taken
place,
CHEMISTRY.
Component place, the watery produft has frequently a ftrong odour
Parts of 0£ mufk, and becomes turbid on cooling.
SuMances. When this extraft of bile is heated in a retort, it is
decompofed with peculiar appearances. When heat is
a665 gradually applied, a watery fluid, which is {lightly
Diltiiiation.mUddy, and of a fetid odour, paffes over. This fluid
precipitates metallic falts, and contains almolt always
fulphurated hydrogen. The matter in the retort en¬
larges in volume, and the fluid which then comes over
is of a brown colour, extremely fetid, and contains car¬
bonate and zoonate of ammonia. Soon after an oil is
evolved, which is at firfl: liquid, and afterwards becomes
of a brownifh colour, thick, and empyreumatic, and of
a moft offenfive fetid odour. At the fame time car¬
bonate of ammonia cryftallizes on the fides of the re¬
ceiver. There is then a copious evolution of an elaftic
fluid, compofed of carbonic acid, carbonated and ful¬
phurated hydrogen gafes, holding in folution a fmall
portion of oil. The carbonate of ammonia thus obtain¬
ed, does not amount to the one-eighth part of the quan¬
tity which is extra&ed from the blood and from the
bones of animals, from which it is fuppofed that the
bile is lefs animalized than many other animal fub-
ftances. There remains behind a black fpongy mafs of
coal, which is eafily burnt. This coaly matter, by ex-
pofure to the air, efflorefees on the furface, which is
found to be carbonate of foda. When it is well burnt,
it preferves a deep gray colour •, and there is feparated,
by means of cold water, nearly half its weight of car¬
bonate of foda, a little muriate of foda, phofphate of fo-
da, phofphate of lime, with fome traces of iron.
Attionof 3- Bile is decompofed by all the acids. A precipi-
ackls. tate is formed, which is always of a green colour. Part
of this precipitate remains fufpended in the folution,
and is even difiblved by agitation. The folution being
filtered, leaves on the filter a portion of coagulated al¬
bumen. By evaporation the liquid depofits a deep
green flaky fubitance like pitch, which has confider-
able tenacity, fwells up when put upon hot coals, readi¬
ly takes fire, and burns like refinous matter. After
the feparation of this matter, the liquid affords by eva¬
poration, a fait with a bafe of foda.
Three different faline fubflances have been obtained
by the action of acids on bile; the firfl: with a bafe of
foda, the fecond which cryftallizes in fmall needles has
lime for its bafe, and the third is a cryftalline matter,
of a flightly fweet tafte, which is fuppofed to be fimilar
to fugar. Thus it appears that acids a£t on bile in
three different ways j they coagulate the albumen,
which is precipitated j they combine with the foda,
by feparating the oily matter which conflituted the fa-
ponaceous part of the bile 5 and they decompofe the
phofphoric falts.
Concentrated fulphuric acid coagulates bile in the
form of denfe flakes, and communicates to it a deep
colour. Nitric acid, after having formed a precipitate
of a green colour in the cold, affumes a gblden yellow
colour, when it is heated for a fufficient length of time.
It converts a portion of bile into oxalic and pruftic acids.
Muriatic acid at firft produces a green precipitate,
which afterwards aifumes a {hade of a reddifh violet
colour, efpecially by means of heat. Oxymuriatic acid
renders it white and turbid like milk. It changes the
properties of the different conflituents of bile, and oc-
751
cafions a precipitate fimilar to that matter which fre. Cemponent
quentiy conftitutes biliary calculi. ^arls
4. When the precipitate from bile by means of the SuMarices.
acids is treated with alcohol, and every thing foluble ‘ —v- /
in this liquid feparated, there remains a w'hitiflr mat- 266S
ter, which is infufible, nearly infipid, infoluble, wrhe-^°fP^ate
ther with cold or hot w'ater, but folublc in folutions ofof iime*
the cauftic fixed alkalies, vrhich burns on red-hot coals
with the odour of horn, and which gives by analyfis,
fimilar products, efpecially carbonate of ammonia in
confiderable quantity. The coal which remains con¬
tains a portion of phofphate of lime.
5. The alkalies deprive bile of its bitter tafte j but Adhonof
they do not coagulate it. alkalies.
6. -Thus it appears that the conftituent parts of bile
are the following-
Water, Saccharine matter.
Albumen, Muriate of foda,
Refin, Phofphate of lime,
Soda, Phofphate of foda,
Sulphurated hydrogen, Iron.
A
7. Bile, it has been already obferved, performs an Ufes,
important part in the funttion of digeftion. The al¬
buminous and faline parts combine with the chyle, and
are conveyed to the blood. The refinous portion com¬
bines with the excrementitious part of the chyle, and
is thrown out of the body.
Bile is employed in the arts for removing fpots of
greafe and oil from w'oollen fluffs. It is alfo employ¬
ed as a pigment. It is evaporated and reduced to the
form of extract, and diluted with a little water, in
which ftate it gives a brown colour.
26-JO
III. Of Urine.
26-jT
1. The properties of urine vary confiderably, ac-Properties,
cording to the conftitution and health of the body,
and the period when it is voided after taking food.
The urine of a healthy perfon is of a light orange co¬
lour, and uniformly tranfparent. It has a {lightly aro¬
matic odour, in fome degree refembling that of violets.
It has a {lightly acrid, faline, bitter tafte. The fpeci-
fic gravity varies from 1.005 to I-033> The aromatic
odour, which leaves it as it cools, is fucceeded by
what is called the urinous fmell, which latter is con¬
verted to another, and finally, to an alkaline odour.
Urine converts the tincture of turnfole into a green
colour, from which it is concluded, that it contains an
_ 26jz
2. By adding a folution of ammonia to frefh urine, Phofphate
a precipitate is formed in the ftate of white powder,
which is found to be phofphate of lime. But if lime
water be employed in place of ammonia, a more copi¬
ous precipitate, of phofphate of lime, is obtained, from
which it is concluded, that fhe phofphate of lime is
held in folution with an excefs of acid.
2673
3. A fmall portion of magnefia is alfo found mixed Phofphate
with the phofphate of lime which has been precipita-of magne-
ted, derived from phofphate of magnefia, which has beenlia’
decompofed by the alkali or lime.
4. The froth which appears when urine is evapo-Carbonic
rated is aferibed to the evolution of carbonic acidacit1,
gas. . . , . 16-1-
5. Urine which has been kept in new cafks, depo-Carbonate
, fits offline..
2676
Uric acid.
2677
Roi'acic
add.
2678
Benzoic
acid*
2679
Albumen
and gela¬
tine.
7S2 CHE M
Component fits fxnall cryflals, which efflorefce in the air. Thefe
Farts of cryftais have been found to poffefs the properties 01
Suhftanres carbonate of lime.
. ^ ' 6. A brick-coloured precipitate is frequently form¬
ed in urine as it cools, ihis fubfiance is uric acid,
which exifts in all urine, and may be obtained by eva¬
porating frefh urine, diffolving it in pure alkali> an
precipitating by means of acetic acid.
7. The urine of perfons labouring under intermit¬
ting fevers, and fome other difeaies, depofks a copious
fediment called the lateritious fediment, which -confifts
of rofacic acid. # . .
8. Benzoic acid alfo exifls in urine. It is obtained
by evaporating frefh urine to the confiftence of a fy-
rup, and adding muriatic acid. A precipitate is thus
formed, which is benzoic acid. But it may be obtained
by evaporating urine to drynefs, feparating the faline
fubflances, and applying heat to the refxduum. By
this procefs the benzoic acid is fublimed, and cryftal-
lized in the receiver. The quantity of benzoic acid
is more confiderable in the urine of horfes and cows
than in human urine.
p. Albumen or gelatine has been found m urine,
and is precipitated by means of an infufion of tan.
The cloud which appears as urine cools, confifls of
thefe fubflances, which are increaied in proportion du¬
ring different difeafes. T he urine of perfons labour¬
ing under dropfy contains a large quantity of albu¬
men } and in the urine of thofe perfons who are fub-
je£l to mdigeffion, the albumen and gelatine are great¬
ly incxeafed.
ip. Urea is the principal conflituent of urine. The
method of obtaining it from urine has been already
defcribed. It is to this fubflance that the tafle,
fmell, and peculiar chara£lers of urine are owing.
If concentrated nitric acid be poured upon urine,
evaporated to the confiflence of fyrup, cryllals ap¬
pear, which are the nitrate of urea. The quantity
of urea fecreted is very different in different circum-
ftances.
11. A refinous fubflance refembling the refin of
bile has been detefled in urine, to which its colour is
afcribed. Urine evaporated to the confiflence of ex-
tradl, mixed with fulphuric acid and diflilled, gives
out this refinous matter, which is foluble in water and
in alcohol. When urea has been feparated from urine
by evaporation and cryflallization, a faline mafs re¬
mains. If this be diffolved in hot water, and fpon-
taneoufly cryflallized in a clofe veffel, two kinds of
cryflals are depofited. Thofe at the bottom are in the
form of rhomboidal prifms, and confifl of phofphate of
ammonia mixed with a little phofphate of foda. The
cryflals in the upper part of the veffel are in the form
of rectangular tables, compofed chiefly of phofphate of
foda. Thefe were formerly called fable fait of urine,
microcofmic falt.^
12. Muriate of foda was the firfl faline fubflance
deteCled in urine. It may be obtained by flowly eva¬
porating it to the confiflence of fyrup. The fait cry-
flallizes upon the furface, but in this cafe the form of
the cryflal is that of an oCtahedron, and not the cube,
the ufual form. The caufe of this deviation is afcribed
2683 urea*
Muriate of *3* Muriate of potafh is alfo found among the
fouib.
I S T R Y.
2680
-$Jrea.
2681
.Refin.
2682
Muriate of
i'otfa.
cryflals which are formed during the evaporation df Component
urine. _ ^arts
14. Muriate of ammonia is one of the falls which Subftlmce
are found in urine. The cryflals of this fait which > .J,'
are ufually oCtahedrons, when they are formed in 2684
urine affume that of the cube, a deviation which is Munate of
alfo afcribed to the aClion of the urea. ammonia.
15. Urine contains fulphur, which may be deteded Sulphur,
by holding paper flamed with acetate of lead over
urine when it is become putrid. The paper is black¬
ened, which is owing to fulphur exhaled with the car¬
bonic acid. Sulphate of foda and fulphate of lime
have alfo been detefted in urine. a(SS5
16. No lefs than 30 different fubflances have been Component
deteCled in urine by chemical analyfis, the principal of parts,
which are the following.
Water,
Phofphoric acid,
Phofphate of foda,
Phofphate of foda and
ammonia.
Phofphate of ammonia,
Phofphate of lime,
Phofphate of magnefia,
Phofphate of magnefia
and ammonia,
Carbonic acid,
Carbonate of lime,
Uric acid,
Urate of ammonia.
Rofacic acid.
Benzoic acid,
Benzoate of ammonia,
Gelatine,
Albumen,
Urea,
Refin,
Muriate of potafh.
Muriate of foda,
Muriate of ammonia,
Sulphur,
Sulphate of lime,
Sulphate of foda.
2687
17. Urine is much difpofed to fpontaneous decom-putrefac-
pofition. The time when this procefs commences, tien of
and the rapidity of the changes which take place, de-11™16,
pend on the quantity of the gelatine and albumen.
When the proportion of thefe fubftances is confider¬
able, the decompofition is very rapid. This is owing
to the great number of fubflances, and the united
force of their attraflions overcoming the exifling affini¬
ties of the different compounds of which freffi urine
confifls, and efpecially to the facility with which urea
is decompofed. This fubflanee is converted during
putrefaelion into ammonia, carbonic acid, and acetic
acid. Hence the fmell of ammonia is always recog¬
nized while urine is undergoing thefe changes. Part
of the gelatine is depofited in a flaky form mixed
with mucilage. Ammonia combines with phofphoric
acid, and the' phofphate of lime is precipitated. It
combines alfo with phofphate of magnefia, and forms
a triple fait. The other acids, the uric, benzoic, the
acetic and carbonic acids, are all faturated with am¬
monia. The following fubflances, therefore, are ob¬
tained from urine by putrefaction.
Ammonia,
Phofphate of ammonia,
Phofphate of magnefia and ammonia.
Carbonate of ammonia,
Urate of ammonia.
Acetate of ammonia.
Benzoate of ammonia,
Muriate of ammonia,
Muriate of foda.
Produ&s
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
26SS
Varies in
different
ces,
2689
Urine of
infants.
2690
After ta¬
king food,
2691
In warm
feafons.
CHE M
^ Produfls nearly ftmilar are obtained by diltillation
of urine.
18. Such are the properties of human urine in its
healthy ftate 5 the changes to which it is fubjeft, and
the products which are obtained, either by means of
chemical analylis or fpontaneous decompofition. But
^ircumftan- t^e na.ture an^ properties of urine vary confiderably,
urcu according to the period of life, the time it is voided af¬
ter taking food, different feafons of the year, the
nature of the food, the influence of paflions, and dif-
eafe.
In the urine of infants no phofphate of lime is
found. The proportion of benzoic acid is confider-
able, and the quantity of urea is fmall. There is Ids
acrimony, odour, and colour. As the period of life
advances, the faline matters increafe, efpecially the
phoiphate of lime, which is no longer required for the
formation of bone.
The urine, which is paffed immediately after taking
food, is white and colourlefs, and feems to contain
little elfe but water. It is not till feven or eight
hours after a repaft, that the urine is completely
formed.
Urine voided during the warmer feafons of the year,
or by perfons who inhabit hot climates, is high-coloured
and acrid, which is aferibed to a greater proportion of
faline matter and urea. In winter ali’o the urine is red
and high-coloured, owing to a greater proportion of the
earthy phofphates and of uric acid, which it then con¬
tains. It is no doubt confiderably influenced by the
modification of the adtion of the Jkin.
The food frequently communicates its properties to
the urine. The ©dour ef garlic, of refinous lubftances
and fome aromatics, is often perceptible in the urine
a few minutes after thefe fubftances are taken into the
ftomach, or even only applied to the ikin. The fetid
odour of the urine of thofe who have eaten afparagus,
is well known. The colouring matters of fome fub¬
ftances are communicated to the urine j fuch as the red
colour of beet-root, the orange-yellow of rhubarb, or
the colour of madder.
The paflions of the mind have great influence on the
fecretion of urine, both in changing its properties and
increafing its quantity. In thefe cafes the urine is ge¬
nerally colourlefs, infipid, and without odour.
But the nature and properties of urine undergo ftill
greater changes during difeafe. From thefe changes
the empiric has attempted to form prognoftics of the na¬
ture, progrefs, and termination of difeafes.
At the commencement of fevers and inflammatory
diforders, the urine is high-coloured and extremely
acrid, fcarcely becomes turbid on cooling, and depofits
no fediment. In affections of the liver, fuch as jaundice,
it is of a yellow orange colour, like faffron, and com-
Inunicates its colour to the veffels into which it is
received, or to thofe fubftances which are immerfed
in it. It is then called bilious urine. It feems to
contain a portion of the colouring matter of bile. To¬
wards the termination of febrile diforders, the quantity
of urine is increafed 5 and it depofits, as it cools, a cry-
ftalline or fcaly matter, of the colour of peach flowers,
which is called critical urine. The fediment is eom-
pofed of phofphate of lime, rofacic and uric acids.
During nervous affeClions, as in hyfteria, the urine is
perfeClly limpid and colourkfs, inodorous and infipid,
VoL. V. Part II.
2692
Kinds of
food.
2693
.’affions.
2694
[ 3ifeaies.
I S T R Y. 753
It has been obferved, that the urine of gouty perfons Component
contains a fmaller proportion of acid than ufual. At the
commencement of a paroxyfm, the quantity of phofpho- 5ui,Ounces,
ric acid feems to be diminiihed 5 but it gradually in- - (■ »
creafes towards the termination of the fit, and is then in
greater proportion than in ordinary health. The urine
of perfons labouring under rickets depofits a great por¬
tion of lime. The urine of an infant who died of
"worms, was found on analyfis to contain oxalate of
lime. In fome cales of diabetes, the urine is colour¬
lefs and infipid j in others it contains a great propor¬
tion of faccharine matter.
19. The urine of other animals exhibits different Different
charatters from that of man, according to their na-animals'
ture, the diverfity of their organs, their food, man¬
ner of refpiration, and the medium in which they
15V£, • . 269*
The urine of the horfe has a ftrong peculiar odour. The horfe.
It is turbid when voided, or foon after becomes mud-
dy. A pellicle, which is carbonate of lime, forms
on the furface when it is expofed to the air. It
changes the fyrup of violets to a green colour, effer-
vefees with acids, and is precipitated by the alkaline
carbonates. The urine of the horfe yields no phofpho-
rus. The component parts of the urine of this animal,
as they have been afeertained by Fourcroy and Vau-
quelin, are the follow ing :
Carbonate of lime, 0.011
Carbonate of foda, 0.009
Benzoate of foda, 0.024
Muriate of potafti, 0.009
Urea, 0.007
Water and mucilage, 0.940
1.000 *
* Mem. As
V Injt. ii.
P- 445-
2697
The urine of the cow poffeffes nearly the fame pro- The cow.
perties as that of the horfe. It has a foapy feel, and
a ftrong peculiar odour. It gives a green colour to
fyrup of violets, effervefees with acids, but is not altered
by the alkaline carbonates. When it is expofed to
the air, fmall cryftals form on the furface. Its com¬
ponent parts are,
Carbonate of potafh,
Sulphate of potath,
Muriate of potalh,
Benzoic acid,
Urea.
'TO . , 2598
1 he urine of the camel is more diftinguiftied by its The came!,
odour than any other, but it is analogous to that
of the cow. It is not mucilaginous, and does not depofit
carbonate of lime. The fpecific gravity of this urine
is greater than any other. It produces a flight change
on the infufion of violets, communicating a green co¬
lour. It effervefees with acids, and furnilhes nitre, ful-
phate and muriate of potafti, wflth the addition of ful-
phuric, nitric, and muriatic acids. It contains
Carbonate of potafh.
Sulphate of potafh,
Muriate of potafti,
Urea.
The urine of the rabbit, examined by Vauquelin, The rabbit.
5 C exhibits
CHEMISTRY.
Component exhibits iimilar charafters "with that of the horfe, the
Parts of c0W4 an(i the camel. It becomes milky, and depofits
2700
Guinea pig
2701
Graminivo.
rous ani¬
mals.
2702
Carmvo-
mal carbonate of lime by expofure to the air. It converts
Subltances. vfeg.etable blues to a green colour, and effervefces with
acids. It contains the following fubftances:
Carbonate of lime,
Carbonate of magnefia,
Carbonate of potalh,
Sulphate of potalh,
Sulphate of lime.
Muriate of potalh,
Urea,
Gelatine,
Sulphur.
The urine of the Guinea pig is analogous in its na¬
ture and properties to that of the larger animals alrea¬
dy defcribed. # .
It appears that the urine of graminivorous animals
belonging to the clafs of mammalia, or which litre on
vegetables in general, contains no phofphoric falls, or
uric acid j that it is loaded with carbonate of lime,
lal'ts having a bafe of potalh, and benzoic acid. The
only fubltance which the urine of thefe animals-polTeffes
in common with human urine, is urea. The urine of
carnivorous animals, of which indeed fcarcely any thing
is known, is fuppofed to poffefs different properties from
that of the animals juft mentioned. The ftrong fetid
odour of the urine of the cat is well known.^ Muriate
of ammonia has been obtained from the urine of this
animal by evaporation *, but it is fuppofed, from the pe¬
culiar odour, that it contains urea.
The urine of birds affords a copious fediment, which
feems to be carbonate of lime.
A fubftance which was found in the urinary bladder
of the turtle in the form of pafte, and which was exa¬
mined by Vauquelin, was compofed of
Muriate of foda,
Phofphate of lime,
Animal matter,
Uric acid.
IV. Of Milk.
1. Milk, which is fecreted in particular organs by
the females of viviparous quadrupeds and cetaceous
fifties, included under the clafs mammalia, and deftined
for the nourilhment of the offspring, is a white opaque
fluid, varying in its properties according to the different
fpecies of animals, and the nature of their food. The
milk of the cow, which is moft eafily and moft -abund¬
antly procured, has been chiefly the lubjeft of chemical
inveftigation. To it, therefore, the following obferva-
tions are chiefly applied.
2. Milk is diftinguiflied by an agreeable fweet tafte,
and a peculiar frnell. But thefe properties belong to
it only when it is juft feparated from the cow, for in
the courfe of a few hours they are confiderably different.
The fpecific gravity varies at different periods. It is
greater than that of water, and has been found to
amount to 1.0324. The boiling and the freezing
points of milk are alfo variable.
Separation 3. If milk be left at reft for fome time, it feparates
ef cream, into two parts 3, an unftuous matter, which floats on
2703
Of birds.
2704
Turtle.
2705
Properties.
2706
Of cows
milk.
the furface, called cream, and a denfer fluid which ftillComponent
retains many of the properties of milk. The quantity ^ar.ts ^
of cream obtained from milk, and the time it reftuifesSnbftances.
to feparate, vary according to the nature of the milk 1 
and the temperature. 2708
4. Cream thus obtained is of a yellow colour, and1.15?1^6**
acquires a greater confiftence by being expofed to the*1®8*
air. It is lighter than water, has an unftuous feel,
and becomes rancid like oils, by keeping. When
it is boiled, a fmall portion of oil appears on the fur-
face. Cream is not foluble in alcohol or in oils.
When cream is agitated for a longer or (hotter time,
according to the temperature to which the milk has
been expofed during its feparation, and perhaps to
fome circumftances which have not yet been obfer-
ved, it feparates into two parts ; one, which has a
folid confiftence, is butter, and another which remains
fluid. 2709
5. Butter is of a yellow colour, and has all the pro- Butter,
perties of an oil, combined with a portion of the curd and
ferum of the milk. It melts at the temperature of 96°,
and mixes readily with other oily matters. When blit¬
ter is kept for fome time, it is decompofed j it becomes
rancid, which is aferibed to the whey and the curd with
which it is combined $ for when thefe fubftances are
previoufly feparated, it may be preferved fweet much
longer. Butter yields by diftillation water, an acid
liquid, an oily fubftance, which is at firft fluid, but be¬
comes afterwards concrete. A fmall portion of carbo¬
naceous matter remains behind. 2710
6. When frefti cream, of the whole of the milk frefh Changes m
drawn from the cow, is churned, it requires the procefs^F0^-6
to be continued a much longer time than when the ^
Cream or milk is left to repofe, as is ufually the cafe,
till it has acquired a (lightly acid tafte. But when
cream, which has become four, is churned, the butter
feparated has no acid properties, and the milk which
remains is even lefs four than the cream previous t&
the commencement of the procefs. An acid, therefore,
has been evolved, and this acid is fuppofed to be the
carbonic. When frefti cream or frefh milk is fubjeft-
ed to this procefs, in which the acid has not been form¬
ed, it requires greater agitation to complete this pre¬
vious part of the change which the cream or milk mud
undergo, before the feparation of the oily part or the
butter. The milk which remains after the butter has
been feparated, or, as it is called, the butter-milk, has
all the properties of milk from which the cream has
been feparated. 271*
7. The milk which remains after the feparation ofCoagul3‘
the cream, may be coagulated by the addition of fe-^011'
veral fubftances, particularly by the addition of runnel,
which is in moft common ufe, and which is prepared
by digefting the inner coat of the ftomach of young
animals, efpecially that of the calf. This coagulum
feparates into two parts, the curd and the 'ferum or
whey. 2-713
Curd is a white folid fubftance, and fomewhat brit-Cur(^*
tie, when the whole of the whey is exprefled. It is
foluble in acids, but it is neeeffary that the mine¬
ral acids be greatly diluted, and the vegetable acids
concentrated. 2713
Cheefe is prepared from curd, by feparating theCl>eef®’
whey by expreflion. The quality of the cheeie depends
upon the quantity of cream which remains in the
milk.
g&mponent
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
Whey.
L 2715
I Koutmis.
2716
Vinegar.
'VI
Lompofi-
2718
Uilk. dif-
i-rent ia
Afferent
mimals.
C H E M
flic Deft cneere is obtained bv coagulating the
milk at the temperature of about ioo°, and exprefling
the whey (lowly and gradually, without breaking down
, the curd.
If milk be not too much diluted with water, it may
be coagulated by a great number of different fubftances.
Among this number are acids, alcohol, neutral falts,
gum arabic, and fugar.
8. Whey expreffed from coagulated milk is of a
yellowifli green colour, and has an agreeable fweet
tails. If it is boiled, a cjuantity of curd feparates
and after being lt;ft at reft for feme time, the whole
of it is precipitated, and the liquid remains tranfparent
and colourlefs. By flow evaporation it depofits white-
coloured cryftals of fugar of milk, with fome muriate
of potafli, muriate of foda, and a little phofphate of lime.
The liquid which remains after the feparation of the
falts, is converted, by cooling, into a gelatinous fub-
ftance. If whey be kept for fome time, it becomes
four, by the formation of an acid, which is laftic
acid. It is to this acid that the fpontaneous coagula¬
tion of milk, after it remains at reft for fome time, is
owing.
9. If milk, after it has become four, be kept in a
proper temperature, it ferments, emitting carbonic acid
gas, and exhibiting the other phenomena of fermenta¬
tion. A vinous intoxicating liquor is thus prepared,
which has been long known among the Tartars, and
called by them koumifs* They prepare it from the
milk of the mare.
10. Milk is fufceptible of the acetous fermentation,
ff about fix fpoonfuls of alcohol be added to eight pints
01 milk, and the liquid be Excluded from the air, vine¬
gar will be formed in four or five weeks. Although
the air is to be excluded, yet the carbonic acid gas
muft be allowed to efcape as it is difengaged.
By the diftillation of milk with the heat of a water-
bath, water paffes over, after which the milk coagulates,
and an oily yellowifti white fubftance remains behind,
which, by increafing the heat, yields a tranfparent li¬
quid, a fluid oil, ammonia, an acid, a thick black oil,
and in the end carbonated hydrogen gas. The coaly
matter in the retort contains potafh, muriate of potafli,
phofphate of lime, and fometimes muriate of foda, with
a linall portion of magneiia and iron,
The conftituent parts which enter into the compoli-
tion of milk, are the following :
I S T R Y.
755
1. Water,
2. Oil,
3. Curd,.
4. Gelatine,
5. Sugar of milk,
6. Muriate of foda,
7. Muriate of potalli,
8. Phofphate of lime,
9. Sulphur.
11. Although the milk of different animals be com-
pofed nearly of the fame fubftances, the proportions
Vary fo much, as to give them very different properties.
The following are the refults of the inveftigations of
Deyeux and Parmentier with regard to the properties
of the component parts of the milk of different animals
compared together
A. Every kind of milk when left at reft, produces
cream on the furface, but it is different in the milk of
different animals.
a. In die milk of the cow it is copious, thick, and of
a Yellow colour.
b. In woman’s milk it is more liquid, white, and uiC<lmPonent
fmall quantity. Parts of
c. In goats milk it is more abundant than in that of,, ”al.
the cow, thicker and whiter. . u * e
d. In ewes milk it is nearly as abundant, and of the
fame colour as that of the cowr, but has a peculiar tafte.
e. In affes milk it is thick, lefs abundant, and in a
great meafure refembles that of women’s milk.-
f. In mares milk it is very fluid, and limilar in co¬
lour and confidence to good cows milk before the cream
appears on the furface.
B. Butter obtained from the milk of different ani-
mals, has the following comparative properties.
I hat of the cow is fometimes of a deep yellow,
fometimes pale or white, and has always a confiderable
confiftency.
b. It is difficult to feparate the butter from the cream
of women’s milk. It is in fmall quantity, infipid, and
of a pale yellow. It has been erroneoufly fuppofed that
no butter could be obtained from this milk.
c. Ihe butter of afles milk is always very white, foft,
and readily difpofed to become rancid.
Phe butter from goats milk is eafily feparated
from the cream. It is abundant, always white, foft,
and difpofed to become rancid.
e. The butter from ewes milk is of a yellow colour,
foft, and foon becomes rancid.
/. The butter of mares milk is difficult to be obtain¬
ed and in fmall quantity. It has little confiftence, and
is readily decompofed.
C. The curd of milk varies in different animals. Curd.721
a. T. hat from the milk of the cow is bulky, tremu¬
lous, and retains a great deal of the ferum.
b. That from women’s milk is in fmall quantity,
little coherent, has an undluous feel, and retains but a
fmall portion of the whey.
c. The curd of affes milk is fimilar to the former,
but without being un&uous.
d. Curd from the milk of the goat is in great pro¬
portion, of a firmer confiftence than that of the cow,
and retains lefs whey.
e. Curd from ewes milk is fat, vifeid, and communi¬
cates a foft pafte to cheefe.
f. The curd from mares milk is in very fmall quan¬
tity, and fimilar to that from women’s milk. 27*5
D. The ferum or whey conftitutes a very great pro- Whey,
portion of the milk, and exhibits the following va¬
rieties.
a. Whey from the milk of the cow is of a greenifh-
yellow colour, a fweet tafte, and Contains fugar of milk
and neutral falts.
b. The whey from women’s milk has little colour,
but has a very fweet tafte, containing a confiderable
proportion of faceharine matter.
c. The whey of afl'es milk is colouriefs, and contains
lefs falts and more fugar than that of the cow.
d. Whey of the goat is of a flight yellow colour, and
contains very little fugar and faline matter. The lat¬
ter confifts almoft entirely of muriate of lime.
e. The whey of ewes milk is always colourlefs, and
contains the fmalleft quantity of fugar, and but a fmall
portion of muriate and phofphate of lime.
/The whey of mares milk has little colour, and
contains a great proportion of laccharine matter and of* Fott?rreyy
faline fubftances *. ix. 43y
5C2 V. Of "
756
Compofient
Parts of
Animal
Subitances.
*7*3
Properties.
2724
Combines
with oxy¬
gen.
2725
Adlion of
acids, Stc.
2726
Diftiliation
CHEMISTRY.
V. Of Saliva.
1. The faliva which is fecreted by peculiar glands,
and which flows into the mouth, is a clear, vifcid fluid,
without tafte or fmell. Its fpecific gravity varies from
1.0167 to i.080. It has generally a frothy appearance,
being mixed with a quantity of air.
2. Saliva has a ftrong attra&ion for oxygen, which
by trituration it communicates to fome metallic fub-
ftances, as mercury, gold, and filyer. When faliva
is boiled in water, albumen is precipitated, and when
it is {lowly evaporated, muriate of foda is^ obtained,
A vegetable gluten remains behind, which burns
with the odour of pruflic acid. #
3. Saliva becomes thick by the a£tion of acids.
Oxalic acid precipitates lime. Saliva is alfo infpiflated
by alcohol. It is decompofed by the alkalies j and the
nitrates of lead, of mercury, and of lilver, precipitate
muriatic and phofphoric acids.
4. By diilillation in a retort, it froths up, affords
near four-fifths of its quantity of water nearly pure, a
little carbonate of ammonia, fome oil, and an acid.
What remains behind confifts of muriate of foda, phof-
phate of foda and of lime. The conftituent parts of
faliva are the following.
2727
Compofi-
tion.
2728
Saliva of
the horfe.
Phofphate of foda.
Phofphate of lime.
Phofphate of ammonia.
2729
Pancreatic
juice.
273°
Parts ot
the eye,.
* Phil.
Tranf.
1802.
2731
Eyei ot
theep.
1. Water. $•
2. Mucilage. 6.
3. Albumen. 7
4. Muriate of foda.
5. The faliva of the horfe is of a greeniflr yellow
colour, a difagreeable fmell, a faline tafte, and foapy
feel. It is coagulated by the acids, alcohol, and boil¬
ing water. A black earthy refiduum remains after
fpontaneous evaporation. By diftillation it yields an
infipid watery liquid, carbonate of ammonia, carbonated
hydrogen and carbonic acid gafes, and a black empy-
reumatic oil.
6. The pancreatic juice, it is fuppofed, poffejfes pro¬
perties analogous to thofe of faliva, and is deftined for
fimilar purpofes, namely, to contribute to the folution
of alimentary fubftances, and to their converfion into
chyme j but very little is known of its nature and
ufes.
VI. Of the Humours of the Eye.
1. The eye is compofed of three fubftances, which
in anatomy have received the name of humours. Thefe
are the aqueous, the vitreous, and the cryftalline hu¬
mours or lens. The following obfervations are from
Mr Chenevix’s experiments on this fubjeft *.
2. The aqueous humour of the eye of the ftieep is tranf-
parent like water, and has fcarcely any tafte or fmell.
The fpecific gravity is 1.0090. It evaporates flowly
when expofed to the air ) a coagulum is formed by
boiling. When 100 parts are evaporated to drynefs,
eight parts remain behind. None of the metallic falts
produce any precipitate except nitrate of filver, which
throws down the muriate of filver. Tan alfo produces
a precipitate in the aqueous humour. The component
parts, therefore, of this fubftance, are albumen, gelatine,
and muriatic acid, or rather muriate of foda, as the
acid is in combination with foda. The vitreous humour
exhibited the fame properties.
3. The cryftalline lens of the Iheep is.folid, com-Component
pofed of concentric coats, and tranfparent. The fpe- Parts of
cific gravity is 1.1. It has fcarcely any tafte when
it is frelh. It is foluble in water, and the folution is ■ ^ _
coagulated by heat. Tan produces a copious precipi¬
tate, both before and after coagulation. Its com¬
ponent parts are, therefore, albumen and gelatine, with
water. 2733
4. The human eye was found to be compofed of Human
the fame fubftances. The fpecific gravity of the aque- eye.
ous and vitreous humours is 1.0053 i ^ cryftalline
lens, 1.0790. The fpecific gravity of the aqueous
and vitreous humours of the eye of the ox is 1.008 ;
the cryftalline lens 1.0765. The compofation is the
fame as that of the (beep.
VII. Of Tears and Mucus.
I. The tears are fecreted by the lachrymal gland, pro2p7e'Jt3ies,
for the purpofe of lubricating the eye. This liquid is
tranfparent and colourlefs, has no perceptible fmell,
but a faline tafte. It communicates to vegetable blues
a permanent green colour. When it is evaporated
nearly to drynefs, cubic cryftals are formed, which
are muriate of foda. Soda is in excefs, becaufe vege¬
table blues are converted by it to a green colour. A
portion of mucilaginous matter, which becomes yellow
as it dries, remains after the evaporation. This liquid
is foluble in water and in alkalies. Alcohol produces
a white flaky precipitate, and when it is evaporated,
muriate of foda and foda remain behind. By burning
the refiduum, fome traces of phofphate of lime and of
foda are detetted. The component parts of tears, are,
therefore,
Water,
Mucilage,
Soda,
Muriate of foda,
Phofphate of lime,
Pholphate of foda.
2734
Compofi-
tion.
The mucilage of tears abforbs oxygen from the at-
mofphere, and becomes thick, vifcid, and of a yellow
colour. It is then infoluble in water. Oxymuriatic
acid produces a fimilar effe6f. It is converted into
muriatic acid, fo that it has been deprived of its oxy-
§en* 2735 j
2. The mucus of the nofe confifts of the fame fub- Mucus,
ftanees as the tears j but being more expoted to the
air, it acquires a greater degree of vifcidity from the
mucilage abforbing oxygen.
VIII. Of the Wax of the Ear.
2736
1. The wax of the ear, or cerumen, is a liquid fecreted Properties,
by glands, which are fituated in the internal ear. It
is of a vifcid yellow colour, and becomes concrete by
expofure to the air. The tafte is bitter j it melts with
a moderate heat, gives out an aromatic fmell, and
ftains paper like oil. WBen thrown upon burning
coals, it gives out a white fmoke, melts, fwells, be¬
comes, dark-coloured, and gives out the odour of am¬
monia. A light coaly matter remains behind. It
forms a kind of emulfion by agitation with wrater.
2. Alcohol diffolves a portion of cerumen •, the un- 0f
diffolved part exhibits the properties of albumen mixed gi^hol.
with oil. By evaporating the alcohol, an orange-colour¬
ed refiduum, fimilar to turpentine, is left behind. It has
the properties of refin of bile. This matter is alfo fo-
1 r luble
*738
Compofi-
tlOB.
2739
Properties.
2740
Aftion of
water.
Cr.mponent luble in etber. By burning tbe albumen of the ceru-
Parts of men> fome traces of foda and phofphate of lime are de-
tedled. The component parts of cerumen are,
Albumen,
Refin,
Colouring matter,
Soda,
Phofphate of lime.
IX. Of Synovia.
1. The liquid fecreted within the capfular liga¬
ments of the joints, to facilitate motion by lubricating
thefe parts, is called fynovia. The fynovia of the ox
is a vifcid, femitranfparent fluid, of a greenifh-white
colour, which foon acquires the conliftence of jelly, and
not long after becomes again fluid, depofiting a fila¬
mentous matter.
2. Synovia mixes with water, and renders it vifcid.
When this mixture is boiled, it becomes milky, and
fome pellicles are depofited on the fides of the veffel.
Alcohol produces a precipitate when added to fynovia.
This precipitate is albumen. After this matter is fe-
parated, the liquid ftill remains vifcid j but if acetic
acid be added, the vifcidity difappears, and it becomes
tranfparent, depofiting a white filamentous fubftance,
which refembles vegetable gluten. It is foluble in
cold water, and in concentrated acids and pure alka¬
lies. This fibrous matter is precipitated by acids and
alcohol in flakes.
3. The concentrated mineral acids produce a flaky
precipitate, which is foon rediffolved j but the vifci¬
dity of the liquid is not deftroyed till they are fo
much diluted with water, that the acid tafte is only
perceptible.
4. When fynovia is expofed to dry air, it evapo¬
rates, and cubic cryftals remain in the refiduum with
a white faline efflorefcence. The firft are muriate of
foda, and the latter carbonate of foda. This fubftance
foon becomes putrid, giving out ammonia during its
decompofition. By diftillation in .a retort, it yields
water, which foon becomes putrid ; water containing
a portion of ammonia, and an empyreumatic oil, with
carbonate of ammonia j by walking the refiduum, mu¬
riate and carbonate of foda may be obtained. A
fmall portion of phofphate of lime is found in the
coaly matter. The conftituent parts of fynovia are
the following :
Fibrous matter
Albumen
Muriate of foda
Soda
Phofphate of lime
Water
CHEMISTRY. 737
irritating tafte. The fpecific gravity varies confider-Component
2741
Acids.
2742
Salts fepa-
rated.
2643
Compoii-
tion.
11.86
4-52
i-75
co.7.1
00.70
80.46
* Annul, de
Chim. xiv.
p. 123.
« 2744
Properties.
I CO.OO*
X. Of Semen.
1. Semen is fecreted in the teftes of male animals: but
when it is ejefted it is compofed of two fubftances j the
one is fluid and milky, and the other of a thick mucila¬
ginous confiftence, in which appear a great number
of white filky filaments, efpecially if it be agitated m
cold water. ' It has a difagreeable odour, and an acrid
ably, but is always greater than that of water. . When
it is rubbed in a mortar, it froths up, and acquires the subftances.
confiftence of pomatum from the air with which. it Vw— - *
mixes. It converts the flowers of mallow and of vio¬
lets to a green colour, and it precipitates the calcare¬
ous and metallic falts j which (hews, that it contains an
uncombined alkali. Fhe thick part of the femen, as
it cools, becomes tranfparent, and affumes a greater de¬
gree of confiftence j but it afterwards becomes entire¬
ly liquid, even without abforbing moifture from the
air. This change takes place in about twenty minutes
from the time of its emiftion. 2745
2. If femen be expofed to the air after it has become Adtion 01
liquid at the temperature of 6o°, it becomes covered ah-
with a tranfparent pellicle, and at the end of three or
four days depofits fine tranfparent cryftals of a line
in length, crofting each other like radii from a
center. When they are magnified, they appear to be
four-fided prifms, terminated by long four-fided pyra¬
mids. When femen is expofed to a w-arm air, in con-
fiderable quantity, it is deeompofed ; it affumes the
colour of the yolk of egg, and becomes acid, either
by abforbing the oxygen from the atmofphere,. or by
a different combination and arrangement of its own
conftituent principles. It then emits the odour of
putrid filh, and is covered with the bijssus feptica. 2746
3. Heat accelerates the liquefaftion of femen j and Of heat,
when it has undergone this change it is no longer
fufceptible of coagulation. It is decompofed by the
application of ftrong heat. Water is firft feparated 3
it then, blackens, fwells up, and emits yellow fumesj
having an empyreumatic, ammoniacal odour. A light
coal remains behind, which burns readily to white
allies. # # 2747
4. Before it has become fluid, femen is not foluble of water,
in water either cold or hot. To the latter it commu¬
nicates an opal colour. But in the fluid ftate it com¬
bines readily with either hot or cold water, from which
it is feparated by alcohol or oxymuriatic acid in the
form of white flakes. The alkalies promote the folu-
tion of femen in water. 2748
5. No ammonia is difengaged from frelh femen by of lime,
means of quicklime j but when it has been expofed
for fome time to a warm and moift air, it is feparated
in great abundance, fo that ammonia is termed during
its expofure to the air. # # 2749
6. The acids readily diffolve femen, and this fiffution Acids,
is not decompofed by the alkalies ; nor indeed is the 37S0
alkaline folution of femen decompofed by the acids.
Wine, cyder, and urine alfo diffolve femen, but it is
in eonfequence of the acid which is combined with
thefe liquids. Water acidulated with fulphuric acid
acquires the fame property. Oxymuriatic acid coagu-
lates femen in white flakes which are infoluble in wa¬
ter and in acids. The fame acid produces the coagu¬
lation of fluid femen. This is owing to the abforption
of oxygen derived from the acid which is converted
into muriatic acid. _ 2750
7. Barytic. falts are not decompofed by the feminal Salts,
fluid which has been liquefied in a clofe veffel j but
when it has undergone this change in the open air,
rhomboidal cryftals are formed with the addition of
thefe falts. The calcareous and metallic falts are de-
ccmpofrd by'femen in both conditions. From thefe
‘ 1 ' faft-R
758
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
2751
Semen con¬
tains phof-
.phate of
lime.
C H E M I S T R Y.
«7S»
And foda.
a753
Compoii*
tion.
fails it appears tliat femca contains an uncombined al¬
kali, which has not the property of decompofing the
barytic falts till it has combined with the carbonic acid
from the atmofphere.
8. The cryftaL which form in femcn by fpontane-
ous evaporation in the open air, and which are en¬
tangled in the vifcid matter, may be feparated by add¬
ing water. Thefe cryftals have neither fmell nor tafle.
They melt under the blow-pipe into a white opaque
globule, which is ftlrrounded with a yellowifb flaine.
This fait is infoluble in water, and is not afted on by
the alkalies; but is foluble in the mineral acicfc with¬
out effervefcence, from which folutions, lime water,
the alkalies, and oxalic acid, throw down a precipitate.
Alcohol added to the concentrated muriatic folution
of this fubftance, diffolves part of it, which exhibits all
the chara&ers of muriate of lime •, and there remains
another fubftance which melts under the blow-pipe in¬
to a green tranfparent glafs foluble in water, which
precipitates lime water and reddens vegetable blues.
This fait, therefore, as is demonftrated from thefe ex¬
periments, is phofphate of lime. After the formation
of the above falts, a great number of fmall, white,
opaque bodies appear on the furface. They are alfo
phofphate of lime.
9. By burning 40 grains of dried femen in a cru¬
cible, it fir ft became foft, and then gave out the odour
of burnt horn accompanied with yellow fumes. It
blackened and emitted the odour of ammonia. The
coaly matter which remained was lixiviated with water.
This was evaporated, and afforded cryftals in the form
of rhomboidal plates, which effervefced with acids ;
with fulphuric acid afforded fulphate of foda, and with
muriatic acid formed muriate of foda. The alkali,
therefore, was foda.
10. The alkaline matter being feparated, the refi-
duum was ftill expofed to ftrortg heat, and furniftied
13 grs. of white allies which had the following pro¬
perties. By the a£Hon of the blow-pipe it is convert¬
ed into an opaque white enamel which attrafts moifture
from the air, is foluble in acids, and the folution has all
the characters of phofphate of lime. The component
parts of femen, therefore, are,
Water
Mucilage
Soda
Phofphate of lime
* Vauque-
lin. Anil, de
Chim. ix.
64—80.
90
6
r
3
ioo :
XI. Of the Liquor of the Amnios.
1. This liquid is fecreted in the amnios ox bag which
furrounds the foetus in the uterus. It is very different
in different animals, fo far at leaft as its nature and
properties haVe been inveftigated. The liquor of the
* Ann. de amnios of women and cows only has been examined.
SS; The are the refults of the experiments of
Ws4 9 ^ auquelin and Buniva on thefe liquids *.
Properties. Ibis liquid in women is of a milky colour, an
agreeable odour and a faline tafte. It becomes tranf¬
parent by filtering and feparating fome coagulated
matter which is fufpended in it, and which communi¬
cates the white colour. The fpecific gravity is i.oo?.
It feems to contain both an acid and an alkali • for it
converts fyrup of violets to a green colour, and red- Component
dens the tinChire of turnfole. It froths when agitat- farts of
ed, becomes opaque when heated, and exhales the c w!?lra:ti
odour of the white of egg. .u '
3. It is rendered more tranfparent by acids ; but 2755
alcohol and the alkalies occafion a flaky precipitate, A<ftion of
which is like glue when it is dried. The infufion ofheat-
nut-galls gives a copious brown precipitate j and ni-
trate of filver produces a white precipitate, which be¬
ing infoluble in nitric acid, is muriate of filver.
4. By flow evaporation this liquid affumes a milky
appearance} a tranfparent pellicle forms on the fur-
face, and a very fmall refiduum is left. By adding
water to the refiduum, and evaporating the folution,
muriate and carbonate of foda are obtained. The afhes
which remain, after burning the refiduum, confift of
carbonate of foda, phofphate and carbonate of lime.
During the burning a ftrong, fetid, ammoniacal odour
is exhaled.
5. From thefe experiments, it appears that this Ij-g 2?57
quid confifts of a great proportion of Water, of albu-tion.
men, muriate of foda, of foda, phofphate of lime, and
lime.
6. A white fhining foft fubftance, fomewhat refem-Cru^5S ,
bling foap, is depofited on the body of the foetus in foetus™ *
the uterus. It is infoluble in w'ater, alcohol, and oils.
The cauftic alkalies diffolve a portion of it, and form
a kind of foap. It decrepitates on burning coals, then
dries, blackens, and gives out the odour of an em-
pyreumatic oil. It leaves behind a coaly matter,
which burns with difficulty. When it is heated
in a crucible of platina, it decrepitates, while an oily
matter exudes. It then curls up like horn, inflames,
and leaves behind gray allies, which effervefee with
acids, and which feem to be compofed chiefly of car¬
bonate of lime.
7. This matter feems to be a mixture of animal mu-Compof-
cilage and fat, originating from the albuhien, w hich tion.
has undergone fome peculiar change. The parts of a
foetus which have remained in the uterus after death,
have been found converted into a fatty matter.
Liquor of the amnios of the eotu.—1. This liquid charafterS.
differs from the former in being of a reddiffi brow n
colour, in having an acid bitter tafte, an odour refem-
bling the extracts of fome vegetables, and the vifeidi-
ty of a folution of gum. The fpecific gravity is 1.028.
It reddens the tinfture of turnfole, forms a copious
precipitate with muriate of barytes, and with alcohol
a precipitate of a reddiffi matter.
2. When it is evaporated, a thick feum forms onA motie
the furface, which is eafily feparated, and which, on acid,
cooling, is found to contain white cryftals of a {light¬
ly acid tafte. A vifcid matter like honey appears, by
continuing the evaporation. When this matter is
treated with boiling alcohol, it furnifties, on cooling,
an acid which cryftallizes in fiiining needles. This is
the ammotic acid which has been already deferibed.
"I he matter which remains after the feparation of the
cryftals is infoluble in alcohol, and is firm and tena¬
cious.
3. Having extracted the whole of the acid, if theSu,p^e
evaporation be continued till the liquid acquire the0ffo<Ja
confiftence of a fyrup, large tranfparent cryftals are obtained,
formed, which have a bitter tafte, and are foluble in
water. Ihefe cryftals were found to be fulphate of
foda,
CHEMISTRY.
2763
Animal
matter.
1764
Compoii-
tion.
Component foJa, which are obtained in a ftate of purity, by burr-
Farts or -ng refiduum of a quantity of the liquid evaporated
Substances.to dryne{s> diflblving the coaly refiduum in water, and
■ - -  ■ evaporating.
4. The animal matter which accompanies the faline
fubilances, is of a reddith brown colour and a peculiar
tafte, very foluble in water, but infoluble in alcohol,
which even feparates it from water. It neither com¬
bines with tan, nor is it fufceptible of being converted
into jelly, fo that it does not poflefs the properties of ani¬
mal mucilage. When it is heated ftrongly, it fwells up j
exhales, at firft the odour of burning mucilage j after¬
wards that of ammonia and an empyreumatic oil j and,
at laft, that of pruflic acid. When it is burnt, there re¬
mains behind a bulky coal, the allies of which are white,
and contain phofphate of magnefia and a fmall portion
of phofphate of lime.
5. The cenftituent parts of the Hquor of the amnios
of the cow, are the following.
Water,
Acid,
Sulphate of foda,
Animal matter.
XII. Of Fluid Morbid Secretions.
I. During the difeafed action of the veffelsef different
parts of the body, liquids are fecreted, as, for inftance,
when the mufcular or bony parts are wounded, a mat¬
ter is exuded, which continues to flow till the wound is
healed up ; in dropfical difeafes a liquid is fecreted in
the different cavities of the body j and when the fkin
is irritated by the aftion of bliflers, a fluid collefts be¬
tween the cuticle and true fkin.
Liquor of dropfy.—This liquid is of a yellowifh green
colour, has fometimes confiderable transparency, but is
fomethfies turbid. In its chemical properties it feems
to correfpond with the ferum of the blood.
Liquor of blifers.—The liquor which is fecreted by
the adfion of blifters is ufually tranfparent. The con-
flituent parts are the fame as thofe of the ferum of the
blood. Two hundred parts of this liquid yielded
759
Albumen,
Muriate of foda,
Carbonate of foda,
Phofphate of lime,
Water,
* Ann. tie
Cbim. xiv.
225.
2765
I Action of
beat.
47615
Ofau and
acids.
36
*56
200
Pus.—What is called healthy pus is about the con¬
fidence of cream, and of a yellowifh-white colour, an
infipid talle, and when it is cold, without fmell. It
produces no change on vegetable blues.
2. When pus is expofed to a moderate heat, it dries,
and affumes the appearance of horn. By diftillation it
gives cut water in confiderable proportion, ammonia and
fume gafeous fubftance and an empyreumatic oil ; a Aim¬
ing coaly matter remains behind, theafhesof which, after
being burnt, afford fume traces of iron.
3. When this liquid is expofed to the air, it becomes
acid. It is foluble in fulphuric acid, forming with it
a purple-coloured folution. With the addition of wa¬
ter the pus feparates, and the dark colour difappears.
With concentrated nitric acid it forms a yellow ""
•loured folution, which effervefees during the combina- Component
tion. Water produces a precipitate. Pus is alfo folu- l*artst)f
ble in muriatic acid, and is feparated by means of wa- gubftarices
tei«» Pus is not foluble in alcohol, but is thickened ; ■ Y ■ 1 f
nor is it foluble in the oils.
4. A whitifh ropy fluid is formed by the addition Alkalies,
of a folution of the fixed alkalies, and by adding wa¬
ter the pus is precipitated. Pure anrmonia forms with
pus a tranfparent jelly, and diffolves it in confiderable
proportion.
5. A precipitate is occafioned by means of nitrate of Metallic
fxlver, and it is flill more copious with nitrate and oxy- ^a^ts'
•muriate of mercury.
6. The following tells;have been given to drflinguifh To diftin-
pus from mucus, which is of confiderable importance gui& pus-
in cafes where the formation of pus as fufpe&ed an
the lungs.
(1.) Pus is folubleanfulphuric acid, and precipitated
by water. Mucus fwims. (2.) Pus may be diffufed
through water, diluted fulphuric acid, and brine j but
mucus is not. (3.) Pusris foluble in alkaline folutions,
and is precipitated by water j but this is not the cafe
wdth mucus. 3773
7. Thefe are the properties of pus when it is fecreted Varies in it;
from a fore which is faid to be in good condition, or in ProPCI^e-'
a difpofition to heal. Its properties are very different
in what are called ill-conditioned fores. In thefe cafes
the matter fecreted is thin, fetid, and acrid. Matter
fecreted by cancerous fores, which has been examined,
converts the fyrup of violets to a green colour, anti
from this matter fulphurated hydrogen gas is feparated
by means of fulphuric acid. This gas is fuppofed to
exifl in combination with ammonia.
Subdiviflon HI. Of the Solid Parts of Animals.
The following are the folid parts of animals, which Emimera-
we fhall treat of in the order in W’hich they are enume- tion.
rated.
1. Bones,
2. Skin,
3. Mufcles,
4. Cartilage, tendons, &,c.
5. Brain and nerves,
6. Hair and nails,
7. Morbid concretions.
I. Of the Bones.
2772
co-
1. The bones are thofe parts of animals which give Of different
firmnefs, ftrength, and fhape to the body. Bones are^61^11^
very different with regard to folidity and denfity, not
only in different parts of the body, but even in the fame
bone. The fpecific- gravity, therefore, of bones, muff
be various. They are of a white colour, of a lamellated
ftru&ure, and inflexible.
2. When bones are burnt, they are converted into Aftion of
a white, porous, infipid fubftance, which ftill retains the heat-
fhape of the bone. „ 2774
3. When bones are broken into fmall pieces, and Contail's
boiled in water, a confiderable quantity of fat rifes tofat‘
the furface 5 an oily matter, therefore, is one of the
cenftituent parts-of bones.
4. If the boiling be continued for a greater length Gelatine,
of time, the water diffolves another fubftance, which,
being concentrated and left at reft, affumes a gelatinous
form.
760
Component
Parts of
Animal
JJubftances.
2776
Cartilage.
C H E M I S T R Y.
Bones, therefore, contain a portion of gela-
2777
Salts.
2778
Compofi-
tion.
* Annul- de
Gbim.
xxxiv. 71.
form
tine. .
5. If bone is kept for fome time in diluted muria¬
tic acid, it is converted into a Avhite flexible fubftance,
which retains the lhape of the bone. It becomes brit¬
tle and femitranfparent when dried j it is foluble in
nitric acid, and when this acid is diluted, it is conveit-
ed by its aftioninto gelatine. It forms a foap with the
fixed alkalies. From thefe properties it refembles
coagulated albumen. 1 his fubftance, which is called
cartilage, is the firft part of the bone which is for¬
med.
6. Befides thefe fubftances, bones contain a con-
fiderable proportion of earthy falts. Thefe are phof-
phate of lime, which is in great proportion ; carbonate
of lime in fmaller proportion, with a ftill fmaller of
fulphate of lime.
7. The component parts of bones, therefore, are
earthy falts, cartilage, gelatine, and fat. The follow¬
ing table exhibits the proportions of thefe conftituent
parts in the bones of different animals. It was drawn
up by Merat-Guillot. A hundred parts of bone were
employed, and as much dried as poffible, and to this
quantity the proportions fpecified refer *.
Names.
Gelatine
Human bones ta¬
ken from a bury
ing ground
Human bones dried 1
but not buried, j
Bones of the ox
 calf
 horfe
 ftieep
 elk
 hog
 hare
 pullet
 pike
 carp
16.
23*
3-
25-
9-
16.
17.82
9.0
6.0
12.0
6.0
Phof-
phate of
lime.
Carbo¬
nate of
lime.
67
63
93
54
67-5
70.0
90.0
152.0
80.5
72.0
64.0
45-o
I*5
2
2
1.25
0.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
l-5
1.0
°’5
Lofs.
'2
21
22.25
13-5
7-5
3°.°
5*o
20.5
22.0
28.5
2779
Of teeth.
8. The human teeth have been analyzed by Mr
Pepys, and he found the conftituents of different
teeth, and different parts of the teeth, to be the fol¬
lowing.
Phofphate of lime
Carbonate of lime
Cartilage
Lofs
Teeth of
adults.
64
6
20
10
100
Shedding
teeth of
children.
62
6
20
12
100
Roots of
the teeth.
58
4
28
10
100
Phofphate of lime,
Carbonate of lime,
Lofs and water,
1
16
100
Comjkdftttvt
Parts of
Animal
Subfiance;.
But according to Fourcrey and Vauquelin the en¬
amel is compofed of
Phofphate of lime, 72-9
Gelatine and wrater, 27.1
100.0
II. Of the Skin.
27^3
He found the following to be the component parts
of the enamel of the teeth.
1. The lkin, Avhich forms the external covering ofCotlf!fc of
animals, confills of three parts; the epidermis or cu- three parts,
tide, the true {kin, and a foft fubftance called the
rete mucofum, Avhich lies between the cuticle and true
{kin. 2781
2. The epidermis, which may be feparated from the Epidermis,
cutis,- by macerating the {kin in hot water, is^a thin
elaftic fubftance, Avhich is infoluble in water and in
alcohol. _ > 2782
3. Sulphuric and muriatic acids have little a&ion Adtion of
for fome time on this fubftance ; but it is immediately acids, &c.
converted into a yellow colour by means of nitric acid,
and at laft entirely decompofed. It is entirely foluble
in the cauftic fixed alkalies. From thefe properties the
epidermis is fuppofed to be coagulated albumen in a pe¬
culiar ftate of modification. _ 2^83
4. The cutis or true Ikin is denfer and thicker. Cutis.
When it is heated, it firft contrads, then fwells, ex¬
haling a fetid odour, and leaving behind a denfe mafs
of charcoal. By diftillation the fame produ&s are ob¬
tained as from fibrina. _ 2784
5. The Ikin is foftened by Aveak acids, is rendered Adhon of
tranfparent, and is at laft diffolved. It is converted heat,
into oxalic acid and fat by nitric acid, Avith the evo¬
lution of azotic gas and pruflic acid. It is converted
by means of the concentrated alkalies into oil and
ammonia. . _
6. After maceration for fome time in Avater, a fmall contains
proportion of gelatine may be obtained, by evaporating gelatine,
the water ; but if the {kin be boiled for a confiderable
time in water, it is entirely diflblved, and the liquid,
by evaporation, affumes the confiftence of jelly. The
{kin is thus converted into glue. It is from the {kin
of animals that glue is chiefly extracted ; and it is ob¬
tained of different degrees of ftrength from the {kin of
different animals. 2786
7. As lkin confifts chiefly of gelatine, it combines Tannin,
readily Avith tan. This compound forms leather ; and
the procefs by which it is effedled is called tanning, for
the detail of Avhich fee the article Tanking.
8. The mucous fubftance, or rete mucofutn, lies be-Retemu*
tween the epidermis and true Ikin. It is this which cofum.
gives the black colour to the {kins of negroes. It is
deprived of its colour, even in the living body, by
means of oxymuriatic acid. The foot of a negro be¬
came nearly Avhite by being kept for fome time in wa¬
ter impregnated with this acid. The black colour,
however, returned in a few days,
III. Of
C H E M 1 S T R Y,
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
27S8
Structure.
2789
Aftion of
cold water.
2790
Boiling.
2791
Nitric acid.
2792
Compoli-
tion.
III. Of the Mufcles.
1. The mufcular, or flelhy parts of animals, are of
a reddilh-vhite colour, and fibrous ftrudture. If a
quantity of mufcular fubftance is feparated into fmall
pieces, it becomes white. If the water be heated,
it coagulates. Albumen and a portion of fibrina are
obtained. It becomes gelatinous by farther evapora¬
tion j and, when the procefs is carried on to drynefs, and
alcohol added, a peculiar matter is dilfolved j which,
after the alcohol is expelled by heat, appears of a red-
dilh-brown colour, has an aromatic fmell, and a very
acrid tafte; and it is foluble both in water and alco¬
hol. The gelatine formed in the mafs evaporated to
drynefs, witli a little phofphate of foda and ammonia,
remains undiffblved by the alcohol. When this ex¬
tractive matter is diftilled, it affords an acid, which is
combined with ammonia.
By boiling the fame mufcular matter for fome time
in water, another portion of albumen is obtained 5 and,
when the water is concentrated by evaporation, it is
converted into a jelly; and by treating with alcohol
as before, after evaporating to drynefs, the extractive
matter is taken up, and the gelatine and phofphoric
falts remain undiffolved. The fibres of the mufcle
are then of a gray colour, infoluble in water, and be¬
come brittle when dry. This fubftance is fibrina,
which conftitutes the chief part of mufcular matter.
2. If mufcular matter be diffolved in nitric acid, and
ammonia added to the folution, a precipitate of phof¬
phate of lime is obtained j but no phofphate of lime
is obtained, when treated in this way, after being long
boiled in water, for it is either combined with the ge¬
latine, or is thus rendered foluble. Carbonate of lime,
however, is found after boiling the mufcular fubftance,
and is converted into oxalate of lime by means of nitric
acid.
3. The conftituent parts of mufcular matter are the
following:
Phofphate of foda,
Phofphate of ammonia,
Phofphate of lime,
Carbonate of lime.
Fibrina,
Albumen,
Gelatine,
Extra&ive,
^793
Properties. 4. From the difference of folubility of the fubftan-
of mufcular ces which enter into the compofition of mufcular mat-
matter for
ter,
„ .?794
Boiled.
_ 2795
koafted.
and the different effe&s of heat on thefe fubftan-
ces, the fenfible qualities at leaft muft vary confidera-
bly, according to the manner in which this matter is
prepared for food. Accordingly, when the flefli of
animals is boiled, thofe parts which are foluble in wa¬
ter combine with it. Thefe are, the gelatine, the
extractive matter, and part of the faline bodies. It is
to thefe that the nutritious property of foups is afcrib-
ed. But when the flefh of animals is roafted, it has a
much higher flavour, in confequence of thefe fubftan-
ces not being feparated from it, and particularly the
extradtive matter, on which the odour and flavour de¬
pend. This extractive matter, according to Fourcroy,
compofes the brown cruft which is formed on flefh du¬
ring its roafting.
5. The mufcular part of different animals, from its
(properties. fenjible qualities at leaft, feems to poffefs very differ¬
ent properties. Hence the difference in the tafte, fla-
Vol. V. Part II.
2796
Different
Component
Parts of
Animat
Subftances.
2797
Converfion
of mufcular
matter into
fpennaceti.
2798
Properties.
vour and nutritious quality, of the flelh of different
animals.
6. When the mufcular parts of animals are expofed
for a confiderable length of time to the adtion of run¬
ning water, they are converted into a peculiar fub¬
ftance, refembling in fome meafure fpermaceti. The
lame change, indeed, in fimilar circumftances, takes
place on the other foft parts of animals. This was firft
obferved in the year 1786, in the Innocents burying-
ground in Paris, where great numbers of bodies were
thrown together into the lame pit. The time which
was required for this converfion was fuppofed to be in
general about thirty years. But it has fince been
found, that animal matters are converted into a fub¬
ftance exadtly fimilar, and in a much Ihorter period,
by expoling them to the adtion of running water.
7. The matter produced by this change is of a
white colour, foft and undtuous to the feel, and melts
like tallow. It is decompofed by diluted acids ; and
an oily matter, with which it is mixed, is feparated.
By the adtion of alkalies and lime, ammonia is evol¬
ved. By expofure to the air, it is deprived of its white
colour *, the ammonia is almolt entirely carried off,
and a lubftance refembling wax remains behind. The
oily matter which is feparated by a diluted acid, is of
a white colour, and concrete. It becomes of a grayilh
brown colour by drying, and affumes a cryftalKne, la-
mellated texture, like fpermaceti. At the tempera¬
ture of 126° it melts. It is foluble in alcohol at the
temperature of 120°. It forms a foap with alkalies,
and burns like oil ; but exhales a difagreeable odour,
which is the chief objedtion to its ufe as a fubftitute
for oil, as it is fuppofed it may be obtained at a cheaper
rate. A manufadlure indeed has been eftablilhed at
Briftol for the preparation of this fubftance.
IV. Of Membranes, Tendons, and Ligaments.
° 2799
1. Membranes are thofe parts of the body which in-Membranes
elude fome of the internal parts of animals. Many
of them are extremely thin, and they poffefs different
degrees of tranfparency. They become pulpy by ma¬
ceration in water, and by boiling are almoft entirely
converted into gelatine, fo that they are chiefly corn-
pofed of this fubftance. No phofphate of lime or other
faline matter has been detedted in the membranous
fubftances hitherto analyzed. 2c0j
2. Tendons are reduced by boiling to a gelatinous Tendons,
fubftance, fo that they are compofed of a fimilar mat¬
ter with membranes.
3: The ^ligaments afford a portion of gelatine by Ligaments,
boiling, but are not, like the two former, entirely re¬
duced to jelly, fo that fome other fubftanee befides
gelatine enters into the compofition of ligaments.
V. Of the Brain and Nerves.
1. The matter of the brain and nerves has a foft, Adtion of
foapy feel, and a clofe texture. When expofed to the water, &.u
air at the temperature of 6o°, it foon becomes putrid,
exhaling an offenfive fmell, and giving out a confider¬
able quantity of ammonia. It is not foluble in cold
water ; but triturated with water in a mortar, a part is
diffolved, and if this be heated moderately, it coagu¬
lates. If fulphuric acid be added to this folution,
white flakes appear on the furface, and the liquid af-
5 h) fumes
762
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
28,03
Sulphuric
acid.
CHEMISTRY.
2804
Nitric acid
2S05
Of heat.
aS©6
Alkalies.
fumes a red colour. Similar flakes are produced by
the aftion of nitric acid, but the colour of the liquid
is yellow. If nitric acid be added till a flight acidity
is produced, a coagulum of a white colour feparates,
which is infoluble in water and alcohol, is foftened by
heat, and becomes tranfparent when it is dried. This
matter, therefore, poffeffes many of the properties of
albumen. . ,
2. If a quantity ©f brain be triturated with diluted
fulphuric acid, part is diffolved, and part is coagulat¬
ed. The liquid part is colourlefs, and when it is .eva¬
porated, it becomes black, while fulphurous. acid is
exhaled, and cryftals are formed. .When.it is evapo¬
rated to drynefs, a black mafs remains behind. By di¬
luting this with water, charcoal feparates. The mat¬
ter therefore is entirely decmnpofed, ammonia is dif-
eiigaged, and combines with the acid, forming ful-
phate of ammonia. By evaporating the water, ful-
phate of ammonia and fulphate of lime, phofphonc
acid, and phofphates of foda and ammonia, are obtain¬
ed 5 and thefe falls may be feparated by means of al¬
cohol. Thefe falls, however, exift in brain in fmall
proportion. By treating in the fame way a quantity
of brain with nitric acid, part is diflolved, and part
coagulated. When the folution, which is tranfparen.t,
is evaporated till the acid is concentrated, carbonic
acid and nitrous gafes are evolved 5 a great quantity
of ammonia is feparated with effervefcence, and char¬
coal remains behind, mixed with oxalic acid.
3. If a quantity of brain be evaporated to drynefs
with a gentle heat, a portion of tranfparent liquid fe¬
parates, and the refiduum affumes a brown colour when
it is dried. The weight of this refiduum does not ex¬
ceed one-fourth of the quantity employed. If the re.
iiduum be repeatedly boiled with alcohol, more than
one-half is diflblved 5 and when the alcohol cools, it
depofits a yellowifh white fubftance in the form of
filming plates, which may be reduced to a kind ©f
duftile pafte. It becomes foft with the heat of boil¬
ing water, and blackens with an increafe of tempera-
cure, exhaling empyreumatic and ammoniacal fumes j
a charred matter remains behind. By evaporating the
alcohol, a yellowHh black matter is depofited, which red¬
dens paper ftained with turnfole.
4. Brain is foluble in concentrated cauftic potafh 5
and during the folution, a great quantity of ammonia
is given out.
1207
Different in
VI. Of Hair and Nails.
1. If tve include all thofe fubftances which form the
hair, carbonate of ammonia, water having the fmell Component
of burnt hair, fome oil, and elaftic fluids which were fairsof
probably carbonated hydrogen and carbonic acid ga- Snh&wfes
fes. The oil was of a browniih colour, and was con- < —
Crete in the ordinary temperature of the atmofphere. 2809
It was foluble in alcohol, and burnt with a vivid
The charcoal which remained could fcarcely be calcined,
but fome of its particles were attraded by the mag¬
net. _ 2810
3. The acids foften and deftroy the colour of hair. Acids.
It is decompofed by fulphuric acid with the afliftance
of heat charcoal is depofited, and carbonic acid gas
given out. Nitric acid communicates a yellow colour
to hair, and diffolves it with the aid of heat. An
unduous matter is feparated, and oxalic acid is form¬
ed. Muriatic acid at firft whitens hair j but it be¬
comes yellow when it dries. Oxymuriatic acid alfo
bleaches hair; but at the fame time deftroys its tex¬
ture. It is converted into a pulp when it is introdu¬
ced into oxymuriatic acid gas. zStt
4. Hair is foluble in the alkalies, and is converted Alkalies,
into a reddifli-coloured foap, with the evolution of am¬
monia. If muriatic acid be added to the folution of
hair in potafti, fulphurated hydrogen gas is evolved,
from which it appears that hair contains fulphur. Silver
is blackened by the fame folution. 2812
5. The metallic oxides alfo have the effed of black-
ening hair. It is in this way that the hair is0Xldcs*
dyed black. The red oxide of lead, the acetate of
lead, and fometimes even the nitrate of lead, and the
nitrates of mercury and filver, are employed for this
purpoie.
Naz/s.—The nails are confidered as an elongationNails*
of the epidermis. They are attached to it, and fepa-
rate when it is removed. They become foft by long
maceration in water. There is no precipitate formed
in this folution with tan. Nails are foluble in the
acids mid the alkalies. They are ftained with metal*
lie oxides, and combine with colouring matte
From thefe properties the nails are confidered as a kind Compoii-
of coagulated albumen, with a fmall proportion oftl011,
phofphate of lime, and, according to fome, carbonate
of lime.
2813
2814
YII. Of Morbid Concretions.
zSrs
appearance. GOvermg of animals, as briftle, hair, wool, and down,
under the general name of hair, and particularly a»
they poflefs nearly the fame properties, we lhall find
that it varies greatly in fize, in length, and colour,
in different animals, and even in different parts of the
23o8 body of the fame animal.
A&ion of 2. If hair be boiled in water, a quantity of gelatine
water. is obtained, and, by continuing the boiling, the hair
becemes fo brittle, that it crumbles to pieces. The
part which remains, after the gelatine has been fepa-
raied, feems to be'coagulated albumen. But befides
gelatine and albumen, it appears from the combultion
of hair, that it contains a portion of oily matter. Ber-
tholiet obtained by the diiUllation of a quantity of
I. Earthy matters are frequently found in different Found in
parts of animal bodies, which are to be confidered asdifferent
extraneous, and occ a honing, at leaft in the human Paj;tsoftlM!
body, fome of the fevereft diforders to which it is fub- y*
je£l. Thefe earthy matters are generally combined
with an acid, and in fome cafes entirely compofed
©f an acid. Tbefe fubftances, which have been
called concretions and calculi^ are formed, fometimes.
in the folid parts of the body, but chiefly among the
fluids. _ 2815
Pineal concretions.—Thefe concretions are almoft pineal,
always found in the pineal gland of the human brain.
They are indeed fo rarely wanting in the brain, that
they are coniidered as natural, as they do not feem to
produce any inconvenience or difeafe. They have
been found to confift of phofphate of lime, mixed with
fome animal matter. 2817
Salivary concretions.—Concretions form in the fall-Salivary,
vary glands, and in the duels which convey the fecret-
ed
CHEMISTRY,
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
2$ l S
Tartar of
the teeth.
2819
Pulmonary.
2820
Inteftinal.
2821
Compofi-
tion.
* Ann. de
Chim. xxiii.
130.
282a
Biliary
compofed
.2823
ini'pif-
fcted bile ;
l 2824
1 of a fub-
Ifcance like
fpermaceti;
2825
of fhining
plates;
2826
or mixed.
ed fluid from thefe glands to tlie mouth. The com¬
ponent parts of thele concretions have been found to
be alfo phofphate of lime and animal mucilage.
The tartar of the teeth is compofed of the fame fub-
ftance. When this was examined with the microfcope,
it feemed to be compofed of fmall Ihining grains unit¬
ed to each other, and containing a great number of
pores or fmall angular cavities, refembling the cells of
polypi, on account of which fome naturalifts have
aferibed its formation to infefts; but it is more natural
to fuppofe, that it is a cryftalline arrangement of the
faline matter of which it is compofed.
Concretions have alfo been found in the pancreas,
and its dutts, and are fuppofed to confift of the fame
materials.
Pulmonary concretions.—concretions are form¬
ed in the lungs during afthmatic and phthifical dif-
orders. They are fmall hard bodies, unequal and
rough, of a gray or reddifh colour, which become
white as they dry in the air. They are alfo compofed
of phofphate of lime mixed with animal matter.
Intejlinal concretions,—Thefe are more rarely met
with in the human body. When they are found, they
have been generally formed on the ftones of fruits, or
fome other hard body which has been fwalloweck
They are more frequent in the inteftines of the inferior
animals, as in thofe of the horfe. S@me that have been
examined were of a gray colour, and of a radiated or
cryllallized ftrufture. The component parts of a ftone
of this defeription, analyzed by Berthollet, were the
following.
Magnelia
Phofphoric acid
Ammonia
Water
Animal matter
18.0
26.0
3-2
46.0
4.0
97.2
Biliary concretions.—Biliary concretions, or calculi,
are formed, either in the liver itfelf, in the gall-blad¬
der or in the gall du£ts, hence they have alfo been
called gall-Jlones*. Some found in the liver itfelf, are
compoled of phofphate of lime combined with fome
animal matter. The calculi which have been found
in the gall-bladder, are different, both in ftru&ure
and compofition. Some of them feem to be compofed
of concentric layers of infpiffated bile. Tbefe have
different degrees of conliffence •, they are fome times
friable, and of a brown or reddilh colour. The gall-
ftones of the ox, which are ufed by painters, are of this
kind. Another kind of biliary calculi differ only
from the former in having a fmooth, whitifh or gray-
i(h covering, refembling fpermaceti. They are iome-
tinies found in confiderable numbers in the gall-blad¬
der.
A third fpccies is of a white or gray colour, opaque,
or lemitranfparent. Thefe are compofed of ihining
cryftalline plates, or have a radiated ilrufture. They
are frequently folitavy, and are then about the lize,
and have the form of a pigeon’s egg. The nucleus of
this kind of gall-ftone is compofed of infpiffated bile.
A fourth fpecies is compofed of different proportions
of the fpermaceti fubllance and the concrete bile.
Thefe are the moll frequent of all the kinds of gall-
282$
ftones, and are alfo the moft numerous. They are df Component
a deep green or olive colour. Sometimes they exhi-
bit, internally, fmall Ihining plates of a deep yellow Subftances.
colour. v ii-y—ii,/i
All thefe calculi are foluble in the cauftic alkalies, 2827
in folutions of foap, in fixed and volatile oils, in alco- ^
hoi, and partially in ether. ^ a Iev’
Urinary concretions.—1. Thefe concretions, which 2Sit
are frequently formed in the urinary bladder of man* Urinary
and produce one of the moft excruciating diforders to calculi.,
which lie is fubjeft, have long attrafted attention,
with a view to prevent their formation, or to effedt
their diffolution after they have been formed. Little,
however, has yet been done, to accomplilh either of
thefe ends ; but the nature of the concretions them-
felves has been carefully inveftigated, and their com¬
ponent parts minutely examined by different ehemifts.
Among thefe the labour^ of Fourcroy and Vauquelin
are not the leaft confpicuous. Urinary calculi are Found
found, either in the kidneys, the ureters, or the uri-dift'erent
nary bladder itfelf. Calculi, as found in the kidneys, Parts
vary confiderably in fize, form, colour, and inter-
rial ftru&ure. They are ufually fmall, round, con¬
crete bodies, fmooth and ftiining externally, of a red-
dilh-yellow colour, and fo hard as to be fufceptible of
a polilh. They pafs readily along the ureters to
the bladder, and from thence are ejefted along with
the urine. It is the formation of thefe fmall concre¬
tions which conflitutes the difeafe called gravel.
Some of thefe concretions fometimes remain in the
kidneys, and increafing in volume by receiving new
additions of matter, form large calculi. This happens*
however, but rarely. The calculi which have been
found in the ureters, have originated from the kidneys,
and being too large to pafs along the ureters, receive
new additions of matter as it is depoftted from the
urine, and enlarge in fize, at the fame time dilating
the ureter.
But by far the moft common are thofe -which are
found in the bladder itfelf. Thefe calculi have either
originated from fmall concretions formed in the kid¬
neys, and thefe palling along the ureters into the blad¬
der, form a nucleus on which fuceeftlve layers of mat¬
ter are depofited from the urine 5 or they have their
origin and complete formation in the bladder itfelf, or
have been formed on fome extraneous fubftance intro¬
duced into the bladder through the urethra. The firlt
are the molt frequent. jg--,
2. The form of urinary calculi is various, but theyrhyfical
are frequently of a fpheroidal or egg-lhape, or compref- properties,
fed on two Tides. Sometimes they are polygonal, which
happens when there are feVeral in the bladder at the
fame time. Some have been found of nearly a cubical
form. Their extremities are frequently either pointed or
obtufe. Their lize Is extremely various. Sometimes
they are not larger than i'mall beans, while fome have
been of fuch an extraordinary fize as to fill the bladder
itfelf; but they are moll frequently from the fize of a
pigeon’s egg, to that of a hen’s egg. Some are of a
yellowilh-brown colour, refembling wood. Thefe are
compofed of uric acid. Thofe which are white, or
gray ilh-white, confift of the earthy phqfphates, and tholl
w-hich are of a deep gray or blackilh colour, are com-
pofed of oxalate of lime. Some exhibit all thefe dif¬
ferent ftmdes mixed together. The forfae’e of urinary
5 D 2 calculi
C H E M
Component calculi Is fomctimes fmootli and policed j fometimes it
^04
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
2831
Conftituent
parts.
2832
Uric acid.
2833
Urate of
‘ammonia.
is rough and uneqaal, and tuberculated. Some urinary
calculi having their furface mamellated, are called
mulberryJlones, from foine refemblance to a duller of
mulberries. Some of the tvhite calculi are foft and
fmooth, femitranfparent, and covered with Ihining cryf-
tals. The fpecific gravity varies from 1.213 to 1.976.
The odour of urinary calculi is fometimes perceptibly
urinous and ammoniacal, which is difcovered by rafp-
ing or fawing them ; fometimes it is faint and earthy,
as in the white calculi; and fometimes it refembles that
of ivory fawed or rafped, and is analogous to the odour
of femen. Mulberry calculi are diftinguilhed by this
odour.
3. The following fubltances have been difcovered in
urinary calculi.
Uric acid,
Urate of ammonia,
Phofphate of lime,
Phofphate of magnefia and
ammonia.
Oxalate of lime,
Carbonate of lime,
Silica,
Animal matter.
2S34
Phofphate
of iinie.
2835
Of ammo-
2836
Oxalate of
lime.
Uric acid exifts in almoft all urinary calculi. Many
calculi indeed are entirely formed of it j but it is found
in greater or fmaller proportion, in almoft all that have
been analyzed. The nature and properties of this acid
have been already defcribed. The calculi compofed
of it are of a brown colour, are fmooth and poliftied,
and have the appearance of wood. When this fub-
ftance is triturated with a concentrated folution of pot-
a(h or foda, it forms a thick faponaceous matter, which
is precipitated by diluted acids. It is diflblved by ni¬
tric acid, and is converted into a red colour. This acid
is a compound of azote, carbone, hydrogen, and oxy¬
gen ; and when decompofed by chemical agents, it is
converted into ammonia, malic, oxalic, pruflic, and car¬
bonic acids.
Urate of ammonia, the next fubftance found in uri¬
nary calculi, is alfo foluble in potalli and foda, but the
folution is accompanied with a copious evolution of am¬
monia. Calculi compofed of this fubftance, confift of
thin layers, and are not always fmooth. They are ge¬
nerally of a fmall fize, and referable an infufion of cof¬
fee. The earthy phofphates are frequently interpofed
between the layers of calculi compofed of this fubftance,
and it is often mixed with phofphate of ammonia and
magnefta.
Phofphate of lime frequently enters into the compo-
iition of calculi. It is ufually in thin layers, which are
friable, and have little confiftency. They are of a
grayilh-white colour, and opaque, without tafte or
i’mell. The phofphate of lime is ufually mixed with
gelatinous matter j is foluble in different acids, and is
precipitated by the alkalies. Some calculi have been
difcovered entirely compofed of phofphate of lime.
Phofphate of ammonia and magnefia is in the form
of white, femitranfparent layers, and it is fometimes
found cryftallized on the furface of calculi in the form
of prifms. When it is reduced to powder it is of a
brilliant white, very foluble in diluted acids, and is de¬
compofed by the fixed alkalies.
Oxalate of lime is ufually mixed with phofphate of
lime and uric acid, but fometimes it is combined only
with animal matter in mulberry calculi. The calculi
cwnpofed of it aie of a dark green colour, and extremely
I S T R Y.
hard. It diffolves with difficulty in diluted nitric Component
acid, and is decompofed by the carbonates of potafti Partsof
i r a 1 Animal
ant, r r a- 1 n Subftances.
I. he carbonate of lime conftitutes the greateft part >— _j
of fome urinary calculi. 2837
Silica has been rarely found in calculous concre- Carbonate
tions. It was detected mixed with phofphate of lime,0 ™e‘
only in two mulberry calculi, which were extremely snica.
hard< . . 2839
In all calculous concretions there is a quantity of Animal
animal matter, which unites or cements together the matter,
layers or particles of the hard fubftances of which they
are compofed. This animal matter feems to poffefs the
properties of albumen. Sometimes it feems to be com¬
pofed of albumen mixed with urea, of coagulated albu¬
men, or gelatine. 2g
4. Fourcroy and Vauquelin have analyzed more thanDjvide^ in>
600 calculi, and by comparing the properties of each, to three
they have arranged them into three genera and 12 fpe- genera and
cies. The firft genus comprehends thofe fpecies which 12 fyecies‘
are compofed of one fubftance. Thefe are the three
following :
1. Uric acid,
2. Urate of ammonia,
3. Oxalate of lime.
The fecond genus includes thofe fpecies which are
compofed of two fubftances. It confifts of the follow¬
ing feven fpecies:
1. Uric acid and the earthy phofphates, in diftinft
layers.
2. Uric acid and the earthy phefphates intimateljr
mixed together.
3. Urate of ammonia, and the phofphates in diftinft
layers.
4. The two preceding intimately mixed.
5. Earthy phofphates mixed or in thin layers.
6. Oxalate of lime and uric acid in layers.
7. Oxalate of lime and earthy phofphates in layers.
The third genus confifts of two fpecies, which are
compofed of three or four fubftances.
1. Uric acid or urate of ammonia, earthy phofphates,
and oxalate of lime.
2. Uric acid, urate of ammonia, earthy phofphates,
and filica.
We {hall now ftate the general characters of thefe
different fpecies.
Genus I.
Species 1. Uric acid.—Thefe calculi are eafily known
by their colour, which refembles wood. It is reddilh,
or yellowilh. They are of a radiated, denfe, fine texture,
completely foluble in pure alkalies, without emitting
any odour. They vary greatly in fize, and have gene¬
rally a fmooth poliftied furface. The fpecific gravity
is from 1.276 to 1.786. It ufually exceeds 1.5. Of 600
calculi which were analyzed by Fourcroy and Vauque¬
lin, 150 confifted of pure uric acid. The. fand or gra¬
vel which is formed in the kidneys, ufually belongs to
this fpecies.
2. Urate of ammonia.—Calculi compofed of this fub¬
ftance, are ufually of fmall fize, foluble in cauftic fixed
alkalies, with the evolution of ammonia, of the colour
oi
IComponent of the infufioii of coffee, and are compofed of fine lay-
AnUnJl erS whIch are eafiI>7 ^pa^ted• The furface is com-
iiubftances. foiooth, and fometimes fhining and cryftalline.
■—-y—^ The fpecific^ gravity is from 1.225 t0 1-720. They
are foluble in hot water, at leaft when reduced to
powder. The external layer is fometimes pure uric acid.
This fpecies is rare.
Oxalate of lime.—This fpecies is eafily recognized
by its rough, mamellated furface, from which thole cal¬
culi have received the name of mulberry Hones. The
colour is brown, they are of a clofe hard texture, and
when rafped or fawed, emit the odour of femen. They
are foluble with difficulty in acids, and are infoluble in
the pure alkalies. The fpecific gravity is from 1.428
to 1.976. This fpecies frequently conftitutes the nu-
eleus of other calculi.
Genus II.
Species 1. Uric acid and earthy phofphates in diJlinB
/^yerr.—-This fpecies is known by its furface, which is
white like chalk, friable and femitranfparent. The
external layer is compofed of the phofphate of lime,
or .of ammonia and magnefia. The nucleus confifts of
uric acid, and when the calculus of this fpecies is fawed
afunder, two fubftances of which it is compofed are
diftinftly feen. It is indeed only then that the fpecies
can be recognized. Calculi of this defcription are not
uncommon, and they are generally of the largeft fizs
of all the urinary calculi. The fpecific gravity is very
variable.
2. Uric acid and earthy phofphates intimately mixed.
-—This fpecies contains numerous varieties, from the
different proportion of the conftituent parts. Some¬
times the uric acid and the earthy phofphates are ar¬
ranged in layers fo thin, that they are fcarcely percep¬
tible. Sometimes they are fo mixed together that they
can only be dete&ed by analyfis. But fometimes the
layers are fufficiently diftinft. The fpecific gravity is
from 1.213 to 1.739’ This fpecies of calculus is com¬
mon.
3. Urate of ammonia and the phofphates in diflincl
layers.—In this fpecies the nucleus confifts of urate of
ammonia *, and the external layers are moft frequently
compofed of the earthy phofphates mixed together, or
more rarely of phofphate of ammonia and magnefia.
This fpecies is ufually of fmall fize j its fpecific gravity
is from to 1.761. It is not very common.
4. Urate of ammonia and earthy phofphates mixed.—
The calculi belonging to this fpecies are very rare.
They are of a pale-yellow colour, and of lefs fpecific
gravity than the fecond fpecies of this genus, which
they refemble in external characters. When they are
treated with potalh, ammonia is difengaged. This fpe¬
cies is ufually of fmall fize.
5. Earthy phofphates mixed, or in thin layers.—This
fpecies is diftinguilhed by its pure white colour. They
are of a friable texture, infoluble in alkalies, and fo¬
luble in diluted acids. This fpecies is pretty common,
and often of a large fize. The concretions formed on
extraneous matters introduced through the urethra in¬
to the bladder, are of this kind. The fpecific gravity
varies from 1.138 to 1.471.
6. Oxalate of lime and uric acid in d'flinB layers.—
In this fpecies the nucleus confifts of oxalate of lime,
and it is covered with a layer of uric acid. From ex-
CHEMISTRY.
ternal appearance they are not diftinguiftied from thofe Component
entirely compofed of uric acid, till they are fawed a-
funder. The fpecific gravity varies from 1.341 toSub^^es<
7. Oxalate of lime and earthy phofphates in layers.— *
The oxalate of lime conftitutes the nucleus, and the
earthy phofphates compofe the external covering in this
fpecies of calculus. It can only be diftinguiilied by
being fawn afunder. The calculi belonging to this
fpecies vary greatly in form and fize, but they are al¬
ways white externally. The fpecific gravity is from
1.168 to 1.752.
Genus III.
Species 1. Uric acid, urate of ammonia, the earthy
phofphates and oxalate of lime.—In this fpecies there are
frequently three diftindl layers. The centre or nucleus is
compofed of oxalate of lime j the next of uric acid or
urate of ammonia 5 and the outermoft of the earthy phof¬
phates, which are ufually mixed with uric acid, or urate
of ammonia. The calculi of this fpecies can only be
diftinguiftied by fawing them in two. There are many
varieties of this fpecies, from the different propor¬
tions and the different arrangement of the conftituent
parts.
2. Uric acid, urate of ammonia, earthy phofphates, and
Jilica.—In the calculi belonging to this fpecies, the
filica feems to hold tire place of the oxalate of lime. It
is mixed with uric acid and urate of ammonia, and
covered with the phofphate of lime. This is the rareft
fpecies of all that have been examined. 2g4l
3. The inveftigation of the caufe of the formation Caufes of
of calculous concretions has occupied a great deal ofuri"ary ca^
the attention of phyfiologifts and phyfieians, and un-cu*‘*
doubtedly it is one of the moft important on which the
refearches of man can be employed j for by obviating
the caufe of this diforder, its terrible effedts might be
prevented. Unfortunately, however, little is yet known
on this intricate fubjeft. In many cafes, indeed, the
formation of urinary calculi is obvioufly owing to the
introdu&ion of fome extraneous fubftance into the blad¬
der by the urethra. But this mode of formation is
comparatively rare, and the calculi thus formed are
compofed of the earthy phofphates, which are depoli-
ted from the urine. All urine contains uric acid.
This forms one of the moft common fpecies of calculi.
The particles of gravel which are formed in the kid¬
neys, confift of this acid, fo that it very often forms the
nucleus of calculous concretions. But the produ&ion
of an exceflive quantity of uric acid, in whatever way
this takes place, feems to be the moft powerful caule
of the production of urinary calculi. It has been ob-
ferved too, that the urine of thofe perfons in whom thefe
concretions are moft frequent, is loaded with an un-
ufual proportion of animal matter. This forms the ce¬
menting fubftance of thefe concretions. In the forma¬
tion of thefe concretions it would appear that the dif¬
ferent fubftances of which they are compofed, are fe-
creted at different times, or in different proportions, fince
the different fuceeflive layers of calculi are compofed
of totally diftinCl fubftances. It is perhaps difficult or
impoffible to explain the formation of thofe calculi in
which oxalic acid is a conftituent part. This acid has
fcarcely ever been detefted in the urine, at leaft of a-
dults,, fo that it muft be produced by fome morbid ac¬
tion
766
CHEMISTRY.
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subftances.
2842
Solvents.
2843
Methods
uling.
tJon by wbxch fome of the animal fluids are converted
into this fubftance.
4. It has long been an objeft with phylicians, to dit-
1 cover the means of diflolving thefe fubftances after they
have been formed ; and the empiric has not been idle
in offering his noftrums which are held Out as folvents
of the ftone, and which it is no wonder are eagerly re¬
ceived with the hope of relief from one of the moll
dreadful maladies which can afflift mankind*. Nothing,
however, can be done with this view on rational prin¬
ciples, without previoufly knowing the nature and pro¬
perties of the fubftances which are to be diftolved 5 and
even when this is known, it muft appear, from conftder-
ing the funftion of digeftion, and the changes which
all fubftances taken into the ftomach,. undergo, that
little can be expected from the exhibition of remedies
in this way. After being fubje&ed to the different
proceffes of digeftion, refpiration, and fecretion, the
properties of thefe fubftances are totally changed, lo
thit they can only produce fome general effect on the
iyftem, and can have no fpecific aftion on particular
organs. It has therefore been propofed by the French
chemifts, to employ thefe fubftances which poffefs the
property of diffolving urinary calculi out of the body,
by injecting them through the urethra into the blad*-
It has been found by experiment, that calculi com-
pofed of uric acid, or urate of ammonia, are feluble in
folutions of pure potafti and foda, even when thefe folu-
tions are fo much diluted with water that they may be
taken internally, without producing any inconve¬
nience.
Experiments have alfo fliewn, that calculi compofed
of the earthy phofphates are foluble in nitric and mu¬
riatic acids, fo much diluted that they may be taken
internally without the fmalleft injury.
Calculi compofed of oxalate of lime are lefs eaflly
diffolved. They are, however, foluble in diluted folu¬
tions of carbonate of potalh or foda.
of The firft difficulty, however, which prefents itfelf in
the ufe of thefe folvents, is to difcover the nature and
competition of the concretion to be diffolved. I his can
only be done by employing fome of the folutions, and
examining them after they have remained for fome time,
or as long as they can be retained in the bladder. If
a weak folution of potafh has been injected, it is to be
filtered, as foon as it is thrown out *, and if on the addi¬
tion of a little diluted muriatic acid, or vinegar, a white
precipitate appears, the calculus is to be confidered as
compofed of uric acid. But if this folution has been
employed for fome time, and no precipitate is produced
in this way, the folution for the phofphates is then to be
employed, and when it is paffed, after remaining fome
time in the bladder, a precipitate will be formed with
the addition of ammonia. This precipitate will be
phofphate of lime.
If no effeft is produced by any of thefe folutions,
and if the feverity of the fymptoms continues, there is
fome probability that the calculus confifts of oxalate of
lime. This, it has been obferved, is the moft difficult
of folution. It may be diffolved, however, although
flowly, in nitric acid greatly diluted with water, or in
weak folutions of the carbonates of potafh or foda. Thefe
folutions, therefore, muft be employed when the others
have failed. The effefls of thefe folutions muft be
judged of by the alleviation of the fymptoms, of by the Component
actual examination of the ftone itfelf at different times,
by means of the catheter, or found. Whatever folo-s^ftanct?,
tion is employed, it ought to be of the temperature of w—
the body, and fo much diluted as not to irritate or in¬
jure the internal furface of the bladder to which it is
applied. Before the injeftion is made, the urine ftiould
be evacuated, and the injection retained, for at leaft a
quarter of an hour, from that to an hour, or as long as
it can be done without inconvenience. The injections
fhould be repeated at firft three or four times a day,
and afterwards increafed to fix or eight times. As
calculous concretions are frequently feveral years in
forming, it is obvious that they muft require a long
time to diffolve them, fo that the ufe of injections, if
any relief is to be obtained from them* muft be long
continued. # 2S44
5. Calculous concretions are not unfreqUent in the In .other
Urinary organs of other animals. They have beenammas‘
found in the horfe, in the dog, the rabbit, the hog, and
the rat. They are moft frequently compofed of car¬
bonate of lime with fome animal matter $ fometimes
of phofphate of lime, of phofphate of ammonia, and
of carbonate of lime and phofphate of lime but no
traces of uric acid have yet been deteCled in thefe con¬
cretions* _ _ . 2S45
Gouty concretions.—1. Concretions, which are com- Chalk-
monly called chalk Jlones, are fometimes formed in the ftones'
joints of thofe who have been long fubject to the gout.
They have been difeovered by chemical analyfis to be
compofed of Uric acid and foda. ^ 2846
2. Thefe concretions are of a white colour, irregular Properties*
in their form, and of a fine granulated texture. When
they are boiled for a few minutes, in IOO times their
weight of water, they are entirely diffolved. Sulphuric
acid added to this folution, produces a white precipi¬
tate, which affumes the form of fmall peedles, which
are cryftals of uric acid. The remaining liquid, by
being evaporated, affords fulphate of foda. 2847
3. By treating a quantity of gouty concretion with A&ion of
100 times its weight of a concentrated folution of pot-alkalies-
affi with the aid of heat, it is almoft entirely diffolped,
exhaling at the fame time the faint odour of animal
matter. When the liquid is filtered, and muriatic acid
added, it produces a white precipitate, which is uric
acid. From this it appears, that gouty concretions
poffefs fimilar properties with thofe formed in the quin¬
ary organs, excepting that they contain a greater pro¬
portion of animal matter. _ .
4. When it is diffolved in a fmall quantity of dilut- A-C1 s’
ed nitric acid, it tinges the Ikin vith a role colour, and
when evaporated, leaves a rofe-coloured deliquefeent
refiduum. By diftillation this fubftance yields ammo¬
nia, pruffic acid, and an acid fublimate. ^ _ ^49
5. If a fmall portion of uric acid be triturated with Artifiaa^
foda and a little warm water, they combine j and af-toHuatl0I,*
ter the fuperfluous alkali has been waftied out, the re¬
mainder has all the chemical properties of gouty
* * Phil*
ter • Tran/.
Subdivifion IV. Of Subftances peculiar to Different
Animals.
Having briefly detailed the nature and properties of
thofe fubftances which are common to animals, we Ihall
now take a general view of fome fubftances which are
peculiar
CHEMISTRY.
Component peculiar to different animals., and we ftiall treat o£ thefe
Sal according to the order in which they are arranged in
. Subftances. natural hiffory.
1850
Ivory.
aSjt
Horn.
! 2852
[artfhorn.
j853
Vool.
2854
! fufls.
I. Of Subffances peculiar to the Clafs Mammalia.
The fubftances peculiar to this clafs of animals are
the following.
1. Ivory, 6. Civet,
2. Horn, 7. Caftor,
3- Hartlhorn, 8. Ambergris,
4. Wool, 9. Spermaceti,
5. Mafk, *10. Bezoards.
I. Ivory, which is the teeth of the elephant, is a
bony fubftance, of a fine compaft texture, white co¬
lour, and fo hard as to be fufeeptible of a fine polilh.
It is compofed, like the bones, of gelatinous matter and
phofphate of lime, and when it is diftilled, it furnilhes
water, a thick oil, and carbonate of ammonia ‘y and
when calcined to whitenefs, it leaves pure phofphate of
lime.
The component parts of ivory are, according to
Merat-Guillot, the following.
Phofphate of lime,
Carbonate of lime,
Gelatine,
Lofs,
64.0
0.1
24!^)
11.9
100.0
2. Horn.—The f&bftanee called horn, poffeffes dif¬
ferent properties from that of bone. This matter is
produced in the horns of different animals, as thofe of
oxen, {keep, and goats. It has fome degree of tranfpa-
rency, and when heated it becomes fo foft and flexible,
that it may be made to affume different fhapes, and
formed into different inftruments and utenfils. Horn
yields a very fmall proportion of earthy matter. The
other conflituent parts feem to be coagulated albumen
and gelatine.
The following are the proportions of the conftituents
of hartfhorn.
Phqfphate of lime.
Carbonate of lime,
Gelatise,
Lafs,
57-5
1.0
27.0
I4-5
100.0
3. Hart/horn.—The conftituent parts of hartfhorn,
from the analyfis which has been made, are exactly the
fame as thofe of bone, but they contain a greater pro¬
portion of gelatinous matter.
4. Wool is a kind of long hair, very fine and foft,
which is a covering to different animals, efpecially the
iheep. It has been confidered as neaVly analogous in
its nature and properties to hair. It is entirely folu-
ble in the cauftic alkalies, and forms with them a
foapy matter, which has been employed, it is faid, with
advantage, as a fubftitute for foap, in different manu¬
factures.
5. Mujh is a fubftance which is fecreted in a bag
fituated near the umbilical region of the mufk deer
[mofchus mofchfer). It has an unftuous feel, is of a
dark-reddilh brown colour, has a very bitter tafte, and
2856
.... . 7^7
is diftinguifhed by a ftrong ar«matic fmell. It is par- Component
tially loluble in water, to which it communicates the Parls of
odour. A fmall portion of it alfo may be diffolved in Subftances
alcohol, but it does not retain the odour. Mulk is fo- >1
luble in fulphuric and nitric acid j but in thefe folu-
tipns the odour is diffipaled. The fmell of ammonia is
given out by the aftion of the fixed alkalies on mulk.
When it is laid on red hot iron, it takes fire, and is al-
moft entirely confumed, leaving only a fmall portion of
gray afhes. During its combuftion it gives out the fe¬
tid odour of urine. Mufk feems to poffefs many of the
properties of the volatile oils, but its component parts
have not been determined. 2g
6. Civet.—This fubftance is extracted from a fmall Civet,
bag near the anus of the viverra civeta, or civet cat.
It is of a yellow colour, and of the confiftence of but¬
ter. When firft extracted it is faid to be white. It
has a very ftrong fmell, and flightly acrid tafte; it
combines readily with oils*, and is much employed as a
perfume. *- „
7. Cajlor.—This fubftance is extracted from twoGaftor^
bags fituated near the anus of the beaver. The belt
call or is obtained from the large bag j that which is
fecreted in the fmall bag is faid to be? of an inferior
quality. When caftor is firft taken from the animal,
it is nearly fluid, and of a yeftbw colour. After it is
expofed for fome time to the atmofphere, it becomes
hard, and of a darker colour, affuming a refinous ap¬
pearance. It has an acrid, bitter, and naufeous tafte,
and a ftrong aromatic fmfcll, which it lofes by drying.
It becomes foft in w ater, and communicates to it a pale
yellow colour. This infufion converts vegetable blues
to a green colour. When it has been long macerated
in water, the infufion becomes of a deeper colour, and
yields by evaporation extractive matter, which is felu- ,
ble in alcohol and in ether. A rafinous matter is pre¬
cipitated from the folution in alcohol, by means of wa¬
ter, which has fimilar properties with the refin of bile.
According to the analyfis of Lagrange, the component
parts of caftor are the following :
Carbonate of potafti,
  lime,
■' ammonia,
Iron,
Relin,
Mucilaginous extractive, matter,
Volatile oil.
8. Ambergris.—This is a fubftance which is fup- AmbergnV,
pofed to be formed in the inteftrnes of the fpermaeeti
whale. It is frequently found floating in the fea. For
it natural hiftory, fee Ambergris, and Cetology
Index.
It is a foft light fubftance, of an afh-gray colour,
with brownifh-yellow and white ftreaks. It has an in-
fipid tafte, but an agreeable odour. The fpecifie gra¬
vity is from 0.844 to 0.849. It melts at the tempera¬
ture of 122°, and with the heat of boiling water is com¬
pletely diflipated in white fmoke, leaving a fmall trace
of charcoal. By diftillation an acid fluid is firft obtain¬
ed, and a light volatile oil ; and there remains behind
a voluminous mafs of charcoal. By lublimatl»n ben¬
zoic acid is feparated.
Ambergris is infoluble in water. Concentrated
fulnhuric acid feparates a fmall portion of charcoal..
It.
-68
Component
Parts of
Animal
Subltances
2858
Compoli-
tion..
C HEM
It Is dxtfolved in nitric acid. During the folution, ni-
trous gas, azotic gas, and carbonic acid gas, are evol¬
ved. A refinous matter is obtained by evaporating
the folution. Ambergris is foluble in the alkalies,
with the afliftance of heat. It is alfo foluble t*16
oils, in alcohol and ether. By the analyhs of Bou¬
illon la Grange, the conftituent parts of ambergris are
the following :
I
Adipocire, 52.7
Refin,. _ 30.8
Benzoic acid, 11 • 1
Charcoal, 5*4
* Anndl. ie
Chim.
xlvii. 84.
100.0
2859
Spermaceti
2860
Properties.
2861
Action of
acids, &c.
2852
B&zoards.
The fubftance called adipocire poffelfes the mixed or
intermediate properties of fat and wax. This name was
firft given by Fourcroy to the matter into which the
dead bodies found in the Innocents burying-ground
were converted. In appearance and fome of its pro¬
perties it alfo refembles ipermaceti.
9. Spermaceti,—This is a produaion of the fame
whale which yields the preceding fubftance. It is an
oily matter which furrounds the brain. It is feparated
from a fluid oid, with which it is mixed, by expref-
fion. Spermaceti is alfo found in other cetaceous
fifties, and in other parts of the body, mixed with the
It is a fine white fubftance of a cryftallized texture,
very brittle, and has little tafte or fmell. It cryftal-
lizes in the form of ftiining lilvery plates. It melts at
the temperature of 112°. With a greater heat it may
be diftilled without change; but, by repeated diftilla-
tion, it is decompofed, and partly converted into a
brown acid liquid. It is foluble in boiling alcohol, but
it feparates when the folution cools. It is alio foluble
in ether, both cold and hot. In the hot folution it con¬
cretes on cooling into a folid mafs.
Spermaceti is fcarcely at all foluble in the acids.
It combines readily with the pure alkalies, with ful-
phur, and with the fixed oils. By expofure to the
air it becomes rancid. The ufes of fpermaceti are
well known, and particularly in the manufa&ure of
candles.
10. Be%oards.—Thefe are calculous concretions
which are found in the inteftines of different animals
belonging to this clafs, particularly the horfe. Some
of very large fize have been found in the elephant and
the rhinoceros. Thefe fubftances were once celebrated
on account of their medical virtues, and they were
formerly diftinguilhed into oriental and occidental.
The firft were moft highly valued, and frequently bore
a high price, efpecially the bezoards obtained from a
fpecies of goat which inhabits the Afiatic mountains.
Some that have been examined were compofed entirely
of vegetable matter. In general the nucleus is of ve¬
getable matter, on which phofphate of ammonia and
magnefia or phofphate of lime have been depofited.
Thefe fubftances are diftinguilhed by a ftrong aroma¬
tic odour when they are rubbed or reduced to powder.
The brown or golden-coloured matter which has been
obferved on the grinding teeth of ruminating animals
is found to be of the lame nature with the bezoards
which are formed in the inteftines.
S T R Y.
II. Of Subftances peculiar to the Clafs of Birds. C;FVts 0^
The fubftances which are peculiar to this clafs of ani- SubiTancL
mals are the following
Eggs>
Feathers,
Excrement,
Membrane of the ftomach.
28*3
1 Eggs,-—In a chemical view, three parts of an egg Eggs,
merit attention. Thefe are the (hell or external cover-
the white, and the yolk. The white of egg,
ing
which confifts of albumen, has been already defcribed,
fo that it now only remains to give fome account of
the ftiell and the yolk. _ 2gfy
The (hells of the eggs of birds which have been ana- Shells,
lyzed are compofed of fimilar conftituents with bone,
but in very different proportions. The following is the
refult of the analyfis of Vauquelin.
Carbonate of lime,
Phofphate of lime,
Animal matter,
89.6
5*7
4-7
100.0'
* Annul, dt
Chim. xxix.
6.
The yolk of egg is of a foft confiftence, a yellow co¬
lour, and of a mild oily tafte. It becomes folid by boil¬
ing, and crumbles eafily into fmall particles. By heat-
ing gently after it has been boiled, and by expreflion,
an oily liquid of a yellow colour, and infipid tafte, is
obtained. It is diftinguilhed by the properties of fixed
oil. What remains after feparating the oil is albumen,
Hill coloured with a fmall portion of oil. By boiling
this refiduum in water, a portion of gelatine is obtained,
fo that the yolk of egg is compofed of oil, albumen, ge¬
latine, and water.
2. Feathers—are confidered as poffeHing fimilar pro¬
perties with hair. According to fome, the lolid part,
or quill, may be reduced to the gelatinous ftate by
boiling *, but according to others, no gelatine w hatever
can be dete&ed. The quill part is therefore fuppofed
to confift chiefly of coagulated albumen. It becomes
foft by the aftion of acids and alkalies.
3. Excrement.—This matter in birds is very different
from that of the animals included in the clafs mamma¬
lia. It is generally of a white colour, lefs liquid, and
lefs fetid. It is commonly accompanied with a glary
matter of different degrees of tranfparency, analogous
to the white of egg. This feems to be owing, to a
quantity of albumen which is fecreted in the ovidudl.
The white part of this matter is compofed of carbonate
and phofphate of lime and albumen. The colouring
matter feems to be part of the food.
4. Membrane of the Jiomach.—The internal furface
of the gizzard, or mufcular part of the ftomach of birds,
is covered with a wrinkled membrane, which is ful-
ceptible of confiderable extenfion, and through the pores
of which gaftric juice is copioufly fecreted. This mem¬
brane is eafily feparated from the mufcular part. When
it is boiled in water, it is converted into jelly, and
communicates to the water the property of reddening
vegetable blues, and coagulating milk. When it is
dried and reduced to powder, it produces the fame
eifeft.
286?
Yolk. 3
2855
Compofi-
tion.
2867
Feathers.
2868
Excrement.
1 S»
2869
Membrane
of the fto¬
mach.
I
CHEMISTRY.
i Component
Parts of
Animal
JSubftances.
a86S
poifon of
the Viper.
286^
Toad.
2870
Fortoife
hell.
2871
icales.
2872
Jones.
Hi. Of Matters peculiar to Animals in the Amphibi¬
ous Oafs.
1 1. Po?fon of the Viper.—Some of the animals be¬
longing to the fnake tribe, fecrete a peculiar fluid in
the mouth, which is of a poifonous quality. The poi-
fon of the viper is a yellow-, vifeid liquid, fomewhat
refembling oil. It is fecreted in two fmall bags, and
from them conveyed to the fangs of the animal, which
are hollow- and perforated, and when it bites, the li¬
quid is fqueezed out of the bag, and flows through
the teeth into the wound. It has no fmell. It be¬
comes thick by expofure to the air, and is converted
into a tranfparent jelly 5 but it retains its poifonous
property long after it is feparated from the animal.
It is foluble in water by agitation, but if throw-n into
the water w-hen extrafted from the veflcle, it falls in-
ftantly to the bottom like a heavy oil. It is foluble
in w-arm water after it is dried, but not foluble in al¬
cohol, or coagulated by boiling water. Acids and
alkalies produce no perceptible change upon this mat¬
ter. It is precipitated from its folution in water by
alcohol. It refembles gum in fo many of its proper¬
ties, that it has been called an animal gum.
2. Liquid fecreted from the tubercles on the head of
the Toad.—It has been long fuppofed that the liquid
fecreted on the head of the toad is of a poifonous qua¬
lity j but although it is faid by fome naturalifts, that
this fluid, brought in contact with the Ikin, produces
inflammation, yet there feems to be no pofitive proof
of this effect.
3. Tortoife-fhell.—This fubftance, w-hich forms a
ftrong covering and defence to the body of the turtle,
pofleifes many of the properties of horn j for it may be
foftened with heat, or in boiling water, and fliaped in¬
to any form which may be wanted. It is compofed
of a number of hard plates or membranes, of different
degrees of thicknefs, clofely applied to each other. It
becomes foft by maceration in nitric acid, and by
burning it yields a very fmall proportion of phofphate
of lime and foda, with fome flight traces of iron.
IV. Of Subilances peculiar to Fillies.
1. Scales—generally poflefs a lilvery whitenefs, and
are compofed of different laminae. In many of their
properties they refemble horn. By long boiling in
water they become foft, and when they are kept for
fome hours in nitric acid, they are converted into a
tranfparent membraneous fubftance. By faturating the
acid w ith amihonia, a precipitate is formed, which is
phofphate of lime. The conftituent parts of fcales,
therefore, are membrane and phofphate of lime.
.2. Bones of fifbes.—Thefe are compofed of the
fame conftituents as thofe of other animals, but have a
greater proportion of animal matter. In fome they are
foft, flexible, and femitranfparent, and hence they are
called cartilaginous. In others they are hard and folid,
having the ufual appearance of bone.
3. Fifb oil.—A great quantity of oil is extracted
from the foft parts of different kinds of fifli, and efpe-
cially from the blubber of the whale. It is ufually
denominated train oil. It is obtained, either by ex-
preflion, or by boiling. It is fuppofed that the oil ob¬
tained from the blubber cf the whale, and from other
Vol. V. Part I.
769
fifties, poffeffes different properties, which are. afcribcd Component
to the difference in the function of refpiration of ceta-
ceous and other fifties ; but how far this difference real- Subftances.
ly exifts, does not feem to have been accurately afcer- >.v—... 1
tained. Filh oil is diftinguilhed by a difagreeable
finell, and it has long been an objeft to deprive it of
this odour, as it is much employed in domeftic econo¬
my and in many arts. By agitating the oil with a
fmall portion of fulphuric acid, and adding water, the
oil when left at reft, riles to the furface conliderably
purified. A portion of coagulated matter has feparat¬
ed, and the water is milky.
V. Of Subftances peculiar to Infedts.
1. Wax.—The nature and properties of this fub¬
ftance have already been deferibed as a vegetable pro-
duftion.
2. Propolis.— Ihis is a fubftance collected by bees, Propolis,
and with which they cover the bottom of the hive, or
any foreign matters which happen to be introduced in¬
to it, which they cannot remove. It is the fubftance
which they collect on their legs and thighs. It is per¬
haps more properly to be confidered as a vegetable
production. It poffeffes more tenacity than wax
but has much of its dudility. It is infipid to the tafte,
but is diltinguilhed by an aromatic odour. It is par¬
tially foluble in alcohol, to which it communicates a
red colour. Another portion is diffolved in boiling
alcohol, and part precipitates as the folution cools,
which has the properties of wax. A refinous mafs is
obtained by concentrating the folution in alcohol and
boiling in water. It is femitranfparent and brittle. An
acid was detefted in the water in which it was boiled.
The refinous fubftance is foluble in fixed and volatile
oils. The following are the conftituent parts of pro¬
polis.
Pure refin
Pure wax
Extraneous matter
Lofs and acid
57
*4
14
100'
* Nichol.
your. v.
p. 49.
2874
3. Honey.— I his alfo has been confidered as a ve- Honey,
getable produttion, as it is collected from plants by
bees. It is of a white or yellow-ifti colour, of a gra¬
nular foft confiftence, and has an aromatic fmell ;
but thefe properties vary according to the plants from
which it is collected, or the climate in which they
grow-. By diftillation honey yields nearly the fame
produ&s as fugar. It is converted into oxalic acid bv
means of nitric acid. It is very foluble in water, and
is even fomewhat deliquefeent. It readily paffes to
the vinous fermentation, and affords a fermented "li¬
quor which has been called hydromel. \ • is partially
foluble in alcohol, and by this means fugar may be
extracted from it. The component parts of honey are
fugar, mucilage, and an acid. If pure honey be melt¬
ed, and carbonate of lime be added till the eftervef-
cence ceafes, the fugar is feparated, and is depofited
in cryftals. . 3g75
4. Cantharides are a fpecies of fly, (the meloe w/7-Canthari.
catorius, Lin.) which are much employed, from a pe-des*
culiar property they poffefs, to raife "blifters on the
fkin. For this purpofe the whole of the infect is re-
5 E duced
CHEMISTRY.
77°
• Component duced to potvder. Cantliandes have been^ fubjefted
Parts of to analyfisj and by fucceflive treatment with water,
A"imal alcohol, and ether, four different fubftances have been
Siibftances.<.vtraiqFf^ j. Three-eighths of their weight confiff
of extraftive matter, of a reddilh-yellow colour^ very
bitter, and which yields by diftillation an acid liquor.
2. A little more than one-tenth of the weight confifts
of a concrete oil, fomething of the nature of wax,
which is of a green colour and very acrid, tafte. To
this is owing the peculiar odour of cantharides. This
fubftance yields by diftillation, a very pungent acid
fubfiance and a thick oil. 3. About one-fiftieth of a
yellow concrete oil, which feems to communicate the
colour to the infect, is alfo obtained. 4. About one-half
the weight of a folid matter remains, the nature of
which has not been afcevtained. JLhe bliftering effedt
of cantharides feems to depend on the green waxy
matter, part of which is extradled by means of warm
2S 6 water, and it is entirely foluble in ether.
Millepedes. Millepedes.—Thefe infects, which are different fpecies
of onifcus, were formerly employed in medicine. By
diftillation with the heat of a water bath, they yield a
watery liquid, which converts the fyrup of violets to a
green colour, and by this procefs they are deprived of
five-eighths of their weight. By treating them after¬
wards with water and alcohol, they furnifli one-fourth
of their weight of an extractive and waxy matter 5
the latter is foluble in ether. The muriates of potafh
and lime have been detedled in the expreffed juice of
sSyy thefe infefts.
Ants. Ants.—Thefe infedls contain an acid liquid, which
they emit from the mouth when they are irritated, or
when they are bruifed on paper. This liquid converts
vegetable blues to red \ and it has been obferved'that
ftreaks of the fame colour are communicated to blue
flowers, over which the infedts creep. The acid obtained
from ants, and particularly from the formica rufa, or
red ant, was formerly conlidered as poffefling peculiar
properties, and thence denominated foimiic acid; but
it has been lately afcertained to confift of a mixture of
acetic and malic acids.
lac. Lac.—This is a fubftance which is formed on the
branches of feveral plants, as the feus indie a, the feus
religiofa, and efpecially the croton lacciferum. It is
produced by the pundture of an infedt, but is confider-
ed as belonging to vegetable fubftances, among which
the general properties have been already deferibed, as
well as the properties of an acid obtained from it,
..s„ among the acids.
&’/£.—This is the produdlion of feveral infedls, ei¬
ther for the purpofe of covering up their eggs, or
forming a net to catch their prey, as is the cafe with
many of the fpider tribe, or to cover up the infedt du¬
ring one of the ftages of its metamorphofis. The filk
of commerce is ufually obtained from the phalcena bom-
bi/x, or filk-worm. This fubftance is prepared in the
body of the larva of the infedl, from which it is pro¬
truded through feveral fmall orifices in very fine threads •
and with this it forms a covering for itfelf while it re¬
mains in the ftate of chryfalis or pupa.
Silk is a very elaftic fubftance, and is of a white or
reddilh yellow colour, when it is produced by the in¬
fedt. The elafticity of filk has been aferibed to a var-
nilh with which it is covered, of a gummy or gelati-
aeus nature, which is precipitated by tan and muriate
of tin. The yellow colour of filk is aferibed to a re- Component
finous matter which is foluble in alcohol. By diftilla- Parts ef
tion filk yields a large proportion of ammonia. It is c^11121
foluble in fulphuric, nitric, and muriatic acids. By . U .anc“'
nitric acid it is partly converted into oxalic acid, and
a fatty matter which fwims on the furface.
Cochineal.—This is an infedl which breeds on the Cochineal,
leaves of the cabins coccinelliferus Lin. fometimes
called opuntia or nopal. The plant is cultivated in
Mexico, for the purpofe ef rearing the infedls, which
are colledled, dried, and employed as a beautiful dye
fluff. By burning, the fame refults are obtained as
from other animal matters j but with boiling water it
gives a crimfon violet colour, which becomes red
and yellow by the adtion of acids, while a precipitate
is formed of the fame colour. The metallic folutions
added to this decodtion, alfo produce a coloured pre¬
cipitate. The muriate of tin throw's down a beautiful
red precipitate. The evaporated refiduum of the de¬
codtion of cochineal treated with alcohol, gives a fine
red colour, and this,, by evaporating the alcohol, af-
fumes the form of a refin. Oxymuriatic acid converts
the folution of this fubftance into a yellow colour,
from which the proportion of colouring matter may be
in fome meafure eftimated, by the quantity of acid re-
quifite to deftroy its colour. Cochineal is well known
by its producing a beautiful fcarlet colour. It may
be kept for any length of time, at leaft in a dry place,
without being deprived of its colouring matter. It has
retained this property for 130 years. Cochineal is em¬
ployed in the preparation of the beautiful lake called
carmine. '
Kermes.—This alfo is an infedl which is employed Kermes.
in dyeing, from whence it has been called coccus in-
feBorius. It is the coccus ilicis Lin. and is produ¬
ced on a fmall kind of oak, the quercus coccifera.
The infedt attaches itfelf to the bark of the tree by a
foft fubftance, which poffeffes many of the properties
of caoutchouc.
When the living infedl is bruifed, it gives out a red
colour. It has a flightly bitter, rough, pungent tafte,
but its fmell is not unpleafant. The dried infedl, or
the kermes, imparts this odour and tafte to water and
to alcohol, and communicates alfo to thefe liquids a
deep red colour. By evaporation, an extradl of the
fame colour is obtained. It is employed in dyeing,
and has been alfo ufed in medicine. jgg,
Crabs eyes.—The fubftance which has received this Crabs eyes,
name, merely from its form, is a concrete body, con¬
vex on one fide, and concave on the other. Two of
thefe bodies are ufually found in the ftomach of the
crab, about the time that it changes its Ihell. After
the fhell is fully formed, they are no longer found, fo
that they are fuppofed to furnifh the materials of the
new (hell. They are entirely compofed of carbonate
of lime, a fmall proportion of phofphate of lime, and
gelatine.
The cruftaceous coverings of the crab, lobfter, and
fimilar animals, are compofed of carbonate of lime,,
phofphate of lime, and animal matter, or cartilage.
VI.. Of Subftances peculiar to Teftaceous Ani¬
mals.
The only fubftances to be mentioned peculiar to
this
CHEMISTRY.
Component tins clafs of animals are {hells, mother of pearl, and
Parts of pearl.
rubftances. 1* shells,—Such as have been particularly examined
ii, - - -■ by Mr Hatchett are divided into two claffes. In the
*883 one he includes thofe which have the appearance of
’Shells. porcelain, and have an enamelled furface, which he
calls porcellaneous Jhells. Such are the various fpecies
of valuta and cyprcea. Thefe {hells were found by
analyfis to be compofed of carbonate of lime, with a
23g4 fmall portion of animal gluten.
Mother of 2. Mother of pearl.—The fecond clafs comprehends
pearl. thofe which are generally covered with a ftrong epi¬
dermis, under which is the {hell, compofed chiefly of the
fubftance called nacre, or mother of pearl. Such are
the oyster, the river muffel, the haliotis iris, and the
turbo oleareus. In thefe the proportion of carbonate of
233- lime is fmaller, and that of the animal matter greater.
Pearl. 3. Pearl.—This is a concretion formed in feveral
fpecies of {hells, as in fome fpecies of the oyfter and
the muflel. It is conlidered by fome as a morbid con¬
cretion, owing to an excefs of the {belly matter, or to a
wound of the {hell containing the animal. Pearls are
of a filvery or bluifli-white colour, iridefeent and bril¬
liant. The refraftion of the light is aferibed to the
lamellated ftru&ure, for they confift of concentric
layers of carbonate of lime and membrane alternately
arranged. The conftituent parts of pearl are the fame
as mother of pearl.
VII. Sub fiances peculiar to Zoophytes.
Zoophytes. The zoophytes, many of which have been examined
by Mr Hatchett, are compofed of carbonate of lime,
phofphate of lime, and animal matter of different de-
771
grees of conflflency. In fome the cmiftiluents are on-Component
ly carbonate of lime and a gelatinous matter. Such *’arts°f
are fbme fpecies of the madrepore, as the madrepora gJ^1,.,
muricata, virginea, and labynnthica ; fome fpecies of v - - y—, -
millepore, as the millepora eerulea and alcicornis, and
the tubipora tnufica. Others again are compofed of
carbonate of lime and a membranaceous fubftance.
Such are the madrepora fafcicularis, the millepora cel~
lulofa and fafcialis, and the ins hippuris. White co¬
ral and articulated coralline are compofed of fimilar
fubflances. Another divifion of zoophytes is compo¬
fed of carbonate of lime, a fmall portion of phofphate
of lime and membrane. Such are the madrepora poly-
morpha, the gorgonia nobilis or red coral, and the gor-
goma fetofa; but fome of the zoophytes are alfo
found to confift chiefly of animal matter, with fcarce-
ly any portion of earthy fubftance. To this diviflon
belong fome fpecies of gorgonia and many fpecies of
fponge.
Chap. XX. Of Arts and ManufaElures.
In this chapter it was intended to give a general
view of the application of the principles of chemiftry
to different arts and manufactures, fuch as the manu¬
facture of foap, of glafs and porcelain 5 the arts of dye¬
ing, bleaching and tanning. In this view it was pro-
pofed to explain the principles of thefe arts and manu¬
factures, fo far as they depend upon chemiftry, leaving
the detail to the different treatifes on thofe fubjeCts in
the courfe of the work. But the unavoidable length
to which this article has extended, obliges us to refer
our readers for the whole to the different treatifes.
APPENDIX.
After the chapter on earths was printed off, we re¬
ceived the account of a new earth difeovered by Kla¬
proth.
Of Ochroit. This earth was difeovered in a mine¬
ral to which Klaproth has given the name of ochroites,
of which the external characters are the following :
1. The colour of this mineral is between carmoifin
red, clove brown, and reddilh brown. It is compaCt,
breaks fplintering in irregular but not very fharp or
angular pieces. It is perfectly opaque, the powder is
reddifh-grey 5 it is not very hard, but brittle. The
fpecific gravity is 4.60. This mineral is found in the
mine of Bafnaetes, near Riddarhytta in Weftmann-
land.
inaffis of ^ a‘ ^ P*ece t-^ie mineral, after having been
I ie och- Ul to rednefs, loft two per cent. Its reddifh co-
I )ites. lour had been changed to brown. Its figure had fuf-
fered no alteration.
ilb. One hundred grains of the finely levigated mine¬
ral ignited for half an hour, loft five grains. Its co¬
lour was changed to a dark brown.
B. a. One hundred grains of ochroit, after being mixt
with 200 grains of carbonate of potafh, were ftrongly
ignited, the mafs which could not be rendered fluid,
was reddifh gray, and brittle. On being diffufed
through water as ufual, the obtained folution was co-
lourlefs. It remained perfectly tranfparent j a proof
that it did not contain tungften oxide; nitrate of filver,
mercury, lead, barytes, &c. proved the abfence’ of
acids.
b. The infoluble refidue of the laft procefs was boil¬
ed in nitro-muriatic acid, the filiceous earth being fe-
parated, the folution was decompofed by potafh, and
the whole boiled for fome time. The alkaline fluid,
after being neutralized with muriatic acid, and then
mingled with carbonate of potafh, fuffered no change.
C. a. Two hundred grains of the finely pulverized
mineral wrere firft boiled in two ounces of muriatic
acid, to which half an ounce of nitric acid was gra¬
dually added, and the digeftion continued for fome
time. The whole became thus difTolved except the 11-
lex contained in the mineral. Its quantity amounted-
to 68 grains.
b. To the folution obtained in the laft procefs, car¬
bonate of ammonia was added fo long, till no perma¬
nent precipitate was produced. On letting fall into it
fuccinate of ammonia, a curdly precipitate fell, which
vanifhed again on agitation, leaving merely a pale red
5 E 2 precipitate
7?2 C H E M
Ochroit precipitate of fuccinate oi iron. This being collected,
Earth. waflied, dried, and ftrongly ignited, yielded nine grains
of oxide of iron.
c. The fluid, thus freed from iron, and now colour-
lefs, was decompofed by carbonate of ammonia. T. he
precipitate obtained was white, and weighed 168 grs.
on being deprived of water and carbonic acid by heat,
its white colour changed to cinnamon brown. It
weighed 109 grains.
d. All the water employed for waftiing the different
precipitates was mingled, evaporated to drynefs, and
the ammoniacal fait volatilized} a minute quantity of
a muriate was obtained, the bafis of which could not
be determined.
From what follows it will become evident, that the
cinnamon-brown precipitate (c.) which forms the prin¬
cipal part of the foflil, is a peculiar earth, diftinft from
all the others hitherto known. The chara&eriftic pro¬
perty which it polfelTes, of acquiring a light-brown co¬
lour after being heated, has induced me to call it
ochroit earth (a), which may alfo ferve for the mine¬
ral itfelf.
According to this analyfis, IOO parts of the ochroit
of Kiddarhytta contain.
Ochroit earth 54>5°
Silex , 34
Oxide of iron 4
Water, &c. (A. £.) 5
Lofs, 2
I
aSSS
Peculiar
earth.
IOO
aSSp
Ochroit
earth com¬
bines with
carbonic
acid.
CharaBeriJUc Properties of Ochroit Earth.
I. Ochroit earth is capable of combining with car-
bon'c acid during its precipitation from acids by car¬
bonated alkalies, and itrongly confolidating a portion
of water.
One hundred grains of the earth, precipitated by
carbonate of ammonia, and ftrongly dried, loft on be¬
ing neutralized by nitric acid, 23 grains: 100 grains
of the fame earth loft, after being ftrongly ignited,
35 grains : 100 parts of carbonate of ochroit, therefore,
toniift of
Ochroit earth 65
Carbonic acid 23
Water 12
100
2. Ochroit earth, after being freed from carbonic
acid and water by heat, always appears in the form of
a cinnamon-brown powder. The intenfity of the co¬
lour is in proportion to the heat applied. This colour
is not owing to the prefence of iron, or manganefe, &c.
but it is a charadteriftic property of the earth.
3. Ochroit earth, included in a charcoal crucible,
and expofed to the heat of the porcelain furnace, fuf-
fered no change whatever.
4. Urged by the blowpipe, it becomes phofphoref-
S T R Y.
cent 5 fufed with phofphate of foda and ammonia, it Ochroit
becomes tinged by it, without effefting a folution of, t-arth-
the earth. The fait acquires merely a marbled lemon- Y '
yellow colour. Borax has likewife no chemical effedl.
This fait only effedts a mechanical divifton. The
earth always appears diffufed through the borax in
minute flocculi.
5. Ochroit earth, mixed in different proportions with
proper fluxes, and applied for painting of porcelain,
proved unfuccefsful. The painted articles were light-
brown 5 but the colour was not uniform $ a proof that
no combination had been effedled.
6. Ochroit earth, combined with carbonic acid is
eafily foluble with effervefcence in acids. The tafte
of the folution is very rough and aftringent. The con¬
centrated folution is of an amethyft-red colour j diluted
with water, it becomes colourlefs. Ignited ochroit
earth, on the contrary, is difficultly foluble in acids
in the cold $ if nitric acid be employed, the folution is
yellowiffi red.
7. The combination of ochroit earth with fulphuric
acid is cryftallizable. The figure of the cryftals form¬
ed in the mafs of the fluid is the octahedron. They
are heavy, of a pale amethyft colour, and difficultly
foluble in water } but the fulphate of ochroit, with ex-
cefs of acid, is more foluble ; the figure of the cryftals
formed on the fides of the veffel, is needle-ftiaped, ra¬
diating from a centre. They are more foluble than
the former.
8. If a folution of fulphate of foda be mingled with
a folution of muriate or nitrate of ochroit, a mutual de-
compofttion takes place. A white infoluble precipi¬
tate is formed, confifting of fulphuric a«id united to
the ochroit earth. This combination may be decom¬
pofed by boiling it with double its weight of carbonate
of foda. By this means ochroit earth may be obtained
very pure.
9. Ochroit earth is likewife foluble in fulphurous
acid •, the folution cryftallizes in needles of a pale ame¬
thyft colour.
10. Muriatic acid diffolves ochroit earth, and yields
cryftals, the figure of which is the prifm. It is foluble
in alcohol, without imparting to its flame any particu¬
lar colour.
11. Acetite of ochroit could not be cryftallized, but
yielded an adhefive mafs.
12. Nitrate and muriate of ochroit are decompofable
by carbonated earths and alkalies, the precipitate is
milk-white. Alkalies and earths, freed from carbonic
acid, occafion a yellowifti-gray precipitate.
13. Pruffiate of potafh precipitates ochroit from all
its neutral folutions, milk-white. The precipitate is
foluble in muriatic and nitric acid (b).
14. Tincture of galls occafions no change in the fo¬
lutions of this earth.
15. Hydroguretted hydrofulphuret of ammonia pre¬
cipitates the folution of ochroit earth yellowiffi white.
16. Water impregnated with fulphurated hydrogen
occafions no change in the fblutions of ochroit earth.
17. Succinates precipitate ochroit earth white.
18. Phofphate
(a) From the Greek word (favefeensf browniffi yellow.
(b) If the earth contained the muriates and quality of iron, it becomes by this means manifefted.
Ochroit
Earth.
C H E M I
iS. Phofpliate of foda octaflons in the folutions of
this earth a white precipitate, which again vaniihes by
the addition of nitric or muriatic acid.
19. Tartrites of potalh alfo precipitate this earth
white.
20. Oxalates effect *a like decompohtion ; the oxa-
lite of ochroit, however, is not foluble in nitric or
muriatic acids.
21. Alkalies and alkaline carbonates do not aft on
ochroit earth.
22. Ammonia feebly afts on it, under certain cir-
cumftances, as may be evinced from the following ex¬
periment :
A folution of nitrate of ochroit, prepared by dif-
folving 100 grains of carbonate of ochroit (not abfo-
lutely free from iron), in nitric acid, was decompofed
by carbonate of ammonia, and digefted in the fluid,
containing a confiderable quantity of carbonate of am¬
monia in excefs, for fome days. The fluid, which had
acquired a yellow colour, was feparated and neu¬
tralized by fulphuric acid, and then fet in a warm
place. A gray precipitate was thus obtained, which,
773
Ochroit
Earth.
289®
S T R Y.
on being dried, weighed grains. This precipitate,
after being diflolved in nitric acid, yielded a blue pre-
cipitate by prufliate of potafh; this being feparated, a
white flocculent precipitate fell down by dropping into
the remaining fluid carbonate of potafti. This method
is, therefore, applicable for feparating a minute quantity
of iron, that may be contained in the fluid.
“ From what has been dated, it becomes obvious, that General re¬
tire ochroit earth bears the neareft relation to yttria ; marks and
for, like this, it forms a connefting link betrveen the^™^.^
earths and the metallic oxides. Like yttria, it has roit earth.
the property of forming a reddifli-coloured fait with
fulphuric acid, and is precipitable by prufliate of pot-
ath 5 but differs from yttria, in that it does not form
fweet falts, that it is not (at lead: very fparingly)
foluble in carbonate of ammonia, and that, when
ignited, it acquired a cinnamon-brown colour. It
farther differs from yttria by not being foluble in
borax or phofphate of foda when urged upon char¬
coal before the blow-pipe, which falts eafily effeft a
folution of yttria, and melt with it alfo into a pellucid
pearl.” * * Nichol.
Jour, viii.
p. 212.
ERRATUM in CHEMISTRY. '
V. 508. 1. 10. col. 2d. It is faid that Mr Keir found that
fulphuric acid froze at 450 Fahrenheit. This
is only inferred from the thermometer being
dationary at 450 during the melting of the
frozen acid. A greater degree of cold was
always found neceffary for its congelation.
Phi/. Tranf. 1787. p. 279.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CXLII.
Fig. I. Reprefents Harrifon’s pendulum condrufted
on the principle of the unequal expanfion of metals.
Fig. 2. The calorimeter of Lavoider and Laplace,
fee page 476.
Fig. 3. Iron bottle and bent gun-barrel for procu¬
ring oxygen gas from manganefe. The black oxide is
reduced to powder, and introduced into the bottle A.
The bent tube is put on the mouth of the bottle at C,
and luted with the materials deferibed at the foot of
page 490. The bottle is then expofed to a red heat,
and the gas w’hich comes over is received in jars on
the pneumatic apparatus.
Fig. 3. and 4. reprefent the apparatus for the de-
compofltion of water. See page 496.
Fig. 5. Pneumatic trough for collefting gafeous
bodies. Suppofe a quantity of fulphurated hydrogen
gas is to be collefted, which is deferibed in page 5°5*
The iron filings and fulphur which were melted toge¬
ther in a crucible, and which then form a black brittle
mafs, are to be introduced into the glafs veffels. Fig.
6. B is a bent tube ground to fit the mouth I), and is
air-tight. To the other mouth C is fitted the ground
ftepper A. One end of the bent tube is fitted into
the mouth D, and the other placed under the glafs jar
F on the fhelf of the pneumatic trough E, which is
filled with water about an inch above the furface of
the fhell. The jar is alfo previoufly filled with water,
cautioufly inverted, and fet on the fhelf. T he apparatus
being thus adjufted, muriaticacid is poured into the open¬
ing C, and the ground ftopper is immediately replaced.
A violent effervefcence takes place, a great quantity of
gas is difengaged, and as there is no other way for
it to efcape it paffes into the glafs jar. When this
is filled, it is removed to another part of the fhelf; ano¬
ther jar which was previoufly filled with water is
put into its place, and fo on till the whole gas is col¬
lefted.
Fig. 7. Papin’s digefter.' A is the body of the vef-
fel, which has been generally made of copper or iron,
very thick and ftrong. BB are two ftrong bars fixed
to the fides of the veffel. To the upper end of thefe
bars is fixed the crofs bar C, through which paffes
a ftrong fcrewr D, which preffes on the lid of the
veffel at E, fo that it is enabled to refift the elaitic
force of the vapour ; and the water can thus be
raifed to a higher temperature than the ordinary boiling
point.
Fig. 8. This reprefents an apparatus for diftilla-
tion. A is the furnace, B is the body of the flill,
-which is generally made of copper ; C is the top or
head, made of the fame metal. The vapour as it rifes
from the liquid by the application of heat, paffes along •
the tube D, which communicates with a fpiral tube
in the refrigeratory E, v'hich being filled with cold .
wTater, the vapour is condenfed, and paffes out at the
other extremity of the tube F,. and is received in the
veffel G.
Plate
774
Explanation
of Plates.
CHEMISTRY.
Plate CXLIXI.
Fig. 9. Glafs Retort.
Fig. 10. Tubulated retort.
Fig. n. Glafs Alembic.
Fig. 1*. Solution glafs.
Fig. 13. Crucible.
Fig. 14. Apparatus for obtaining muriatic acid from
muriate of foda by fulphuric-acid. Fhe muriate of
foda is introduced into the retort A,_ and by means of
the bent tube B the fulphuric acid is added. The ma-
trafs C is adapted to the retort, to receive the portion
of impure fulphuric acid and muriatic acid which paifes
over towards the end of the operation. D, E, and h,
are bottles containing water; the quantity of which
fhould be equal in weight to that of the fait employ¬
ed. Thefe bottles are furnifhed with tubes of fafety
GG ; or the tube of fafety may be applied as H in the
bottle E.
Fig. 15. Apparatus for impregnating fluids with
gafes. A is a tubulated retort which is joined to B,
a tubulated receiver, from which a bent tube C pafles
to the fecond receiver D. This laft communicates with
the bottle F by means of the bent tube E. The end of the
tube C which enters the receiver D, is furniftied with a
valve which prevents the return of any gas from theExplanatioa
receiver D to the receiver B, in cafe a vacuum fliould, Plates,
take place in the courfe of the operation in the receiver _ ’ "'_J
B, or in the retort A. The gas which is not abforbed
by the water in the receiver D, pafles through the tube
E to the bottle F.
Fig. 16. A gazometer, wrhich is a convenient ap¬
paratus for holding gafes. It is ufually made of tin
plate. A is an inverted veflel, which exa£tly fits ano¬
ther, which is fixed within the cylinder B. When it
is prefled down to the bottom of the cylinder, water
is poured in, by which means the fmall quantity of air
which remains in the intermediate fpaces, is forced out,
and the gas to be preferved may be introduced at the
lower flop-cock C. The veflfel A is nearly balanced
by the weights DD, which are connedted with it by
means of the cords a a a a, which move on the pulleys
bbb b. As the gas enters the apparatus, it forces up
the veflel A, and in this w ay it may be completely fil¬
led. It is forced out by turning the flop-cock E, and
prefling down the veflel A, and may he conveyed in¬
to a pneumatic apparatus, and received in jars by means
of the flexible tube F.
INDEX.
Acetate of potato, n° 987
Acetic acid, hiftory of, 647
properties, 650
analyfis, 659
Acids, diftinclive character of, 456
importance, ib.
found in animal bodies, ^637
Adhejion, how it happens, 59
accounted for, 60
Affinity, hiftory of, 49
adlion of, explained, 50
limited, 90
laws of, 92
force of, 106
examples of, 94
Albumen from eggs, 2596
ufes, 2611
Alchemijis, moft eminent of, 25
Alchemy, hiftory of, ufeful, 31
declines, 28
not fruitful in difeoveries, 3 2
the reafon, 33
Alkali, calcined, 1421
filicated, 145°
Alkalies, origin of the name, 897
chara&ers, 898
Alum, hiftory of, 1418
preparation, 14^
properties, 1420
Alumina, hiftory of, 1399
properties, 1401
gelatinous, 1402
ufes, 1411
fpongy, 1402
Amber, N° 2476
Ambergris, 2857
compofition of, 2858
Ammonia, hiftory of, 1096
properties, 1098
compofition, 1102
falts, 1110
Ammoniac, 2491
Amnios, liquor of, 2753
properties, 2754
compolition, 2757
of the cow, 2760
compofition, 2764
Amniotic, acid, properties of, 814
Animals, functions of, 2529
decompofition, 2572
component parts, 2581
Anime, 2468
Antimony, hiftory of, 1675
properties, 1678
ufes, 1691
Ants, _ 2878
Apparatus defcribed, 265
Application of chemiftry to the arts, 13
Argil, 1399
Argillaceous earth, ib.
Arfeniate of potafti, 987
Arfenic acid, properties of, 612
adlion of water on, 613
affinities, 617
AJafatida, 2490
Atmofphere,
component parts of, 21IJ5
conftitution, 2163
changes, 2166
Atmofpheric air, properties of, N° 357
Axotic gas, difcovery of, 350
Azotic gas, properties of, 352
combines with oxygen, 356
B.
theory of heat, 161
Balm of Gilead, 2472
Barytes, hiftory of, 1256
properties, 1258
falts, 1268
Bdellium, 2498
Beecher's elements, 43
Benzoic acid, hiftory of, 714
properties, 716
component parts, 720
affinities, 722
Benzoin, 2489
Bergmatin's explanation of affinity, 56
Bezoards, 2862
Bile, properties of, 2664
compofition, 2669
Bifmuth, hiftory of, 1657
properties, 1661
Bitter matter, 2416
Black, Dr, on caloric, 212
fixed air, 3^
Bliflers, liquor of, 2764
Blood, properties, 2648
ferum, 2648
cruor, 2653
fibrina,
conftituents of,
inflammatory,
diabetic,
Blue, liquid, what,
2657
2660
2662
2663
2410
Bodies,
Fjy/. 6>.
Fit/.
/V,. / y 7:v ;i/.//.
y. ?A
Chemistry
Fip.M/.
Fiy.3.
£ Jl/• F'F'F/^/czYY^n.
'Chemistry.
Fi&.-U. jr^js.
/■'iy. /5.
74.
Bwh'ety capacities of, for caloric, N° 261
Boerhaave, his diftribution of bodies, 256
Boiling, 229
point conftant, 230
Bones, 2772
corapofition, 2T7%
of different animals,
of the teeth, 2729
of fifties, 2872
Boracic acid, difcovery of, 566
preparation, 567
properties, 568
affinities, 574
.Bonr/e ®f lime, 1213
Borax, hiftory of, 1067
properties, 1069
ufes, I073
Bofcovich's theory of cohefion, 72
Brain and nerves, 2802
Britain, chemiftry firft ftudied in, 36
Brugnatelli on combuftion, 325
Butter of antimony, 1685
of bifmuth, 1670
of zinc, I775
C.
Calamine, 1752
Calces of metals, 1518
Calomel, 1738
Caloric, ■what, 159
Bacon’s theory of, 161
velocity of, 165
minute particles, 166
reflexion, J70
rays of, 172
effe&s of, 303
modifications of, 334
elaftic fluids, effe&s on, 181
radiated, 241
refrafted, 242
refle&ed, 243
Camel, urine of, 2698
Cameleon, mineral, *652
Camphor, 2441
Camphor ate of potnftj, 1006
Camphoric acid, hiftory of, 738
properties, 740
affinities, 744
Cantharides, 2875
Canton's pyrophorus, 144
Caoutchouc, 2449
Carbonate of polafti, 974
Carbone, nature of, explained, 397
Carbonic acid, formation of, 595
names of, 596
method of obtaining, 598
properties, 599
affinities, 606
fatal efte&s of, 608
Cajior, 2856
Cavendijh, Mr, his experiments on
water, 389
Cerumen of the ear, 273 5
properties, 2736
compofition, 2738
CHEMISTRY.
Chee/e, N° 2713
Chemijlry, definition of, 1
importance of to man, 7
application of, to the arts, J3
an art among the Egyp¬
tians, 17
Greeks, 18
Phoenicians, 19
Chinefe, 20
Romans,
Chromate of potafti, 986
Chromic acid, difcovery of, 635
ufes, 641
Churning, procefs of, 2710
Cinnabar, 1701
Citrate of potafh, 1005
Citric acid, found in fruits, 680
compounds of, 690
affinities, 691
Civet, 2855
Coagulation, caufe of, 2598
Cobalt, 1593
Cochineal, 2880
Cohejion, force of, 68
Newton’s theory of, 70
Defaguliers’s, 71
Bofcovich’s, 72
Cold reflefted, 272
accounted for, 273
Colour, - 130
Colouring matter, 2394
Columbate of potdfh, 986
Columbic acid, difcovery of, 642
properties, 644
Columbium, hiftory of, *572
analyfis, I574
Cornbujlion, j
Concretions, morbid, 2815
found in pineal
gland, 2816
lalivary, 2817
pulmonary, 2819
compofition of, 2821
biliary, 2822
urinary, 2828
properties of, 2830
conftituents, 2831
folvents, 2842
how ufed, 2843
gouty, properties of, 2846
action of alka¬
lies on, 2847
Copatva, 2473
Copal, 2469
Copper, hiftory of, 1958
ores, 1959
properties, 1961
alloys, 2005
Corro/m? fublimate, 1738
Cow, urine of, 2697
Crabs eyes, 2882
Crawford, Dr, his method of afcer-
taining the capacity of bodies
for caloric, 262
Cruor of blood, 2653
77S
Cruor of blood contains albumen
and foda, N° 2654
iron, 2655
Crystalli%ation accounted for, 82
by Newton, 83
Hauy, 84
Curd, 2712
of milk of different animals, 2721
Cutis or true fkin, 2783
D.
Dalton on caloric, 269
Decompofition of animals, 2572
Definition of chemiftry, 1
Defaguliers on cohefion, 71
Detonation, what, 337
Diamond, 397
found in the torrid zone, 399
form of, 400
properties, 401
production of its combuf¬
tion, 402
a fimple fubftance, 403
compared with charcoal, 404
Different affinities among bodies, 112
Digejlion, 2 548
nature of, unknown, 2552
Difcoveries of the alchemifts, 30
importance of, 39
Dragon's blood, 2467
Dropfy, liquor of, 2764
E.
Earths, properties of, 1165
Effefts of light on metallic oxides, ij.r
caloric, 173
folubility, 100
Egg yields albumen, 2596
E§Ssy. # 2863,
Egyptians, their knowledge of che¬
miftry, 17
Elafiic fluids, 183
Elemi, 2471
Elements of bodies, 41
Epidermis of the fkin, 2781
Epfom fait, 1343
Ether, formation of, 83 2
names, 833
fulphuric, 834
nitric, 844
muriatic, . 853
Evaporation explained, 80
Euphorbium, 2489
Examples of affinity, 94
Excrement, 2867
Expanfion, 178
quantity of 202
ExtraBive matter, 2387
Eye, humours of, 2730
of fheep, 2731
human, 2732
F.
Eat, 2628
Fermentation, acetous, 2310
vinous, 2300
panary, 3313
Fibrina obtained from blood, -2612
Fibrina
7715
Fibrina obtained from mufele, N°
properties,
compofition,
Flint and fteel, effects of,
Flowers of bifmuth,
of zinc,
Fluate of potafli,
lime,
Fluoric acid, hiftory of,
properties,
compofition,
affinities,
Fluidity,
owing to an increafc of ca¬
loric,
Fluids, elaftic,
Foetus, cruft on,
nature of,
Fourcroifs experiments on water,
France, chemiftry ftudied in,
Freezing mixture, how ufed,
FriBion,
Frigorific particles,
Fulminating gold,
mercury,
platina,
powder,
filver,
G.
Galbanum,
Gallic acid, properties of,
affinities,
Gamboge,
Gafes not luminous,
expand equally,
azotic,
nitrous oxide,
nitrous,
Gelatine,
Glafs of antimony,
Gold, hiftory of,
properties,
affinities,
falts,
fulminating,
alloys,
Glucina, hiftory of,
properties,
falts,
Gluten, properties of,
Good conductors, what,
ufe of,
Greeks, their knowledge of chemi-
Guinea pig, urine ol,
Gum, properties,
diftillation of,
refins,
Gun-powder,
preparation,
nature of,
Guaiac,
H.
Hair and nails,
aCtion of water on,
2613
2614
2616
277
1661
I758
968
1208
c6o
562
564
565
207
212
101
2758
2759
392
37
275
290
271
2099
2135
95°
2048
2494
706
7I3
2497
157
206
35°
363
369
2584
1684
2077
2080
2c88
2089
2099
2109
1467
1473
2337
246
248
18
2700
2227
23 31
2483
947
948
949
2474
2807
2808
CHEMISTRY.
Hair and nails, aCtion of acids on, N5 2810
diftillation of, 2809
compofition, 2814
Hart/horn, 2852
Hai/y's theory of cryftallization, 84
Heat explained, 156
latent, 224
from condenfation, 278
by friCtion, 284
animal, 2545
lli/lory of chemiftry, 16
Honey, 2874
Hooke'1 s theory of light, 312
Horn from ffieep, &c. 2851
Horfe, urine of, 2696
Howards fulminating powder, 1731
Hulme's experiments on light, 149
Hydrogen gas, hiftory of, 373
properties,^ . 375
a remedy in difeafe, 378
Hyperoxymuriatic acid,
how obtained, 556
compofition of, 558
affinities, 559
I.
Ice, water in the ftate of, 394
Importance of chemiftry, 7
Inflammable fubftances, 816
names of, 818
hiftory, 819
properties, 821
conftituents, 829
InfleBion of light, 135
Ink, black, how to make, 193^
fympathetic, 1608
Iridium examined, 2153
Iron, hiftory of, 1880
ores, 1882
properties, 1884
caft, its properties, 1896
falts, ' 1903
alloys, . _ 1945
Irvine, Dr, his confirmation of
Black’s theory, 236
Ivory from the elephant, 2850
K.
Kermes, 2881
Kirwan's method of eftimating the
force of affinity, 110
objections to it by
Morveau and
Berthollet, III
method of afcertaining the
quantity of water in
fulphuric acid, 469
Koumifs, 2715
L.
Labdanum, 2466
Lac, _ _ _ 2475
Laccic acid, difcovery of, 768
properties of, 771
LaBic acid, difcovery of, 762
properties of, 764
LaBic acid, affinities of, Ne 76/
Lana philofophica, I757
Lavoifier on caloric, 264
J^aws of affinity, 92
Lead, 1824
properties of 1827
falts of, ^839
alloys of, 1869
Ligaments, 2801
Light, velocity of, 130
particles, 133
effeCts, 151
reflection of, 134
rays of, 152
, inflection, 135
refraCtion, 136
tranfparency, 140
undulating fluid, 128
Limbourg's idea of affinity, 55
Lime, properties of, 1169
affinities, 1175
falts, 1181
Liquid, water in the ftate of, 395
Liquor filicum, 145°
of the amnios, 2753
properties, 2754
of dropfy, 2764
blifters, ib.
Litharge, 1834
M.
Magiflery of bifmuth, 1669
Magnefia, hiftory of, 1332
properties, 3334
ufes, 1340
Malate of potafh, 3 005
Malic acid, hiftory of, 692
properties, 696
Manganefe, hiftory of, 163 2
ores, ^ 1633
properties, 1(535
oxides, I637
Mqflic, 2464
Matter, folid, 75
fluid, 76
Mayow's theory of light, 313
Medicine, 9
Mellitic acid, difcovery of, 754
properties, 756
compofition, 760
Membranes, 2799
Mercury, hiftory of, 1700
analyfis, 1702
properties, J 7G5
affinities, 1716
fulminating, I73I
Metals, importance of, 15°4
brilliancy,
denfity, I5°9
duCtility, if12
fufibility, 1515
imperfeCt, IS29
perfeCt, did.
Milk, properties of cow’s, 2716
feparates into two parts, 2707
coagulation of, 2711
* MHkt
hlilk, ferments, N° 2715
compofition, 27!7
comparifon of different kinds, 2719
Millepedes ^ 2876
Mineral cameleon, 1652
waters, claffes of, 2194
gafes, * 200
falls, 2204
analyfis, 2207
Minerals, ' g
Mixture, fource of, 291
Mixtures, freezing, 274
Molybdate of potalh, 985
Molybdena, hiitory of J555
properties, 1557
Molybdic acid, hiftory of, 627
properties, 6 28
Mother of pearl, 2884
Mucus of the nofe, 2 735
Muriate of potafh, ufes of, 958
properties, 960
compofition, 966
lime, 1298
Muriatic acid, names of, 525
properties, 528
fuppofed formation
of,
ufes,
affinities,
Mufcles, ftrufture of,
compofition,
boiled,
roafted,
properties,
Mujk,
Myrrh,
N.
Narcotic matter,
Natural hiftory,
philofophy,
Newton's theory of cohefion,
cryftallization,
Nickel, hiftory of,
properties,
alloy of,
Nitrate of potafh, properties,
ufes,
Nitric acid, names of,
hiftory,
properties,
abforbs water,
Nitrous gas, how prepared,
properties of,
combines with oxygen
oxide gas,
properties of,
537
539
54i
2788
2792
2 794
2795
2798
2854
2492
2418
3
4
70
,83
1615
1618
1624
94 2
954
497
498
C02
504
3%
370
372
363
365
Nomenclature, new,
tafte and fmell of, 367
o.
Ochroit earth, analyfis of,
combines with car-
bone,
chara£ters of,
Oils, of two kinds,
VOL. V. Part II,
40
2887
2889
2890
861
CHEMISTS Y.
Oils, fixed, preparation of, N° 864
properties, 866
compofition, 868
rancidity, 872
_ ufes, • 877
volatile, characters of, 879
fragrance, 883
fluidity, 884
tafte, 887
ufes, 894
Olibanum, 2487
Opobalfamum, 24 7 2
Opoponax, 2496
Ofmium, 2134
Oxalate of potafh, 992
Oxalic acid found in plants, 663
properties of, 665
component parts, 668
affinities, 669
Oxidation, 1517
Oxide, 36^
Oxygen, difeovery of, 341
how obtained, 343
properties, 343
effefts of, in combuftion, 346
animals live in, 347
combines with bodies, 348
Palladium, properties of, 2148
Paracelfus, account of, 26
Particles, frigorific, 271
iW, 2885
white, 1669
PercuJJion, fource of caloric, 277
Pewter, 1822
Philofophers ftone, 23
Phofphate of lime, 2834
ammonia, 2833
Phofphorous acid,
properties, 386
compofition, 392
affinities, 394
Phoenicians, 2 3
Phlogi/lon, fuppofed to be light, 313
Phofphorated hydrogen 426
Phojphoric acid, properties of, 376
Phofphorus, hiftory of, 413
exifts in bones, 416
how obtained, 417
purified, 418
combuftion of, 424
combines with azote, 423
Piclet on caloric, 237
experiments, 271
Pinchbeck, 2014
Pitch, 2463
Plates, explanation of, page 773
Platina, properties of, n° 2126
falls, 2i 3 2
fulminating, 2I35
alloys, 2136
Potajh, names of, 900
preparation, 901
purification, 904
properties, 908
Potajh, ufes of,
Powder, fulminating,
Priejlley on air,
on water.
Propolis,
PruJJic acid, hiftory of
difeovery,
examined by
properties,
affinities,
Pus, nature of,
how to diftinguifh,
Pyrites,
Pyrophorus of Canton,
111
N° 913
95®
3r7
388
2873
774
, 775
Macquer, 779
Bergman, 781
Scheele, 683
796
801
2764
2769
1901
*44
Quicklime,
filver,
O.
R.
1700
2699
Rabbits, urine of,
Radiation not the only caufe of cool
. ing, ' 234
Rays, folar, of three kinds, 301
coloured and heated, 173
invifible, 174
Red precipitate, 1728
RefleBion of light, 134
RefraElion,
Rejleflion of caloric, j 73
Repulfien, 269
RefraEiion, 1^l
Rejins, vegetable, 2437
from bile, 2633
Refpiration, . 2330
changes on the air, 2536
. . blood, 2 ^41
Rofacic acid, origin of, 81 r
properties, 813
Roftn* 2462
S.
Sacla&ic acid, hiftory of, 73 r
Sagapenum, 249 5
Saliva, properties of, 2723
compofition, 2727
of the horfe, S':28
Sandarac, ^
Sarcocol, 2493
Saturation, what, 12^
Scales, 2871
Scammony, x. 2488
Sea-’iuater, properties of, 2186
Sebacic acid, properties of, 804
Secretions, morbid, 2764
Semen, properties of, 2744
compofition, 27 c 2
Serum of blood,
contains gelatine, 2649
fulphur, 2633
falls, 2651
Sheep, eyes of, 27 3 r
Shells, 2883
of egg, 2864
Sinca, properties of, *445
5 F Silkt
778
Silk, < N°
Silver, hiflory of,
ores,
analyfis,
falts,
alloys,
fulminating,
Skin, epidermis of,
cutis
rete mucofum,
Smell, earthy,
Soda, names of,
purification,
falts,
SpeSlrum,
Spermaceti, properties of,
Stahl improves Beecher’s theory,
Starch, properties of,
Steam, nature of,
caloric of,
Storax,
Stomach, membrane or,
Strontites, hiftory of,
properties,
falts,
Suher,
Suberate of potafh,
Suberic acid, properties of.
Succinic acid, hiftory of,
properties,
Sugar, (panufa6lure of,
properties,
component parts,
Sulphuric acid, properties,
purification,
Sulphurous acid, hiftory of,
Sulphur, properties,
Sun, chief i'ource of light,
Styrax,
Synovia,
Tables of affinity invented,
enlarged,
Tan,
Tartaric acid, hiftory of,
properties,
component parts,
affinities,
Tartrate of potafh,
Tears,
properties,
compofition.
Teeth, bones of,
enamel of,
Tellurium, hiftory of,
properties,
aftion of alkalies on,
metals,
Temperature, chtmge of.
Tendons,
Thermometer,
conftru&ioix of,
2879
2023
2024
2025
2035
2067
2048
2781
2783
2787
1401
1018
1022
1030
137
2860
34
2365
228
23;
24f
2867
1212
13*4
13*9
25I5
1012
747
723
2338
2340
2346
465
464
479
433
J54
2481
2 739
52
53
2504
670
673
678
679
997
2735
2733
2734
2779
ib.
1692
1693
1696
1698
103.
2800
*94.
203
CHEMISTRY.
N° 198
Thermometer, Fahrenheit’s,
Reaumur’s,
Celfius’s,
Delifle’s,
Tin, hiftory of,
ores,
properties,
affinities,
falts,
alloys,
Tinfoil,
Tinning, procefs of,
Tinplate,
Titanium, properties,
Toad,
Tortoife,
Tungstate of potafh,
Tungsten, properties,
alloys,
Tungstic acid, hiftory,
properties,
Turpeth mineral,
nitrous,
U*
Univerfal medicine,
Uranium, difeovery of,
hiftory of,
properties,
Urate of ammonia,
Urea how obtained,
properties,
compofition,
Uric acid, hiftory of,
properties,
found in urinary calculi,
Urine,
properties,
component parts,
produfts by fpontaneous de-
compofition,
of the horfe,
cow,
camel,
rabbit,
Guinea pig,
199
200
201
1787
1788
179O
1799
1800
1817
1790
1956
*955
*5*7
2869
2870
984
*55*
*554
618
620
1720
1728
24
1586
*587
*589
2833
2617
2618
2620
806
809
2832
2670
2686
2687
2696
2697
2698
2699
2700
Vegetable acids, ^*23S4
Velocity of light, 130
difeovered, 131
confirmed, 132
caloric, 240
Vermilion, 1701
Vinous fermentation, 2300
phenomena of, 2302
Viper, poifon of, 2868
W.
Water, adhefion of, to glafs,
bulk increafed by freezing,
effe&s of,
compofition,
conjeftures concerning,
Prieftley’s experiments on,
Cavendifh’s,
Watt’s,
Lavoilier’s,
Fourcroy’s,
in the ftate of ice,
liquid,
vapour,
Wax,
of the ear,
compofition,
Wedgewood's pyrometer,
Whey from milk of different animals, 2722
Wilcke, Mr, his method of afeertain-
ing the capacity of bodies
64
188
i9<y
384
387
388
389
390
391
39*
394
395
396
2432
2736
2738
1412
graminivorous animals, 2701
carnivorous, 2702
birds, 2703
turtle 2704
V.
Vapour, elafticity of, 239
water in the ftate of, 396
Varnifh, copal, 2470
amber, 2479
Vegetables, root of, 2257
bark, 2258
pith, 2260
veffels, 2262
germination, 2263
food, 2270
leaves, 2284
decompofition, 2298
for caloric,
Wood,
condu&s caloric,
Wool,
Y.
Talk of egg,
compofition of
Tttria, hiftory of,
properties,
fulphate of,
nitrate of,
phofphate of,
carbonate of,
Z.
Zinc, hiftory of,
properties of,
phofphuret of,
fulphuret of,
fulphate of,
fulphite of,
nitrate of,
muriate of,
phofphate of,
carbonate of,
acetate of,
a&ion of alkalies on,
Zirconia, hiftory of,
properties,
affinities,
falts,
Zoophytes,
263
2499
2 CO
2853
2865
2866
*457
*459
1460
1462
1463
1464
*75*
*754
1760
1762
1764
1768
*773
*775
*777
*778
*779
1780
1484
i486
1490
1492
2886
CHEMNITZ,
CHE
Chemnitz . CHEMNITZ, Martin, a famous Lutheran di-
Cherem v^ne, t^ie °f Melanfthon, was born at Britzen
. ~lu"em' in Brandenburg, in 1522. He was employed in feve-
ral important negociations by the princes of the fame
communion j and died in 1589. His principal work
is the examen of the Council of Trent, in Latin.
CHEMOSH. See Chamos.
CHEMOSIS, adifeafeof the eyes, proceeding from
an inflammation ; wherein the white of the eye fwells
above the black, and overtops it to fuch a degree, that
there appears a fort of gap between them. Others de¬
fine it to be an elevation of the membrane which fur-
rounds the eye, and is called the white; being an af-
* feflion of the eye, like white flefli.
CHENOPODIUM, Goose-Foot, or Wild Orach:
See Botany Index.
CHEPELIO, an ifland in the bay of Panama and
province of Darien, in South America, fituated about
three leagues from the city of Panama, which it fup-
plies with provifions. W. Long. 81. N. Lat. 9.
CHEPSTOW, a market town of Monmouthfliire
in England, feated on the river Wye, near its mouth,
in W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 51. 40.
CHE£), or Cherif, the prince of Mecca, who is, as
it were, high-prieft of the law, and fovereign pontiff of
all the Mahometans of whatever fe£t or country they
be. See Caliph.
The grand fignior, fophis, moguls, khans of Tarta¬
ry, &c. fend him yearly prefents, efpecially tapeftry to
cover Mahomet’s tomb withal, together with a fump-
tuous tent for himfelf, and vaft fums of money to pro¬
vide for all the pilgrims during the 17 days of their
devotion.
CHERASCO, a ftrong and confiderable town of
Italy, in Piedmont, and capital of a territory of the
fame name, with a ftrong citadel, belonging t© the
king of Sardinia, where he retired in 1706, during the
fiege of Turin. It is feated at the confluence of the
rivers Sturia and Tanaro, upon a mountain. E. Long.
7. 55. N. Lat. 44. 35.
CHERBURG, a fea-port town of France, in Nor¬
mandy, with a harbour and Auguftine abbey. It is
remarkable for the fea-fight between the Englifh and
French fleets in 1692, when the latter were beat, and
upwards of twenty of their men of war burnt near
Cape la Hogue. The Britifh landed here in Auguft
1758, and took the town, with the fhips in the bafon,
demolifhed the fortifications, and ruined the other
vwks which had been long carried on for enlarging
the harbour, and rendering it more fafe and conveni¬
ent.^ Within thefe few years it has been attempted
again to improve the harbour, and rebuild the works j
but after confiderable progrefs had been made, a great
part of them fuddenly gave way, and the enterprife it
is thought will not be again refumed. E. Long. 1.38.
N. Lat. 49. 38.
CHEREM, among the Jews, is ufed to fignify a
fpecies of annihilation. See Annihilation.
The Hebrew word cherem, fignifies properly to de-
Jlroy, exterminate, demte, or anathematife.
Cherem is likewife fometimes taken for that which
is confecrated, vowed, or offered to the Lord, fo that
it may no longer be employed in common or profane
ufes. No devoted thing that a man lhall devote unto
ihe Lord, of all that he hath of man and beaft, and
C H E
of the field ot nis poffeflion, {hall be fold or redeemed \ Chereoi
every devoted thing is moft holy to the Lord: none I'
devoted, which {hall be devoted of men, fhall be re-. Che_rub'
deemed, but {hall furely be put to death. There are
fome who affert that the perfons thus devoted v/ere put
to death j whereof Jephtha’s daughter is a memorable
example. Judges xi. 29. &c.
Cherem is alfo ufed for a kind of excommunication
in ufe among the Jews. See Niddui.
CHERESOUL, or Chahrzul, a town in Turkey
in Afia, capital of Curdiftan, and the feat of a begler-
beg. E. Long. 45. 15. N. Lat. 36. o.
CHERILUS, of Samos, a Greek poet, flourilhed
479 years before Chrift. He fung the victory gained
by the Athenians over Xerxes, and was rewarded with
a piece of gold for every verfe. His poem had after¬
wards the honour of being rehearfed yearly with the
works of Homer.
CHERLERIA. See Botany Index.
CHERLESQUIOR, in Turkifti affairs, denotes a
lieutenant general of the grand fignior’s armies.
. CHERMES, in Zoology, a genus of infedts belong¬
ing to the order of infeda hemiptera. See Entomo¬
logy Index.
CHERMES Mineral. See Kermes.
CHERRT -island, an liland in the northern ocean j
lying between Norway and Greenland, in E. Long.
20. 5. N. Lat. 75. o. 6
CheRRT-Tree. See Prunes, Botany Index.
CHERSO, an ifland in the gulf of Venice, with a
town, of the fame name, near Croatia, belonging to the
Venetians. The air is good, but the foil ftony ; how¬
ever, it abounds in wine, cattle, oil, and excellent ho¬
ney. E. Long. 15. 5. N. Lat. 45. 8.
CHERSONESUS, among modern geographers,
the fame with a peninfula ; or a continent almoft en-
compaffed round with the fea, only joining to the main
land by a narrow neck or ifthmus. The word is
Greek i of xW6*' land, and nett, ijland;
which fignifies the fame. In ancient geography, it
was applied to feveral peninfulas j as the Cherfone-
fus Aurea, Cimbrica, Taurica, and Thracica, now-
thought to be Malacca, Jutland, Crim Tartary, and
Romania.
CHERT, Petrosilex, Lapis Comeus, the Horn-
Jlein of the Germans. See Mineralogy Index.
CHERTZEY, a market town of Surry in England,
about feven miles weft from Kingfton upon Thames!
W. Long. 30. N. Lat. 51. 25.
CHERUB, (plural, Cherubim) j a celeftial fpirit,
which in the hierarchy is placed next to the feraphim!
See Hierarchy.
The term cherub, in Hebrew, is fometimes taken for
a calf or ox. Ezekiel fets down the face of the cherub
as fynonymous to the face of an ox. The word cherub
in Syriac and Chaldee, fignifies to till or plow, which
is the proper work of oxen. Cherub alfo fignifies
Jlrong and powerful. Grotius fays, that the cheru¬
bim were figures much like that of a calf. Bochart
thinks likewife, that the cherubim were more like to
the figure of an ox than to any thing befides ; and
Spencer is of the fame opinion. Laftly, St John, in
the Revelation, calls cherubim beafes. Jofephus fays
the cherubim were extraordinary creatures, of a figure
unknown to mankind. Clemens of Alexandria^be-
5^2 lieves*
[ 779 1
Cherub
II
Chefeiden,
CHE [ 78
lieves, that the Egyptians imitated the cherubim of
the Hebrews in the reprefentations of their fphinxes
, and their hieroglyphical animals. All the feveral de-
feriptions, which the feripture gives us of cherubim,
differ from one another ; but all agree in reprefenting
them as a figure compofed of various creatures, as a
man, an ox, an eagle, and a lion. Such were the
cherubim deferibed by Ezekiel. Ihofe which Ifaiah
faw, and are called feraphim by him, had the figure
of a man with fix wings ; with two whereof they
covered their faces, with two more they covered their
feet, and with the two others they flew. Thofe
which Solomon placed in the temple at Jerufalem are
fuppofed to have been nearly of the fame form. Thofe
which St John deferibes in the Revelations were all
eyes before and behind, and had each fix wings. The
firll was in the form of a lion, the fecond in that of a
calf, the third of a man, and the fourth of an eagle.
The figure of the cherubim was not always uniform;
fince they are differently deferibed in the fhapes of men,
eagles, oxen, lions, and in a compofition of all thefe
figures put together. Mofes likewife calls thefe fym-
bolical or hieroglyphical reprefentations, which were
embroidered on the veils of the tabernacle, cherubim of
coftly work. Such were the fymbolical figures which
the Egyptians placed at the gates of their temples and
the images of the generality of their gods, which were
commonly nothing but flatues compofed of men and
animals.
CHERVIL. See Chterophyllum, Botany /«-
dex.
CHESAPEAK, in America, one of the largeft
bays in the known world. Its entrance is between
Cape Charles and Cape Henry in Virginia, 12 miles
wide ; and it extends 270 miles to the northward,
dividing Virginia and Maryland. Through this ex¬
tent it is from 7 to 18 miles broad, and generally about
9 fathoms deep; affording many commodious har¬
bours, and a fafe and eafy navigation. It receives the
waters of the Sufquehannah, Potomak, Rappahannock,
York, and James rivers, which are all large and navi¬
gable.
CHESELDEN, William, an eminent anatomift;
and furgeon, was born at Burrow on the Hill, in the
county of Leicefter, defeended from an ancient family
in the county of Rutland, whofe arms and pedigree
are in Wright’s “ Hiftory of Rutland.” He received
the rudiments of his profeflional fkill at Leicefter ;
and married Deborah Knight, a citizen’s daughter,
by whom he had one daughter, Williamina Deborah.
In 1713 he publilhed his Anatomy of the Human
Bodv, one volume 8vo ; and in 1723, A Treatife on
tire High Operation for the Stone. He was one of
the earlieft of his profeflion who contributed by his
-Writings to raife it to its prefent eminence. In the
beginning of 1736, he was thus honourably mention¬
ed by Mr Pope : “As foon as I had fent my laft
letter, I received a moft kind one from you, ex-
prefling great pain for my late illnefs at Mr Chefel-
den’s. I conclude you was eafed of that friendly ap-
prehenfion in a few days after you had difpatched
your’s, for mine muft have reached you then. I won¬
dered a little at your query, Who Chefeiden was ? It
thews that the trueft merit does not travel fo far any
way as on the wings of poetry: he is the moft noted
o ] CHE
and moft defer ving man in the whole profeflion of chi- Chefeiden
rurgery; and has faved the lives of thoufands by his
manner of cutting for the Itone.” He appears to have , ie^ne' .
been on terms of the moft intimate friendfhip with Mr
Pope, who frequently, in his Letters to Mr Richard-
fon, talks of dining with Mr Chefeiden, who then lived
in or near Queen Square. In February 1737, Mr
Chefeiden was appointed furgeon to Chelfea hofpital.
As a governor of the Foundling Hofpital, he fent a
benefa&ion of 50I. to that charity, May 7. 1751, in-
clofed in a paper with the following lines :
’Tis what the happy to th’ unhappy owe;
For what man gives, the gods by him beftow. Pope,
He died at Bath, April 11. 1752, of a diforder arifing
from drinking ale after eating hot buns. Finding
himfelf uneafy, he fent for a phyfician, who advifed
vomiting immediately ; and if the advice had been
taken, it was thought his life might have been faved.
By his direftion, he was buried at Chelfea.
CHESHIRE, a maritime county of England,
bounded by Lancafhire on the north ; Shroplhire and
part of Flintftrire, on the fouth ; Derbyfhire and Staf-
fordftxire, on the eaft and fouth-eaft ; and Denbigh-
{hire, and part of Flintlhire, on the weft and north-weft.
It extends in length about 44 miles, in breadth 25 ;
and is fuppofed to contain 125,000 inhabitants. Both
the air a»d foil in general are good. In many places
of the country are peat-moffes, in which are often
found trunks of fir-trees, fometimes feveral feet under
ground, that are ufed by the inhabitants both for fuel
and candles. Here alfo are many lakes and pools well
ftored with fifh; befides the rivers Merfey, Weaver,
and Dee, which laft falls into a creek of the Irifh fea
near Chefter. This county alfo abounds with wood :
but what it is chiefly remarkable for, is its cbeefe,
which has a peculiar flavour, generally thought not to
be inferior to any in Europe ; (fee Cheese). The
principal towns arc, Chefter the capital, Cholmondely,
Namptwitch, &c.
William the Conqueror erefted this county into a
palatinate, or county palatine, in favour of his nephew
Hugh Lupus, to whom he granted the fame fovereign-
ty and jurifdiftion in it that he himfelf had in the reft
of the ifland. By virtue of this grant, the town of
Chefter enjoyed fovereign jurildi&ion within its own
precinfts; and that in fo high a degree, that the earls
held parliaments, confifting of their barons and tenants,
which were not bound by the acts of the Engliih par¬
liament : but the exorbitant power of the palatinates
was at laft reduced by Henry VIII.; however, all
cafes and crimes, except thofe of error, foreign plea,
foreign voucher, and high-treafon, are ftill heard and
determined within the {hire. The earls were ancient¬
ly fuperiors of the whole county, and all the landholders
were mediately or immediately their vaifals, and under
the like fovereign allegiance to them as they were to
the kings of England •, but the earldom was united to
the crown by Edward III. fince which time, the eldeft
fons of kings of England have always been earls of
Chefter, as well as princes of Wales. Chefliire fends
four members to parliament; two for the county, and
two for the capital.
CHESNE, Andrew du, ftyled the father of French
hiftory,
CHE [ 781 ] CHE
Iiiilory, -vvas born in 1584. He wrote, 1. A hiftory
of the popes. 2. A hitlory of England. 3. An in¬
quiry into the antiquities of the towns of France. 4.
A hiftory of the cardinals. 5. A bibliotheca of the
authors who have written the hiftory and topography
of France, &c. He was cruflied to death by a cart,
in going from Paris to his country houfe at Verriere,
in 1640.
CHESNUT-tree. See Fagus, Botany Index.
CHESS, an ingenious game performed with differ¬
ent pieces of wood, on a board divided into 64 fquares
or houfes 5 in which chance has fo fmall a ftiare, that
it may be doubted whether a perfon ever loft a game
but by his own fault.
Each gamefter has eight dignified pieces, viz. a
king, a queen, two bithops, two knights, and two
rooks, alfo eight pawns : all which, for diitindftion’s
fake, are painted of two different colours, as white
and black.
As to their difpofition on the board, the white
king is to be placed on the fourth black houfe from
the corner of the board, in the firft and lower rank ;
and the black king is to be placed on the fourth
white houfe on the oppofite, or adverfary’s, end of the
board. The queens are to be placed next to the
kings, on houfes of their own colour. Next to the
king and queen, on each hand, place the two bithops j
next to them, the two knights ; and laft of all, on
the corners of the board, the two rooks. As to the
pawns, they are placed, without diftincftion, on the
fecond rank of the houfe, one before each of the dig¬
nified pieces.
Having thus difpofed the men, the onfet is com¬
monly begun by the pawns, which march ftraight for¬
ward in their own file, one houfe at a time, except
the firft move, when it can advance two houfes, but
never moves backwards : the manner of their taking
the adverfary’s men is fidew'ife, in the next houfe
forwards j where having captivated the enemy, they
move forward as before. The rook goes forward or
cxofswife through the whole file, and back again.
The knight Ikips backward and forward to the next
houfe, fave one, of a different colour, with a fideling
march, or a flope, and thus kills his enemies that fall
in his way, or guards his friends that may be expofed
on that fide. The bilhop walks always in the fame
colour of the field that he is placed in at firft, fonvard
and backward, aflope, or diagonally, as far as he lifts.
The queen’s walk is more univerfal, as {he takes all
the fteps of the before-mentioned pieces, excepting
that of the knight j and as to the king’s motion, it is
one houfe at a time, and that either forward, back¬
ward, Hoping, or fidewife.
As to the value of the different pieces, next to the
king is the queen, after her the rooks, then the bi-
fhops, and laft of the dignified pieces comes the knight.
The difference of the worth of pawns, is not fo great
as that of noblemen4 only, it muft be obferved, that
the king’s biihop’s pawn is the beft in the field, and
therefore the fkilful gamefter will be careful of him.
It ought alfo to be obferved, that whereas any man
may be taken, when he falls within the reach of any
of the adverfary’s pieces, it is otherwife with the king,
who, in fuch a cafe, is" only to be faluted with the
w'ord check, w arning him of his danger, out of which
it is abfolutely neceffary that he move j and if it fo
happen that he cannot move without expofing himfelf
to the like inconveniency, it is check-mate, and the
game is loft. The rules of the game are,
1. In order to begin the game, the pawns muft be
moved before the pieces, and afterw ards the pieces muft
be brought out to fupport them. The king’s, queen’s,
and biihop’s pawns, fliould be moved firft, that the
game may be well opened j the pieces muft not be
played out early in the game, becaufe the player may
thereby lofe his moves: but above all, the game
Ihould be well arranged before the queen is played
out. Ufclefs checks ihould alfo be avoided, unlefs
feme advantage is to be gained by them, becaufe the
move may be loft, if the adverfary can either take or
drive the piece away.
2. If the game is crowded, the player will meet with
obftru&ions in moving his pieces ; for which reafon
he ihould exchange pieces or pawns, and caftle (a)
his king as foon as it is convenient, endeavouring at
the fame time to crowd the adverfary’s game, which
may be done by attacking his pieces with the pawms,
if the adverfary Ihould move his pieces out too foon.
3. The men Ihould be fo guarded by one another,
that if a man fliould be loft, the player may have it in
his power to take one of the adverfary’s in return ;
and if he can take a fuperior piece in lieu of that
which he loft, it would be an advantage, and diftrefs
the adverfary.
4. The adverfary’s king fhould never be attacked
without a force fufticient j and if the player’s king
fiiould be attacked without having it in his power to
attack the adverfary’s, he fhould offer to make an ex¬
change of pieces, which may caufe the adverfary to
lofe a move.
5. The board fhould be looked over with attention,
and the men reconnoitred, fo as to be aw^are of any
ftroke that the adverfary might attempt in Y:onfequence
of his laft move. If, by counting as many moves for¬
ward as pofiible, the player has a profped of fuceefsy
he ftiould not fail doing it, and even facrifice a piece
or two to accomplifh his end.
6. No man ftiould be played till the board is tho¬
roughly examined, that the player may defend him¬
felf againft any move the adverfary has in view j nei¬
ther fliould any attack be made till the confequences
of the adverfary’s next move areconfidered ; and when
an attack may with fafety be made, it ftiould be pur-
fued without catching at any bait that might be thrown
out in order for the adverfary to gain a move, and
thereby caufe the defign to mifearry.
7. The queen ftiould never ftand in fuch a manner
before the king, that the adverfary, by bringing a
rook or biihop, could check the king if ftie were not
there j as it might be the lofs of the queen.
8. The
(a) Cqfl/e his king, is to cover the king with a caftle } which is done by a certain move which each player
has a right to whenever he thinks proper.
G H E
8. The adverfary’s knight ftiould never be fuffered to
check the king and queen, or king and rook, or queen
and rook, or the two rooks at the fame time; efpe-
cially if the knight is properly guarded: becaufe, in
the two firft cafes, the king being forced to go out of
check, the queen or the rook muft be loll: •, and in the
two laft cafes a rook mult be loft at leaft for a worfe
piece.
9. The player (hould take care that no guarded
pawn of the adverfary’s fork two of his pieces.
10. As foon as the kings have caftled on different
fides of the board, the pawns on that fide of the board
ftiould be advanced upon the adverfary’s king, and the
pieces, efpecially the queen and rook, {hould be brought
to fupport them j and the three pawns belonging to
the king that is caftled muft not be moved.
11. The more moves a player can have as it were
in ambufeade, the better j that is to fay, the queen,
biftiop, or rook, is to be placed behind a pawn or a
piece, in fuch a pofition as that upon playing that
pawn or piece a check is difeovered upon the adverfa¬
ry’s king, by which means, a piece or fome advantage
is often gained.
12. An inferior piece {hould never be guarded
with a fuperior, when a pawn would anfwer the fame
purpofe j for this reafon, the fuperior piece may re¬
main out of play ; neither Ihould a pawn be guarded
with a piece w’hen a pawn would do as well.
13. A well-fupported pawn that is paffed often cofts
the adverfary a piece j and when a pawn or any other
advantage is gained without endangering the lofs of
the move, the player {hould make as frequent ex¬
changes of pieces as he can. The advantage of a paf¬
fed pawn is this : for example, if the player and his
adverfary have each three pawns upon the board, and
no piece, and the player has one of his pawns on one
fide of the board, and the other two on the other fide,
and the adverfary’s three pawns are oppofite to the
player’s two pawns, he {hould march with his king as
foon as he can, and take the adverfary’s pawns : If
the adverfary goes with his king to fupport them, the
player Ihould go on to queen with his tingle pawns ;
and then if the adverfary goes to hinder him, he ftiould
take the adverfary’s pawns, and move the others to
queen (b).
14. When the game is near finiflied, each party
having only three or four pawns on each fide of the
board, the kings muft endeavour to gain the move in
order to win the game. For inftance, when the play¬
er brings his king oppofite to the adverfary’s with only
one fquare between, he will gain the move.
15. If the adverfary has his king and one pawn on
the board, and the player has only his king, he can¬
not lofe the game, provided he brings his king oppo-
fite to the adverfary’s, when the adverfary is diredly
before or on one fide of his pawn, and there is only
one fquare between the kings.
16. If the adverfary has a biftiop and one pawn on
CHE
the rook’s line, and this biftiop is not of the colour Ch
that commands the corner fquare the pawm is going
to, and the player has only his king, if he can get
into that corner, he cannot lofe ; but, on the contra¬
ry, may win by a ftale (c).
17. If the player has greatly the difadvantage of the
game, having only his queen left in play, and his king
happens to be in a pofition to win, as above-mention¬
ed, he ftionld keep giving check to the adverfary’s
king, always taking care not to check him where he
can interpofe any of his pieces that make the ftale ;
by fo doing he will at laft force the adverfary to take
his queen, and then he will win the game by being in
a ftale-mate.
18. The player {hould never cover a check with a
piece that a pawn puftied upon it may take, for fear of
getting only the pawn in exchange for the piece.
19. A player {hould never crowd his adverfary up
with pieces, for fear of giving a ftale-mate inadver¬
tently, but always lliould leave room for his king to
move.
By way of corroborating what has been already faid
with refpeft to this game, it is neceffary to warn a
player againft playing a timid game. He {hould never
be too much afraid of lofing a rook for an inferior
piece j becaufe, although a rook is a better piece than
any other except the queen, it feldom comes into play
to be of any great ufe till at the end of the game $ for
which reafon it is often better to have an inferior piece
in play, than a fuperior one to ftand {till, or moving
to no great purpofe. If a piece is moved, and is im¬
mediately drove away by a pawn, it may be reckoned
a bad move, becaufe the adverfary gains a double ad¬
vantage over the player, in advancing at the fame
time the other is made to retire $ although the firft
move may not feem of confequence between equal
players, yet a move or two more loft after the firft,
makes the game fcarcely to be recovered.
There never wants for variety at this game, pro¬
vided the pieces have been brought out regularly j but,
if otherwife, it often happens that a player has fearce
any thing to play.
Many indifferent players think nothing of the
pawns, whereas three pawns together are ftrong j but
four, which conftitute a fquare, with the afliftance of
other pieces, well managed, make an invincible
ftrength, and in all probability may produce a queen
when very much wanted. It is true, that two pawns
with a fpace between are no better than one j and if
there {hould be three over each other in a line, the
game cannot be in a worfe way. This {hows that the
pawns are of great confequence, provided they are
kept clofe together.
Some middling players are very apt to rilk lofing
the game in order to recover a piece ; this is a mil-
take ; for it is much better to give up a piece and at¬
tack the enemy in another quarter j by fo doing, the
player has a chance of {hatching a pawn or two from,
or
[ 782 ]
(b) To queen, is to make a queen ; that is, to move a pawn into the adverfary’s back row, which is the rule
at this game when the original one is loft.
(c) When the king is blocked up fo as to have no move at all.
Chpfs
CHE [ ?
or gaining fome advantage over the adverfary, whilft
his attention is taken up in purfuing this piece.
If the queen and another piece are attacked at the
fame time, and that by removing the queen the piece
muft be loft j provided two pieces can be gained in
exchange, for the queen, the queen ftiould be given
up, it being the difference of three pieces, and confe-
quentiy more than the value of the queen. By loftng
the. queen, the game is not thrown into that diforder
which it would otherwife have been ; in this cafe it
would be judicious to give the queen for even a piece,
or a pawn or two ; it being well known among good
players, that he who begins the attack, and cannot
maintain it, being obliged to retire, generaily lofes the
game.
A player Ihould never be fond of changing without
reafon,. bec.aufe the adverfary, if he is a good player,'
will ruin his lituation, and gain a conliderable advan¬
tage over him. But rather than lofe a move, when a
player is ftronger than the adverfary, it is good play to
change, for he thereby increafes his ftrength.
When the game is almoft drawn to a conclufton,
the player Ihould recolleft that his king is a capital
piece, and confequently ftiould keep him in motion j
by fo doing, he generally gets the move, and often the
game.
As the queen, rook, and biftiop, operate at a diftancc,
it is not always neceffary in the attack to have them
near the adverfary’s king.
If a man can be taken with different pieces, the
player ftiould take his time, and confider which of
thofe pieces is the belt to take it with.
If a piece can be taken almoft at any time, the
player Ihould not be in a hurry about it, but try to
make a good move elfewhere before he take it.
A player ftiould be cautious how he takes his adver¬
fary’s pawn with his king, as it often happens to be a
fafeguard to it.
A-fter all that has been faid, it is ftill neceffary for
us to advife thofe who would play well at this game, to
be very cool and attentive to the matter in quell ion :
for it is impoftible.that any perfon in the univerfe can
be capable of playing at chefs if their thoughts are em¬
ployed elfewhere. The laws at this game are,
1. If a player touches his man, he muft play it 5 and
if he quits it, he cannot recal it.
2. If by miftake or otherwife a falfe move is played,
and the .adverfary takes no notice of it till he hath
played his next move, it cannot be recalled by either
of the parties.
3. If a player mifplaces the men, and he plays two
moves, it is at the option of the adverfary to permit
him to begin the game or not.
4. If the adverfary plays or difcovers a check to a
player’s king, and give no notice of it, the player may
let him ftand ftill till he does.
5. After the king is moved, a player cannot caftle.
. Sarafin has an exprefs treatife on 'the different opi¬
nions of the origin of the Latin fchacchi, whence the
trench ethecsy and our chefs^ is formed. Menage is
alfo very full on the fame head. Leunclavius takes it
to come from Ufcoches, famous Turkifti robbers : P.
Sirmond, from the German fcache, “ theftand that
from calculus. He takes chefs to be the fame with the
Indus lairunculorum of the'’Romans, but miftakenly.
83 3 CHE
This opinion is countenanced by Voflius and Salmalius,
who derive the word from calculus, as ufed for latrun-
cuius. G. Tolofanus derives it from the Hebrew,
valavit, and mat, mortuus; whence check and checkmate.
Fabricius fays, a celebrated Perlian aftronomer, one
Schatrenfcha, invented the game of chefs ; and gave it
his own. name, which it ftill bears in that country. Ni~
cod derives it from fchecque, or xeque, a Moorilh word
for lord, king, and prince. Bochart adds that fcack is
originally Perlian ; and ti\-A\.fcachmat in that language,
figniftes the king is dead.—The opinion of Nieod and
Bochart, which is likewife that of Scriverius, appears
the moft probable.
Mr Twifs mentions a fmall treatife on chefs, written
as he fuppofes, about 400 years ago } at the end of
which is a reprefen.tatxon of a round chefs-board, ith
direclions for placing the men upon it. In this the
knight can cover the 64 fquares on the beard at as
many moves. The board is divided into thefe 64 parts
by four concentric circles, having an empty fpacc in
the middle } and each of tnefe is divided into 16 parts.
Number 1 is placed in the outermoft circle; number
2 in the. third circle counting inwards, in the divifion
to the right hand of the former ; number 3 is placed
in the outermoft circle, in the divifion to the right hand
of 2 j 4 in the third circle, counting inwards to the
right hand of three ; and thus alternately from the
firft to the third, and from the third to the firft circle,
till the round is completed by 16 on the third circle to
the.left hand of 1. Number 17 is then placed on the
divifion of the innermoft circle to the right hand of 1 j
1 8 on the fecond circle counting inwards, to the right
hand of 17 j and thus alternately from the fourth*to
the .fecond, and from the fecond to the fourth circles
until the round is completed by 32, diredtly below
number 1. Number 33 then is placed on the third
circle diredtly to the right hand of number 2 5 34 on
the fourth circle, to the right hand of 4; and thus al¬
ternately between the third and fourth circles, until
the round is again completed by 48 on the fourth cir¬
cle, diredtly below number 33. The numbers are now
placed in a retrograde faftiion ; 50 on the outer circle
in that divifion immediately to the right hand of 1 v
51 on the third circle, to the left hand of 2 ; and di^
redtly below number 32: 52 is then placed on the
outer circle, immediately on the left hand of 1 : 53
on the third circle diredly to the left hand of 16; and
thus alternately on the firft and third circles, until tb-'
laft ground is completed by 64 between the number 3
and 5. On this round cheis-board, fuppofing the black
king to be placed in number 48 on the fourth circle,
the queen Hands on number 17 at his left hand ; the
bifhops in 33 and 2; the knights 18 and 47 5 the caftles
in 3 and 50 j the pawns on 19, 4, 49, 64, and 46, 51,
32, 1. The white king will then ftand in 25, oppoftte
to the black queen •, the white queen in 40 oppolite to
the black king, and fo on. In playing on a board of
this kind, it will be found, that the power of the caftle
is. double to that in the common game, and that of the
biftiop.only one half; the former having 16 fquares to
range in, and the laft only four. I he king can caftle
only one way ; and it is very difficult to bring the
game to a conclufion.
W ith regard to the origin of the game at chefs, we
are much in the dark. Though it came to us from
the
Cheft.
CHE [ 7S4 ] CHE
Chdfs. tlig Saracens, it is by no means probable that they
 11 ‘ were the original inventors of it. According to feme,
it was invented by the celebrated Grecian hero Dio-
medes. Others fay, that two Grecian brothers, Ledo
and Tyrrhene, were the inventors ; and that being
much prefled with hunger, they fought to alleviate the
pain by this amufement.
According to Mr Irwin it is a game of Chinefe in¬
vention. During his refidence in India, he found that
a tradition of this nature exifted among the Bramins,
with whom he frequently played the game. While
he was at Canton in 1793, he gives the following ac¬
count of the information which he acquired relative to
the origin of the game of chefs. 4 A young mandarin,
of the profeflion of arms, having an inquifitive turn,
was my frequent vifltor } and what no queftions could
have drawn from him, the accidental fight of an Eng-
lilh chefs-board effected. He told me, that the Chi¬
nefe had a game of the fame nature $ and on his fpeci-
fying a difference in the pieces and board, I perceived,
with joy, that I had difeovered the defideratum of which
I had been fo long in fearch. The very next day my
mandarin brought me the board and equipage ; and I
found, that the Bramins were neither miffaken touch¬
ing the board, which has a river in the middle to di¬
vide the contending parties, nor in the powers of the
king, who is entrenched in a fort, and moves only in
that fpace, in every direftiom But, what I did not
before hear, nor do I believe is known out of this
country, there are two pieces, whofe movements are
diftinfl from any in the Indian or European game.
The mandarin, which anfwers to our biftiop, in his fta-
tion and fidelong courfe, cannot, through age, crofs the
. river ; and a rocket-boy, ftill ufed in the Indian armies,
who is ftationed between the lines of each party, a£ls
literally with the motion of the rocket, by vaulting
over a man, and taking his adverfary at the other end
of the board. Except that the king has his two fons to
fupport him, inftead of a queen, the game, in other
refpe<ffs, is like ours *, as will appear in the plan of the
board and pieces I have the honour to enclofe, to¬
gether with direftions to place the men and play the
game.
“ As the young man who had difeovered this to me
was of a communicative and obliging difpofition, and
was at this time purfuing his ftudies in the college of
Canton, I requefted the favour of him to confult luch
ancient books as might give fome infight into the pe¬
riod of the introduction of chefs into China } to con¬
firm, if poflible, the idea that Itruck me of its having
originated here. The acknowledged antiquity of this
empire, the unchangeable ftate of her cuftoms and
manners, beyond that of any other nation in the
world : and more efpecially the fimplicity of the game
itfelf, w'hen compared to its compafs and variety in
other parts, appeared to give a colour to my belief.
t That I was not difappointed in the event, I have no
doubt will be allowed, on the perufal of the tranfla-
tion of a manufeript extraCI, which my friend Tinqtia Chefs,
brought me, in compliance with my defire ; and
which, accompanied by the Chinefe manufeript, goes
under cover to your lordfhip. As the mandarin fir-
lemnly affured me that he took it from the work quot¬
ed, and the tranflation has been as accurately made as
pofiible, I have no hefitation to deliver the papers as
authentic.
“ From thefe premifes I have therefore Ventured to
make the following inferences That the game of
chefs is probably of Chinefe origin. That the con¬
fined fituation and powers of the king, refembling
thofe of a monarch in the eaftern parts of the world,
countenance this fuppofition j and that, as it travelled
weftward, and defeended to later times, the fovereign
prerogative extended itfelf, until it became unlimited,
as in our ftate of the game. That the agency of the
princes, in lieu of the queen, befpeaks forcibly the na¬
ture of the Chinefe cuftoms, which exclude females
from all power or influence whatever j which princes,
in its paffage through Perfia, were changed into a
Angle vizier, or minifter of ftate, with the enlarged
portion of delegated authority that exifts there j in¬
ftead of whom, the European nations, with their ufual
gallantry, adopted a queen on the board (d)< That
the rivor between the parties is expreflive of the gene¬
ral face of the country, where a battle could hardly
be fought without encountering an interruption of this
kind, which the foldier was here taught to overcome $
but that, on the introdudlion of the game into Perfia,
the board changed with the dry nature of the region,
and the conteft was decided on terra firma. And laft-
ly, that in no account of the origin of chefs, that I
have read, has the tale been fo charafteriliic or con¬
fident as that which I have the honour to offer to the
Irilh academy. With the Indians, it was defigned by
a Bramin to cure the melancholy of the daughter of a
rajah. With the Perfians, my memory does not aflift
me to trace the fable $ though, if it were more to the
purpofe, I think I Ihould have retained it. But, with
the Chinefe, it was invented by an experienced foldier,
on the principles of war. Not to difpel love-fick va¬
pours, or inftrudt a female in a fcience that could nei¬
ther benefit nor inform her j but to quiet the murmurs
of a difeontented foldiery j to employ their vacant
hours in leffons on the military art, and to cherifh the
fpirit of conqueft in the bofom of winter-quarters. Its _
age is traced by them on record near two centuries be¬
fore the Chriftian era •, and among the numerous claims
for this noble invention, that of the Chinefe, who call
it by way of diftinftion, c/iong he, or the royal game, ap¬
pears alone to be indifputable.”
Tranjlation of an KxtraB from the Concuth, or Chinefe
Annals, refpecitng the Invention of the Game of Chefs,
delivered to me by Tinqua, a Soldier Mandarin of the
Province of Fohien.
“ Three hundred and feventy-nine years after the
z ' time
(d) That on the acquifition of fo ftrong a piece as the vizier, the pao were fuppreffed, this poffefling powers
unintelligible, at that time, to other nations j and three pawns added, in confequence, to make up the num¬
ber of men •, and that as difeipline improved, the lines, which are ftraggling on the Chinefe board, might have
Been clofed on ours*
€ H E
Chefs, time of Confucius, or one thoufand nine hundred and
y fixty-five years ago, Hung Cochu, king of Kiangnan,
fent an expedition into the Shenli country, under the
command of a mandarin, called Hanfing, to conquer
it. After one fuccefsful campaign, the foldiers were
put into winter quarters j where, finding the weather
much colder than what they had been accuftomed to,
and being alfo deprived of their wives and families,
the army, in general, became, impatient of their fitua-
tion, and clamorous to return home. Hanfing, upon
this, revolved in his mind the bad confequences of
complying with their wifhes. The neceffity of footh-
ing his troops, and reconciling them to their pofition,
appeared urgent, in order to finifh his operations in
the enfuing year. He was a man of genius, as well
as a good foldier; and having contemplated fome time
on the fubjeft, he invented the game of chefs, as well
for an amufement to his men in their vacant hours, as
to inflame their military ardour, the game being whol¬
ly founded on the principles of war. The ftratagem
Succeeded to his wiih. The foldiery were delighted
with the game 5 and forgot, in their daily contefts for
viftory, the inconveniences of their poll. In the fpring
the general took the field again ; and, in a few months,
added the rich country of Shenfi to the kingdom of
Kiangnan, by the defeat and capture of its king, Chou-
payuen, a famous warrior among the Chinefe. On
this conquell Hung Cochu affumed the title of em¬
peror, and Choupayuen put an end to his own life in
<lefpair.
Explanation of the Poftion1 Powers, and Moves sf the
Pieces on the Chinefe Chefs-board, or Chong Ke
(Royal GameJ.
“ As there are nine pieces inftead ef eight, to oc¬
cupy the rear rank, they Hand on the lines between,
and not within, the fquares. The game is confequent-
ly played on the lines.
“ The king, or chong, Hands on the middle line of
this row. His moves refemble thofe of our king, but
are confined to the fortrefs marked out for him.
“ The two princes, or fou, Hand on each fide of him,
and have equal powers and limits..
“ The mandarins, or tchong, anfwer to our bifliops,
and have the fame moves, except that they cannot
crofs the water or white fpace in the middle of the
board to annoy the enemy, but Hand on the defen-
five.
“ The knights, or rather horfes, called mad, Hand
and move like ours in every refpedl.
“ 1 he war-chariots, or tche, refemble our rooks or
cafiles.
“ 1. he rocket-boys, or pad, are pieces whofe mo¬
tions and powers were unknown to us. They aft with
the direftion of a rocket, and can take none of their
adverfary’s men that have not a piece or pawn inter¬
vening. To defend your men from this attack, it is
neceflary to open the line between, either to take off
the check on the king, or to fave a man from being
captured by the pao. Their operation is, otherwife,
like that of the rook. Their Hations are marked be¬
tween the pieces and pawns.
“ The five pawns, or ping, make up the number of
the men equal to that of our board. Inffead of taking
Vol. V. Part II.
C H E
fideways, like ours, they have the rook’s motion, ex'- Chefs,
cept that it is limited to one*Jlep, and is not retro-v m’J
grade. Another impoitant point, in which the ping
differs from ours, is that they continue in fatu quo,
after reaching their adverfary’s headquarters. It will
appear, however, that the Chinefe pieces far exceed
the proportion of ours; which occafions the whole
force of the contefl to fall on them, and thereby pre¬
cludes the beauty and variety of our game, when re¬
duced to a ffruggle between the pawns, who are ca¬
pable of the higheff promotion, and often change the
fortune of the day. The poffs of the ping are marked
in front * hijb
But according to Sir William Jones, this game is of Tra*f- v°k
Hindoo invention. “ If evidence were required to prove V*
this faft (lays he f), we maybe fatisfied vith the teffi-f Afwtic
mony of the Perfians, who, though as much inclined w Refearches,
other nations to appropriate the ingenious inventions ofvoL 1U
a foreign people, unanimoufly agree that the game wasmem-
imported from the weff of India in the fixth century of
our era. It feems to have been immemorially known
in Hmdojlan by the name of Cheturanga, i. e. the four
angd's, or members of any army 5 which are thefe, ele¬
phants, horfes, chariots, and foot foldiers; and in this
fenfe the word is frequently ufed by epic poets in their
defeription of real armies. By a natural corruption of
the pure Sanfcrit word, it was changed by the old Per¬
fians into Chetrang; but the Arabs who foon after
took poffeflion of their country, had neither the initial
nor final letter of that word in their alphabet, and con-
fequently altered it further into Shetranj, which found
its way prefently into the modern Perfian, and at length
into the dialefts of India, where the true derivation of '--
the name is known only to the learned. Thus has a
very fignificant word in the facred language of tl^
Brahmins been transformed by fucceffive changes into
axedrea, fcacchi, echecs, chefs, and, by a whimfical con¬
currence of circumftances, has given birth to the Eng-
lilh word check, and even a name to the exchequer of
Great Britain.”
It is confidently afferted, that Sanfcrit books on chefs
ex iff in Bengal 5 but Sir William had feen none of them
when he wrote the memoir which we have quoted. He
exhibits, however, a defeription of a very ancient Indian
game of the fame kind, but more complex, and in his
opinion more modern, than- the fimple chefs of the Per-
fians. This game is alfo called Chaturanga, but more
frequently Chaturaji, or the four kings, fince it is played
by four perfons reprefenting as many princes, tw'o allied
armies combating on each fide. The defeription is ta¬
ken from a book called Bhawijhya Pur an; in which the
form and principal rules of this fiftitious warfare are
thus laid down : “ Eight fquares being marked on all
fides, the red army is to be placed on the eaff, the green
to the fouth, the yellow to the weff, and the black to
the north. Let the elephant (fays the author of the
Pur an) Hand on the left of the king; next to him the
korfe; then the Z-oa/; and before them all, four foot
foldiers ; but the boat muff be placed in the angle of
the board.”
“ From this paffage (fays the prefident) it clearly
appears, that an army with its four angds muff be pla¬
ced on each fide of the board, fince an elephant could
not Hand, in any other pofition, on the left hand of each
king; and IUdhacant (a Pandit) informed me, that
5 G the
[ 785 ]
CHE [ 785 ] CHE
Chefs, tile board coniifted, like ours, of 64 fquares, half of
r them occupied by the forces, and half vacant. He ad¬
ded, that this game is mentioned in the oldeft law books,
and that it was invented by the wife of a king, to amufe
him with an image of war, while his metropolis wasbe-
fieged in the fecond age of the world. A /&z/> or boat
• is abfurdly fubftituted, we fee, in this complex game, for
the rat'h, or armed chariot, which the Bengalefe pro¬
nounce roCh, and which the Perfians changed into rokh ;
whence came the rooh of fome European nations j as
the merge and fal of the French are fuppofed to be cor¬
ruptions of fer% and fil, the prime minifter and elephant
of the Perfians and Arabs.”
As fortune is fuppofed to have a great fhare in de¬
ciding the fate of a battle, the ufe of dice is introduced
into this game to regulate its moves j for (faj'S the Pu-
ran) “ if cinque be thrown, the hing or a pawn muft be
moved ; if quatre, the elephant ; if trois, the horfe ; and
if deux, the boat. The king paffes freely on all fides,
but over one fquare only ■, and with the fame limitation
„ the pawn moves, but he advances ftraight forward, and
kills his enemy through an angle. I he elephant marches
in all directions as far as his driver pleafes j the horfe
runs obliquely, traverfing the fquares *, and t\\e Jhip
goes over two fquares diagonally.” The elephant we
find, has the powers of our queen, as we are pleafed to
call the general or minifter of the Perfians *, and the /7j?/>
has the motion of the piece to which we give the unac¬
countable appellation of bifhop, but with a reftri&ion
which mull greatly leflen its value.
In the Buran are next exhibited a few general rules
and fuperficial dire&ions for the conduft of the game.
Thus, “ the pawns and the/2>z/> both kill and may be
voluntarily killed ; while the king, the elephant, and the
4. ftc, may flay the foe, but muft not expofe themfelves
to be flain. Let each player preferve his own forces
with extreme care, fecuring his king above all, and not
facrificing a fuperior to keep an inferior piece.” Here
(fays the prefident) the commentator on the Pur'an ob-
ferves, that the horfe, who has the choice of eight moves
from any central pofition, muft be preferred to the Jhip,
which has only the choice of four. But the argument
would not hold in common game, where the bifhop
and tower command a whole line, and where a knight is
always of lefs value than a tower in attion, or the bi-
ftiop of that fide on which the attack is begun. “ It
is by the overbearing power of the elephant (continues
the Pur'aTi) that the king fights boldly 5 let the whole
army therefore, be abandoned in order to fecure the
elephant. The king muft never place one elephant be¬
fore another, unlefs he be compelled by want of room,
for he would thus commit a dangerous fault ; and if he
can flay one of two hoftile elephants, he muft deftroy
that on his left hand.”
What remains of the paffage which was copied from
Sir William Jones, relates to the feveral modes in which
a partial fuccefs or complete viftory may be obtained
by any one of the four players *, for, as in a difpute be-
t ween two allies, one of the kings may fometimes af-
fume the command of all the forces, and aim at a fepa-
rate conqueft. Firft, “ When any one king has placed
himfelf on the fquare of another king (which advantage
is called /inhafana or the throne), he wins a ftake, which
is doubled if he kill the adverfe monarch when he feizes
his place ; and if he can feat himfelf on the throne of
his ally, he takes the command of the whole army.” Chefs.
Secondly, “ If he can occupy fucceflively the thrones
of all the three princes, he obtains the victory, which is
named cheturaji ; and the ftake is doubled if he kill the
laft of the three, juft before he takes poffeflion of his
throne j but if he kill him on his throne, the ftake is
quadrupled. Both in giving the finhajana and the che-
luraji, the king muft be fupported by the elephants, or
by all the forces united.” Thirdly, “ When one player
has his own king on the board, but the king of his
partner has been taken, he may replace his captive ally,
if he can feize both the adverfe kings *, or if he cannot
effe£l their capture, he may exchange his king for one
of them, againft the general rule, and thus redeem the
allied prince, who willfupply his place.” This advan¬
tage has the name of nnpacrijhta, or recovered by the
king. Fourthly, “ If a pawn can march to any fquare
on the oppolite extremity of the board, except that
of the king, or that of the ihip, he. affumes whatever
power belonged to that fquare.” Here we find the
rule, with a flight exception, concerning the advance¬
ment of pawns, which often occafions a moft intereft-
ing ftruggle at our common chefs j but it appears that,
in the opinion of one ancient writer on the Indian
game, this privilege is not allowable when a player has
three pawns on the board but w-hen only one pawn
and one ihip remains, the pawn may advance even to
the fquare of a king or a fliip, and affume the power of
either. Fifthly, According to the people of Lanee,
where the game w as invented, “ there could be neither
viftory nor defeat if a king were left on the plain w ith¬
out force 5 a fituation which they named cacacajht'hal*
Sixthly, “ If three ihips happen to meet, and the fourth
{hip can be brought up to them in the remaining angle,
this has the name of vrihannauca ; and the player of the
fourth feizes all the others.”
The account of this game in the original Sanfcrit is
in verfe.
This game was very fafhionable in former times in
every part of Europe } though in this country it is
not now very common, probably on account of the
intenfe application of thought required to play at it. /
It has long been a favourite of the Icelanders and
other northern people. There is little difference between
their game and ours.
The game of chefs has been generally praftifed by
the greateft warriors and generals ; and fome have even
fuppofed that it was neceffary for a military man to be
well {killed in this game. It is a game w'hich has
fomething in it peculiarly interefting. We read
that Tamerlane was a great chefs-player, and was en¬
gaged in a game during the very time of the decifive
battle with Bajazet the Turkifti emperor, who w*as de¬
feated and taken prifoner. It is alfo related of A1 A-
min, the caliph of Bagdad, that he was engaged at chefs
with his freedman Kuthar at the time when A1 Ma-
mun’s forces were carrying on the fiege of that city
with fo much vigour that it was on the point of being
carried by affault. Dr Hyde quotes an Arabic hiftory
of the Saracens, in which the caliph is faid to have
cried out wdien warned of his danger, Let me alone,
for I fee checkmate againft Kuthar ! We are told that
Charles I. was at chefs when news were brought of the
final intention of the Scots to fell him to the Ejnglifli j
but fo little was he difeompofed by this alarming in¬
telligence.
C H li
Chefs
telligence, that he continued his game with the utmoft
cdmpofure j To that no perfon could have known that
the letter he received had given him information of
any thing remarkable. King John was playing at
chefs when the deputies from Rouen came to acquaint
Rim that their city was befieged by Philip Auguilus j
but he would not hear them until he had finilhed his
game.
The following remarkable anecdote we have from
Dr Robertfon in his Hiltory of Charles V. John Fre¬
deric, elector of Saxony, having been taken prifoner by
Charles, was condemned to death. The decree was in¬
timated to him while at chefs with Erneft of Brunf-
wic, his fellow-prifoncr. After a ihort paufe, and ma¬
king fome refle&ion on the irregularity and injuflice
of the emperor’s proceedings, he turned to his antago-
nilt, whom he challenged to finilh the game. Replay¬
ed with his ufual ingenuity and attention j and having
beat Erneft, expreffed all the fatisfa&ion that is com¬
monly felt on gaining fuch vidlories. He was not,
however, put to death, but fet at liberty after five’
years confinement.
In the Chronicle of the Moorilh kings of Granada
we find it related, that in 1396, Mehemed Baiba feized
upon the crown in prejudice of his elder brother, and
palfed his life in one continual round of difafters. His
wars with Caftilewere invariably unfuccefsful j and his
death Avas occauoned by a poifoned veil. Finding his
cafe defperate, he difpatched an officer to the fort of
Salabreno to put his brother Juzaf to cleath, left that
prince’s adherents thould form any obftacle to his fon’s
fucceffion. The alcayde found the prince playing at
chefs with an alfaqui or prieft. Juzaf begged hard for
two hours relpite, which was denied him ; at laft with
great reludance the officer permitted him to finifti the
game j but before it was finilhed a melfenger arrived
with the news of the death of Mehemed, and the una¬
nimous election of Juzaf to the crown.
We have a curious anecdote of Ferrand count of
Flanders j wh§ having been accuftomed to amufe him-
felf at chefs with his wife, and being conftantly beaten
by her, a mutual hatred took place ; which came to
fuch a height, that, when the count was taken prifoner
at the battle of Bovines, Ihe fuffered him to remain a
long time in prifon, though Ihe could eafily have pro¬
cured his releafe.
I he game of chefs has undergone confxderable vari¬
ations fince it was firft invented. We have it on good
authority, that, among the eaftern nations, the piece
now called the queen was formerly called the vi%ir or
king’s minifter, and that the powers of the queen her-
felf were but very finall. The chefs-boards ufed by
I amerlane were larger, and contained many more
fquares than thofe at prefent in ufe. Carrera invented
two new pieces to be added to the eight commonly in
ufe. One of thele, which he calls Camfiione^ is placed
between the king’s knight and caftlej the other, named
Centaur, between the queen’s knight and caftle, has
the move of the biihop and knight united. This in¬
vention, however, did not furvive its author. In an¬
other of this Kind, the two additional pieces are called
the centurion and decurion; the former fituated between
the king and his biihop, in its move the fame with
that of the queen, but only for two fquares j the latter
juoves as the biihop, but only cne fquare at a time.
[ 787 ]
C H E
This, like the former, died with its inventor. The
chefs-board ot Tamerlane w as a parallelogram, having
11 fquares one way and 12 the other. In the Me¬
moirs of the late Marlhal Keith, we find it related,
that he invented an amufement fomething limilar to
that of chefs, with w hich the king of Pruffia w as high¬
ly entertained. Several thoufand fmall ftatues were
call by a founder j and thefe w ere ranged oppofite to
each other as if they had been drawn up in an army j
making the different movements with them as in real
fervice in the field.
A very complicated kind o£ game at chefs was ki-
vented by the late duke of Rutland. At this the
board has 14 fquares in breadth, and 10 in height,
which make in all 140 houfes: and there are 14 pawns
on each fide, which may move either one, two, or three
fquares the firft time. The other pieces were the king,
queen, two bilhops, two knights, a crowned caftle
uniting the n\ove of the king and caftle, and a com¬
mon caftle. On the other fide of the king was a con¬
cubine, whofe move united that of the caftle and knight,
tw'o bilhops, a fingle knight, a crowned caftle, and a
common one. In this game the pawns are of very
little ufe ; and by the extent of the board, the knights
lofe much of their value, which confequently renders
the game more defective and lefs interefting than the
common one.
There is an amufing variety at the game of chefs, in
which the king with eight pawns engages the whole
fet, by being allowed to make twro moves for every one
of his adverlary. In this he is almoft certain of com¬
ing off victorious j as he can make his firft move into
check, and the fecond out of it. Thus he can take
the queen when Ihe Hands immediately before her
king, and then retreat j for he cannot remain u^
check. He cannot be check-mated unlefs his adver-
fary has preferved his queen and both caftles.
CHESS-trees, (toquets d'anjure) ; two pieces of wood
bolted perpendicularly, one on the ftarboard, and ano¬
ther on the larboard fide of the ftiip. They are ufed to
confine the clue, or lower corners of the main-fail j for
which purpofe there is a hole in the upper part, through
which the rope paffes that ufualiy extends the clue of
the fail to windward. See Tack.
The chefs-trees are commonly placed as far before
the main-maft as the length of the main-beam.
CHEST, in commerce, a kind of meafure, contain¬
ing an uncertain quantity of feveral commodities.
A cheft of fugar, v. g. contains from 10 to 1 ^
hundred weight j a cheft of glafs, from two hundred
to three hundred feet; of Caftile foap, from two and
a half to three hundred weight j of indigo, from one
and a half to two hundred weight, five fcore to the
hundred.
Chest, or Thorax. See Anatomy Index.
CHESTER, commonly called Wejl-Chejler, to di-
ftinguilh it from many other Chefters in the kingdom j
the capital of Cheftiire in England. It is a very an¬
cient city, fuppofed to have been founded by the Ro¬
mans j and plainly appears to have been a Roman Ra¬
tion by the many antiquities which have been and are
ftill difeovered in and about the town. It was among
the iaft places the Romans quitted j and here the Bri¬
tons maintained their liberty lohg after the Saxons had
got poffeflion of the reft of their country. At prefent
5 G 2 it
Che*
, li
Cheiler.
c H E [
Chdler, Jt is a large well-built, wealthy city, and carries on a
Chefter Coniiderable trade. Mr Pennant calls it a city ’Without
ie-Street. q parane/> on account of the lingular ftrudure of the
four principal ftreets. They are as if excavated out
of the earth, and funk many feet beneath the furface j
the carriages drive far beneath the level of the kitchens
on a line with ranges of ihops. The houfes are moltly
of wood, with galleries, piazzas, and covered walls
before them j by which not only the Ihops, but thofe
who are walking about the town, are fo hid, that one
would imagine there were fcarce any inhabitants in it,
though it is very populous. But though by this con¬
trivance fuch as walk the ftreets are fcreened from
rain, &c. yet the (hops are thereby rendered dark and
inconvenient. The back courts of all the houfes are
on a level with the ground ; but to go into any of the
four principal ftreets, it is neceffary to defcend a llight
of feveral Iteps.
Chefter is a bilhop’s fee. It was anciently part
of the diocefe of Litchfield j one of whofe bilhops
removing the feat of his fee hither in the year 1075
occafioned his fucceffors to be frequently ftyled bijhops
of Chejier. But it was not erefted into .a diftincl
bilhopric until the general diiTolution of monafteries,
when King Henry VIII. in the year 1541, raifed
it to this dignity, and allotted the church of the
abbey of St Werburg for the cathedral, ftyling it
the cathedral church of Chrijl and the bleffed Virgin ;
adding the bilhopric to the province of Canterbury :
but foon after he disjoined it from Canterbury, and
added it to the province of York. When this ab¬
bey was diflblved, its revenues were valued at 1003I.
5s. 1 id. This diocefe contains the entire counties
of Chefter and Lancafter, part of the counties of Weft-
morland, Cumberland, and Yorklhire, two chapel-
ries in Denbighlhire, and five parilhes in Flintfhire j
amounting in all to 256 parilhes, of which 101 are im¬
propriations. This bilhopric is valued in the king’s
books at 420I. is. 8d. and is computed to be worth
annually 2700I. ; the clergy’s tenth amounting to
43 5I. 12s. To this cathedral belong a dean, two arch¬
deacons, a chancellor, a treafurer, fix prebendaries and
other inferior officers and fervants. W. Long. 3. o.
N. Lat. 53. 12.
CHESTE R-ie-Street, the Cuneaceftre of the Saxons-, a
/ fmall thoroughfare town between Newcaftle and Dur¬
ham, with a good church and fine fpire. In the
Saxon times this place was greatly refpedled on ac¬
count of the relicks of St Cuthbert, depofited here by
Bilhop Eardulf, for fear of the Danes, who at that
time (about 884) ravaged the country. His Ihrine
became afterwards an object of great devotion. King
Athelftan, on his expedition to Scotland, paid it a
vifit, to obtain, by interceffion of the faint, fuccefs on
his arms bellowed a multitude of gifts on the church ;
and diretled, in cafe he died in his enterprife, that his
body ftiould be interred there. At the fame time that
this place was honoured with the remains of St Cuth¬
bert, the bilhopric of Lindesfarn was removed here,
and endowed with all the lands between the Tyne and
the Were, the prefent county of Durham. It was
ftyled St Cv.ihbert's patrimony. The inhabitants had
great privileges, and always thought themfelves exempt
from all military duty, except that of defending the
body of their faint. Chefter-le-Street may be con-
88 ] CHE
fidered as the parent of the fee of Durham : for when Chefler-Ie-
the relicks were removed there, the fee in 995 followed Street
them. Tanner fays, that probably a chapter of monks, chcvreau.
or rather fecular canons, attended the body at this ^ j
place from its firft arrival: but Biffiop Beke, in 1286
in honour of the faint, made the church collegiate, and
eftabliihed here a dean and fuitable eccleliaftics 5 and,
among other privileges, gave the dean a right of filh-
ing on the Were, and the tythe of fiffi.
New-CHESTER, a town of Pennfylvania in Ame¬
rica, and capital of a county of that name. It is feated
on the Delaware ; and has a fine capacious harbour, ad¬
mitting veflels of any burden. W. Long. 74. 7. N.
Lat. 40. 15.
CHESTERFIELD, a market-town of Derbylhire
in England, pleafantly fituated on a hill between two
fmall rivers. It has the title of an earldom ; and a
confiderable market for corn, lead, and other country
commodities. The houfes are for the molt part built
of rough ftone, and covered with Hate. W. Long. 1.25.
N. Lat. 53. 20.
Chesterfield, Earl of. See Stanhope.
CHEVAL de Frisk, a large piece of timber pier¬
ced, and traverfed with wooden pikes, armed or
pointed with iron, five or fix feet long. See Plate
CXXXVII.
The term is French, and properly fignifies a Erife~
land horfe; as having been firft invented in that coun¬
try.—It is alfo called a Turnpike or Turniquet.
Itsufe is to defend a pafiage, flop a breach, or make
an entrenchment to flop the cavalry. It is fometimes
alfo mounted on wheels, with artificial fires, to roll down
in an affault. Errand obferves, that the prince of Orange
ufed to inclofe his camp with Chevaux de Frife, placing
them one over another.
CHEVALER, in the manege, is faid of a horfe,
when in palling upon a walk or trot, his off fore¬
leg croffes or overlaps the near fore-leg every fecond
motion.
CHEVALIER, a French term, ordinarily fignify-
ing a Knight. The word is formed of the French,
cheval “ horfe,” and the barbarous Latin cavallus.
It is ufed, in heraldry, to fignify any cavalier or
horfeman armed at all points ; by the Romans called
cataphraBus eques : now out of ufe, and only to be feen
in coat-armour.
CHEVAUX de Frise. See CHEVAL de Frife.
CHEV1N a name ufed in fome parts of England
for the Chub.
CHEVIOT, or (Tiviot) hills, run from north to
fouth through Northumberland and Cumberland j and
w'ere formerly the borders or boundaries between Eng¬
land and Scotland, where many a bloody battle has
been fought between the two nations ; one of which is
recorded in the ballad of Chevy-chafe. Ihefe hills
are the firft land difeovered by failors in coming from
the eaft into Scotland.
CHEV1SANCE in Law, denotes an agreement or
compofition, as an end or order fet down between a
creditor and his debtor, &e. In the ftatutes, this
word is moil commonly ufed for an unlawful bargain
or contra ft.
CHEVREAU, Urban, a learned writer, born at
Lundun in 1613. He diftinguiihed himfelf in his youth
by his knowledge of the belles lettres j and became fe-
cretary
CHE [ 789 J CHI
Chevreau creiary of ftate to Queen Chriflina of Sweden. Seve-
ral German princes invited him to their courts 5 and
. '' - ‘ . Charles Lewis, the elector palatine, retained him un-
i der the title of counfellor. After the death of that
prince, he returned to France, and became preceptor
to the duke of Maine. At length retiring to Lundun,
he died there in 1701, aged 88. He was the author
of feveral books, and amonglt others of an Univerfal
Hiftory, which has been often reprinted.
CHEVRON, or Cheveron, in Heraldry. See
Heraldry.
CHEWING-Balls, a kind of balls made of afafoe-
tida, liver of antimony, bay-wood, juniper-wood, and
pellitory of Spain ; which being dried in the fun, and
wrapped in a linen cloth, are tied to the bit of the
bridle for the horfe to chew ; they create an appetite ;
and it is faid, that balls of Venice-treacle may be ufed
in the fame manner with good fuccefs.
CHEYKS. See Bengal, N° 17.
CHEYNE, Dr George, a phyfician of great learn¬
ing and abilities, born in Scotland in 1671, and edu¬
cated at Edinburgh under the great Dr Pitcairn. He
paded his youth in clofe itudy, and with great tem¬
perance ; but coming to fettle at London, when about
30, and finding the younger gentry and free-livers to
be the mold eafy of accefs and mold fufceptible of
friendlhip, he changed on a fudden his former manner
of living, in order to force a trade, having obferved
this method to fucceed with fome others. The con-
fequence was, that he grew daily in bulk, and in in¬
timacy with his gay acquaintance ; fwelling to fuch an
enormous fize, that he exceeded 32 ftone weight; and
he was forced to have the whole fide of his chariot
made open to receive him into it 5 he grew fhort-
breathed, lethargic, nervous, and fcorbutic ; fo that
his life became an intolerable burden. In this deplo¬
rable condition, after having tried all the power of
medicine in vain, he refolved to try a milk and vege¬
table diet; the good eftedts of which quickly appear¬
ed. His fize was reduced almoft a third 5 and he re¬
covered his ftrength, aftivity, and chearfulnefs, with
the perfect ufe of all his faculties. In (hort, by a re¬
gular adherence to this regimen, he lived to a mature
period, dying at Bath in 1742, aged 72. He wrote fe-
veral treatifes that were well received ; particularly,
“ An ElTay on Health and Long Life and “ The
Englilh Malady, or a Treatife of Nervous Difeafes
both the refult of his own experience. In fiiort, he
had great reputation in his own time, both as a prac¬
titioner and as a writer 5 and molt of his pieces- palled
through feveral editions. He is to be ranked among
thofe phylicians who have accounted for the operations
of medicines and the morbid alterations which take
place in the human body, upon mechanical principles.
A fpirit of piety and of benevolence, and an ardent zeal
for the interells of virtue, are predominant throughout
his writings. An amiable candour and ingenuoufnefs
are alfo difcernible ; and which led him to retraft with
readinefs whatever appeared to him to be cenfurable in
what he had formerly advanced. Some of the meta-
phyfical notions which he has introduced into his
books may perhaps juftly be thought fanciful and ill-
grounded ; but there is an agreeable vivacity in his
produ&ionq together with much opennefs and frank-
qefs, and in general great perfpicuity.
CHIABRERA, Gabriel, efteemed the Pindar of Chiabrera
Italy, was born at Savona in 1552, and went to Iludy
at Rome. The Italian princes, and Urban VIII. gave.
him public marks of their efteem. He wrote a great
number of poems j but his lyric verfes are molt admi¬
red. Pie died at Savona, in 1638, aged 86.
CHIAN earth, in Pharmacy, one of the medici¬
nal earths of the ancients, the name of which is pre-
ferved in the catalogues of the materia mcdica, but of
which nothing more than the name has been known
for many ages in the (hops.
It is a very denfe and compaft earth 5 and is fent
hither in fmall flat pieces from the ifland of Chios, in
which it is found in great plenty at this time. It
Hands recommended to us as an ailringent. They tell
us, it is the greateft of all cofmetics 5 and that it gives
a whitenefs and fmoothnefs to the Ikin, and prevents
wrinkles, beyond any of the other fubllances that have
been celebrated for the fame purpofes.
CHIAOUS, a word in the original Turkilh, figni-
fying “ envoys,” are officers to the number of five or
fix hundred in the grand fignior’s court, under the
command of a chiaous bafchi. They frequently meet
in the grand vifir’s palace, that they may be in readi¬
nefs to execute his orders, and carry his difpatches in¬
to all the provinces of the empire. The chiaous baf¬
chi affifts at the divan, and introduces thofe who have
bufinefs there.
CHIAPA, the capital of a province of the fame
name in Mexico, fituated about 300 miles eaft of A-
capulco. W. Long. 98. o. N. Lat. 16. 30.
CHIAPA el Real, a town of Mexico, in a province of
the fame name, with a bifliop’s fee. Its principal
trade confifts in chocolate-nuts, cotton* and fugar.
W. Long. 98. 35. N. Lat. 16. 20.
CHIAPAS de los Indos, a large and rich town of
North America, in Mexico, and in a province of
the fame name. The governor and molt of the in¬
habitants are originally Americans. W. Long. 98. c.
N. Lat. 15. 6.
CHIARI, Joseph, a celebrated Italian painter, was
the difciple of Carlo Maratti j and adorned the churches
and palaces of Rome with a great number of fine paint¬
ings. He died of an apoplexy in 1727, aged 73.
Chiari, a town of Italy, in the province of Brefcia,
and territory of Venice, 7 miles weft of Brefcia, and
27 eaft of Milan. Here the Imperialifts gained a vic¬
tory over the French in 1701. E. Long. 18. 18.
N. Lat. 45. 30.
CHIARO scuro. See Claro Obfcuro.
CHIAVENNA, a handfome, populous, and large
town of Swifierland, in the county of the Grifons.
It is a trading place, efpecially in wine and delicate
fruits. The governor’s palace and the churches arc
very magnificent, and the inhabitants are Roman Ca¬
tholics. It was at one period, during the late conteft-
with France, the feene of much carnage and bloodfhed.
It is feated near the lake Como. E. Long. 9. 29.
N. Lat. 46. 15.
CHIAUSI, among the Turks, officers employed^
in executing the vizirs, baffiaws, and other great men :
the orders for doing this, the grand fignior fends them
wrapped up in a black cloth 5 on the reception of
which they immediately perform their office.
CHICANE, or Chicanery, in Lanjo, an abufe of
judiciary
CHI - F 790 1 CHI
Clucane judiciary proceeding, tending to delay the caufe, to
.. II. puzzle the judge, or impofe upon the parties.
, llcult05'i Chicane, in the fchools, is applied to vain fo-
phifms, diftinftions, and fubtleties, which protraft dif-
putes, and obfcure the truth.
CHICHESTER, the capital city of the county of
Suflfex, was built by Cilia, the fecond king of the
South Saxons, and by him called CiJJan Ccejier. It is
furrounded with a wall, which has four gates anfiver-
ing to the four cardinal points j from which run two
ftreets, that crofs one another in the middle and form
a fquare, where the market is kept, and where there
is a fine ftone piazza built by Bilhop Read. I he fpace
between the weft and fouth gates is taken up with the
cathedral church and the bilhop’s palace. It has five
parifh-churches j and is feated on the little river La-
vant, which wafhes it on all fides except the north.
This city would have been in a much more flourifiiing
condition if it had been built by the fea-fide 5 how¬
ever, the inhabitants have endeavoured to fupply this
defied! in fome meafure, by cutting a canal from the
city down to the bay. The principal manufactures
of the town are malt and needles. The market of Chi-
chefter is noted for filh, wheat, barley, malt and oats 5
the fineft lobfters in England are bred in the Lavant;
and it is obfervable, that this river, unlike moft others,
is very low in winter, but in fummer often overflow's
its banks. Chichefter is a city and county of itfelf j
it is governed by a mayor, recorder, aldermen, com¬
mon-council without limitation, and four juftices of
the peace chofen out of the aldermen } and it fends
two members to parliament. It is a biftiop’s fee.
The cathedral church was anciently dedicated to St
Peter. It was new built by Radulph, the twenty-fifth
bifliop ; but being deftroyed by fire, it was again
built by Seftridus II. the twenty-ninth bifhop. This
fee hath yielded to the church two faints, and to the
nation three lord chancellors, two almoners, and one
chancellor to the univerfity of Oxford. Anciently
the bilhops of Chichefter were confeflbrs to the queens
of England. This diocefe contains the whole of the
county of Suffex (excepting 22 parilhes, peculiars of
the archbilhop of Canterbury), wherein are 250 pa-
rillies, w hereof 112 are impfopriated. It hath two
archdeacons, viz. of Chichefter and Lewes j is valued
in the king’s books at 667I. is. 3d. and is computed
to be worth annually 2600I. The tenths of the
whole clergy are 287I. 2s. o-jR. To the cathedral be¬
long a bilhop, a dean, two archdeacons, a treafurer,
a chancellor, thirty-two prebendaries, a chanter, tw elve
vicars-choral, and other officers. W. Long. 50. N.
Lat. 50. 50.
CHICK, or Chicken, in Zoology, denotes the
young of the gallinaceous order of birds, efpecially
the common hen. See Phasianus, Ornithology
Index.
CmCK-Wei’d, See Alsine, Botany Index.
Chicken-Pox. See Medicine Index.
CHICKLING-pea, a name given to the Lathy-
rus. See Botany Index.
CHICUITOS, a province of South America, in the
government of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The chief
riches confift of honey and Avax $ and the original in¬
habitants are very voluptuous, yet very warlike. They
maintained bloody wars with the Spaniards till 1690 }
fince w'hich, fome of them have become Chriftians. It Chitwltos
is bounded by La Plata on the north-eaft, and by Chili „ . Jl .
on the Avelt. >
CHIDLEY, or Chimley, a market-town of De-
vonffiire, fituated in W. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. J1* 0<
CPIIEF, a term fignifying the head or principal
part of a thing or perfon. T bus we fay, the chiei of
a party, the chief of a family, &c. The Avord is form¬
ed of the French clef, “ head j” of the Greek
caput, “ head j” though Menage derives it from the
Italian capo, formed of the Latin, caput.
CHIEF, in Heraldry, is that Avhich takes up all the
upper part of the efcutcheon from fide to fide, and re-
prefents a man’s head. In chief, imports fomething
borne in the chief part or top of the efcutcheon.
CHIEFTAIN, denotes the captain or chief of any
clafs, family, or body of men. Thus the chieftains
or chiefs of the Highland clans, Avere the principal
noblemen or gentlemen of their refpedtive clans. See
Clans.
CHIELEFA, a ftrong town of Turkey in Europe,
in the Morea. It was taken by the Venetians in 1685 j
but after that the Turks retook it, with all the Mo¬
rea. E. Long. 22. 21. N. Lat. 26. 50.
CHIGI, Fabio, or Pope Alexander VII. was
born at Sienna in 1599. His family finding him a
hopeful youth, fent him early to Rome, where he foon
engaged in a friendffiip Avith the marquis Pallavicini,
Avho recommended him fo efteftually to Pope Urban
VIII. that he procured him the poll of inquifitor at
Malta. He was fent vice-legate to Ferrara, and af-
terAvard nuncio into Germany : there he had an op¬
portunity of difplaying his intriguing genius j for he
was mediator at Munfter, in the long conference held
to conclude a peace Avith Spain. Cardinal Mazarin
had fome refentment againft Chigi, Avho Avas foon af¬
ter made a cardinal and fecretary of ftate by Inno¬
cent X. but his refentment Avas facrificed to political,
vieAvs. In 1665, Avhen a pope Avas to be chofen, Car¬
dinal Sacchetti, Mazarin’s great friend, finding it Avas
impoffible for him to be raifed into St Peter’s chair,
becaufe of the powerful oppofition made by the Spa-
nifti fadtion, defired Cardinal Mazarin to confent to
Chigi’s exaltation. His requeft Avas granted, and he
Avas eledted pope by the votes of all the 64 cardinals
who w'ere in the conclaA'e: an unanimity of Avhich
there are but feAv inftances in the eledtion of popes.
He flioAved uncommon humility at his eledtion, and at
firft forbade all his relations to come to Rome Avith-
out his leave j but he foon became more favourable t©
his nepheAVS, and loaded them Avith favours. It is ai-
ferted that he had once a mind to turn Proteftant.
The newfpapers in Holland beftoAved great encomi¬
ums upon him j and acquainted the world that he
did not approve of the cruel perfecutions of the Wal-
denfes in Piedmont. There is a volume of his poems
extant. He loved the Belles-Lettres, and the conver-
fation of learned men. He Avas extremely fond of
ftately buildings : the grand plan of the college Bella
Sapien%a, Avhich he finiffied, and adorned with a fine
library, remains a proof of his tafle in architedture.
He died in 1667.
CHILBLAIN {pernio), in Medicine, a tumor af¬
fecting the feet and hands j accompanied with an in¬
flammation, pains, and fometimes an ulcer or folution
of
CHI
Chilblain of continuity : in which cafe it takes the denoraina-
CluMrcn i^a^s on t^e hands, and of kibes on the heels,
_ ‘, Chilblain is compounded of c/ii// and b/ain ; q. d. a
blam or fore contrafted by cold. Pernio is the Latin
name adopted by phyficians; and is derived by Vof-
fius from perria, <l a gammon of bacon,” on account
of fome refemblance. C/iap alludes to gape, both in
found and appearance. Kibes, in Welch kibws, may
be derived from the German kerben, “ to cut}” the
Ikin, when broke, appearing like a cut.
Chilblains are occalioned by exceffive cold flopping
the motion of the blood in the capillary arteries, bee
the article Pernio.
CHILD, a term of relation to parent* See Parent
and Children.
_ Bartholine, Pare, Licetus, and many other writers,
give an account of a petrified child, which has feemed
wholly incredible to fome people. The child, how¬
ever, which they deferibe, is ilill in being; and is
kept as a great rarity in the king of Denmark’s mu-
feum at Copenhagen. The woman who was big with
this, lived at Sens in Champagne in the year 1582; it
was cut out of her belly, and was univerfally fuppofed
to have lain there about 20 years. That it is a* real
human foetus, and not artificial, is evident to the eyes
of any obferver; and the upper part of it, when exa¬
mined, is found to be of a fubilance refembling the
gypfum or ilone whereof they made the plafter of Pa¬
ris : the lower part is much harder, the thighs and
buttocks being a perfeH Hone of a reddilh colour, and
as hard as common quarry ftene : the grain and fur-
face of this part appears exadlly like that of the cal¬
culi or Hones taken out of human bladders: and the
whole fubftance, examined ever fo nearly, and felt ever
fo carefully, appears to be abfelute Hone. It was car¬
ried from Sens to Paris, and there purchafed by a
goldfmith of Venice ; and Frederic III. king of Den¬
mark purchafed it of this man at Venice for a very large
fum, and added it to his collection of rarities.
C HILD-Bed. 1 Q ,T
CHILD-Birth. I See Midwifery.
CHILD-Wit, a power to take a fine of a bond-wo¬
man unlawfully gotten with child, that is, without
confent of her lord. Every reputed father of a bale
child got within the manor of Writtel in Eifex, pays
to the lord a fine of 3s. qd. 5 where, it feems, child-
wit extends to free as well as bond-women.
CHILDERMAS-Day, or Innocents Hay, an an-
niverfary held by the church of England on the 28th
of December, in commemoration of the children of
Bethlehem maffacred by order of Herod.
CHILDREN, the plural of Child.
Mr Derham computes, that marriages, one with an¬
other, produce four children not only in England but
in other parts alfo.
In the.genealogical hiftory of Tufcany, written by
Gamarini, mention is made of a nobleman of Sienna,
named Pichi., who of three wives had 150 children;
and that, being fent ambaffador to the pope and the
emperor, he had 48 of his fons in his retinue. In a
monument in the church-yard of St Innocent, at Pa¬
ris, ereCled to a woman who died at 88 years of age 5
it is recorded, that (he might have feen 268 children
direClly illued from her. This exceeds what Hake-
well relates of Mrs Honeywood, a gentlewoman of
CHI
Kent, born in the year 1527, and married at 16 to Children,
her only hufband K. Honeywood of Charing, Efa, ""’‘-'■y-—■■
and died in her cj^d year. She had 16 children of her
own body; of which three died young, and a fourth
had no iilue ; yet her grandchildren, in the fecond ge¬
neration, amounted to 114; in the third, to 228 j
though in the fourth they fell to 9. The whole num¬
ber ihe might have feen in her life-time, being 367,
16-f-14-fi-228-1-9:^:367. So that fhe could fay the
lame as the diitieh does of one Dalburgh’s family at
Bafil:
* . .3 4
Meter ait natce, die natce Jilia natarn,
5 6
Ut moneat, nalee plangere, Jiliolam.
Management of Children. See Infant.
Overlaying of CHILDREN, is a misfortune that fre¬
quently happens ; to prevent which, the Florentines
have contrived an inftrument called arcuccio. See Ar-
cuccio.
Children are, in Law, a man’s iflue begotten on
his wife. As to illegitimate children, fee Bastard.
For the legal duties of parents to their children,
fee the articles Parent and Bastard.
As to the duties of children to their parents, they
arife from a principle of natural juftice and retribu¬
tion. For to thofe who gave us exiftence, we natu¬
rally owe fufoje&ion and obedience during our mino¬
rity, and honour and reverence ever after j they who
protedled the weaknefs of our infancy, are entitled to
our prote&ion in the infirmity of their age j they who
by.fultenance and education have enabled their off-
fpring to profper, ought, in return, to be fupported
by that offspring, in cafe they Hand in need of alfift-
ance. Upon this principle proceed all the duties of
children to their parents, which are enjoined by poli-
tive laws. And the Athenian laws carried this prin¬
ciple into practice with a ferupulous kind of nicety,
obliging all children to provide for their father when
fallen into poverty; with an exception to fpurious
children, to thofe whofe chaftity had been proftituted
with confcnt of their father, and to thofe whom he
had not put in any way of gaining a livelihood. The
legislature, fays Baron Montefquieu, confidered, that,
in the firll cafe, the father, being uncertain, had ren¬
dered the natural obligation precarious j that, in the
fecond cafe, he had fullied the life he had given, and
done his children the greatdl of injuries, in depriving
them of their reputation $ and that, in the third cafe’
he had rendered their life (fo far as in him lay) an in-
fupportable burden, by furnidling them with no means
of fubfidence.
Our laws agree with thofe of Athens, with regard
to the fird only of thefe particulars, the cafe of fpu¬
rious iffue. In the other cafes, the law does not hold
the tie of nature to be difiblved by any milbehavi-
our of the parent; and, therefore, a child is equal¬
ly judifiable in defending the perfon, or maintain¬
ing the caufe or but, of a bad parent as of a good
one ; and is equally compellable, if of fufficient abili¬
ty, to maintain and provide for a wicked and unnatu¬
ral progenitor, as for one who has diown the greated
tendernefs and parental piety. See further the article
Filial /if Cl ion.
[ 791 ]
CHILL,
CHI '[ 792 ] CHI
CHILI, a province of South America, bounded by
Peru on the north, by the province of La Plata on the
eaft, by Patagonia on the fouth, and by the Pacific
ocean on the weft, lying between 75 and 85 degrees
of weft; longitude j and between 25 and 45 of iouth
latitude *, though iome comprehend in this province
Patagonia and Terra del Fuego.
The firft attempt of the Spaniards upon this coun¬
try was mad<b by Almagro in the year 1535, after he
and Pizarro had completed the conqueft of Peru. He
fet out on his expedition to Chili with a confiderable
body of Spaniards and auxiliary Indians. For 200
leagues he was well accommodated with every ne-
cellary by the Indians, who had been fubjedts of the
emperors of Peru : but reaching the barren country
of Charcas, his troops became difeontented through
the hardlhips they fuffered } which determined Alma¬
gro to climb the mountains called Cordilleras ; in order
to get the fooner into Chili; being ignorant of the in¬
valuable mines of Potofi, contained in the province of
Charcas, where he then was. At that time the Cor¬
dilleras were covered with fnow, the depth of which
obliged him to dig his way through it. The cold
made fuch an impreflion on his naked Indians, that it
is computed no lefs than 10,000 of them periftied on
thefe dreadful mountains, 150 of the Spaniards ftiaring
the fame fate ; while many of the furvivors loft their
fingers and toes through the excefs of cold. At laft,
after encountering incredible difficulties, Almagro
reached a fine, temperate, and fertile plain on the op-
pofite fide of the Cordilleras, where he was received
with the greateft kindnefs by the natives. Thefe poor
favages taking the Spaniards for deputies of their god
Yirachoca, immediately colle&ed for them an offering
of gold and filver worth 290,000 ducats : and foon
after brought a prefent to Almagro worth 300,000
more. Thefe offerings only determined him to con¬
quer the whole country as foon as poffible. The In¬
dians among whom he now was, had acknowledged the
authority of the Peruvian incas, or emperors, and con-
fequently gave Almagro no trouble. He therefore
marched immediately againft thofe who had never
been conquered by the Peruvians, and inhabited the
fouthern parts of Chili. Thefe favages fought with
great refolution, and difputed every inch of ground \
but in five months time the Spaniards had made fuch
progrefs, that they muft infallibly have reduced the
whole province in a very flrort time, had not Almagro
returned to Peru, in confequence of a commiffion font
him from Spain.
In 1540, Pizarro having overcome and put Alma¬
gro to death, fent into Chili, Baldivia or Valdivia,
who had learned the rudiments of w'ar in Italy, and
was reckoned one of the beft officers in the Spanilh
fervice. As he penetrated fouthwards, however, he
met with much oppofition •, the confederated caziques
frequently gave him battle, and difplayed great cou¬
rage and refolution •, but could not prevent him from
penetrating to the valley of Mafiocho, which he found
incredibly fertile and populous. Here he founded the
city of St Jago-, alia, finding gold mines in the neigh¬
bourhood, forced the Indians to work in them •, at the
fame time building a eaftle for the fafety and protec¬
tion of his new colony. The natives, exafperated at
this fiavery, immediately took up arms j attacked the
fort ; and though defeated and repulfed, fet fire to
the outworks, which contained all the provifions of'”
the Spaniards. Nor wrere they difeouraged by this and
many other defeats, but ftill continued to carry on the
war with vigour. At laft, Valdivia, having overcome
them in many battles, forced the inhabitants of the
vale to fubmit; upon which he.immediately fet them
to work in the mines of Quilotta. This indignity of¬
fered to their countrymen redoubled the fury of thofe
who remained at liberty. Their utmoft efforts, how¬
ever, were as yet unable to ftop Valdivia’s progrefs.
Having crofted the large rivers Manile and Hata, he
traverfed a vaft traft of country, and founded the city
of La Conception on the South-fea coaft. He erefted
fortreffes in feveral parts of the country, in order to
keep the natives in awe; and built the city called Im¬
perial, about 40 leagues to the fouth ward of Concep¬
tion. The Spanilh writers fay, that the neighbouring
valley contained 80,000 inhabitants of a peaceable dif-
pofition \ and who were even lo tame as to fuffer Val¬
divia to parcel out their lands among his followers,
while they themfelves remained inaftateof inaftivity.
About 16 leagues to the eaftw ard of Imperial, the Spa-
nifli general laid the foundation of the city Villa Rica,
fo called on account of the rich gold mines he found
there. But his ambition and avarice had now involved
him in difficulties from which he could never be ex¬
tricated : He had extended his conquefts beyond what
his ftrength was capable of maintaining. The Chile-
fians were ftiil as defirous as ever of recovering their
liberties. The horfes, fire-arms, and armour of the
Spaniards, indeed, appeared dreadful to them •, but
thoughts of endleis flavery were ftill more fo. In the
courle of the war they had difeovered that the Spa¬
niards w ere vulnerable and mortal men like themfelves j
they hoped, therefore, by dint of their fuperiority in
numbers, to be able to exprel the tyrannical ufurpers.
Had all the nations joined in this refolution, the Spa¬
niards had certainly been exterminated ; but fome of
them were of a pacific and fearful difpofition, while
others confidered fervitude as the greateft of all pof¬
fible calamities. Of this laft opinion were the Arac-
ceans, the moft intrepid people in Chili, and who had
given Valdivia the greateft trouble. They all rofe to
a man, and chofe Capaulican, a renowned hero among
them, for their leader. Valdivia however received
notice of their revolt looncr than they intended he
ftiould, and returned with all expedition to the vale of
Araccea 5 but before he arrived, 14,000 of the Chi-
lefians were there aflembled under the eondutft of Ca¬
paulican. He attacked them with his cavalry, and.
forced them to retreat into the woods ; but could not
obtain a complete vi<ftory, as they kept continually
fallying out and haraffing his men. At laft Capauli¬
can, having obferved that fighting w ith fuch a num¬
ber of undifeiplined troops only ferved to contribute to
the defeat and confufion of the whole, divided his for¬
ces into bodies of 1000 each. Thefe he diredfted to
attack the enemy by turns ; and, though he did not
expeeft that a lingle thoufand w ould put them to flight,
he diredled them to make as long a ftand as they could j
when they were to be relieved and fupported by ano¬
ther body j and thus the Spaniards would be at laft
wearied out and overcome. The event fully anfwered
his expe&ations. The Chilefians maintained a fight
for
Cntif,
C K I I m
fof feven nr eight hours, until the Spaniards, grow-
ing faint for want of refreftiment, retired precipitately.
Valdivia ordered them to poffefs a pafs at fome diftance
from the field, to fion the purfuitj but this defign be¬
ing difcovered to the Chilefians by the treachery of
his page, who was a native of that country, the Spa¬
niards were furrounded on all fides, and cut in pieces
by the Indians. The general was taken and put to
death j fome fay with the tortures ufually infiidted by
thofe favages on their prifoners 5 others that he had
melted gold poured down his throat j but all agree,
that the Indians made flutes and other inftruments of
his bones, and preferved his fkiill as a monument of
their vidtory, which they celebrated by an annual fef-
tival. After this vidlory the Chilefians had another
engagement with their enemies ; in which alfo they
proved vidlorious, defeating the Spaniards with the
lofs of near 3000 men j and upon this they bent their
whole force againft the colonies. The city of Con¬
ception, being abandoned by the Spaniards, was taken
and deftroyed : but the Indians were forced to raife
the fiege of Imperial ; and their progrefs was at lalt
flopped by Garcia de Mendoza, who defeated Capau-
Jican, took him prifoner, and put him to death. No
defeats, however, could difpirit the Chilefians. They
continued the war for 50 years j and to this day they
remain unconquered, and give the Spaniards more
trouble than any other American nation. Their mofl:
irreconcilcable enemies are the inhabitants of Araccea
and Tucapel, thofe to the fouth of the river Bobia,
or whofe country extends towards the Cordilleras.—
The manners of thefe people greatly refemble thofe of
North America, which we have already defcribed under
the article America j but they feem to have a more
warlike difpolition. It is a conftant rule w ith the Chi¬
lefians never to fue for peace. The Spaniards are ob¬
liged not only to make the firft overtures, but to pur-
chafe it by prefents. They have at laft been obliged
to abandon all thoughts of extending their conquefts,
and reduced to cover their frontiers by ere6ling forts
at proper diftances.
The Spanifli colonies in Chili are difperfed on the
borders of the South-fea. They are parted from Peru
by a defert of 80 leagues in breadth j and bounded by
the ifland of Chiloe, at the extremity next the ftraits
of Magellan. There are no fettlements on the coafl,
except thofe of Baldivia, Conception ifland, Valparaifo,
and Coquimbo or La Serena, which are all fea-ports.
In the inland country is St Jago, the capital of the co¬
lony. There is no culture nor habitation at any di-
ilance from thefe towns. The buildings in the whole
province are low, made of unburnt brick j and moftly
thatched. This practice is obferved on account of the
frequent earthquakes j and is properly adapted to the
nature of the climate, as well as the indolence of the
inhabitants.
The climate of Chili is one of the mofl; wholefome
in the whole world. The vicinity of the Cordilleras
-gives it fuch a delightful temperature as could not
otherwife be expefted in that latitude. Though gold
mines are found in it, their richnefs has been too much
extolled; their produce never exceeds 218,750].
The foil is prodigioufly fertile. All the European
fruits have improved in that happy climate. The
wine w'ould be excellent if nature were properly af-
Vol. V, PartTl.
] CHI
filled by art: and the corn-harveft is reckoned a bad Chili '
one when it does not yield a hundred fold. With all . .Ji
thefe advantages, Chili has no direft intercourfe with ^orth'*
the mother-country. Their trade is confined to Peru,
Paraguay, and the favagos on their frontiers. With
thele lalt they exchange their lefs valuable commodi¬
ties, for oxen, horfes, and their own children, whom
they are ready to part with for the mofl: trifling things
This province fupplies Peru with great plenty of hides,
dried fruit, copper, falt-meat, horfes, hemp, lard,
W'heat, and geld. In exchange it receives tobacco,
fugar, cocoa, earthen-ware, woollen cloth, linen, hats,
made at Quito, and every article of luxury brought
from Europe. The fliips fent from Callao on this
traffic were formerly bound to Conception Bay, but
now come to Valparaifo. The commerce between this
province and Paraguay is carried on by land, though
it is a journey of 300 leagues, 40 of which lie through
the fnows and precipices of the Cordilleras; but if it was
carried on by fea, they muff either pafs the ftraits of
Magellan or double Cape Horn, which the Spaniards
always avoid as much as poflible. To Paraguay are
fent fome woollen fluffs called ponchos, w hich are ufed
for cloaks ; alfo wines, brandy, oil, and chiefly gold;
In return they receive wax, a kind of tallow fit to make
foap, European goods, and negroes.
_ Chili is governed by a chief, who is abfolute in all
civil, political, and military affairs, and is alfo inde¬
pendent of the viceroy. The latter has no authority
except when a governor dies ; in which cafe he may
appoint one in his room for a time, till the mother-
ceuntry names a fucceffor. If, on fome occafions, the
viceroy has interfered in the government of Chili, it
was when he has been either authorized by a particu¬
lar truft repofed in him by the court, or by the defe¬
rence paid to the eminence of his office ; or when he
has been aftuated by his own ambition to extend his
authority. In the whole province of Chili there are
not 20,000 white men, and not more than 60,000 ne¬
groes, or Indians, able to bear arms. The military
eftablifliment amounted formerly to 2000 men; but
the maintaining of them being found too expenfive, they
were reduced to 500 at the beginning of this century.
CHILIAD, an affemblage of fevefal things ranged
by thoufands. The word is formed of the Greek
mille, “ a thoufand.”
CHILIAGON, in Geometry, a regular plane figure
of 100 fides and angles. Though the imagination
cannot form the idea of fuch a figure, yet we may
have a very clear notion of it in the mind, and can
eafily demonftrate that the fum of all its angles is
equal to 1996 right ones : for the internal angles of
every plane figure are equal to twice as many right
ones as the figure hath fides, except thofe four which
are about the center of the figure, from whence it
may be refolved into as many triangles as it has lides.
The author of PArt de Penfer, p. 44. has brought this
inftance to fhow the diftin&ion between imagination
and conceiving.
CHILIARCHA, or Chiliarchus, an officer in
the armies of the ancients, who had the command of a
thoufand men.
CHILIASTS, in church-hiftory. See Millena-
RIANS. - .
CHILLINGWORTH, William, an eminent-di-
5 H vine
CHI [ 794 ] CHI
Chilling- vine of the church of England, was born at Oxford
worth 1602, and bred there. He made early great pro-
N ficiency in his ftudies, being of a very quick genius.
was an expert mathematician, as well as an able
divine, and a very good poet. Study and converfa-
tion at the univerlity turning upon the controverfy
between the church of England and that of Rome, on
account of the king’s marriage with Henrietta daugh¬
ter to Henry IV. king of France, Mr Chillingworth
forfook the church of England, and embraced the
Romilh religion. Dr Laud, then bilhop of London,
hearing of this, and being greatly concerned at it,
wrote Mr Chillingworth •, who exprefling a great deal
of candour and impartiality, that prelate continued to
correfpond with him. This fet Mr Chillingworth on.
a new inquiry} and at laft determined him to return
to his former religion. In 1634 he wrote a confuta¬
tion of the arguments which had induced him to go
over to the church of Rome. He fpoke freely to his
friends of all the difficulties that occurred to him $
which gave occafion to a groundlefs report, that he
had turned Papifi: a fecond time, and then Proteflant
again. His return to the communion of the church
of England made a great noife, and engaged him in
feveral difputes with thofe of the Romifh perfuafion.
But in 1635 he engaged in a work which gave him a
far greater opportunity to confute the principles of the
church of Rome, and to vindicate the Proteftant re¬
ligion, under the title of “ The religion of Prote-
llants a fafe Way to Salvation.” Sir Thomas Coven¬
try, lord keeper of the great feal, offering him pre¬
ferment, Mr Chillingworth refufed to accept it on ac¬
count of his fcruples with regard to the fubfeription of
the 39 articles. However, he at laft furmounted thefe
fcruples} and being promoted to the chancellorfhip
of the church of Sarum, with the prebend of Brix-
worth in Northamptonfhire annexed to it, he com¬
plied with the ufual fubfeription. Mr Chilling worth
was zealoufly attached to the royal party ; and, in
Auguft 1643, 'svas Pre^ent in King Charles I.’s army
at the fiege of Gloucefter, where he advifed and di¬
rected the making certain engines^for affaulting the
town. Soon after, having accompanied the lord
Hopton, general of the king’s forces in the weft, to
Arundel caftle in Suflex, he was there taken prifoncr
by the parliamentary forces under the command of Sir
William Waller, who obliged the caftle to furrender.
But his illnefs increafmg, he obtained leave to be
conveyed to Chichefter, where he was lodged at the
bifhop’s palace} and, after a fhort ficknefs, died in
1644. He hath left feveral excellent works behind
him.
CHILMINAR. See Persefolis.
CHILO, one of the feven fages of Greece, and of
the ephori of Sparta the place of his birth, flourifhed
about 536 years before Chrift. He was accuftomed
to fay that there were three things very difficult :
*•' To keep a fecretj to know how beft to employ
our time •, and to fuffer injuries without murmuring.”
According to Pliny, it was he who caufed the fhort
fentence, Know thyself, to be written in letters of gold
in the temple of Delphos. It is faid that he died
with joy, while embracing his fon, who had been
crowned at the Olympic games.
CHILOE, an ifland lying near the coaft of Chili
in South America, under the 43d degree of fouth la- CUtfoe
titude. It is the chief of an archipelago of 40 iflands,
and its principal town is Caftro. It rains here almoft Ct>lt“xra
all the year, infomuch that nothing but Indian corn,
or fome fuch grain, that requires but little heat to fi-
pen it, can ever come to perfeftion. They have ex'-
cellent fhell-fifh, very good wild-fowl, hogs, fheep, and
beeves j as alfo a great deal of honey and wax. They
carry on a trade with Peru and Chili 5 whither they
fend boards of cedar, of which they have vaft fore ft s.
CHILTENHAM, a town in Gloueeftedfiire, fix
miles from Gloucefter j noted for its purgative chaly¬
beate fpring, which has rendered it of late years a place
of faffiionable refort. This water, which operates with
great eafe, is deemed excellent in fcorbutic complaints,
and has been ufed with fuccefs in the gravel.
CHILTERN, a chain of chalky hills forming the
fouthern part of Buckinghamfhire, the northern part
of the county being diftinguifhed by the name of the
Vale. The air on thefe heights is extremely health¬
ful : The foil, though ftony, produces good crops of
wheat and barley ; and in many places it ie covered
with thick woods, among which are great quantities
of beech.—Chiltern is alfo applied to the hilly parts
of Berkfhire, and it is believed has the fame meaning
in fome other counties. Hence the Hundreds lying
in thofe parts are called the Chiltern Hundreds.
ChILTERN Hundreds, Stewards of. Of the hundreds
into which many of the Englifh counties were divided by
King Alfred for the better government, the jurifdi&ion
was originally vefted in peculiar courts j but came after¬
wards to be devolved to the county courts, and fo re¬
mains at prefent $ excepting with regard to fome, as the
chiherns, which have been by privilege annexed to the
crown. Thefe having ftill their own courts, aJieward
of thofe courts is appointed by the chancellor of the
exchequer, with a falary of 20s. and all fees, &c. be¬
longing to the office : and this is deemed an appoint¬
ment of fuch profit, as to vacate a feat in parliament.
CHIMAiRA, a port town of Turkey in Europe^,
fituated at the entrance of the gulf of Venice, in the
province of Epirus, about 32 miles north of the city
of Corfu, near which are the mountains of Chimsera,
which divide Epirus from 1 hefialy. E. Long. 20. 40.
. N. Lat. 40. 20.
CbiMjERA, in fabulous hiftory, a celebrated mon-
fter, fprung from Echidna and Typhon. It had three
heads 5 that of a lion, a goat, and a dragon ; and con¬
tinually vomited flames. The fore parts of its body
were thofe of a lion, the middle was that of a goatr
and the hinder parts were thofe of a dragon. It ge¬
nerally lived in Lycia, about the reign of Jobates, by
whofe orders Bellerophon, mounted on the horfe Pe-
gafus, overcame it. This fabulous tradition is explain¬
ed by the recollefrion that there was a burning moun¬
tain in Lycia, whofe top was the refort of lions on
account of its defolate wildernefs j the middle which
was fruitful, was covered with goats ; and at the bot¬
tom the marfliy ground abounded with ferpents. Bel¬
lerophon is faid to have conquered the Chimaera, be-
caufe he deftroyed the wild beafts on that mountain,
and rendered it habitable. Plutarch fays that it was the
captain of fome pirates who adorned their (hips with
the images of a lion, a goat, and a dragon.
By a chitneera among the philofophers, is under-
ftoed
CHIME S
PIJLTE CXLIV.
Fiy. J.
T'he jSfofis of' /ZrJSlO I'sahn lanes
Fi<? ■ 2-
< ! l>////e /'<>/• e/ene/s/u/ t/ee f/asne la,rev/
of ' /Ze ZOO ePso /m /erne .
Fry. 4-.
r/lY/r
//'/ ///in
Fie/.f.
M/r //// /IF /////////
/y?fv yr re/ /if
f/y/F / y n/cf/u i ' A AA
/if a/y ay///min a//a
A ///An /'i/ // if///y// / A/
Fig. ?.
I
Fry. <$.
u-eNOONc e u ru uex esT
OSAUCX V/xrV75TDA3
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tnux.
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c/xoo e/+io A+rc x a
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lxeoi sro.eoxucoc+eA
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CHI t 795 3
Chimera, ftood a mere creature of the imagination, compofed of three notes diif ant
- Chime*. i /-* Vk t ^ ±.  nz i_ i 
C H I
, fuch contradictions and abfurdities as cannot poflibly
anywhere exift but in thought.
CHIMES of a Clock, a kind of periodical mufic,
produced at equal intervals of time, by means of a
particular apparatus, added to a clock.
In order to calculate numbers for the chimes, and
adapt the chime-barrel, it muft be obferved, that the
barrel muft turn round in the fame time that the tune
it is to play requires in finging. As for the chime-
barrel, it may be made up of certain bars that run
athwart it with a convenient number of holes punch¬
ed in them to put in the pins that are to draw each
hammer: and thefe pins, in order to play the time
of the tune rightly, muft ftand uprightly or hang down
from the bar, fome more, feme left. To place the
pins rightly, you may proceed by the way of changes
on bells; viz. i, 2, 3, 4; or rather make ufe of the
mulical notes. Obferve what is the compaft of your
tune, and divide the barrel accordingly from end to
end.
Thus, in the examples on Plate CXLIV. each of
the tunes is eight notes in compaft ; and accordingly
the barrel is divided into eight parts. Thefe divilions
are ftruck round the barrel; oppoiite to which are the
hammer-tails.
We fpealc here as if there were only one hammer
to each bell, that it may be more clearly apprehend¬
ed ; but when two notes of the fame found came to¬
gether in a tune, there muft be two hammers to the
bell to ftrike it: fo that if in all the tunes you intend
to chime of eight notes compafs, there (hould happen
feo be fuch double notes on every bell, inftead of eight
you muft have fix teen hammers ; and accordingly you
muft divide the barrel, and ftrike fixteen ftrokes round
it, oppofite to each hammer tail; then you are to divide
it round about into as many divifions as there are mufi-
cal bars, femibreves, minims, &c. in the tune.
Thus the hundredth-pfalm tune has 20 femibreves,
and each divifion of it is a femibreve: the firft note
of it alfo is a femibreve; and, therefore, on the chime-
barrel muft be a whole divifion, from five to five ; as
you may underftand plainly, if you conceive the fur-
face of a chime-barrel to be reprefented by the above
figures, as if the cylindrical fuperficies of the barrel
were ftretched out at length, or extended on a plane :
and then fuch a table, fo divided, if it were to be
wrapped round the barrel, would (how the places where
all the pins are to ftand in the barrel; for the dots
running about the table are the places of the pins that
play the tune.
Indeed, if the chimes are to be complete, you ought
to have a fet of bells to the gamut notes ; fo as that
each bell having the true found of Jb/, la, mi, fa, you
may play any tune with its flats and fharps; nay, you
may by this means play both the bafe and treble with
one barrel : and by fetting the names of your bells at
the head of any tune, that tune may eafily be tranf-
ferred to the chime-barrel, without any {kill in mufic:
but it muft be obferved, that each line in the mufic is
that is, there is a note between each Chimed
line, as well as upon it. Chimney,
CHIMNEY, in Arehite&ure, a particular part of a W
houfe, where the fire is made, having a tube or funnel
to carry off the fmoke. The word chimney comes from
the French cheminee; and that from the Latin cami-
nata, “ a chamber wherein is a chimneycaminata,
again, comes from caminus; and that from the Greek
KHpives, “ chimneyof x.xtv, uro, “ I burru”
Chimneys are ufually fuppofed a modern invention ;
the ancients only making ufe of ftoves: but Oftavio
Ferrari endeavours to prove chimneys in ufe among
the ancients. To this end, he cites the authority of
Virgil,
Et jam fumma procul vil/atum culmina fumant:
and that of Appian, who fays, “Thatofthofe perfons,
profcribed by the triumvirate, fome hid themfelves in
wells and common fewers, and fome on the tops of
houfes and chimneys for fo he underftands *.tnnu'$ui
fumaria fub tello poftta. Add, that Arifto-
phanes, in one of his comedies, introduces his old man,
Polycleon, fhut up in a chamber, whence he endeavours
to make his efcape by the chimney.
Chimneys, in Profeffor Beckman’s opinion, are com¬
paratively of modern invention. We fhall lay before
our readers fome obfervations from his elaborate differ-
tation on this fubject. He thus explains the above paf-
fage of Virgil.
“ When the triumviri, fays Appian *, caufed thofe * A- bellh
who had been profcribed by them to be fought for by ,lb*
the military, fome of them, to avoid the bloody hands £dft'
of their perfecutors, hid themfelves in wells, and others,
as Ferrarius tranflates the w ords, in fumaria fub tecio,
qua fci/icet fumus e te£lo evolvitur (a). The true tranf-
lation, however, (fays Mr Beckman) is fumofa ccena-
cula. The principal perfons of Horae endeavoured to
conceal themfelves in the fmoky apartments of the up¬
per ftory under the roof, which in general, were in¬
habited only by poor people ; and this feems to be con¬
firmed by what Juvenal f exprefsly fays, Rarus venit | Sat. x.
in cienacula miles. ver. 17.
“ Thofe paffages of the ancients which fpeak of
fmoke rifing up from houfe^ have with equal impro¬
priety been fuppofed to allude to chimneys, as if the
fmoke could not make its way through doors and win¬
dows. Seneca X writes, ‘ Laft evening I had fome J Epifl. 6$.
friends with me, and on that account a ftronger fmoke
was raifed ; not fuch a fmoke, however, as burfts forth
from the kitchens of the great, and which alarms the
watchmen, but fuch a one as fignifies that guefts are ar¬
rived.’ Thofe whofe judgements are not already w arp¬
ed by prejudice, will undoubtedly find the true fenfe
of thefe words to be, that the fmoke forced its wav
through the kitchen windows. Had the hotifes been
built with chimney-funnels, one cannot conceive why
the w atchmen fliould have been alarmed w hen they ob¬
ferved a ftronger fmoke than ufual arifing from them ;
but as the kitchens had no convenience of that nature,
an apprehenfion of fire, when extraordinary entertain-
5 H 2 mentfi
(a) Ef Ketmuhv; V7ru^<ptx(, h ran nyat rxi* (ivafiintis*
CHI [ 796 ] CHI
Chimney, rflents were to be provided in the houfes of the rich for
large companies, leems to have been well founded j
and on fuch occaftons people appointed for that pur-
pofe were ftationed in the neighbourhood to be con-
itantly on the watch, and to be ready to extinguilh
the flames in cafe a fire Ihould happen. There are
many other pallages to be found in Roman authors of
the like kind, which it is hardly neceflary to mention j
* Ecl°Z-1 fuch as that of Virgil *,
ver. S3. 0
Et jam fumma procul villamm culmina fumant.
f Aulular. ancj following words of Plautus f, defcriptive of a
adt. 4. -r
^ miier:
zjuiu divum alque hotninum clamat continuo jldem,
Suam rem peri[[feyfeque eradicaner,
De fuo tigillo fumus Ji qua exit foras.
“ The paffage of Ariflophanes above alluded to
however, (fays the profeffor.) which, according to the
ufual tranflation, feems to allude to a common chimney,
can, in my opinion, efpecially when we confider the
illuftration of the fcholiafts, be explained alfo by a Am¬
ple hole in the roof, as lleilke has determined ; and
indeed this appears to be more probable, as wre find
mention made of a top or covering with which
the hole was clofed.”
It has been faid that the inftances of chimneys re¬
maining among the ruins of ancient buildings are few,
and the rules given by Vitruvius for building them are
obfcure } but it appears that there exifts no remains of
ancient chimneys; and that Vitruvius gives no rules,
either obfcure or perfpicuous, for building what, in the
modern acceptation of the word, deferves the name of
a chimney.
“ The ancient mafon-work ftill to be found in Italy
does not determine the queftion. Of the walls of towns,
temples, amphitheatres, baths, aqueducts, and bridges,
there are fome though very imperfect, remains, in which
chimneys cannot be expected ; but of common dwell¬
ing houfes none are to be feen, except at Herculaneum,
and there no traces of chimneys have been difcovered.
The paintings and pieces of fculpture which are prefer¬
red, afford us as little information ; for nothing can be
perceived in them that bears the fmalleft refemblance
to a modern chimney.
“ If there were no funnels in the houfes of the an¬
cients to carry off the fmoke, the direftions given by
Columella, to make, kitchens fo high that the roof Ihould
not catch fire, was of the utmoit importance. An
accident of the kind, which that author feems to have
apprehended, had almoft happened at- Eeneventum,
when the landlord who entertained Maecenas and his
company was making a flrong fire in order to get fome
birds fooner roafted.
f HnraU
kb, 1. fat. 5.
    ubi fed ulus hofpes
Pane arft, macros dum turdos v erf at in igne ;
Nam vaga per vetercrn dilapfo flamma culinam
Vulcano fummum properabat lambere tcElam J.
Had therp been chimneys in the Roman houfes, Vitru¬
vius certainly would not have failed to defcribe their
conflruftion, which is fometimes attended with confider-
able difficulties, and which is intimately connefted with
the regulation of the plan of the whole edifice. He
does not, however, fay a word on this fubje& ; neither Chimney.
does Julius Pollux, who has collected with great care
the Greek names of every part of a dwelling-houfe 5
and Grapaldus, who in later times made a colledtion of
the Latin terms, has not given a Latin word expreflive * Yrancifci
of a modern chimney Marii Gra-
“ Catnenis fignified, as far as I have been able toPald\ de
learn, firfi: a chemical or metallurgic furnace,
which a crucible w as placed for melting and refining
metals j fecondly, a fmitb’s forge j and, thirdly, a
hearth on which portable floves or fire-pans were pla¬
ced for warming the apartment. In all thefe, howr-
ever, there appears no trace of a chimney.” Herodo¬
tus relates (lib. viii. c. 137.), that a king of Libya,
when one of his fervants afked for his wages, offered
him in jefl: the fun, which at that time {hone into the
houfe through an opening in the roof, under which the
fire was perhaps made in the middle of the edifice.
If fuch a hole mull be called a chimney, our author
admits that chimneys were in ufe among the ancients,
efpecially in their kitchens ; but it is obvious that fuch
chimneys bore no refemblance to ours, through which the
fun could not dart his rays upon the floor of any apart¬
ment.
a However imperfeft may be the information which
can be colledled from the Greek and Roman authors re-
fpedling the manner in which the ancients warmed their
apartments, it neverthelefs ffiews that they commonly
ufed for that purpofe a large fire-pan or portable ftove,
in which they kindled wood, and, when the wood was
well lighted, carried it into the room, or which they
filled with burning coals. When Alexander the Great
was entertained by a friend in winter, as the wreather
was cold and raw, a fmall fire bafon was brought into
the apartment to warm it. The prince, obferving the
fize of the veffel, and that it contained only a few coals,
defired his hoft in a jeering manner, to bring more
wood or frankincenfe ; giving him thus to underftand
that the fire was fitter for burning perfumes than to
produce heat. Anacharfis, the Scythian philofopher,
though difpleafed with many of the Grecian cuftoms,
praifed the Greeks, however, becaufe they ffiut out the
fmoke and brought only fire into their houfes *. We ^
are informed by Lampridius, that the extravagant He- Sympof *
liogabalus caufed to be burned in thefe ftoves, infteadlib. vi. 7.
of w'ood, Indian fpiceries and coftly perfumes f. It isp-
alfo worthy of notice, that coals were found in fome off je/. Lam-
the apartments of Herculaneum, as wre are told by find. Vita
Winkelmann, but neither ftoves nor chimneys. Heliogab.
It is well knowm to every fcholar, that the ufeful artsca^’ ^1>
of life were invented in the eaft, and that the cuftoms,
manners, and furniture of eaftern nations, have remain¬
ed from time immemorial almofl: unchanged. In Per-
fia, whicji the late Sir William Jones feems to have con-
fidered as the original country of mankind, the me¬
thods employed by the inhabitants, for warming them-
felves have a great refemblance to thofe employed by
the ancient Greeks and Romans for the fame purpofe.
According to De la Valle, the Perfians make fires in
their apartments, not in chimneys as we do, but in
ftoves in the earth, which they call tenner. “ Thefe
ftoves confift of a fquare or round hole, two fpans or a
little more in depth, and in flrape not unlike an Italian
calk. That this hole may throw’ out heat fooner, and
with more (Length, there is placed in it an iron veffel
CHI [ 797
Chimney- of the fame fize, ■which is either filled with burning
coals, or a fire of wood and other inflammable fub-
ftances is made in it. When this is done, they place
over the hole or itove a wooden top, like a fmall low
table, and fpread above it a large coverlet quilted with
cotton, which hangs down on all fides to the floor.
This covering condenfes the heat, and caufes it to
warm the whole apartment. The people who eat or
converfe there, and fome who fleep in it, lie down on
the floor above the carpet, and lean, with their (houlders
againft the wall, on fquare cufhions, upon which they
foinetimes alfo fit ; for the tennor is conftrufted in a
place equally diftant from the walls on both fides.
Thofe who are not very cold only put their feet under
the table or covering j but thofe who require more heat
can put their hands under it, or creep under it altoge¬
ther. By thefe means the ftove diflfufes over the whole
body, without caufing uneafinefs to the head, fo pene¬
trating and agreeable a warmth, that I never in win¬
ter experienced any thing more pleafant. Thofe, how¬
ever, who require lefs heat, let the coverlet hang down
on their fide to the floor, and enjoy without any incon¬
venience from the ftove the moderately heated air of
the apartment. They have a method alfo of ftirring
up or blowing the fire when neceflary, by means of a
fmall pipe united with the tennor or ftove under the
earth, and made to projeft above the floor as high as
one choofes ; fo that the wind, when a perfon blows
into it, becaufe it has no other vent, afls immediately
upon the fire like a pair of bellows. When there is
no longer occafion to ufe this ftove, both holes are
clofed up, that is to fay, the mouth of the ftove and
that of the pipe which conveys the air to it, by a flat
ftone made for that purpofe. Scarcely any appear¬
ance of them is then to be perceived, nor do they oc-
cafion inconvenience, efpecially in a country where it
is always cuftomary to cover the floor with a carpet,
and where the walls are plaflered. In many parts
thefe ovens are ufed to cook victuals, by placing ket¬
tles over them. They are employed alfo to bake
bread j and for this purpofe they are covered with a
large broad metal plate, on which the cake is laid 5 but
if the bread is thick and requires more heat, it is put
into the ftove itfelf*,”
The profeffor farther obferves, the oldeft account
of them which he finds is an infcription at Venice,
which relates, that in the year 1347 a great many
chimneys were thrown down by an earthquake. It
would appear, however, that in fome places they had
been in ufe for a confiderable time before that period \
for De Gataris, in his hiftory of Padua, relates, that
Francefco de Carraro, lord of Padua, came to Rome in
1368, and finding no chimneys in the inn where he
lodged, becaufe at that time fire was kindled in a hall
in the middle of the floor, he caufed two chimneys
like thofe which had /ong been ufed at Padua to be
conftructed by mafons and carpenters, whom he had
brought along with him. Over thefe chimneys, the
firft ever feen at Rome, he affixed his arms, which
were ftill remaining in the time of De Gataris, who
died of the plague in 1405.
* Hjfl. of
Invent, ii
8S.
] CHI
Method of Building CHIMNETS that will not frnohe. Chimney
Workmen have different methods of drawing up the H
funnels of chimneys, generally according to their own 7f}e
fancies and judgments, and fometimes according to the u—y—
cuftoms of places. They are feldom diredled by found
and rational principles. It will be found for the moft
part, that the fmoking of chimneys is owing to their
being carried up narrower near the top than below, or
ziz-zag, all in angles 3 in fome cafes, indeed, it is
owing to accidental caufes ; but, for the moft part
to thofe two above mentioned. Where they are car¬
ried up in the pyramid or tapering form, efpecially if
the houfe be of a confiderable height, it is ten to one
but they fometimes fmoke. The air in the rooms,
being rarefied, is forced into the funnel of the chim¬
ney, and receives from the fire an additional force to
carry up the fmoke. Now it is evident, that the fur¬
ther up the fmoke flies, the lefs is the force that drives
it, the flower it mull move, and confequently the
more room in proportion it Ihould have to move in 5
whereas in the ufual way it has lefs, by the fides of
the chimney being gathered clofer and clofer to¬
gether.
The method here propofed of carrying up chim¬
neys will be objefted to by fome, thus : The wider a
chimney is at the top, fay they, the more liberty has
the wind to blow down. Very true ; but is it not re¬
filled in going down, both by the form of the chim¬
ney and other evident caufes, fo that it mull return
again ? In the other way, when the wind blows down,
the refiftance being lefs, the wind and fmoke are, if
we may ufe the expreflion, imprifoned, and make the
fmoke puff out below. This method has proved ef-
feftual after all others had failed ; and that in a houfe
placed in the worft fituation poffible, namely, under a
high mountain to the fouthward, from which ftrong
blafts blow' down upon it. A vent was carried up
without angles, as perpendicular as poffible 3 and was
made about three or four inches wider at top than at
the bottom : the funnel wras gathered in a throat di¬
rectly above the fire-place, and fo widening upwards.
Since that time the houfe has not only ceafed to fmoke,
but wffien the doors Hand open, the draught is fo
ftrong that it will carry a piece of paper out at the
chimney head. See more on this fubjeCt and the im¬
provements by Count Rumford under the article
Smoke.
CH1MNET-Money, otherwife called Hearth-money, a
duty to the crown on houfes. By flat. 14. Char. II.
cap. 2. every fire-hearth and ftove of every dwelling
or other houfe, within England and Wales (except
fuch as pay not to church and poor), was chargeable
with 2s. per annum, payable at Michaelmas and Lady-
day to the king and his heirs and fucceffors, &c. 3
which payment was commonly called chimney-money.
This tax, being much complained off as burdenfome
to the people, has been fince taken oft', and others
impofed in its ftead 3 among which that on windows
has by fome been efteemed almoft equally grievous.
CHIMPANZEE, in Natural Hijlory. See Simia.
END OF THE FIFTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. V.
Part I.
Plate CXXXI. CXXXII. to face
CXXXIII.
CXXXIV.
cxxxv.
CXXXVI.
CXXXVII.
CXXXVIII. CXXXIX.
CXL. CXLI.
Part. II.
CXLII. CXLIII.
CXLIV.
74
112
260
282
320
3*8
358
774
795